BIODIVERSITY AND HUMAN

HEALTH

Dr. Bharat Paul

CONTENTS

• Introduction• World Scenario of biodiversity• Indian Scenario• Biodiversity and Health• Conservation of Biodiversity• Challenges• Way forward• References

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

• Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms: the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are a part.

• Term Biological diversity - Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968.

• Biodiversity -  W.G. Rosen in 1985

Introduction

• Biodiversity underpins life on Earth, and refers to the variety found in biota from genetic make up of plants and animals to cultural diversity. (WHO)

• Biological diversity (biodiversity) is “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.(CBD)

• CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity

Types of Biodiversity

3 types of biodiversity-• Genetic diversity - Each member of any

animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals in its genetic makeup

• Species diversity - The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its species diversity

Types of Biodiversity

• Ecosystem diversity –

Large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own complement of distinctive inter linked species based on the differences in the habitat. E.g. forest , desert ,etc

Introduction

• Human health ultimately depends upon ecosystem products and services (such as availability of fresh water, food and fuel sources) which are requisite for good human health and productive livelihoods.

• There is growing concern about the health consequences of biodiversity loss and change.

Introduction

• Direct drivers of biodiversity loss include land-use change, habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution and climate change.

• Many of these drivers affect human health directly and through their impacts on biodiversity.

WORLD SCENARIO

World Scenario

• Approximately 1.9 million species have been identified.

• Many scientists have estimated the total number of species on Earth to be around 15 million.

• The rate of extinction has been estimated at one species per million species each year, so that for 15 million species, 15 extinctions would occur each year.

World Scenario

• Human activity has accelerated this natural extinction rate many fold, so that for some groups of organisms the rate is 100 times baseline levels, and for others, it is 1000 times and even more.

• Scientists say we have now entered “the sixth great extinction event,” the fifth having occurred sixty-five million years ago, when dinosaurs and many other organisms went extinct.

World Scenario

• According to IUCN, the World Conservation Union, the monetary value of goods and services provided by ecosystems is estimated to amount to US$33 trillion per year.

• About 100 million metric tonnes of aquatic life, including fish, molluscs and crustaceans are taken from the wild every year.

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources

HOTSPOTS

• Two criteria-– It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as

endemics — which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.

– It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.

INDIAN SCENARIO

Indian Scenario

• India is one of the 17 mega-biodiversity countries with 2.4 per cent of the global land area and 4 per cent of water.

• It accounts for 7 to 8 per cent of the recorded species of the world.

• 45,968 species of plants and 91,364 species of animals have been documented.

Indian Scenario

Class India’s world ranking

No. of species in India

Mammals 8th 350Birds 8th 1200Reptiles 5th 453Amphibians 15 182

INDIA AS A MEGADIVERSITY NATION

Indian Scenario

• “Biodiversity Heritage Sites” are well defined areas that are unique, ecologically fragile ecosystems - terrestrial, coastal and inland waters and, marine having rich biodiversity.– Darjeeling forest division.– Nallur tamarind grove in Bengaluru.

• Hotspots in India are western ghats and the northeast.

BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTH

Determinants of health and biodiversity

• The social, economic and behavioral aspects of the human condition interact with the environment, including critical elements of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

• Biodiversity and its changes (losses and gains) are, to a great extent, the result of anthropogenic influences.

Determinants of health and biodiversity

• Environmental determinants of health (such as air quality, food security, water security,etc.) are interrelated and adversely affected by the reduced ability of degraded ecosystems and biota to adapt to the impacts of climate change, air pollution, natural disasters or water scarcity.

Determinants of health and biodiversity

• Different socioeconomic groups will have different experiences of material conditions, psychosocial support and behavioral options, which make them more or less vulnerable to poor health.

• Detrimental changes to biodiversity and the resulting risks and burden of human health problems are inequitably distributed in specific social–ecological settings.

Determinants of health and biodiversity

• Developing countries are more reliant on biodiversity and ecosystem services than developed ones, and their health systems are usually less prepared to protect the health of their populations, which leads to greater negative health impacts of biodiversity change.

• E.g. Over 1 billion people, mainly in developing countries, rely on fisheries as their primary source of animal protein.

Freshwater , biodiversity and human health

• The immense demand for water posed by modern industry, agriculture, forestry, mining, energy generation and human consumption combine to exacerbate pressures on water quality and quantity.

• Impaired water quality results in significant social and economic costs, and ecosystem degradation is a major cause of decline in water quality.

Freshwater , biodiversity and human health

• The input of nutrients most commonly associated with eutrophication – phosphorus (e.g. in detergents) and nitrogen (e.g. agricultural runoff) into lakes, reservoirs, rivers and coastal marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, have been widely recognized as a major threat to both water ecosystems and human health.

