Expanding the Protected Area System to Incorporate Important
Aquatic Ecosystems project
Biodiversity Friendly Guidelines on Fisheries for the
Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh Sundarbans
Final Copy
1
Cover page photo:
Collection of PL by Md. Modinul Ahsan, Divisional Forest Officer, Khulna Division,
Bangladesh, and Project Director, Expanding the Protected Area System to Incorporate
Important Aquatic Ecosystems (EPASIIAE) Project, Bangladesh Forest Department & UNDP
Bangladesh.
Irrawaddy dolphin by Prof. Dr. Monirul H. Khan, Department of Zoology, Jahangir Nagar
University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Ganges River dolphin by Md. Rezaul Karim Chowdhury, Project Manager, Expanding the
Protected Area System to Incorporate Important Aquatic Ecosystems (EPASIIAE) Project,
Bangladesh Forest Department & UNDP Bangladesh.
The guideline prepared by-
Dr. Khandaker Anisul Huq
Professor
Fisheries and Marine Resource Technology Discipline
Khulna University, Khulna-9208
Bangladesh
&
National Consultant
Biodiversity Friendly Sectoral Guideline Specialist
(Tourism, Maritime Traffic and Industrial Development)
UNDP EPASIIAEP Project
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Preface
Aquatic mammals are important animals for balancing the biodiversity in the natural habitats.
Nowadays, because of climate change, environmental fluctuations and human interventions
most of the aquatic mammals in Bangladesh have been recognized as vulnerable species
throughout the river systems in the country, more especially in the Sundarban Reserve Forests
(SRF). Several organizations claimed this animals threatened, even thinking them to be extinct.
Therefore, global diversity of dolphins is declining day by day. Sundarbans supports the last
two remaining freshwater dolphins, the Endangered Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista
gangetica), and the Vulnerable Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris). In this report, the
author worked with different resource users and stakeholders and tried to find out the probable
cause of challenging dolphin and fish biodiversity in the sanctuary areas in SRF. The possible
causes for threatening dolphins including fishing activities into the meaningful boundary of
cetacean sanctuary, aquatic pollution and climate change. Fry collection, aquafarm discharge,
establishments and navigations are considered major causative agents for dramatic reduction
of biodiversity, ultimately effect on the food chain of dolphins. The author unravel the gaps in
the existing management policies of the government for protecting the aquatic biodiversity of
sanctuary areas in Bangladesh Sundarbans and finding out the potential actions that shall be
strengthen the existing management system. This guideline will be helpful for better
conservation of the aquatic biodiversity in the sundarban sanctuary areas through strengthening
biological and environmental support of aquatic organisms; and implementation of
management policies.
Khandaker Anisul Huq
25 May, 2018
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Executive summary
Aquatic mammals are very sensitive and one of the good indicators of climate changes. Now a
day due to climate change and anthropogenic activities these animals are being threatened and
some are going to be extinct, therefore global diversity of mammals are declining day by day.
Here in the contrast of Bangladesh these species are generally threatened with extinction across
their range. The possible causes for threatening dolphins include fishing activities, aquaculture
into the meaningful boundary of cetacean sanctuary, aquatic pollution and climate change. Fry
collection and over fishing in Sundarbans sanctuaries dramatically reduced the biodiversity,
which affect on the food chain of dolphins. Additionally fishing net, dams and barrage
construction on the migratory route restrict the movement of dolphins. In these circumstances
this is the high time to take necessary initiation for the protection and conservation of
cetacean’s species from extinct. Although many organizations around the world like IUCN,
UNDP, AquaFish are continuously working on the protection and conservation of these aquatic
and terrestrial organisms, and many regulations have been established on this issues. However,
the problem is proper implementation of those regulations. Considering those problems the
current research has been conducted with the aim to establish a biodiversity friendly guidelines
on fisheries for the wildlife sanctuaries that will focus the level of fishing activities in the
ecologically meaningful boundaries of cetaceans sanctuaries in sunderbans and also to find out
the gap of policy implementation in fisheries management related to cetaceans, create
alternative livelihood of coastal fisher communities as well as increasing awareness of the
resource users in Sunderbans.
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Table of Contents
Preface ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Executive summary .................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................... 7
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 8
List of figures ............................................................................................................................. 9
List of Acronyms ..................................................................................................................... 10
PART 1 .................................................................................................................................... 13
1 Introduction and overview .............................................................................................. 14
2.1 Reviews on Ganges River and Irrawaddy Dolphin ............................................ 15
2.1.1 Biology of dolphin ......................................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Threats to Dolphin in Bangladesh Sundarbans .............................................. 22
2.1.3 Human intervention ........................................................................................ 22
2.1.4 Natural calamities and environmental changes .............................................. 25
2.1.5 Freshwater flow and salinity fluctuations ...................................................... 26
2.1.6 Pollution ......................................................................................................... 26
2.1.7 Degradation of fish biodiversity ..................................................................... 27
2.1.8 Trophic structure/ food chain in Sundarbans ecosystem ................................ 28
2.1.9 Disturbances: e.g. unplanned tourism, navigation, net barriers etc. .............. 29
2.1.10 Management and conservation strategies for Dolphin sanctuaries ................ 30
2.1.11 Existing Acts in Bangladesh .......................................................................... 33
2.1.12 Existing international policy issues (Nepal) .................................................. 35
PART 2 .................................................................................................................................... 36
3 Situation analysis ............................................................................................................ 37
3.1 Context ............................................................................................................... 37
3.1.1 National context ............................................................................................. 37
3.1.2 Climate and geographic context ..................................................................... 39
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3.1.3 Biodiversity significance ................................................................................ 39
3.1.4 Ecological and biodiversity context of the Sundarbans ................................. 41
3.2 Administrative and governance context............................................................. 46
3.3 Socio-economic context ..................................................................................... 46
3.4 Profile of fishers in the sundarban area.............................................................. 47
3.5 Fisheries in Sundarbans ..................................................................................... 48
3.5.1 Fish species .................................................................................................... 49
3.5.2 Crustacean species ......................................................................................... 49
3.5.3 Common gears ............................................................................................... 49
3.5.4 Destructive gears ............................................................................................ 49
3.5.5 Illegal fishing ................................................................................................. 50
3.5.6 Livelihoods of Sundarban resource users ...................................................... 50
3.5.7 Killing fish stocks in Sundarbans ................................................................... 51
3.5.8 Sundarbans: Fisheries and Fishing Communities .......................................... 51
3.6 Gaps in existing management and conservation ................................................ 52
Part 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 56
4 Guidelines for biodiversity friendly Dolphin sanctuaries effectiveness ......................... 57
4.1 Guidelines for fisheries ...................................................................................... 57
4.1.1 Mesh size regulation ...................................................................................... 57
4.1.2 Habitat restoration .......................................................................................... 57
4.1.3 Controlling upstream river flow and tidal river management ........................ 57
4.1.4 Identification of fish and dolphin feeding, nursery and breeding ground .. 57
4.1.5 Expansion of sanctuary areas ......................................................................... 58
4.1.6 Fisheries stock assessment ............................................................................. 58
4.1.7 Catching fish larvae beyond SRF ................................................................... 58
4.1.8 Control of pollution and industrial development ........................................... 58
4.1.9 Fishing ban ..................................................................................................... 59
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4.1.10 Sustainable fisheries ....................................................................................... 59
4.1.11 Illegal fishing ................................................................................................. 59
4.1.12 Navigation routs ............................................................................................. 59
4.1.13 Disposal of industrial wastes .......................................................................... 60
4.1.14 Livelihoods ..................................................................................................... 60
4.1.15 Physical construction in water ways .............................................................. 60
4.1.16 Task-force and volunteer committee .............................................................. 60
4.1.17 Licensing and fishing permit .......................................................................... 60
4.1.18 Empowering mobile court .............................................................................. 61
4.1.19 Inter-sectoral responsibilities ......................................................................... 61
4.2 Other sundarban resource users ......................................................................... 63
Part 4 ........................................................................................................................................ 64
5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 65
Part 5 ........................................................................................................................................ 66
6 References ...................................................................................................................... 67
Part 6 ........................................................................................................................................ 79
7 Annexure ........................................................................................................................ 80
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Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the financial support of Expanding the Protected Area System to
Incorporate Important Aquatic Ecosystems project, UNDP to conduct the present study. This
special study was financed by UNDP, a nonprofit international development agency that
harnesses the potential of biodiversity conservation, caetacean protection, fisheries and
aquaculture to strengthen livelihoods and improve food and nutrition security.
We express deep respect to Md. Modinul Ahsan, Project Director and Md Rezaul.Karim
chowdhury; Project Manager, of this project for the encouragement and warm support. We are
also grateful to participants of workshops, questionnaire interviewees, resource persons and
expert members for their cooperation to complete this work. Special gratitude to the officers
and specialists of Bangladesh Forest Department, Department of Fisheries and Bangladesh
Fisheries Research Institute for their kind suggestion, recommendation and sincere cooperation
to develop the report.
Heartiest appreciation goes to Shikder Saiful Islam and Joyanta Bir, Assistant Professor,
Fisheries and Marine Resource Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Bangladesh for
their sincere co-operation in work design, conducting workshop, and writing reports.
High appreciation also goes to Ramisa Nowshin and Chayan Biswas, MSc student of Fisheries
and Marine Resource Technology Discipline, Khulna University for their voluntary support for
conducting this study.
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List of Tables
Table 1. International conventions and treaties related to aquatic ecosystems signed by
Bangladesh. .............................................................................................................................. 31
Table 2. Responsibilities of stakeholders for protecting aquatic biodiversity in Bangladesh
Sundarbans sanctuary areas. .................................................................................................... 61
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List of figures
Figure 1. Fishing activities in Sundarban areas near dolphin sanctuaries using banned nets
(photo curtsey, Md. Modinul Ahsan). ...................................................................................... 23
Figure 2. The forest fear: with the construction of a power plant in Rampal and the continued
industrialisation in Mongla, the outskirts of the Sundarbans will lose its ecological balance,
affecting the lives of humans, animals and plants dependent on the bounty of the forest and its
surrounding (Proposed Rampal Power Station. Photo Courtesy: Bangladesh-India Friendship
Power Company (Pvt.) Limited (BIFPCL))............................................................................. 24
Figure 3. Water of a small canal has turned into pitch black by the oil spilling from the sunken
ship in the Sundarbans region Bangladesh, which endangered fish along with dolphin and other
aquatic and terrestrial mammals (The Ecomonic Times, Dec 19 2014; The stream, Dec 12
2014). ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4. Fishing down the food web impact severely on the food community of dolphin and
other predators (Pauly and Reg, 2009). ................................................................................... 29
Figure 5. The main reason for the initial decline of the Indus river dolphin population was the
construction of numerous dams and barrages that began in the 1930s. This construction split
the population into small groups, degraded their habitat and impeded migration. Now the major
threats include accidental capture in fishing nets, plus they are hunted for their meat, oil and
for use in traditional medicines (WWF, 2001). ....................................................................... 30
Figure 6. Workshop on strengthening the aquatic biodiversity conservation policies at Mongla,
near Sundarban area with Sundarban resource users and other stakeholders. ......................... 39
Figure 7. (A) Three saline zones of BSMF in 1983 (Chaffey et al., 1985) but divided in to two
zones with approximate Curtis demarcation in 1930’s, by a dotted line (Curtis, 1933); (B) A
largely different distribution pattern of the three zones was found after about 10 years (Siddiqi,
1994); (C) Seasonal variation of salinity in the Passur River water (at Mongla) and surface soil
of Sarankhola, Chandpai and Satkhira ranges in the late 1980s (Hassan et al., 1990). ........... 42
Figure 8. Distribution of Irrawaddy dolphins and Ganges river dolphins. A) Map of the
Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh, including sighting data of Ganges river dolphins
(triangles) and Irrawaddy dolphins (circles) (Jensen et al., 2013). .......................................... 46
Figure 9. Strategies for increasing the strength of gear restriction regulation for conservation
of Sundarban dolphin population. ............................................................................................ 50
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List of Acronyms
ASA Association for Social Advancement
BAPA Bangladesh Poribesh Andolon
BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
BCAS Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies
BCDP Bangladesh Cetacean Diversity Project
BFRI Bangladesh Forest Research Institute
BIFPCL Bangladesh-India Friendship Power Company (Pvt.) Limited
BLRI Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute
BNH Bangladesh National Herbarium
BPATC Bangladesh Public Administration Training Centre
BRRI Bangladesh Rice Research Institute
CARINAM Centre for Advanced Research in Natural Resources & Management
CBO Community based organizations
CI Community Institutions
CMC Co-Management Committees
CMFRI Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
CNRS Centre for Nature Resources Studies
CPD Centre for Policy Dialogue
CSO Civil Society Organizations
DFID Department for International Development
DOE Department of Environment
e.g. For Example
ECNEC The Executive Committee of the National Economic Council
EIA Environmental Impact Assessments
etc. Et cetera
FA Forest Academy
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FD Forest Department
Fig Figure
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FRSS Fisheries Resource Survey System
Ft Feet
GBM Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna
GEF Global Environment Facility
Hp Horsepower
i.e. For Example
IFES Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences
IPAC Integrated Protected Area Co-Management
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IUCN International Union for Conservation
IWM Institute of Water Modelling
MoEF Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
NACOM Nature Conservation Management
NAEM National Academy for Educational Management
NAPD National Academy for Planning and Development
NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
NCS National Conservation Strategy
NEC The National Economic Council
NEMAP National Environment Management Action Plan
NGO Non-governmental organization
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NIPORT :National Institute of Population Research and Training
NTFP Non-timber forest products
PA Protected Area
PL Post Larvae
POBA Poribesh Bachao Andolon
SBCP Sundarbans Biodiversity Conservation Project
SEMP Sustainable Environment Management Programme
SHG Self Help Groups
SPARRSO Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization
UNDP United Nations Development Program
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UNDP United Nations Development Programme
VF Village Forum
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
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PART 1
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1 Introduction and overview
World’s largest tract of mangrove, the Sundarbans supports Asia’s last two remaining species
of freshwater dolphins, the Endangered Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica), and the
Vulnerable Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris). While these species are generally
threatened with extinction across their range, both occur in the Sundarbans in populations large
enough for early conservation interventions to be effective in ensuring their long-term survival.