Bioaccumulation : the impact of mining

• Many mining activities discharge mercury (Hg) and methyl Hg in aquatic ecosystems, thereby contaminating water.

• It can reach human populations through fish consumption.

• Methyl Hg is neurotoxic and prenatal exposure can affect brain development, even at low doses of exposure.

Freshwater , biodiversity and human health

• Water pollution from fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides remains a serious problem.

• Unsafe water can lead to a number of waterborne diseases.

Biodiversity ,air quality and human health

• Air pollution is a significant problem in cities across the world.

• Health effects related to air pollution include its impact on the pulmonary and cardiovascular systems.

• Trees affect air quality through a number of means and can be used to improve air quality.

Biodiversity ,air quality and human health

• Bioindicators can be useful for monitoring air quality and indicating environmental health.

• Bioindicators, especially lichens and bryophytes, are widely used for monitoring air quality.

Food security

• The world’s population has increased from roughly 2.5 billion people in 1950 to more than 7 billion today and is anticipated to exceed 9 billion by 2050.

• An adequate supply of safe and nutritious food is one of the cornerstones of human health.

Food security

• The increase in food production achieved over the past decades has been accompanied by significant losses in agricultural biodiversity.

• The Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security (FAO 2009) addresses the issue of investments in agriculture highlighting that efforts should focus more on sustainability.

Nutritional impact

• Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels.

•  Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties of the same food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the diet.

Nutritional impact

• Globalization, poverty, modern agricultural practices and changes in dietary patterns have led to a “nutrition transition”.

• The nutrition transition is the process by which development, globalization, poverty and subsequent changes in lifestyle have led to excessive dietary energy intakes, poor-quality diets and low physical activity.

Nutritional impact

• Increased use of fertilizers and pesticides has a hazardous effect on human health.

• It also leads to loss of biodiversity. Adversely effects plant and animal species .

• Sustainable Diets are those diets with low environmental impacts, which contribute to food and nutrition security and to a healthy life for present and future generations.

Infectious diseases

• Human-caused global changes, such as deforestation, extractive industries including logging and mining and urban development, are driving infectious disease emergence and spread.

• The relationships between biodiversity loss, disturbance and disease will have enormous consequences for human well-being.

E.g. Deforestation has led to a proliferation ofAnopheles darlingi, a mosquito species that is highly

effective at transmitting malaria. It has replaced some twenty other less effective Anopheles species that were

present before the forests were cut down.

Infectious diseases

• For instance, hantavirus prevalence is thought to increase when mammal diversity decreases.

• Prevalence of Bartonella increases when large wildlife are removed; and habitat fragmentation increases risk of Lyme disease.

• Changes in biodiversity increase the risk of cross-species transmission of pathogens, which can result in zoonotic disease.

Non communicable diseases

• Large increases in the incidences of chronic inflammatory disorders such as allergies, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory bowel diseases.

• Hygiene hypothesis being replaced by Biodiversity hypothesis (von Hertzen et al.) or the Old Friends mechanism (Rook et al.)

Non communicable diseases

• Changing patterns of microbial exposure, in concert with changing diets, are contributing to diminished immunoregulation, and to increased incidences of immunoregulatory disorders.

• The Old infections are rapidly and progressively eliminated by modern medicine and lifestyles.

• The biodiversity of the microbiotas is restricted by the modern lifestyle.

Non communicable diseases

• Reduced gut microbial biodiversity is often found to associate with poor control of inflammation.

• Gut microbiota of limited diversity is also characteristic of human inflammation-associated conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease.

Health research and traditional Medicine

• Traditional medicines are estimated to be used by 60% of the world’s population and in some countries are extensively incorporated into the public health system.

• Medicinal plants are supplied through collection from wild populations and cultivation. 

Health research and traditional Medicine

• The global need and demand for natural products persists for use as medicinal products.

• Biomedical research relies on plants, animals and microbes to understand human physiology and to understand and treat human diseases.

Mental Health

• Contact with nature may not only be associated with positive mental health benefits, but can also promote physical activity and contribute to overall well-being.

• Contribution of biodiversity to the provision and sustenance of a range of cultural ecosystem services such as spiritual values and social relations.

Mental Health

• Little is known about the types of environments that can best support physical activity in the population or what types of environment alleviate – or aggravate – psychotic symptoms.

• Green spaces in urban settings are linked to stress reduction, reduction in crime and violence and a range of other health benefits.

Climate change

• Climate change and biodiversity loss are interconnected.

• Direct impact - Increase in the number of heat waves, droughts, foods, cyclones and wildfires.

• Indirect impact -broad and variable in their etiology, such as change in infectious disease vector distribution and air pollution interacting with heat waves.

Climate change

• Tertiary effects - health impacts of large-scale famine, forced migration and human conflict, which result from the geophysical and ecological consequences of climate change.

• Climate change alone is anticipated to threaten with extinction approximately one quarter or more of all species on land by the year 2050.

Disaster risk reduction

• Urban expansion and infrastructure development, increasing population pressures, unsustainable agricultural intensification and climate change, can be significant drivers of biodiversity loss and ill-health.

• Biodiversity – particularly its role in underpinning ecosystem services – can play a crucial role in disaster risk management.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Why conserve biodiversity?

• Consumptive use value• Productive use value• Social value• Moral and ethical value• Aesthetic value• Option value

Types of conservation

• In situ conservation - Biodiversity can be best preserved in situ by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness as ‘Protected Areas’. These should consist of a network of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

• Ex situ conservation - outside its natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a zoological park for animals.

Conservation of biodiversity

• 1972 – UNEP(United Nations Environment Program) started.

• 1992 – –United Nations Conference on Environment

and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.–Convention on climate change and

Convention on Biological Diversity started.

Convention on Biological Diversity

3 main goals - • The conservation of biodiversity,• Sustainable use of the components of

biodiversity,• Sharing the benefits arising from the

commercial and other utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.

The Cartagena Protocol

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 

• International treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another.

• Adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into force on 11 September 2003.

The Nagoya Protocol

• The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing.

• International agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.

•  Entered into force on 12 October 2014.

Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020

• Revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the 2011-2020 period.

• Started on 29 October 2010.

•At least halve and, where feasible, bring close to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats, including forests.•Establish a conservation target of 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of marine and coastal areas.•Restore at least 15% of degraded areas through conservation and restoration activities.•Make special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by coral reefs.

Indian Scenario

• National Biodiversity Authority established in 2003 to implement India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002).

• Performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory function for Government of India on issue of Conservation, sustainable use of biological resource and fair equitable sharing of benefits.

Indian Scenario

• The Biological diversity Act (2002) mandates implementation of the act through decentralized system.

• NBA advices the Central Government on matters relating to biodiversity.

• It also advices the State Government in the selection of areas of biodiversity importance to be notified as heritage sites and measures for the management of such heritage sites.

Indian Scenario

• The state Biodiversity Board (SBBs) advices the State Government.

• The NBA with its Headquarters in Chennai, India delivers its mandate through a structure that comprises of the Authority, secretariat, SBBs, BMCs and Expert Committees.

• NBA has supported creation of SBBs in 26 States, facilitated establishment of around 32,131 BMCs(Biodiversity Management Committees).

Indian Scenario

• India is also a signatory to World Heritage Convention. Has included several protected Areas as World Heritage sites (e.g. Sunderbans , Nandadevi)

• India has also signed the Convention in the Trade of Endangered Species (CITES).

Challenges

• As global population rises towards nine billion in 2050, trade-offs between human well-being and competing uses of resources and physical space for food supply and energy production will make it more difficult to maintain functioning levels of biodiversity.

• Much of future global population growth will occur in areas where human health is at greatest risk because of poverty and natural resource scarcity.

Challenges

• Climate change adds uncertainty. It becomes more difficult to predict which biotic resources and ecosystem functions may be needed for human adaptation to projected food supply disruptions and ecosystem alterations.

• Conflicts can arise between short-term benefits versus long term costs.

Challenges

• While there are multiple benefits of biodiversity, biodiversity can also pose a risk to human health and quality of life. For example, in the case of HIV and SARS, there is evidence pointing to the shift of these diseases from animal populations to humans being sparked by increased hunting and consumption of bush meat.

WAY FORWARD

Way Forward

• The EcoHealth, One Health and “one medicine” approaches are part of a family of approaches that aim to bridge human health and the health of other species or ecosystems.

• Full economic evaluation of human management of resources, energy strategies and potential developmental pathways should be based on sound planning and development policies.

Way Forward

• Responses that mitigate the impacts of ecosystem changes on human health often involve policies and actions outside the health sector.

• Quantifying impacts of biodiversity loss on quality of life requires careful assessment where outcomes from interventions that change biodiversity cannot be readily anticipated.

Way Forward

• Management of biodiversity to benefit human health and well being require specific policies at appropriate levels (e.g. regional, national, sub-national) that address health needs and criteria for good quality of life of the particular cultures that are affected.

References

• Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health – A state of knowledge review

• How Our Health Depends on Biodiversity – Harvard University centre for health and global environment.

• WHO – What is biodiversity?• National Biodiversity authority of India – nbaindia.org• Convention on biological diversity – www.cbd.int• Science - policy challenges for biodiversity, public health and

urbanization.• Ecosystems and human well being – Millennium ecosystem

assessment board.• UGC – ugc.ac.in - Biodiversity