In 2012, the Government of Bangladesh declared three Dolphin Protected Areas comprising of
six channels each with five km segments that support especially high densities of these two
dolphin species. A few projects have also been implemented in the Sundarbans in the past for
the sustainable management of cetacean ecosystem. In spite of the efforts and the existing legal,
policy and institutional arrangements, the Sundarbans’ ecosystems in general and the three
protected areas in particular are facing increasing threats due to over exploitation and
unsustainable method harvesting resources associated to dolphin, poaching, unsustainable
livelihood, industrial development, maritime traffic, unplanned tourism etc.
In this backdrop UNDP Bangladesh in partnership with Bangladesh Government and with
support from GEF is taking up the ‘Expanding the Protected Areas System to Incorporate
Important Aquatic Ecosystems’ project to implement some long term solution and removing
barriers to strengthen conservation management of the globally significant aquatic biodiversity
of the Sundarbans taking into account development imperatives, need for sustaining livelihoods
and retrogressive factors including climate change. The goal of this study was sustainable
management of aquatic biodiversity in the Sundarbans through strengthening the fisheries
management and conservation policies. The immediate objective of the project is to build
capacity to effectively manage the existing protected areas established for dolphin conservation
and also expand their operational coverage while still meeting the livelihood aspirations of
local communities especially the fishers.
Specific objectives of the study:
1. To find out the level of fishing activities in the ecologically meaningful boundaries of
cetaceans in Sundarbans sanctuaries.
2. Knowing livelihood adaptations of Sundarban resource users during environmental
uncertainties or policy implementation.
3. To explore the gap of existing management and conservation policies, and finding
shortfalls in applying the policies by different sectors.
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4. Developing a guideline for strengthening existing fisheries regulations through
stakeholders’ participation, and enhancing organizational capacity to effectively
manage the existing protected areas established for dolphin conservation.
5. To increase awareness among the resource users on dolphin protection.
2.1 Reviews on Ganges River and Irrawaddy Dolphin
2.1.1 Biology of dolphin
Scientific position
Scientific position of Irrawaddy dolphin
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Delphinidae
Genus: Orcaella
Species: O. brevirostris (Wikipedia, 2018)
Scientific position of Ganges river dolphin
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Platanistidae
Genus: Platanista
Species: P. gangetica (Wikipedia, 2018)
Habitat and ecology
Dolphins usually live in small groups or alone. (Kasuya and Haque, 1972) found that 90% of
the groups and 80.4% of total dolphins are seen during the dry season of Meghna and Jamuna
Rivers of Bangladesh were solitary individuals. However, reports from the 19th century speaks
of large school to seen near largest towns on the Ganges. (Reeves and Brownel, 1989)
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The Irrawaddy dolphin thrives in tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific region on
and near shallow coastal waters. The countries where this species dwells are Vietnam,
Cambodia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, Laos, Philippines, Bangladesh, Brunei,
India, and Malaysia. It inhabits coasts, rivers, estuaries, deltas and large lakes of its distribution
zone, regularly near the mangroves. Almost all sightings have happened not more than 1.6
kilometers away from the coast and a less than 5 kilometers, and apparently, they do not usually
live in deep waters (Dolphins-World, 2017)
Irrawaddy dolphins prefer coastal areas associated with the muddy, brackish waters at river
mouths, ranging offshore as far as the extent of the freshwater plume often only a few km but
more than 60 km at the Meghna River mouth in Bangladesh (Smith et al., 2005). In rivers and
mangrove channels, the species is most often observed at channel confluences and divergences
and downstream of sharp meanders. They have been seen in the same area as finless porpoises
in coastal waters of Bangladesh and Myanmar (Smith et al., 2005), and Ganges River dolphins
in the waterways of the Sundarbans mangrove forest (Smith et al., 2006).
The Ganges River dolphin distribution is limited to the east of India. It inhabits the freshwater
system Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna (GBM) and the Karnaphuli-Sango river systems, and
their tributaries, which run through Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. It inhabits large sections
of these rivers or their tributaries from the tidal zone to the foothills of the Himalayas, the
Cachar Hills (District of India) and the Garo Hills of Meghalaya (Indian state). During the
flooding season, these dolphins leave the main canals and reach the temporary tributaries and
flooded lowlands. It is most frequently found in bodies of countercurrent water located between
the convergence of channels and meanders (pronounced curves) and occasionally go to
channels and reservoirs. Their habitat has a depth of 3 to 9 meters, and water temperatures
between 8 and 33 Celsius degrees (Dolphins-World, 2017).
Food and feeding
Although it has visible teeth in the jaws, it does not use them to chew but to hold their prey
firmly. Its eyes are not useful to find food because in the muddy waters of its habitat they are
not required, that is, it is an animal functionally blind, so it uses echolocation to detect prey.
This dolphin usually swims with a fin touching the riverbed to feel the sediments since animals
hide there. Its snout is very useful for this. Once it finds a suitable prey, it holds the victim with
the jaws and begins to swallow it whole starting from the head so that the scales (if the prey
has them) do not hurt its throat. It does not always look for food at the riverbed. It’s most
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common practice is finding a school of fish near the surface and drag them to the bottom to eat
them (Dolphins-World, 2017).
Irrawaddy dolphins, feed on fishes, crustaceans, cephalopods, and fish eggs. Two species of
cyprinid fish are thought to be important food sources for Irrawaddy dolphins found. Carp is
the primary species consumed in other areas (Marinebio, 2018). It is a carnivorous cetacean
that feeds on several species of cephalopods, fish, crustaceans and fish eggs. It establishes a
strategy of cooperation in groups composed of 6-15 dolphins. To hunt, they can spit water to
attract more fish and even hit large species with their lower jaw, perhaps in an attempt to play
before eating. In some regions of Asia these dolphins fish in cooperation with local fishers
which call them, and surprisingly the dolphins come swimming in semicircles and hauling the
fish to the surface. Thus both parties benefit since the dolphins feed themselves with the fish
stunned or trapped in the edges of the boat (Dolphins-World, 2017).
Ganges River dolphins are catholic feeders and feed on several species of fishes, invertebrates
(Sinha et al., 1993), and possibly turtles and birds. They exhibit active foraging behavior in the
morning (0700 hrs- 1000 hrs) and after noon (1500 hrs - 1700 hrs). These are some of their
usual prey– Common carp, Gobio, Prawn, Freshwater sharks, Mahseer fish (Family
Cyprinidae), Shrimp. The dolphins have been observed chasing and preying upon surface
dwelling fish species, such as Rhinomugil corsula. On some occasions it was noticed that they
drive fishes to a particular area for community feeding (Sinha et al., 1993)
Reproductive biology
Irrawaddy- Individuals reach sexual maturity at around 3-9 years of age and the mating season
is variable. For example, in the northern hemisphere dolphins mate from December to June and
births occur between June and August. The female delivers one single offspring after a
gestation period of 14 months. Researchers assume that, just as in other species, males mate
with and compete for several females. At birth, the offspring weigh about 10 kilograms and
measure about 1 meter. Six months later they are already able to consume fish, and after one
year and a half, they are usually completely weaned (Dolphins-World, 2017).
Though the breeding season of the Gangetic dolphin extends from January to June, newly born
calves can be seen even in other months. While mating usually takes place between March and
June, it has been observed even in July (Harison, 1972). Only a single baby is born after a
gestation period of about 9 months. At the time of birth, the neonate is about 70 cm and weighs
about 4 kg - 5 kg. The mother and calf remain together for about one year. Maternal care is
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presumed to be similar to that of other dolphin species, but in this case, after weaning (1 year
after birth), the offspring do not maintain ties with its mother. The male attains sexual maturity
at an age of about 10 years when they reach a length of 1.7 meters while the females are known
to attain sexual maturity at 10 or less years (Kasuya, 1972) when they are around 2m long
(Harison, 1972).
Distribution and Abundance
Irrawaddy Dolphins have a discontinuous distribution in coastal waters of the tropical and
subtropical Indo-Pacific, and are predominantly associated with freshwater inputs (Stacey and
Arnold, 1999; Smith, 2017). Coastal and estuarine populations occur from Borneo and the
central islands of the Indonesian Archipelago north to Palawan, Philippines, and west to the
Bay of Bengal, including the Gulf of Thailand. There are also freshwater subpopulations in
three large rivers: Ayeyarwady in Myanmar (up to 1,400 km upstream from the river mouth),
Mahakam in Indonesia (with a suspected current range between 90 km to 500 km upstream
from the river mouth and the area of highest density between 180 and 280 km from the mouth),
and Mekong in Cambodia and Lao People's Democratic Republic (a range of less than 200 km
between Kampi pool, near Kratie, Cambodia, and Khone Falls, Laos, some 690 km from the
river mouth). Within the extent of Irrawaddy Dolphin occurrence in these rivers, their area of
occupancy is concentrated in deep pools associated with confluences and above and below
rapids. Three other subpopulations inhabit marine-appended brackish water bodies: Chilika
Lagoon in India, Songkhla Lagoon in Thailand, and Malampaya Sound in the Philippines.
Although the map accompanying this assessment implies a continuous distribution throughout
the coastal areas of the species’ range, subpopulations are known to be fragmented and patchily
distributed, with long stretches of coastline where the species is now absent, either due to lack
of freshwater inputs or likely local extirpation. For example, while Irrawaddy Dolphins are
present in the coastal waters of the Trat Province, Thailand, they appear to be absent in the
neighboring provinces of Chanthaburi and Rayong in the upper Gulf of Thailand (Hines et al.,
2015). Similarly, while populations were documented in Kuching Bay and Similajau in
Sarawak, Malaysia, the species was not observed during repeated cetacean surveys off the coast
of Miri and the Baram River, where the species is known to have been present historically
(Minton et al., 2011; Pilleri and Gihr, 1974).
Ganges Dolphin occurs in the Indus, GBM, and KS river systems of the South Asian
subcontinent, from the deltas upstream to where movement is blocked by rocky barriers,
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shallow water, fast currents, dams, or barrages (low, gated diversion dams). The linear extent
of occurrence is now approximately 1,000 km (Braulik, 2006) and approximately 99% of the
dolphin population occurs in only 690 km of river, which corresponds to an almost 80%
reduction in effective linear range since the 1870s (Reeves, 1991).
The range of the Ganges subspecies (Ganges Dolphin) has declined progressively since the
nineteenth century when it was mapped by Anderson (1879). Historically it occurred through
several thousand kilometers of free-flowing river in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and possibly
Bhutan. The downstream effects of at least ten dams and barrages constructed in the Ganges
main stem and tributaries have severely reduced and fragmented dolphin habitat (Smith and
Reeves, 2000). Dolphins have undergone roughly a 100 km decline in their range in the Ganges
River since the late 1800s, and disappeared from the upper Ganges between Haridwar and
Bijnor, and Narora and Kanpur. Historically, they were found year-round in the Yamuna River
approximately 400 km upstream to Delhi (Anderson, 1879), but in recent years, dolphins have
not been reported in this river above the Chambal River confluence during the dry season
because upstream channels have become too shallow and polluted to support dolphins (Sinha,
2000). In the northern Ganges tributaries, of the six dolphin subpopulations that were isolated
above or between barrages, three have been extirpated (in the Gandak River above the Gandak
Barrage, in the Sarda River above the upper and lower Sarda barrages and the Sone River)
(Sinha et al., 2000) and one has been reduced to insignificant numbers (in the Kosi River above
the Kosi Barrage) (Smith, 1993, Sinha and Kannan, 2014). A few Ganges Dolphins were still
present during the mid-1990s as far downstream in the Hoogly River as Kakdwip (Sinha,
1997), and more recent surveys suggest their continued presence between Farraka and the Bay
of Bengal in West Bengal, India (Chowdhury et al., 2016). The lack of adequate of water being
released downstream of Farraka Barrage has eliminated dry-season habitat for more than 300
km, or until the Ganges (Padma)-Brahmaputra confluence in Bangladesh (Smith et al., 1998).
Occasional reports of dolphins in the reservoir behind Kaptai Dam (built in 1961) of the KS
system occurred until the mid-1990s (Ahmed, 2000), but surveys in the late 1990s found no
evidence that any Ganges Dolphins survive there (Smith et al., 2001). Thus, the dam's
construction likely caused a substantial reduction in the subspecies’ range in southeastern
Bangladesh, but the absence of any historical information on occurrence in the upper
Karnaphuli makes any quantitative estimate of range reduction impossible Dolphins are
expected to have been extirpated from the Subansiri River because of periodic dramatic
20
declines in river discharge from the newly completed Lower Subansiri hydroelectric project
(Baruah et al., 2012).
Behavior
Irrawaddy dolphins stay in groups of three to six individuals and are social within their pods.
They are also social outside of their group and mixing between groups has been reported. When
scouting areas, Irrawaddy dolphins raise their heads out of the water and rotate around to see
their surroundings. Irrawaddy dolphins swim slowly and display sluggish movements. When
they surface to take a breath, only the top of the head is visible and it is done quickly; only 14%
of all surfacing between long dives include rolling, splashing, or limb waving and slapping.
Before an Irrawaddy dolphin dives, it usually surfaces two times. The longest recorded dive is
over six minutes long. Irrawaddy dolphins have also been seen waving or slapping their flippers
and tail, breaching or partially leaping from the water, blowing bubbles, rolling sideways, and
pausing at the surface. Water spitting has been observed on numerous occasions, but the reason
for this behavior is unknown. Local fisherman report that they are able to identify individual
dolphins based on unique behaviors. (Mammalian Species Orcaella brevirostris, 1999; Status
and Conservation of Facultative Freshwater Cetaceans in Asia, 2002; Dawblin, 1972; Stacey
and Leatherwood, 1997).
Ganges River dolphins swim and vocalize constantly. Due to the turbid nature of the Ganges,
the underwater activities of Ganges dolphins in the wild are difficult to observe. Their short
surfacing time is also a major constraint for behavioral studies. A recent study recorded six
types of surfacing patterns, which were dependent on age-class and offshore distance of the
individual (Sinha et al., 2010a). Ganges River dolphins exhibit greater preference for the
surface than other river dolphins; even when swimming, which they do on their sides, they
occasionally keep their beaks out of water. Newborn calves frequently leap completely out of
the water.
The Ganges River dolphin is not usually considered to be gregarious. In one of the few
quantitative studies of group size, it was observed that 90% of the groups and 80.4% of the
total dolphins observed during the dry season in the Meghna and Jamuna Rivers of Bangladesh
were solitary individuals. While the calves accompany mothers, adults are normally found
alone or in small groups. However, other investigators reported groups of as many as 25 to 30
dolphins at the confluence of the Ganga and Gandak at Patna.
21
Biodiversity and Conservation
Currently, the most immediate threat facing Irrawaddy dolphins is drowning in gill nets. The
threat of gill net entanglement occurs primarily during the dry season (December to May),
when dolphins settle in deep water pools. Dynamite and electric fishing occur in some
important habitats. These activities are causing depletion of the dolphin's fish supply and noise
from the explosions is potentially dangerous to dolphins. Due to the small population size and
their narrow distribution, it is quite possible that dam construction anywhere within their
habitat might critically endanger populations. Furthermore, uncontrolled tourism can harass
dolphins in important habitats during the dry season and interfere with normal activities, such
as feeding, resting, and socializing. Overfishing, collisions with boats and injuries from boat
propellers are also threats to their survival. (Facultative river dolphins: conservation and social
ecology of freshwater and coastal Irrawaddy dolphins in Indonesia, 2004; Status and
Conservation of Facultative Freshwater Cetaceans in Asia, 2002).
Ganges River dolphins are among the most endangered of all cetaceans. With rising human
populations in Southern Asia, the natural habitat of Ganges River dolphins has been extensively
modified and degraded. Agricultural and industrial discharges are polluting the river systems
in which these dolphins live and feed. In certain populations, the accumulation of heavy metals
and organochlorides is posing serious health risks to the animals. In addition, dangerously high
levels of arsenic in the water are a serious health threat to every animal using the water system,
including Ganges River dolphins. Human modifications to river systems are also impacting the
habitat of the dolphins. Over fifty dams affect populations of Ganges River dolphins, cutting
populations off from one another. Dams have caused the gene pools of Ganges River dolphins
to shrink, which could pose detrimental effects in future generations. Some engineering efforts
are underway to construct channels around dams for aquatic wildlife, including dolphins.
Ganges River dolphins are becoming more and more restricted to a smaller range. In Pakistan,
a few hundred river dolphins are restricted to roughly 1200 square kilometers of water. Many
local peoples regard these dolphins as a source of meat, oil and bait. Hunting has certainly
impacted the numbers of dolphins in the Ganges and Indus river systems. Also, Ganges River
dolphins are caught and drowned in fishing lines and nets, causing considerable fatalities. Bull
sharks that make their way into South Asian river systems are known to attack waders and
fishermen and are highly aggressive. Many of these attacks on local peoples are wrongly
blamed on Ganges River dolphins. While it is highly unlikely these dolphins would ever attack
22
a human, their similar size and color to bull sharks results in their persecution by local peoples.
(Kannan et al., 1993; Perrin et al., 2002; Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994).
2.1.2 Threats to Dolphin in Bangladesh Sundarbans
Habitat destruction
Loss of whale and dolphin habitat is directly linked to increasing human activity in and along
marine environments. Landfills, harbours, shipping channels, fisheries and aquaculture (fish
farms) may all occupy or destroy areas that cetaceans need for feeding, resting and breeding.
Recreational use of marine areas, including resort development and increased boat traffic, may
drive away the whales, dolphins and porpoises that would normally use an area.
Habitat loss, particularly from dams in riverine populations, and degradation from declining or
altered freshwater flows affecting estuarine populations, is a looming conservation threat with
the potential for extirpating subpopulations and further fragmenting the already patchy
distribution of the species (Kreb et al., 2010; Peter et al., 2016a; Thomas and Gulland, 2017).
Water development projects such as dams and irrigation barrages (diversion dams) have
dramatically affected the habitat, abundance, and population structure of Ganges River
Dolphins also throughout its range. Barrages and dams are physical barriers that isolate
dolphins into small sections of river, fragmenting the population. In addition to fragmentation,
dams and barrages have degraded downstream habitat and created impoundments with high
sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. Canals branching from
the river channels upstream of barrages represent population "sinks", as dolphins enter them
with little or no prospect of safe return. Water diversion and use including intra- and inter-basin
transfers, will continue to be driven principally by the escalating demands for water from
agriculture, industry, and municipalities; by strategic considerations; and by the need to control
flooding. Dolphin will probably continue to decline as subpopulations are extirpated due to
habitat loss related to escalating water demands, large engineering structures (e.g., high dams,
barrages, and embankments), and long-term climate changes (Smith et al., 2010; Chaudhary et
al., 2012; Braulik et al., 2014).
2.1.3 Human intervention
Fishing
Dolphins mostly live within a few miles of the coast and occasionally venture into some
harbours, which can result in an overlap with commercial and amateur fisheries. Like whales,
23
dolphins are susceptible to entanglement in commercial fishing gear. Dolphins are caught
accidentally in fishing nets in all areas where they have been studied (Smith et al., 2007). A
significant number of dolphins have died through accidental entanglement in nets.
Entanglement drowns dolphins when they are unable to reach the surface to breathe. A number
of dolphin species are on the verge of extinction for this very reason.
Of 49 Irrawaddy Dolphin deaths recorded in Bangladesh from February 2007 to December
2016, two thirds were judged to be due to entanglement, mostly in gillnets, based on net and
rope marks, entangled gear attached to the carcasses, and reports from fishermen (Thomas and
Gulland, 2017). Mortality has also been recorded in drift gillnets targeting elasmobranchs in
coastal waters of Bangladesh (Smith et al., 2008) and bottom-set gillnets targeting crabs in
Malampaya Sound (Smith et al., 2004a). Fishermen in some areas report that dolphins are
released if found still alive (Smith and Hobbs, 2002; Peter et al., 2016) but in the case of
drowned animals, the oil may be used for medicinal purposes or the flesh eaten (Smith et al.,
2004).
Mortality in fishing gear, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges Dolphins
throughout most of their range and is an increasing problem for Indus Dolphins. They are
particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the
fishing grounds (Kelkar et al., 2010).
Figure 1. Fishing activities in Sundarban areas near dolphin sanctuaries using banned nets
(photo curtsey, Md. Modinul Ahsan).
Scientific interactions
Research on dolphins can potentially generate a threat to the dolphins themselves. This could
include tagging (including satellite or other transmitters), taking biopsy samples, or through
harassment. Permits and/or approvals are required to undertake research and will not be issued
if the research presents undue risks to the dolphins.
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Construction in marine areas
Coastal works and development create noise, potentially masking sounds dolphins use for
communication and navigation. They may also introduce pollution into the environment.
These activities may displace the dolphins from important habitat and make it harder for
dolphins to hunt and successfully produce offspring.
Figure 2. The forest fear: with the construction of a power plant in Rampal and the continued
industrialisation in Mongla, the outskirts of the Sundarbans will lose its ecological balance,
affecting the lives of humans, animals and plants dependent on the bounty of the forest and its
surrounding (Proposed Rampal Power Station. Photo Courtesy: Bangladesh-India Friendship
Power Company (Pvt.) Limited (BIFPCL)).
Oil/gas drilling and mineral mining
Seabed mining, drilling, and exploration, including seismic testing, is likely to have an impact
on dolphins. Potential impacts include:
Discharge plumes and suspended sediments may interfere with marine organisms, as well as
disturb the seafloor. This may impact dolphins by reducing or displacing the fish populations
they rely on for food. Dolphins might also change movement patterns as a result. Seabed
mining and seismic testing both introduce loud man-made noises into the marine environment.
Loud noises may overpower the sounds dolphins use to communicate, navigate, and find food.
Loud noises may disturb dolphins, causing them to be displaced from certain areas. Fish species
may also be disturbed by noise and vessels, leading to a loss of food sources for dolphins.
25
Figure 3. Water of a small canal has turned into pitch black by the oil spilling from the sunken
ship in the Sundarbans region Bangladesh, which endangered fish along with dolphin and other
aquatic and terrestrial mammals (The Ecomonic Times, Dec 19 2014; The stream, Dec 12
2014).
2.1.4 Natural calamities and environmental changes
Climate change has a multitude of effects on the oceans which is having an adverse impact on
marine mammals such as dolphins and could become the biggest of all dolphin threats. As
ocean temperatures rise from climate change, prey populations can be affected. Climate change
also affects ocean currents altering prey distribution, feeding grounds, and migratory pathways.
The effect of Global Warming or seasonal weather changes has reduced their food sources,
impacting the survival of dolphins in the wild. Extreme weather events have been a possible
reason for the separation of calves from their mothers, resulting in the death of the calf.
Increases in the frequency of extreme weather events are predicted due to climate change,
which has the potential to adversely affect dolphins.
Other projected impacts of climate change include: reduction of available habitat for several
cetacean species unable to move into colder waters (e.g. Ganges river dolphins); an increased
susceptibility of cetaceans to diseases, like- a 2014 study of six Irrawaddy Dolphin populations
in Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India found varying degrees of presence of cutaneous skin
nodules, thought to be caused by a fibropapilloma. The progression of this disease may be
associated with environmental pollutants (Van Bressem et al., 2014), and as such may be an
indicator of habitat deterioration in the areas where it is detected. Climate change also reduces
reproductive success, body condition and survival rates. Carbon dioxide is also dissolving into
the oceans and making ocean waters more acidic which reduces the calcification of calcareous
skeleton organisms like- Molluscs, crustaceans, corals and some phytoplankton; thus negative
impacts on the food chain.
26
2.1.5 Freshwater flow and salinity fluctuations
Deforestation and gold, sand, and gravel mining are causing major changes to the geomorphic
and hydraulic features of rivers and marine-appended lakes where Irrawaddy Dolphins occur
(Smith et al., 2007). Increased sedimentation resulting from deforestation in surrounding
watersheds has resulted in declining water depths. The accumulation of sediments led to
shrinkage of the opening channel and a dramatic decline in salinity.
Embankments cause sediments to be deposited in the riverbed instead of on the floodplain,
thereby eliminating or reducing the extent of the eddy counter-currents where dolphins are
generally found (Smith et al., 1998). They also restrict access to floodplain habitat critical to
the reproduction and growth of riverine fish species. Approximately 3,500 km of embankments
have been constructed in the Ganges mainstem and the Gandak, Buri Gandak, Bagmati,
Kamala, Yamuna, and Son tributaries (Mishra, 1999). Dolphins were apparently extirpated
from at least 35 km of the Punpun tributary of the Ganges after embankments were constructed
in 1975 (Sinha et al., 2000).
2.1.6 Pollution
Organochlorines Organochlorines are found in pesticides and some building materials, and reach dolphin habitat
via coastal runoff. Organochlorines are known to affect the breeding success of some marine
mammal species, in some cases resulting in sterility. They may also suppress their immune
system. Organochlorine and butyltin concentrations in samples from the tissues of Ganges
Dolphins were high enough to cause concern about effects (Kannan et al., 1993, 1994; Kannan,
1997, 2005; Senthilkumar et al., 1999). Pollutant loads can be expected to increase with
industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices. River Dolphins may be
particularly vulnerable to industrial pollution because their habitat in counter-current pools
downstream of confluences and sharp meanders often places them in close proximity to point
sources in major urban
Metals
Metals such as mercury, lead and cadmium, which have little or no recorded biological
function, enter the environment through human activities. They don’t break down, and
accumulate over time. These metals are often toxic even at low concentrations. Data on the
effects of metal toxicity in cetacean species is sparse, and the risk from metal toxicity is
unquantified for dolphins.
27
Oil spills
The extraction and transportation of crude oil poses a potential threat for dolphins. Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, such as those found in oil and gas, have been linked to cancers in some
species of marine mammals. The risk from these compounds is unquantified for dolphin.
Plastic debris
Marine mammals can become physically entangled in loops or openings of drifting plastic
debris. Entangled animals may suffer impaired ability to catch food or avoid predators. They
may also incur cuts, wounds and infections from the debris. Plastic ingestion could also pose a
threat to the dolphins.
Pathogens
Dolphins may be exposed to a range of pathogens that end up in the sea from farm run-off,
through sewer outfalls or shipping, and through direct or indirect contact with other marine
species. While there may be an anthropogenic source for some pathogens. Researches are
required to better understand the impacts of these pathogens on dolphins and how any impacts
can be avoided.
2.1.7 Degradation of fish biodiversity
Modern fishing techniques are vastly more effective than those used one hundred years ago.
As a result, many of the species that dolphins traditionally preyed upon have been dramatically
reduced in their abundance and about one-third of all fishing stocks worldwide have collapsed
like the sustained and heavy exploitation of small fishes of rivers by the wide spread use of the
mosquito nets in river may affect the prey base of the Ganges River dolphin. In fact, overfishing
has depleted fish populations to the point that in most of the world large scale commercial
fishing is not economically viable without government assistance. The fall in fish stocks is a
significant concern for humans too, but one that is not widely understood.
Shrinking tiger prawn population
The natural abundance of tiger shrimp seeds is fast reaching the threshold limit. It is fast
dwindling away from the natural waters of Sundarbans. The reasons too much over fishing at
various stages of its life cycle. As its post larval stage in estuaries, it is trapped by fine push
and drag nets and fine meshed bag nets (meen jal); the juveniles are trapped by bag nets
(behundi jal) in estuaries; the juveniles and pre adults are caught in marine waters by large bag
nets; the pre adults and adults by trammel nets. Even the spawns are not spared and are caught
from the open seas by trawl nets. (Mahapatra et al., 1999)
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Indiscriminate seed collection
Collection of seeds (post larvae) of tiger shrimp (Panaeus monodon) and freshwater prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii) are one of the main sources of earning for the small and landless
fisher man and women of this area. (De et al., 1978) found that 7-99 mm post larvae and
juveniles were available throughout the year with peaks in June, July and December. This is
the preferred species for brackish water aquaculture and a brisk seed trade has developed in the
Sundarbans for post larval and early juvenile stages. During collection of economic prawn
seeds, the rural people segregate the seeds and destroy other 90 to 95 % of fish and prawn
seeds, which is leading towards the destruction of large number of estuarine species. A man-
made catastrophe that destroys major parts of a fish community (species) will have importance
relative to the fact that a large part of the human population of an area has had its protein source
eliminated or reduced. These problems call for immediate steps to bring back a balance
between the quantities of seeds produced in the nature and the quantity harvested shrimp and
prawn. There is ban on shrimp post larvae (PL) collection from natural water body, but still PL
catching is going on. It is necessary to implement the ban strictly with the cooperation
department of fisheries, law enforcement agencies and coastal communities.
Poison Fishing
Poison fishing is the one of the most primitive approach of catching fish in the many part of
the world. Here in Sunderbans, fisherman sometime used different kinds of poisons in the river
mouth or canal for catching fishes. Consequently huge amount of unwanted species i.e
plankton, fishes, annelids, crustacean, mollusks are died that is directly effect on the food chain.
And we know Dolphin is occupying in the top of the food chain, so the declining of those
unwanted communities affecting the food chain of Dolphin. On the other hand poison intakes
directly occur to the dolphin stomach during eating poison containing fishes and other aquatics
poisoned organism.
2.1.8 Trophic structure/ food chain in Sundarbans ecosystem
Mangrove habitat is one of the most productive ecosystems on Earth, lying between the land
and the sea on tropical and subtropical coastlines (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001; Kathiresan,
2002). Mangroves in the estuarine ecosystem play important roles in biodiversity and energy
flow, and in maintaining functioning food chains, with phytoplankton playing a vital role as a
primary producer. Phytoplankton initiates the marine food chain by serving as food to primary
consumers such as zooplankton, shellfish, and finfish (Sridhar et al., 2006). In comparison to
adjacent marine areas, larval retention and high productivity in mangrove-lined estuaries have
29
generally been attributed to the abundant planktonic food supply (Rajkumar et al., 2009). The
distribution and abundance of commercially important fish and shellfish, and their larvae, are
dependent on some species of phytoplankton as their main food source (Mitra et al., 2004).
The presence of primary food producers like phytoplankton and zooplankton had decreased
sharply in the contaminated water. The food chain of aquatic species living in the world’s single
largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans, has been severely disrupted by the oil spill. The study
report conducted by Khulna University (KU) said the presence of primary food producers like
phytoplankton and zooplankton had decreased sharply in the contaminated water.
Figure 4. Fishing down the food web impact severely on the food community of dolphin and
other predators (Pauly and Reg, 2009).
2.1.9 Disturbances: e.g. unplanned tourism, navigation, net barriers etc.
Interactions with boats and tourism
Vessel traffic (for example, recreational boating or commercial vessels) can potentially disturb
or strike dolphins. Although single encounters with a boat or a group of swimmers are unlikely
to cause major disturbance for dolphin, the ongoing effects of multiple and extended encounters
with dolphin watching operations could be harmful. Long-term effects of encounters may
include reductions in breeding success, feeding activity, and resting opportunities. Eventually,
dolphins may also leave certain areas to avoid disturbance.
Net and other Barriers
Habitat loss and population fragmentation in several areas have resulted from the proliferation
of fixed fishing gear. Like in the early 2000s, about 27,000 sitting traps and 13,000 barrier traps
created more than 8,000 linear kilometres of barrier in multiple rows in the middle and southern
30
portions of Songkhla Lake. These fishing structures were left in place year-round and restricted
dolphin movements such that their habitat was substantially reduced and the potential for
demographic interaction with dolphins from the Gulf of Thailand was eliminated (Smith et al.,
2004).
Obstacles on migratory routs
Dams and barrages (low-gated diversion dams) restrict the movement of dolphins, rendering
them isolated into separate sub-populations. The Farakka Barrage has affected the dolphin
population in the Ganges, as the barrage has not only created a physical barrier for movement
of the dolphin but also the reach of the river has been changed from a lotic to a lentic ecosystem
(Sinha, 2000).
Figure 5. The main reason for the initial decline of the Indus river dolphin population was the
construction of numerous dams and barrages that began in the 1930s. This construction split
the population into small groups, degraded their habitat and impeded migration. Now the major
threats include accidental capture in fishing nets, plus they are hunted for their meat, oil and
for use in traditional medicines (WWF, 2001).
2.1.10 Management and conservation strategies for Dolphin sanctuaries
National and global existing management policies on Caetaceans
Bangladesh has an extensive body of laws and policies for promoting conservation and the
sustainable use of biodiversity and natural resources. Besides, the country also have signatory
to several international conventions, treaties and multi-lateral agreements/ instruments related
to environmental protection/natural resource management (UNDP, 2016). GOB (2010)
reported some key international conventions and treaties signed/ratified by the country (Table
1).
31
Table 1. International conventions and treaties related to aquatic ecosystems signed by
Bangladesh.
Convention/ Treaty Year
effective
Convention Relating to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State 1936
International Plant Protection Convention (1951) 1952
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (1954) 1974
The Antarctic Treaty (Washington, 1959) 1998
Ramsar Convention on wetlands and International Importance (Ramsar, 1971) 1982
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
(1972)
1978
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (1973)
1976
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory species of Wild Animals (Bonn,
1979)
1982
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(Canberra, 1980)
1985
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 1982) 1985
Convention on Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes &
Disposal (1989)
1992
Protocol on environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty (Madrid, 1991) 1998
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Rio de Janeiro,
1992)
1994
Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) 1994
Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the UNCLOS 1982
(1994)
1996
Protocol to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto, 1997) 2005
There are a number of national policies, legislation and approaches taken by the government
which provide provisions for biodiversity conservation and natural resources management in
the country that have a bearing by the GEF project in the Sundarbans. Those policies are the:
National Environment Policy, 1992; National Forest Policy, 1994; National Energy Policy,
1996; National Fisheries Development Policy, 1998; National Water Policy, 1999; National
Agriculture Policy, 1999; Land Use Policy, 2001; Coastal Zone Policy, 2005; Bangladesh
Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 2012; Bangladesh Forest Act, 1978 and subsequent
amendments; Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995 and Environment
Conservation Rules 1997; Playfield, Open Space, Park and Natural Water Reservoir
Conservation Act, 2000; Flood Action Plan, 1990; Forestry Master Plan, 1996; National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP); National Conservation Strategy (NCS);
National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP); and Sustainable Environment
Management Programme (SEMP) (UNDP, 2016).
32
Diverse institutional arrangements have responsibilities to govern the natural resources in
Bangladesh. The National Economic Council (NEC) is the highest policy making and
programme/project approving institution in the country, which is headed by the Prime Minister.
The Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC), headed by the Finance
Minister, reviews the plans and programmes sent by various ministries and endorse them
(UNDP, 2016).
The project document of UNDP (2016) also reported that the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF) is entrusted with the overall responsibility for the environment sector and the
national focal point of all MEAs. The MoEF works with other ministries to ensure that
environmental concerns are given due priority in their development programmes/projects. The
implementing organs of MoEF are the Department of Environment (DOE) and the Forest
Department (FD). While the DOE has wide ranging responsibilities from enforcement of
environmental laws and codes in addition to conducting Environmental Impact Assessments
(EIAs) of public and private sector projects, the FD is a specialized body of the MoEF dealing
with the management of forest reserves, wildlife and protected areas. The Forest Department
works towards ensuring natural sustainability and biodiversity conservation through social
forestry, forest management, afforestation, reforestation, protected area management etc. It is
one of the oldest departments of the Government.
Beside above organizations, other ministries/departments/agencies including the Ministry of
Land, Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Industries, Ministry of Power, Ministry of
Energy & Mineral Resources, Ministry of Fisheries & Livestock, Bangladesh Planning
Commission, Disaster Management Bureau, Bangladesh Water Development Board, Water
Resources Planning Organization, Bangladesh Meteorological Department, Ministry of
Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Extension, National Agricultural Research System of
Bangladesh, Navy, Coast Guard and Port Authority have defined mandates and jurisdiction
over matters concerning aquatic resources (UNDP, 2016).
Many research institutions like the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Bangladesh
National Herbarium (BNH), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Bangladesh
Rice Research Institute (BRRI), Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI), and many
university departments are conducting research and implementing programmes on biodiversity
and natural resource management. Similarly, various training institutions including the
Bangladesh Public Administration Training Centre (BPATC), National Academy for
33
Educational Management (NAEM), National Academy for Planning and
Development(NAPD), Forest Academy (FA), Bangladesh Space Research and Remote
Sensing Organization (SPARRSO), Institute of Water Modelling (IWM) etc. are also involved
with overall environmental management and cross-cutting environmental issues (UNDP,
2016).
The District Administration is headed by the Deputy Commissioner, and includes functionaries
responsible for different aspects of district governance. Of note to this project are functionaries
responsible for district planning, fisheries, agriculture, forests, tourism, wildlife etc. Related to
this is the presence of the local government including the elected members of the Zillas,
Upazillas and Union Parishads, which is highly relevant in the context of the project. At the
village level, there are also several Community Institutions (CIs) that are supported by the
government as well as non-governmental organizations. These are also community or user-
group based organizations such as Self Help Groups (SHGs), Women’s Groups, Fishermen’s
Associations, tour operator groups, Youth Groups, Co-Management Committees (CMCs),
Village Forum (VFs) etc. (UNDP, 2016).
A large number of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) – both conservation-focused and social service groups are engaged in implementing
various programmes on biodiversity conservation, social development and addressing policy
issues. These organizations include Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD), Centre for Nature
Resources Studies (CNRS), Centre for Advanced Research in Natural Resources &
Management (CARINAM), Nature Conservation Management (NACOM), Bangladesh Centre
for Advanced Studies (BCAS), Poribesh Bachao Andolon (POBA), Bangladesh Poribesh
Andolon (BAPA), WildTeam, Sushilan, Association for Social Advancement (ASA),
PROSHIKA, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) etc. (UNDP, 2016).
2.1.11 Existing Acts in Bangladesh
WILDLIFE (CONSERVATION AND SECURITY) ACT, 2012: An Act to provide for the
conservation and safety of biodiversity, forest and wildlife of the country by repealing the
existing law relating to conservation and management of wildlife of Bangladesh.
THE MARINE FISHERIES ORDINANCE, 1983: An Ordinance to make provisions for the
management, conservation and development of marine fisheries of Bangladesh.
34
THE BANGLADESH WILDLIFE (PRESERVATION) ORDER, 1973: It is expedient to
provide for the preservation, conservation and management of wild life preservation in
Bangladesh.
Fisheries Act 1995
The protection and conservation of fish act, 1950: This act provides for the protection and
conservation of fish in Bangladesh.
Environmental conservation rules of 1995: Air pollution, water pollution and noise
pollution.
Private fisheries protection act 1889: biodiversity protection.
Policy for management closed water body, 1990: water resource management
Inland shipping ordinance 1976: water resource management
Canals act 1864: water resource management
Embankment and drainage act 1952: water resource management
Irrigation act 1876: water resource management
Environmental pollution control ordinance 1997: including national water quality standard
according to WHO guideline, air quality standard, noise and solid waste management.
Government Fisheries Protection Ordinance 1959
Protection and Conservation of Fish (amendment) Act 1963
National fisheries policy 1998: for the protection and development of fish species and fisheries
environment.
The Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996: is an amendment to the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
Conservation and Management Act, a law governing the management of marine fisheries in
the United States. Another major amendment to this legislation was later made under
the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006.
The SFA was enacted to amend the outdated MSFCMA of 1976. The amendment included
changes to the purpose of the act, definitions, and international affairs, as well as many small
changes.
The Fisheries Act 1985: (Malay: Akta Perikanan 1985)- is a Malaysian federal act relating to
the administration and management of fisheries, including the conservation and development
of maritime and estuarine fishing and fisheries in Malaysia waters, protection to aquatic
mammals and turtles and riverine fishing in Malaysia and to matters connected to
establishment of marine parks and marine reserves.
35
Indian Forest Act, 1878: Empowers the Forest Department to manage the inshore and
offshore fisheries in the Sundarbans and near shore 20 km marine waters.
Hunting and Fishing Rules, 1959: A fishing permit is required to fish in reserved or protected
forests. Royalty may be levied on fish caught in tidal waters of reserved and protected forests.
It is illegal to use poison, explosives or fixed engine fishing gears, or to dam or bale water in
reserve and protected forests.
Major Fisheries Regulations for SRF
Khal Closure Regulation (1989): closes 18 khals permanently for fishing to ensure natural
fish breeding.
Collection & Export of Live Crab Regulation (1995): closes the entire SRF for crab fishing
from December to February to ensure crab breeding.
Closed Season Regulation (2000): closes fishing in the entire SRF for five species
(P. pangasius, P. canius, L. calcarifer, M.rosenbergii, S. serrata) during 1st May to 30th June
to ensure natural breeding.
Wildlife Sanctuary Regulations, 1999: Fishing is permanently prohibited in the three wildlife
sanctuaries of SRF.
2.1.12 Existing international policy issues (Nepal)
Aquatic Animal Protection Act, 1961 (AAPA): Recognizes the value of wetlands and aquatic
animals.
NPWCA 1973: Provides complete protection to 27 species of animals including dolphins.
National Conservation Strategy, 1988: Has stated that the aquatic species receive little
protection which results in a substantial percentage of wildlife being harvested indiscriminately
both for commercial and domestic purpose. This also has reduced the prey for dolphins in
Karnali River.
National Biodiversity Strategy (2002): Recognizes the need for wetland conservation while
the National Wetland Policy (2003) has emerged as the central plank of government’s
approach to wetland biodiversity conservation for future.
36
PART 2
37
3 Situation analysis
3.1 Context
3.1.1 National context
The People’s Republic of Bangladesh, nestled between the Indo-Himalayas and Indo-Chinese
sub-regions (between 20° and 27° N and 88° and 93° E), is the farthest downstream alluvial
zone of three major river systems of the Himalayan Range – the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and
the Meghna. The total geographical area of the country is 147,570 km2, of which about 80% is
comprised of one of the world’s largest deltas (floodplains and wetlands networked over 300
rivers) bordered by India in the West, North and Northeast; by Myanmar in the Southeast and
by the Bay of Bengal in the South (GoB, 2010).
Bangladesh has been reported as the highest densely populated (1,015/km2) country in the
world with the total population of more than 160 million (BBS, 2011). Although fertility rates
have declined in recent years, at the current growth rate (1.34% per annum), the population is
projected to reach 220 million by 2040 (BBS, 2011). Around 75% of the population is rural
and a significant proportion (around 35 million or 22%) lives along the 710 km long coastal
belt (World Bank, 2010a; PDO-ICZMP, 2004).
Notwithstanding the notable strides made in economic and social development in recent
decades, Bangladesh is still among the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) (UNDP, 2013). In
the Human Development Index, it ranked 146 (out of 187 countries) in 2012 (UNDP, 2013).
During 2012-13, the Per Capita Gross National Income (GNI) was calculated as $923 whereas
the Per Capita Net National Income (NNI) stood at $859 (BBS, 2010; World Bank, 2013). An
estimated 50 million people still live in poverty, including almost 18% living under extreme
poverty (BBS, 2010a). Despite these challenges, the net primary-school enrollment has reached
94.7% and under-five childhood mortality has declined by 58% from 133 to 56 per 1,000 live
birth in 1989-1993 and 2005-2009, and the country is on track to meet its United Nations
Millennium Development Goals of 48 under-five deaths per 1,000 live births by 2015.
Similarly, infant mortality rate has declined by 48% from 87 to 45 per 1,000 births over the
same time period (NIPORT, 2012). However, more than two-thirds of the rural population is
landless or effectively landless (i.e. own less than 0.2 ha land). More than half of the country’s
population directly depends on natural resources for survival and well-being (UNDP, 2016).
38
Bangladesh remains a predominantly agrarian economy with agriculture occupying nearly 76%
of the total land area of the country. Other important economic activities related to land/water
use and food production include fisheries, aquaculture, and salt production. Over 60 million
people depend on aquatic resources with an estimated one million working as full-time fishers
and another 11 million engaged in part-time fishing. The latter are especially significant for the
nutritional security of the poor (UNDP, 2016). While agriculture employs the largest
proportion of the labour force (around 47.3%) (BBS, 2010b), its proportional contribution to
GDP has been falling. During 2012-13, the combined share of agriculture and forestry sector
stood at 14.3% of GDP (at constant prices) and 13.7% (at current prices). The fisheries sector
is estimated to employ around 5% of the workforce and contributed some 3.6% of GDP (at
current prices) in 2012-13 (UNDP, 2016). Service sector and Industrial sector contribute
around 50% and 30% respectively to the country’s GDP (UNDP, 2016). Foreign remittances
and the export-led garment industry have been the dual engines of the national economy in
recent times (UNDP, 2016).
Annual consumption of fish in Bangladesh is 11.9 kg per capita (in 2010), accounting for
11.1% of total protein consumption. Altogether, some 76% of the fish consumed are inland
species and 18% marine. Urban annual consumption stands at 14.5 kg/capita and rural
consumption at 11.0 kg per capita per year, with rural communities eating a larger percentage
of inland fish (70%) than urban communities (61%). The most commonly consumed freshwater
species include tilapia, catfish and mrigal carp. Hilsa shad is the most commonly consumed
marine species and is a valued commodity for export (FAO, 2014).
One of the most disaster-prone nations in the world, Bangladesh experiences frequent, extreme
& erratic weather events and storms that cause wide-spread economic, ecological, and social
damage (UNDP, 2016). For instance, of the 250,000 deaths reported worldwide due to cyclones
between 1980 and 2000, around 60% occurred in Bangladesh (World Bank, 2010a). In the past
200 years, the country experienced at least 70 major cyclones, of which 40 have occurred since
1948 (UNDP, 2016). Floods are major recurring phenomena that affect around 30-50% of the
country each year. Around 93 major disasters were recorded between 1991 and 2000 that
caused nearly 200,000 deaths and a direct economic loss of approximately US$ 5.9 billion or
around 0.5 – 1% of the country’s annual GDP. Women bear a disproportional brunt of such
natural disasters (World Bank, 2010b).
39
Figure 6. Workshop on strengthening the aquatic biodiversity conservation policies at Mongla,
near Sundarban area with Sundarban resource users and other stakeholders.
3.1.2 Climate and geographic context
Bangladesh has a mostly subtropical climate with four pronounced seasons - a hot humid
monsoon (June to September); a progressively cooler, drier season (October to November); a
cool dry winter (December to February); and a progressively hotter and drier summer (March
to May). The average annual temperature varies between 18 and 29°C, with a maximum
summer temperature of about 41°C, and winter temperature between 10°C and 20°C. Average
annual rainfall ranges from about 1,400 mm to 4,400 mm, with 80% occurring during the
monsoon (UNDP, 2014).
Dynamic physiographic, climatic, and hydrologic conditions shape the alluvial delta of
Bangladesh as well as the rich biodiversity it supports. This bounty of nature is exemplified by
the country’s diverse ecosystems ranging from the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans in the
southwest; coastal and marine ecosystems in the far south; deep natural water basins called
“haors” and “baors” in the northeast; arid areas in the upper mid-section; hill tracts in the
southeast; and flat sandy or marshy deltas of the large rivers of the middle of the country
extending south (MoEF, 2010). The country has 29 agro-ecological zones (GOB, 2010) and
twenty five bio-ecological zones (UNDP, 2016). Although some 2.56 million ha or 17.8% of
the country’s total area is classified as forests, only around 11% is actually under tree cover
(ADB, 1995; UNDP, 2016). Another 20% is classified as ‘other wooded land’, which includes
trees within homesteads and other agricultural tree crops (FAO, 2010). Forest cover had
declined by more than 90% over the past 100 years and per capita forest cover in Bangladesh
is amongst the lowest in Asia (UNDP, 2016).
3.1.3 Biodiversity significance
Bangladesh is home to over 125 globally threatened species (IUCN Red List) – including 21
Critically Endangered, 34 Endangered and 69 Vulnerable species. It supports Asia’s last two
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remaining species of freshwater dolphins - the Endangered Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista
gangetica), an obligate freshwater cetacean of the South Asian subcontinent; and the
Vulnerable Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), a facultative freshwater cetacean found
in the estuaries and some large rivers of the Indo-Pacific (UNDP, 2016). The country has
established a national system of protected areas to conserve some of its most significant
biodiversity. It has, so far, designated 36 protected areas comprising approximately of 2,654
km2 or about 1.8% of the country’s geographical area. These protected areas (corresponding to
Category IV of the IUCN Protected Area classification) cover around 11% of the area under
the control of the Forest Department (UNDP, 2016).
Bangladesh’s diversity of aquatic ecosystems includes Haors (seasonal wetlands that are
formed in large depressions appended to rivers when discharge is high), mangrove forests,
freshwater swamp forests, oxbow lakes, rivers, shallow coastal seas and a deep (900m+)
submarine canyon called the Swatch-of-No-Ground. Natural mangroves cover an estimated
584,000 ha (representing 39.2% of all classified state-owned forest land) and mangrove
plantations around 137,080 ha (UNDP, 2016). The Sundarbans, situated in the southwest of
Bangladesh and shared with India, is the world's largest continuous mangrove forests, and it is
listed as one of WWF’s Global 200 Eco-regions (UNDP, 2016). Around 62% of the
Sundarbans are in Bangladesh and the rest in India. The total area of the Sundarbans in
Bangladesh is 6, 01,700 ha of which 411,230 ha is covered by forests; the rest is under water
(although this is variable according to seasonal discharge) in the form of rivers and creeks
(UNDP, 2016).
The Sundarbans Reserved Forests (SRF) is one of the two RAMSAR sites in the country. Each
year about 2.4 billion tons of sediments are transported through the Sundarbans, resulting in
dynamic land accretion and erosion processes (Poffenberger, 2000). This in turn creates a
complex mosaic of geomorphic, bathymetric and hydraulic features, which support high levels
of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Recognizing the global biological significance of the
area, in 1997, UNESCO declared the three Wildlife Sanctuaries in the far southern portion of
the Sundarbans viz., Sundarbans West (715 km2), Sundarbans South (370 km2), and
Sundarbans East (310 km2), covering 139,700 ha, as a ‘World Heritage Site’. Together these
sanctuaries encompass about 23% of the Reserved Forest (UNDP, 2016).
Waterways of the Sundarbans are the only place where both the Ganges River and the
Irrawaddy dolphins, occur together. While these species are generally threatened with
41
extinction across their range, both occur in the Sundarbans in populations large enough for
early conservation interventions to be effective in ensuring their long-term survival. Based on
an intensive monitoring programme carried out over three years by the Wildlife Conservation
Society (WCS), six five km channel segments that support especially high densities of these
two dolphin species were selected as priority habitats or ‘dolphin hotspots’ (Smith et al., 2009).
In 2012, the Government of Bangladesh notified these ‘dolphin hotspots’ as three Wildlife
Sanctuaries {viz., Chandpai (including three hotspots), Dhangmari (including two hotspots)
and Dudhmukhi (including one hotspot)}. These sanctuaries intend to provide safe havens for
freshwater dolphins in 31.4 linear km of channels with a total area of 10.7 km2 (UNDP, 2016).
The focus of the present study is to develop a sectoral guideline by improving the management
effectiveness of these aquatic protected areas though a collaborative approach.
3.1.4 Ecological and biodiversity context of the Sundarbans
The Sundarbans, the world’s largest continuous tract of mangroves, is composed of vegetated
low-lying islands, with elevation ranging from 0.9-2.1 m above mean sea level, interspersed
with a maze of tidal waterways from a few meters to a few kilometers wide (Katebi and Habib,
1989; Iftekhar and Islam, 2004). Even though, the ecological history of the Sundarbans is yet
to be understood in detail, it is known to be of relatively recent origin, and the extent of its
coverage has changed considerably since its formation. There are three broadly defined
ecological zones in the Sundarbans: a) low saline zone; b) the moderately saline zone; and c)
the strongly saline zone (Figure 1) (Aziz and Paul, 2015). These zones are based on the complex
interplay of factors such as spatially and temporally variable fresh-water flow, micro-climate,
hydrology, edaphic factors, local rainfall, tidal flows, humidity, geographic aspect, sunshine
etc. The zones are affected by daily changes in tidal flux, seasonal changes in hydrology and
climate, and long-term degradation due to human impacts including the construction of
upstream dams, alterations in the watersheds and sea-level rise (MoEF, 2010).
42
Figure 7. (A) Three saline zones of BSMF in 1983 (Chaffey et al., 1985) but divided in to two
zones with approximate Curtis demarcation in 1930’s, by a dotted line (Curtis, 1933); (B) A
largely different distribution pattern of the three zones was found after about 10 years (Siddiqi,
1994); (C) Seasonal variation of salinity in the Passur River water (at Mongla) and surface soil
of Sarankhola, Chandpai and Satkhira ranges in the late 1980s (Hassan et al., 1990).
Dynamic erosion and accretion processes, which determine the physiographic character of the
Sundarbans, are buffered by the relative stability provided by the mangrove forests (Smith and
Mansur, 2012). These changes are further driven/shaped by a complex interaction of sea-level
changes, sedimentation and neo-tectonic subsidence (Barlow, 2008). Together these have
profoundly influenced the ecological processes, and the flora and fauna (both relict as well as
nascent) in the Sundarbans. Sculptured through the ecological landscape of the Sundarbans are
large human populations in fringe villages who depend on the forests and waterways for vital
ecological services, and meeting subsistence and livelihoods needs (MoEF, 2010).
Some of the key ecosystem goods and service functions (both tangible and intangible)
provisioned by the Sundarbans, which are highly relevant at local, regional and global scales,
inter alia include: (1) entrapping sediment and land formation; (2) coastal protection against
wave action and wind erosion; (3) protection of human lives and habitation from frequent &
extreme storms and cyclones; (4) shelter and habitat for diverse life-forms; (5) nursery for fish
and other aquatic life; (6) supplying oxygen; (7) nutrient cycling; (8) timber and small timber
production; (9) supply of food, NTFPs and building materials; (10) carbon storage,
sequestration and cycling; (11) opportunities for education, scientific research, recreation and
ecotourism; and (12) act as vital migration corridor for anadromous species such the highly
valued hilsha shade (UNDP, 2016). The Sundarbans also represents the largest single carbon
sink in the country (MoEF, 2010).
43
3.1.4.1 Faunal and floral diversity
According to various records, the Sundarbans supports around 49 species of mammals, 59
species of reptiles, eight species of amphibians, 400 species of fishes and 315 species of birds.
As many as 20 globally threatened species inhabit the Sundarbans. Historical records suggest
the loss in recent times of at least six large mammal species from the Sundarbans viz., Javanese
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), one horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), wild
buffalo (Bulbulus bulbulus), gaur (Bos gaurus), swamp deer (Cervus duvaucali) and the hog
deer (Axis porcinus) (MoEF, 2010). Aquatic ecosystems of the Sundarbans also support a
significant number of globally important species – including IUCN Red List globally Critically
Endangered and Vulnerable species (UNDP, 2015).
Some of the Critically Endangered species found in the aquatic environs of the Sundarbans
include the knifetooth sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidate), imperial heron (Ardea insignis), River
terrapin (Batagur baska), freshwater sawfish (Pristis pristis, may be regionally extinct) and
possibly the Ganges River shark (Glyphis gangeticus). Endangered species dependent on the
aquatic ecosystems include the Asian masked finfoot (Heliopais personatus), Cantor's giant
soft-shell turtle (Pelochelys cantorii), Northern River Terrapin (Batagur baska), fishing cat
(Prionailurus viverrinus) and as noted above the Ganges River dolphin (UNDP, 2016).
The Sundarbans also supports a great diversity of terrestrial mammals (49 species) (Gopal and
Chauhan, 2006). It is a well-known habitat of the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), with
one of the world’s largest surviving population estimated between 350 and 500 individuals
(Ahmad et al., 2009). Other carnivores include the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis),
fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), jungle cat (Felis chaus), small-clawed otter (Aonyx
cineria – both terrestrial and aquatic) and jackals (Canis aureus) (Barlow, 2008). The main
ungulates are spotted deer (Axis axis), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and barking deer (Muntiacus
muntjak). Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) is the only non-human primate present (UNDP,
2016).
Another hallmark of rivers and near-shore waters of the Sundarbans is the presence of a diverse
cetacean community. Ganges River dolphins and Irrawaddy dolphins are commonly found in
the waterways of the forests whereas Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphins (Sousa chinensis)
and finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) are occasional visitors (Ministry of
Environment and Forests, 2010). The most frequently sighted reptiles are monitor lizard
(Varanus salvator) and estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Less often seen are various
snakes including the dog-faced water snake (Cerberus rynchops), red-tail pit viper
44
(Cyptelytrops erythrusus), king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), Indian spectacled cobra (Naja
naja), and the Indian python (Python molurus). Nine species of turtles have also been recorded
in the Sundarbans including two marine turtles (Rashid and Swingland, 1997).
Around 400 species of fish, whose distribution is highly dependent on salinity gradients, have
been catalogued in the Sundarbans. Crustaceans, such as crab, shrimp, prawns and lobster,
comprise a substantial proportion of the overall aquatic biomass (Islam and Haque, 2004).
Among a diverse array of terrestrial invertebrates, the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) is of
particular economic importance and represents an important livelihood component of the local
communities of the Sundarbans (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006). The coast of the Sundarbans is a
breeding ground for threatened marine turtles including the Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys
olivacea) and Green turtle (Chelonia mydas). A total of 145 fish and 33 crustacean species
were recorded during ecological investigations of freshwater dolphin hotspot and non-hotspot
segments in 2010. Among these fishes, 67 were found in both hotspot and non-hotspot
segments, 46 were found only in hotspots and 32 were found only in non-hotspot segments.
Among the crustacean species, 23 were found in both segment types, whereas seven were found
only in hotspots and three were found only in non-hotspot segments (WCS/BCDP, 2014).
As the largest forests in the country, and with extensive aquatic and marine components, the
SRF represents a significant storehouse of floral biodiversity. In late 1990s, it was reported that
245 genera and 334 species of plants are present in Sundarban Reserve Forest (SRF) (IFMP,
1998). The Sundarbans flora has an abundance of Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha,
Ceriops decandra, Sonneratia apetala and Nypa fruticans. While most mangroves in other
parts of the world are characterized by members of the Families Rhizophoraceae,
Avicenneaceae or Laganculariaceae, those of Bangladesh are dominated by Sterculiaceae and
Euphorbiaceae (UNDP, 2016). A survey conducted by IUCN Bangladesh in 2003 listed 108
non-tree plant species including 17 orchids, 21 fern and fern allies, six algae and 16 lichens in
the Sundarbans. Of the reported 66 species of “mangroves” in the SRF, 25 have been identified
as ‘true mangroves’, while the others are considered as ‘mangrove associates’ (Siddiqi, 2001).
3.1.4.2 Status and distribution of Ganges River and Irrawaddy dolphins in Sundarbans
The Sundarbans is the only environment that supports the Endangered Ganges River dolphin
and Vulnerable Irrawaddy dolphin, the last two remaining species of freshwater dolphins in
Asia (UNDP, 2016). In 2002, the population of Ganges and Irrawaddy Dolphins in the
Bangladesh portion of the Sundarbans was estimated to be around 225 and 451 individuals
respectively (Smith et al., 2006). The density of Ganges River dolphin is particularly high in
45
the low-salinity eastern portion of the mangrove forests with greater concentrations found at
channel confluences. The density of Irrawaddy dolphins is high in the high-salinity western
portion but the range of both species overlaps in the eastern side. At a waterscape scale, both
Ganges River and Irrawaddy dolphins prefer low salinity waters. However, both species also
partition themselves such that Ganges River dolphins generally occupy the northeastern portion
(which receives freshwater input from the Ganges River), while Irrawaddy dolphins generally
occupy the southwestern part with more salinity (Smith et al., 2009).
According to a series of surveys conducted in 2011-12, the highest density of Ganges River
dolphins was found in the Dhangmari wildlife sanctuary during the pre-monsoon and the lowest
density was found in the Dudhmukhi wildlife sanctuary during winter/dry seasons. Ganges
River dolphin calves were found in the Chandpai wildlife sanctuary during all seasons; in the
Dhangmari wildlife sanctuary during the dry, pre-monsoon and monsoon; and in the
Dudhmukhi wildlife sanctuary during the pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons. In all three
sanctuaries, Irrawaddy dolphins were observed much less frequently compared to Ganges
River dolphins. For Irrawaddy dolphins, the highest density was found in Dudhmukhi wildlife
sanctuary during the monsoon. No Irrawaddy dolphins were found in Dhangmari during the
pre-monsoon season; in Chandpai during the dry, pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons; and in
Dudhmukhi during the post-monsoon season (Figure 8). No Irrawaddy dolphin calves were
observed in the sanctuaries (WCS/BCDP, 2014).
Dudmukhi Confluence
46
Figure 8. Distribution of Irrawaddy dolphins and Ganges river dolphins. A) Map of the
Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh, including sighting data of Ganges river dolphins
(triangles) and Irrawaddy dolphins (circles) (Jensen et al., 2013).
3.2 Administrative and governance context
The Sundarbans Reserve Forest is managed by the Bangladesh Forest Department. From a
forest administration point of view, SRF lies in one Circle divided into two Divisions
(Sundarbans East and Sundarbans West), four Forest Ranges and 55 compartments. The three
dolphin sanctuaries fall under the Sundarbans East Division, which is headed by a Divisional
Forest Officer. The Sundarbans East Division has two Range offices - Chandpai and
Sarankhola - headed by Range Officers. There are 77 permanent posts in this area under the
Forest Department including five sanctuary centers, 16 stations, and 53 patrol posts (29 in the
ESRF and 24 in the WSRF) (UNDP, 2016).
In addition to the three wildlife sanctuaries that were declared as UNESCO World Heritage
Sites, the ten-kilometer periphery of the SRF has been declared as Ecologically Critical Area
(ECA) under the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act of 1995. The ECA intend act as
a buffer area also. Further, as mentioned above, in 2012, the Government of Bangladesh
notified three more protected areas viz., Chandpai, Dhangmari and Dudhmukhi Wildlife
Sanctuaries in the river channels in the Sundarbans, bringing the total extent of protected areas
to almost 1,400 km2 or 23% of SRF (UNDP, 2016).
3.3 Socio-economic context
The Sundarbans Reserved Forest covers 52% of the forest of the country and contributes about
41% of the total forest revenue. Interfaced with cultivated lands and intersected by tidal rivers,
canals and streams, the Sundarbans forms a resilient buffer for the lives and assets of the three
million people who live in its vicinity, as well as a protective shield for the infrastructure and
urban populations in Khulna and Mongla international shipping port (MoEF, 2010).
In addition to its immense ecological value, the Sundarbans is also a valuable source of timber,
fuel wood, medicinal plants, honey, palm leaves, bees-wax, fish, shells and crustaceans apart
from supporting recreational and tourism industry (UNDP, 2016). These forests supply around
45% of the country’s demand for timber and fuel wood (Manju, 2001). During 2008-09, the
Government of Bangladesh earned BDT 55.17 million revenue from the Sundarbans, mainly
from permits for NTFPs including fish (MoEF, 2010). The 12,000 km of river in the SRF
produce large quantities of fish (40 commercially important species) and several species of
47
crustaceans. Among them hilsha shade, catfish, white fish, prawn, shrimp and crab are
commercially most valuable. It has been estimated that fisheries in the Sundarbans account for
approximately 2% (18,150 metric tons) of the total inland open water capture fishery in
Bangladesh (FRSS, 2010; Hossain, 2010). In 2001, there were about 25,000 registered fishing
boats to catch fish and crustaceans in the Sundarbans, whereas about 18% households in and
around the SRF were dependent on harvesting natural resources, 35% shrimp fry collectors,
33% fishermen, 22% wood cutters, 4% boatmen, 3% Nypa palm frond collectors, 2% crab and
shell collectors, and 1% honey collectors (Bernacsek and Haque, 2001; SBCP, 2001). People
have migrated to the Sundarbans in recent years in pursuit of better livelihoods, while some
communities (e.g. Munda - estimated around 4000 people) have been living in this region for
at least 250 years (UNDP, 2016).
3.4 Profile of fishers in the sundarban area
Wildlife Conservation Society provided valuable insights on the socio-economic status of local
fishers who strongly depend on natural resources. The families consisted of 0-8 children
(average 2.1) of which 52% were male. The level of education among the fishers was poor
(39% had no formal education; 47% went only to primary school; 13% went to secondary
school but did not complete their education; 1% completed secondary school; and only one
fisher completed a higher education certificate). Among school-age children (4-16 years), 75%
were enrolled in schools with the remaining having left due to poverty (15%), marriage (7%)
and lack of interest or merit (3%). Most of the boys reportedly left schools due to poverty (83%)
while girls due to marriage (57%) (UNDP, 2016).
The average monthly income among the fishermen was 3,744 BDT of which 74% came from
fisheries and the rest from non-fishery activities. While about 48% had some secondary
occupation, only 24% of their income was derived from it. Interestingly, only 4% of their
secondary occupations involved harvesting resources from the Sundarbans. A few womenfolk
(16%) earned additional income through animal husbandry, bawali, manual labor, fishing,
handicrafts, poultry, and tea vending, and tailoring. The fishers use a variety of fishing gears
that include: Cast net, Crab line, Crab trap, Creek net, Drag net, Drifting gill net, Fixed floating
gill net, Long line, Hook & rod, Long-shore net, Otter fishing, Set-bag net, Post-larvae box net,
Post-larvae hand drag net, Post-larvae hand push net, Post-larvae pole net and Post-larvae set-
bag net. Of these, gillnets and set-bag nets are the most commonly used gears in the wildlife
sanctuaries. Species that are particularly overexploited include the commercially valuable giant
48
tiger prawn or bagda chingri (Penaeus monodon), pangas catfish (Pangasius pangasius), hilsha
shade or ilish (Tenualosa ilisha), gray eel-catfish or kainmagur (Plotosus canius) and giant
mud crabs (Scylla serratta) (Huda, 2003; Hoq, 2003).
About 77% of the fishermen, used to engage in fishing year-round and 60% of the head
fishermen owned boats, mostly non-mechanized. However, only 33% of the fishers owned land
(averaging about one tenth of an acre), with 66% of those owning land using it exclusively for
their homestead and a few owning additional land for agriculture, aquaculture or poultry. About
half (47%) of the fishing operations were conducted by single fisherman, while the others
required a crew of 2-4. Of the crew, 82% were paid shares of the catch, whereas the others paid
the crew a salary or had family members working without a wage. Permits issued by the Forest
Department for fishing trips generally last for a week coinciding with spring tides. Expenses
for fishing permit averaged 431 BDT per fishing boat though the official amount was reported
to be only 145 BDT. The fishermen generally have to pay to pirates who extort money from
them. Most of the fishers live in poor housing conditions - katcha buildings (temporary huts
made of mud, bamboo, and Nypa palm thatching with a dirt floor) and pacca buildings
(permanent homes made of bricks or tin sheets). Many live on khas (government land) and on
channel embankments (UNDP, 2016).
Around 39% of fisherfolk were associated with 30 different NGOs, clubs and societies for
loans (95%) and education (5%). Most fishers (58%) sold their catch for a fixed price to either
fish depots (54%), fish collectors (31%), money lenders (8%), directly to consumers (4%), or
to fish or shrimp farms (3%). Only 9% of their fish catch was reportedly consumed by the
fishermen and their families (UNDP, 2016).
Overall, the fishers of the sundarban areas have a highly backward socio-economic status that
strongly influences their resource-use practices. The available natural resources are already
being intensively used by the local people for eking out day-to-day livelihoods including basic
nutritional requirements. The complex interplay of the natural ecology and human systems (the
latter including local use as well as the upstream freshwater diversions and climate change) is
the primary driving factor behind the rapid degradation of the Sundarbans as witnessed today
(UNDP, 2016).
3.5 Fisheries in Sundarbans
Sundarbans being the nursery for nearly 90% of the aquatic species of eastern coast, the coastal
fishery of eastern India is dependent upon Sundarban. Jhingran (1977) recorded a total of 172
49
species from a variety of sources and also mentioned that the diversity of the Hooghly-Matlah
estuary increases along an increasing salinity gradient. Numerous species (estimated to be 400)
are known to use mangrove swamps as nursery grounds (Gundermann and Popper, 1984;
Lowe-McConnell, 1987). Apart from fish species, there are 20 identified species of Prawns
and 44 species of crabs including two edible ones. For fishes, the Sundarbans function as
nursery grounds for important commercial species of the continental shelf that are harvested in
India and neighboring countries. The Sundarban delta provides physiologically suitable
environment with respect to temperature, salinity and other physico-chemical parameters.
Generally estuary receives abundant supply of nutrients from land drainage and large quantities
of organic detritus which is an important source of energy for a wide variety of estuarine
consumers.
3.5.1 Fish species
Lates calcarifer (Bloch), Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan), Liza parsia (Hamilton), Liza
tade (Forsskal), Harpadon nehereus (Hamilton-Buchanan), Plotosus canius (Hamilton-
Buchanan), Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen), Rhinobatos annandalei Norman, Pangasius
pangasius (Hamilton-Buchanan), Polydactylus indicus (Shaw), Chanos chanos (Forsskal),
Eleutheronema tetradactylum, Polynemous indicus, Polynemous paradiseus (Linn.) and Pama
pama (Hamilton).
3.5.2 Crustacean species
Panaeus monodon (Fabricius), Panaeus penicullatus (Milne-Edw) and Metapenaeus
monoceros (Fabricius). Edible crabs mainly Scylla olivacea (Forsskal) and Neptunus pelagiens.
3.5.3 Common gears
The common gear used in the Sundarbans are dragnets (sarengijal, berjaal), shore seines
(jaqnga jal, kochal jal), stakenets (charpata and khalpatta), gillnets (galsha), and fixed
bagnets (beoundi ja, bindi jal) (Mukherjee, 2007) These are used in the inland waters
of the Sundarbans and in the inter-tidal waters.
3.5.4 Destructive gears
The fishing gears that are considered destructive include the small mesh-sized beoundi jal and
other fine-meshed nets. Besides these, castnets and hooks-and-line are also used. The common
fish caughtin the inter-tidal waters are bhetki (Lates calcalifer), shimur, gandu or medha mach,
chingree (shrimp), selia, chadba, bavta and red shrimp.
The significant inland fish landing centres in the Sundarbans include Canning, Herobhanga and
50
Gosaba. Fishers in most of the remote islands do not have access to ice or other means to
preserve their catch, and are often forced to travel to Canning or Gosaba to sell their catch on
the same day itself, or transfer the catch to fish merchants who come to the villages. The fish
depot owners, as the fish merchants (Aratdars) are called, also play the role of money lenders,
serving fishers who often do not have the money to buy boats and nets and to cover the running
costs 41 of fishing. The Aratdars, besides lending money, also arrange for the marketing of the
catch from the villages.
Figure 9. Strategies for increasing the strength of gear restriction regulation for conservation
of Sundarban dolphin population.
3.5.5 Illegal fishing
Poison fishing: Fishing by poisoning and explosives sporadic reports have been filed on
fishing by poisoning with certain chemicals in some areas of the Sundarban. This practice,
however, is not permissible by law. A few drops of poison are all it takes to decimate fish and
crustacean stocks in a Sundarbans canal. The poachers who cruise the waterways of the world's
largest mangrove forest in search of valuable shrimp and crabs regularly use poison.
Crustaceans clamber ashore within minutes to escape the toxin and are easily collected. Fish
die en-masse, carcasses left to float away on current and tide (Wikipedia-2).
3.5.6 Livelihoods of Sundarban resource users
A large number of Sundarbans populations are engaged in fisheries and allied activities.
Fisheries remain to be the sole livelihood of fisherman and their family residing in Sundarbans.
Collection of fish seeds and adults especially of Paeneus monodon, from the nature is one of
the main sources of earning of the coastal fisher folk. The fisher folk are using mechanized as
well as non-mechanized crafts. Trawlers, gill-netters, purse seiners, etc. are among mechanized
Increase punishment
Public awareness
Political goodwill
Media
Conservation place
Mobile court
Increased secrity
Lisence
Strict law implementation
51
crafts and plank built boats, dug-out canoes and catamarans are under non mechanized crafts.
A number of fishing gears are being used in Sundarbans viz. trawl nets, purse seines, drift/gill
nets, boat seines, fixed bag nets, hooks and lines, shore seines, traps, scoop nets, etc. Most
fishing is undertaken by men, crab fishing and prawn seed collection are practiced by both men
and women in the inter-tidal waters. Besides fishing, most people have other sources of
livelihood, also seasonal, such as small businesses and mono-crop agriculture (Jalis, 2007).
Some work as daily labours. Prevalent cultural belief systems and myths of traditional
communities in Sundarbans are predicated on a deep respect for nature.
3.5.7 Killing fish stocks in Sundarbans
Fisherfolk in the Sundarbans wilfully ignore the government ban on the use of fine-mesh
current nets which is fast depleting various species of fish in the area. The livelihoods of a few
hundred fishermen and their families operating in Khulna's Dacope upazilla depend on their
catching fish and juvenile shrimp. Although it is the job of the forest department to work with
the Coast Guard to enforce the ban on the use of illegal variety of net, there is little by way of
enforcement of the law. Unfortunately, some unscrupulous forest department officials and
traders which lets this unhealthy practice to continue. We are disheartened to see authorities
turning a blind eye to the rampant use of banned fine-mesh fishing nets in the protected
mangrove forest of the Sundarbans, home to many unique species of fish. With the gradual
reduction of fish that are indigenous to the waterways in and around the Sundarbans,
environmental experts calculate that fisherfolk are destroying on average around 200 fish fry
to catch one juvenile shrimp. The result of such irresponsible behaviour is the havoc that is
caused to the natural breeding patterns of many types of fish and the decline in fish stocks is a
natural result. The government should help these few hundred fishermen and their families to
adopt alternative means of livelihood and haul up the corrupt officials who connive in this
illegal activity and make examples of them (Wikipedia-1).
3.5.8 Sundarbans: Fisheries and Fishing Communities
Fishers in the Sundarbans are organized largely into two unions—the United Fishermen’s
Association and the Sundarban Matsajibi Joutha Sangram Committee. The 24 Parganas South
District has 6,205 mechanized craft, 1,028 motorized craft and 6,046 non-motorized craft
fishing in marine waters (CMFRI, 2005). The mechanized fishing vessels in the 24 Parganas
South District include trawlers, large gillnetters and dol-netters, fishing outside the Sundarbans
forest area, in the Bay of Bengal. Naukas are the traditional boats used in the inland waters of
52
Sundarbans, which range from 24 ft to 42 ft in overall length. Some of the motorized boats
fishing in the reserve forest area have motors of 12 hp to 24 hp.
3.6 Gaps in existing management and conservation
1. Wildlife protection act 2012: in section 14 article 35, if any person does any act
prohibited under section 14, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and shall
be non-bailable for such offence and be punished with imprisonment for a term not
exceeding 2 (two) years or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both,
and in case of his repetition of the same offence, he shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 (five) years or with a fine of Taka not
exceeding 4 (four) lac or with both (Annexure 1).
At present this act might be reasonable. But it is important to ensure the implementation
of punishment, sometimes social or political influential person escape from this
punishment. This kind of act could be updated after few years (12-15 years).
2. Fish hatchery act, 2010 and Fish hatchery rule, 2011: beyond the article no. 4-12
mentioned in the fish hatchery act-2010 and fish hatchery rule-2011, further
improvement should be considered: Brood bank development, reducing brood fish/
shrimp collection from nature, banning brood collection in spawning season, discharge
treatment etc.
3. Protection and conservation of Fish Act, 1985, Modification (2000): “(1A) No person
shall catch or cause to be caught fry or post larvae of fish, shrimp and prawns of any
kind, in any form and in any way in the estuary and coastal waters of Bangladesh.”
Wild fry and PL are available in local market. Should have a strict regulation on many
other exotic species (Annexure 2).
4. Protection and conservation of Fish Act, 1985, Modification (2011): Article 13:
Catching of all kinds of fishes prohibited in certain period in particular areas (1), no
person shall catch or cause to be caught-all kinds of fishes in the Hilsha fish sanctuary
area mentioned in column (2) during the period mentioned in column (4)…. (five
different hilsha fish sanctuary areas) (Annexure 3).
Like hilsha fishery, separate fish sanctuaries should be developed for other
commercially and biologically important fish species in Sundarbans area, or the area of
existing fish sanctuaries can be expanded for better conservation. At this moment, it is
important to identify dolphin feed, determine the breeding boundary of those fishes
(dolphin feed) and declared the boundaries as fish sanctuary.
53
5. Protection and conservation of fish Act, 1985: In article 12-16, it has been mentioned
that using net (e.g. current net, Japanese current net, fash net, fandi net, kappa net, badha
net and kathi net) with the mesh size 4.5 cm of below is prohibited (Annexure 4). In
contrast, Forest Department mentioned in Integrated Resource Management Plans for
the Sundarbans (page 116, section 5) reported that fishing net with mesh below 15mm/1
inch (knot to knot at stretch condition) will not be allowed for fishing. However, fishing
traps and hooks will not have any limit. This regulation is contradictory with the
Protection and conservation act 1985.
6. Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 1983, (XXXV of section 55, rule 7, modification 2004):
no fishing vessel shall throw any of its catch of fish or any aquatic resource, except
marine turtle, in the sea. Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 1983, (XXXV of section 55, rule
14A, modification 2006): use of turtle extruder device-Every shrimp trawler shall use
Turtle Extruder Device with net/nets during trawling. Same kinds of rules should be
developed and implemented for dolphin and other aquatic mammals.
7. Fisheries act 1995 section 112(1) Use of explosives, poisons, substances or equipment
for fishing (1) unless authorized under this Act or under any other Act, a person must
not use, or attempt to use, any explosive in Victorian waters. Penalty: 100 penalty units
or imprisonment for 6 months or both. (2) Unless authorized under this Act or under
any other Act, a person must not use, or attempt to use, any poison, substance or
equipment in Victorian waters if the use of the poison, substance or equipment can
reasonably be expected to result in— (a) the taking or killing of any fish, fishing bait
or protected aquatic biota; or (b) damage to the habitat of any fish, bait or protected
aquatic biota. Penalty: 100 penalty units or imprisonment for 6 months or both. (3) If a
court finds a person guilty of an offence against this section, the court may, in addition
to any other penalty imposed by it, order the person to pay compensation for any
damage or loss caused by the offence to any person.
Poison fishing is not only destructive for fish but also huge loss for food chain and
aquatic system. Therefore, punishment could be increase, for first time offence
punishment could be 300 penalty unit or imprisonment for one year or both 2nd time its
double.
8. According to East Bengal Protection and Conservation of Fish Act, 1950: in section 2
and 3, the rules have been mentioned that-
(2) The Provincial Government may, by notification, apply rules or any of them to any
water or waters, provided that no such rules shall apply to any private water except with
54
the consent in writing of the owner thereof and of all persons having for the time being
any right of fishery therein.
(3) Such rules may-
a) Prohibit or regulate all or any of the following matters, that is to say,-(i) the erection
and use of fixed engines; (ii) the construction, temporary or permanent, off-weirs, dams,
bunds, embankments and other structures.
b) Prohibit the, destruction of, or any attempt to destroy, fishes by explosives, gun, bow
and arrow in inland water or within coastal territorial waters;
c) Prohibit the destruction of, or any attempt to destroy, fishes by the poisoning of water
or the depletion of fisheries by pollution, by trade effluents or otherwise;
(d) Prescribe the seasons during which the killing or catching of fishes of any prescribed
species shall he prohibited;
These rules are key points for managing any natural fish stock, however, proper
implementation is the question of its failure throughout years. Different Governments
and countries do not follow the rules of fish protection, or often break the international
laws of natural water flow by developing huge dams, and other structures. For proper
conservation of Dolphin and its foods, proper implementation of these rules might be
perfect initiatives.
9. No. 3281-Fish.-27th March 1951—In exercise of the power conferred by section 3 of
the East Bengal Protection and Conservation of Fish Act, 1950 (East Bengal Act XVIII
of 1950), the Governor is pleased to make the following Rule:—
Rule: No person shall catch or cause to be- caught carp fishes (i.e., Rohu, Mrigal, Katla;
Kalbaus and Ghunia) daring the period from the first April to the 30th June in any year
in the places mentioned in different Schedule (Annexure 5).
10. No. 12889 FiSh.-27th December 19th—In exercise of the powers conferred by section
3 of the East Bengal Protection and Conservation of Fish Act, 1950 (East Bengal Act
XVIII of 1950), the Governor is pleated to Make the following Rule:—
Rule: No person shall catch or cause to be caught carp fishes (i.e., Rohu, Katla, Mrigal,
Kalbaus and Ghunia) during the period from 15th March to the 30th June in any year
in the places mentioned in the Schedule below: River Halda from its mouth in the river
Karnafully near katurghat bridge up to Sattarghat ferry, police station, Hathazari and
Raozan, District Chittagong (Annexure 6).
11. In East Bengal Protection and Conservation of Fish Act, 1950: No. 6497 (Annexure 7),
6972 (Annexure 8), 15107 (Annexure 9), 15135 (Annexure 10), 14356 (Annexure 11),
55
2501 (Annexure 12); different rules on embankments, provisions on sizes of fish to be
caught, fishing nets (new rules Protection and Conservation of Fish Rules, 1985, Act
XVIII of 1950, section 3(5)) etc. have been mentioned, which need to be implemented
strictly through government bodies, or need to be regulated strictly by more penalties
and imprisonment.
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Part 3
57
4 Guidelines for biodiversity friendly Dolphin sanctuaries effectiveness
4.1 Guidelines for fisheries
4.1.1 Mesh size regulation
Existing rules for fisheries management and conservation (e.g. gear restriction) shall be
imposed properly. Mesh size of different nets shall be controlled strictly. All kinds of
nets shall be banned in the sanctuary areas according to the Protection and Conservation
of Fish Act, 1985; such as (e.g. current net, Japanese current net, fash net, fandi net,
kappa net, badha net and kathi net). Mesh size of the nets shall not be below 15 mm in
catching fish in SRF (IRMP, 2010). Mesh size regulation according to IRMP shall be
specified considering other fish biodiversity, and circulated to fishers and other
associated personnel for proper implementation of regulation. However, different
resource users and public have different opinion on strengthening this regulation.
4.1.2 Habitat restoration
The forest department and respective authorities shall take necessary action for
implementation of habitat restoration programs, including development of fish pass or
fish screen, instream habitat structure (e.g. boulder or log weirs, dams and deflectors,
cover structures, rootwads and brush bundles, gabions, etc.), and development of
artificial reefs for improvement of fish and crustacean spawning habitat.
4.1.3 Controlling upstream river flow and tidal river management
River management sector, water development board or other responsible authorities of
the country shall ensure adequate freshwater flow from the upstream by implementing
mega projects through dredging and managing tidal river flow across the SRF and other
coastal rivers for protection of breeding and nursery grounds of fish, crustaceans and
dolphins, conserving their habitats and establishing food web structure in SRF.
4.1.4 Identification of fish and dolphin feeding, nursery and breeding ground
Forest department shall specifically identify the feeding and nursery ground of major
fishes and dolphin in sundarbans. Besides, major breeding grounds of those fishes shall
be identified through extensive research. Following their finding the forest department
shall make new decision to expand or to create new sanctuaries.
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4.1.5 Expansion of sanctuary areas
Forest department will indicate more protected areas or identify additional buffer zones
to provide further support for increased aquatic biodiversity. Forest department will
decide to expand the area of existing sundanban aquatic sanctuaries, or they shall create
new sanctuaries based on the fish and dolphin hot-spot areas. Even whole sundarbans
can be declared as the sanctuary areas for fish and other wildlife animals.
4.1.6 Fisheries stock assessment
Forest department by the assistance of Department of Fisheries, Fisheries Research
Institute, Universities and experts shall urgently assess the present fisheries stocks in
SRF, thereby, they shall determine the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) beyond the
sanctuary areas. Mathematical models shall be developed for future estimation or
assessment of fish stocks during uncertainties. DOF will also consider the sustainability
of SRF resource management for future generations through ecosystem approach.
4.1.7 Catching fish larvae beyond SRF
Department of Fisheries shall strictly control massive non-selective catch of fish
fingerlings and crustacean larvae in small mesh mosquito nets beyond the SRF areas in
the coastal rivers.
4.1.8 Control of pollution and industrial development
Biggest concerns shall be taken for protection of Sundarban biodiversity on chemical
and sound pollution, and toxic contamination from oil tankers, coastal industries,
Mongla port, Rampal power plant station, EPZ, coastal power plants, agriculture and
fisheries, navigation, tourisms, and large upstream human population centers. BIWTA
and Ministry of Navigation shall be combindly empowered vessel registration power,
controlling navigation routs, minimizing transportation across sundarbans and
controlling the registered vessels through Global Positioning Systems (GPS). City
corporations and municipal authorities shall be responsible for waste management and
its safe disposal into open waters. Government shall be well aware of municipal sludge
and faecal sludge treatments. All the industries beyond 10 km of SRF periphery shall
be categorized as red listed and other industries outside this area without waste
treatment facilities shall be banned. In 2017, the High Court already directed the
59
government not to allow any industrial unit to be set up within 10 kilometers of the
Sundarbans mangrove forest (The Daily Tribune, 24 August 2017).
4.1.9 Fishing ban
Fishing shall be prohibited in the sanctuary areas. Beyond the sanctuaries fishing shall
be controlled during breeding seasons according to IRMP (2010), for instance, fishing
ban in all canals during the months of July and August and fishing ban in the
Beels/Chatals of the Sundarbans during February-March. However, the forest
department shall have more research based evidence on reorganizing ban in breeding
seasons. Fisherman shall be encouraged about not to use any kind of fishing trap in the
sanctuary areas. By imposing gear restriction regulation overall fisheries and
biodiversity of Sundarban fish sanctuaries will be increased, thereby enhanced habitat
and food availability of dolphin will be ensured.
4.1.10 Sustainable fisheries
Farmers shall be encouraged for sustainable fishing from natural stocks for future
generation. Fishing shall be done in the shallow water because dolphins are found in the
deep water.
4.1.11 Illegal fishing
All kinds’ illegal fishing, like fishing using poisons, explosives, chemicals or plant
extracts shall be prohibited by laws and implemented accordingly.
4.1.12 Navigation routs
There has to be an alternative navigation route and the drivers shall be aware of the fact
that not to make much disturbances in the aquatic environment. The ministry of navigation
shall take care of the entire navigation root through Sundarban and check the fitness of the
crafts. In sanctuary areas any types of disturbing motorized vessels shall be prohibited, or
the speed of the vessels shall be controlled while passing through protected areas. Any ships
drowned in protected areas or natural conserved areas shall be rescued immediately to
minimize oil spilling or other polluted waste materials.
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4.1.13 Disposal of industrial wastes
There shall have strict regulation for the disposal of industrial wastage to the Sundarban
adjacent water bodies. Industrial wastage is full with different types of toxic chemicals
and heavy metals. Those pollutants are responsible for indiscriminant killing of fish,
shellfish and aquatic mammals. Thereby, through restricting the disposal of industrial
sewerage into the rivers might greatly improve the natural biodiversity and dolphin
habitats in Sundarbans.
4.1.14 Livelihoods
The government will create alternative livelihood options for Sundarban resource users
(e.g. fishers, aquaculturists, agriculturists, etc.) for better management of dolphin
resources. In the vulnerable coastal Sundarban areas the government will emphasis on
involvement of fishers on small scale agricultural productions (e.g. rice, vegetable, or
other food items), rearing livestock or poultry, day labour, small scale grocery,
transportation (land and water), tourism with small boat, tailoring, handicrafts, etc.
4.1.15 Physical construction in water ways
Strict regulation shall be implemented in dam and bridge construction in flowing rivers having
dolphin and other fish’s migratory routs.
4.1.16 Task-force and volunteer committee
A task-force committee shall be formed by participation of different sectors to protect
the natural resources of sanctuaries or other nature reserved areas. The forest and
fisheries department shall develop volunteer groups to rescue trapped dolphins in their
habitat.
4.1.17 Licensing and fishing permit
Licensing power for fishing from the Sundarban areas or from declared sanctuaries
shall be according to IRMP 2010; e.g. maximum number of boat license certificate
(BLC) issuance will annually be 12,000 for the Sundarbans and it will be equally
distributed for the two Divisions of East and West (6,000 each). Fishing permits shall
be set based on IRMP (2010), for instance, one BLC holder boat will get fishing permits
a maximum of 8 times in a year for all gears or fishery type with a maximum limit of 3
times in a month and maximum 7 days per permit. Besides, catching of hilsha and
Pangasius below 23 cm is prohibited during November-April and for male crab, the
minimum weight size for catch is 200g and for female as 120g (IRMP, 2010).
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4.1.18 Empowering mobile court
Government Forest and Fisheries officers shall be empowered with executive magistrate to
conduct mobile court more frequently when necessary. Limit of punishment through
mobile court shall be increased from two years to maximum five years. The penalty shall
be also increased up to double or triple of the existing amount.
4.1.19 Inter-sectoral responsibilities
Different stakeholders shall take key responsibilities for protection of aquatic biodiversity.
Policies shall be developed and implemented through integrated approach of inter-sectoral
involvement of different ministry. All the sectors of aquatic resource management (e.g.
aquatic mammals, fisheries, plants) shall be incorporated under broad researches. The roles
of stakeholders are given below:
Table 2. Responsibilities of stakeholders for protecting aquatic biodiversity in Bangladesh
Sundarbans sanctuary areas.
Stakeholder Role/responsibilities plays for cetacean conservation
Bangladesh Forest
Department (BFD)
– Will be principal actor of SRF aquatic resource
management through implementing integrated resource
management plan.
– Will take necessary actions for define/ redefine of fish and
dolphin sanctuary areas, habitat restoration program,
identifying more buffer zones and fisheries stock
assessment in SRF.
– Will reconstruct the licensing system, number, resources
to be exploited, and specific regulations on gear
selectivity and gear restrictions.
– will ensure stop of all kinds of illegal fishing through
proper implementation of existing rules and regulations
– Will ensure natural sustainability and biodiversity
conservation through social forestry, forest management,
afforestation, reforestation, protected area management
etc.
Department of
Fisheries (DoF)
– Imposing ban season depending on breeding period of
migratory fish species
62
– Prohibiting fishing activity on the migratory root of
dolphin and also close to dolphin and fish sanctuary.
– Communicating with BFD for allocating fishing licenses
within the Sunderbans.
– Creating alternative livelihood during ban season.
Research
Organizations
(Bangladesh
Fisheries Research
Institute and
Universities)
Continuous investigation can be done on status of the
Sundarbans biodiversity, ecosystem and environmental
conditions, species wise fish/crab/shrimp stock
assessment, MSY, TAC, identification of peak breeding
seasons, breeding and nursery ground.
Department of
Environment (DoE)
– Monitoring and controlling industrial development in
Sundarban areas
– Monitoring and regulating industrial pollution disposal
– DoE will be authorized to give permission on
environmental safety to the industries
– Shall enforce of environmental laws and codes in addition
to conducting Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
Department of
Agriculture (DoA)
– Controlling and monitoring the application of harmful
pesticides and chemicals in agriculture field.
Local Authority – Monitoring the establishment of housing, industry, road,
bridge and other construction that doesn’t affect the river
flow and aquatic environment of dolphin and their
migratory routs.
– Creating awareness among local people on the importance
of natural resources, rationale of biodiversity protection,
cause of several management policies and effectiveness of
implementing those policies. They will also focus on the
responsibilities of local people on natural biodiversity
protection.
– Disseminating different management and conservation
policies through stage performance, drama exhibition,
63
mass media, miking, postering, or even proposing as
agenda in local government elections.
– Creating alternative livelihood options during banning
seasons through different GO and NGOs agencies or by
implementing several development activities in the coastal
areas.
Co-Management
Committees
(CMCs)
– Shall be engaged in implementing various programmes on
biodiversity conservation, social development and
addressing policy issues
– Creating public awareness especially the fishers
communities for the conservation of dolphin and their
habitat
Samitee/NGO – Shall organize workshop and seminar for the conservation
of dolphin
– Shall provide loan o the Sundarban resource users for
their alternative livelihoods.
Tour operator – Shall not operate ship on the migratory root of dolphin
and close to the dolphin sanctuary
Youth groups – Shall be engaged in social and voluntary activities and
increasing public awareness
– Shall be engaged in increasing social awareness through
campaigning, seminar and workshop
4.2 Other sundarban resource users
1. Banning any kind of fishing activities around the sanctuary area.
2. Collecting adult, juvenile and young shrimp and crabs from the nature has to be
banned.
3. Collecting wood, honey, and other resources have to be regulated by policies.
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Part 4
65
5 Conclusion
Dolphins and cetaceans are the beauty in aquatics system and valuable resources in our oceans.
So for the protection and conservation of this precious resource in Sundarban sanctuaries
combine effort and action is very necessary among the resources users. A good collaboration
among the direct resources user more especially the fisherman and other users i.e. local and
international NGOs, governments bodies and stakeholder can play significance role on
protection of dolphins in Sundarban estuaries. It is also necessary to proper implement of
existing rules and regulation for the conservation of dolphins. Finally awareness program
should be continued among the beneficiaries of Sundarban estuaries.
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Part 5
67
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Part 6
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7 Annexure
Annexure 1
WILDLIFE (CONSERVATION AND SECURITY) ACT, 2012
CHAPTER IX: OFFENCE AND PENALTY
34. Penalties for certain offences. If any person —
(a) forges, exchanges or interferes with any other means or alters registered mark and fixed registered
mark under section 11; or
(b) purchases, sells, imports or exports any wild animal or parts thereof, meat, trophy or any
derivative thereof or forest product or any plant mentioned in schedule IV or derivatives thereof,
from any other person without having licence or permit —
he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and for such offence, be punished with
imprisonment for a term not exceeding 1 (one) year or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 50 (fifty)
thousand or with both and in case of his repetition of the same offence, he shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 (three) years or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 2 (two)
lac or with both.
35. Penalties for contravention of the provisions of section 14. If any person does any act
prohibited under section 14, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and shall be non-
bailable for such offence and be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 (two) years
or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both, and in case of his repetition of the same
offence, he shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 (five) years or with a
fine of Taka not exceeding 4 (four) lac or with both.
36. Penalties for killing tiger, elephant, etc. (1) If any person kills any tiger or elephant mentioned
in schedule I without obtaining any licence under section 24, he shall be deemed to have committed
an offence and shall be non-bailable for such offence and, be punished with imprisonment for a term
not less than 2 (two) years and not exceeding 7 (seven) years and also with a fine of Taka not less
than 1 (one) lac and not exceeding Taka 10 (ten) lac and, in case of his repetition of the same offence,
he shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 12 (twelve) years and with a fine
of Taka not exceeding 15 (fifteen) lac:
Provided that the provisions of this section shall not apply, when a person is attacked by a tiger or
elephant causing threat to life of such person and such tiger or elephant is killed for saving life of
such person:
provided further that when questions of filing a case in this respect arise, the station officer may, in
consultation with the warden, file a case.
(2) If any person collects, acquires or purchases or sells any trophy, uncured trophy, meat, parts of
body of any tiger or elephant mentioned in schedule 1 without obtaining a permit under section 10,
he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and for such offence, be punished with
imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 (three) years or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 3 (three)
lac or with both and in case of his repetition of the same offence, he shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 (five) years or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 5 (five)
lac or with both.
37. Penalties for killing cheetah, lam cheetah, hoolock, sambar deer, crocodile, gharial, whale
or dolphin, etc. (1) If any person kills any cheetah, lam cheetah, hoolock, sambar deer, crocodile,
gharial, whale or dolphin mentioned in schedule I, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence
and for such offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 (three) years or with
a fine of Taka not exceeding 3 (three) lac or with both, and in case of his repetition of the same
offence, he shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 (five) years or with a
fine of Taka not exceeding 5 (five) lac or with both:
81
Provided that the provisions of this section shall not apply, if a person is attacked by a cheetah or
crocodile causing threat to life of such person and the cheetah or crocodile is killed for saving life of
such person:
Provided further that when questions of filing a case in this respect arise, the station officer may, in
consultation with the warden, file a case.
(2) If any person collects, acquires or purchases or sells or transports any trophy, uncured trophy,
meat, parts of body of cheetah, lam cheetah, hoolock, sambar deer, crocodile, gharial, whale or
dolphin mentioned in schedule I, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and for such
offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 (two) years or with a fine of Taka
not exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both, and in case of his repetition of the same offence, he shall be
punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 4 (four) years or with a fine of Taka not
exceeding 2 (two) lac or with both.
38. Penalties for killing birds or migratory birds, etc. (1) If any person kills any birds or migratory
birds mentioned in schedule I and II, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and for such
offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 1 (one) year or with a fine of Taka
not exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both, and in case of his repetition of the same offence, he shall be
punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 (two) years or with a fine of Taka not
exceeding 2 (two) lac or with both.
(2) If any person collects, acquires or purchases or sells or transports any trophy, uncured trophy,
meat, parts of body of birds or migratory birds mentioned in schedule I and II, he shall be deemed to
have committed an offence and for such offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not
exceeding 6 (six) months or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 30 (thirty) thousand or with both, and
in case of his repetition of the same offence, he shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not
exceeding 1 (one) year or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 50 (fifty) thousand or with both.
39. Penalties for contravention of the provisions of sections 6, 10, 11 and 12. If any person
contravenes the provisions of section 6, 10, 11 or 12, he shall be deemed to have committed an
offence and for such offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 1 (one) year
or with a fine of Taka not exceeding 50 (fifty) thousand or with both, and in case of his repetition of
the same offence, he shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 (two) years or
with a fine of Taka not exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both.
40. Penalties for contravention of the provisions of sections 24 and 27. If any person contravenes
the provisions of section 24 or 27, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence and for such
offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 1 (one) year or with a fine of Taka
not exceeding 50 (fifty) thousand or with both, and in case of his repetition of the same offence, shall
be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 (two) years or with a fine of Taka not
exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both.
41. Penalties for abetment, instigation, etc. If any person abets, directly or indirectly, to commit an
offence, or instigates to commit an offence under this Act, and if the act abetted or instigated is
committed in consequence thereof, he shall be punished with the penalty provided for that offence.
42. Penalties for filing a case of false or harassment or wrongful seizure. (1) If any officer,
authorized under this Act by contravening any provision under this Act seizes any article or material
or harasses any person, he shall be deemed to have committed an offence, and for such offence, be
punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 (six) months or with a fine of Taka not
exceeding 50 (fifty) thousand.
(2) If the accused is acquitted by a court at the end of hearing and trial of any case filed under this
Act and the court mentions it clearly in the judgement that the complaints brought against the accused
is false, groundless and harassing, the complainant shall be deemed to have committed an offence
and for such offence, be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding 1 (one) year or with a
fine of Taka not exceeding 1 (one) lac or with both.
43. Cognizibility, non-cognizibility, bailability, non-bailability and compoundability of
offences. Offences committed under section 36 shall be cognizable and non-bailable and the offences
committed under other sections, except the section, shall be non-cognizable, bailable and
compoundable subject to compensation.
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44. Cognizance and trial of offences. (1) No court shall take cognizance of any offence committed
under this Act without a written complaint by any officer authorized under this Act or any person
affected, subject to the provisions of section 43.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898) or
any other law, offences committed under this Act shall be triable by a Judicial Magistrate of the first
class or, as the case may be, a Metropolitan Magistrate:
Provided that for carrying out the purposes of this Act, offences committed under this Act shall be
triable by any Special Magistrate or any Special Metropolitan Magistrate, as the case may be,
authorized under section 12 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (2) and in the Code of Criminal Procedure,
1898, offences under section 36 shall be triable by the Court of Sessions.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, any Judicial
Magistrate of the first class, or a Metropolitan Magistrate may impose any fine provided for the
offences in this Act upon the persons convicted.
45. Application of Code of Criminal Procedure. The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure
shall, subject to not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, be applicable to investigation, trial
and appeal of any offence and other related matters under this Act.
46. Offences committed by Companies, etc. — If a company commits an offence under this Act,
each director, manager, secretary, partner, officer and staff involved directly with committing such
offence, shall be deemed to have committed such offence, unless he can prove that the offence was
committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission
of such offence.
Explanation. —In this section,—
(a) "company" means any commercial firm, partnership business, society, association and includes any organization; and
(b) "director", means any partner in the commercial firm or includes any member of the managing
board.
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Annexure 12
