Biological Diversity

Conceptual levels

• Genetic: genes, DNA

– Determines diversity within a species– Eg 1000 genes in bacteria, 10,000 in fungi, 700,000 in flowering

plants etc– …is what allows populations to adapt to changes in climate

and other local environmental conditions…

• Species:– Mammals, birds, reptiles– rate of extinction>rate of species formation– Domestication of few species

Biological Diversity

• Ecosystems

– An ecosystem is a system where populations of species group together into communities and interact with each other and the abiotic environment.

– Marine – eg coral reefs

– Terrestrial – eg deserts, rivers, mountain etc

Biological DiversityManagement concepts• max sustainable yield -the largest yield that can be obtained which does not

deplete or damage natural resources irreparably and which leaves the environment in good order for future generations. -the maximum amount of a species or group of species that can be taken without diminishing the future take.

• optimum yield• Precautionary approach-large safety factor-continuos monitoring/assesment-public review

Biological Diversity/nature conservationManagement concepts• max sustainable yield -the largest yield that can be obtained which does not

deplete or damage natural resources irreparably and which leaves the environment in good order for future generations. -the maximum amount of a species or group of species that can be taken without diminishing the future take.

• optimum yield• Precautionary approach-large safety factor-continuos monitoring/assesment-public review

Biological Diversity/nature conservation

Functions of the law

• Distributive: Ownership status

• Conservatory: by regulation

• Proscriptive: by prohibition

Biological Diversity/nature conservation

Legal status of living resources/habitats/ecosystems

• Sovereign property• Common property

More modern requirements:

• Transboundary biological resources• Animal rights?• Environmentalists• Common heritage

Biological Diversity/nature conservation

Soft law

• UNEP Principles of Conduct…conservation..harmonious utilization of natural resources shared… 1978

• IUCN World Charter for Nature (WCN) 1982 -wise use -unique areas

- persons participation, individual obligations to protect -International areas

Biological Diversity/nature conservation

Bruntland report 1987

-biosphere reserves

-common heritage

-trust fund

-World bank role

-22 legal principles

Biological Diversity/nature conservation

• Rio Declaration 1992

Agenda 21

Combating deforestation

Fragile ecosystems

Sustainable mountain development

Sustainable agriculture

Conservation of biodiversity

Sound management of biotechnology

Sustainable use of ocean resources

Habitat conservation

Biological Diversity/nature conservation

• IUCN Draft International Convention on Environment and Development 2000

treaties

Convention on Biological Diversity 1993 (188 parties, in force 1994)

• negotiations• preamble• objectives (art 1)

– Conservation of diversity– Sustainable use if components– Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from use, access to genetic

resources, tech transfer– Rights over resources/technologies

• definitions (art 3)• Jur scope (art 4)• in-situ/ex situ conservation measures (art 8-10)• access to genetic resources (art 15), share results• access to technology (esp art 16), intellectual property rights,

private sector• handling of biotechnology (art 19)

Convention on Biological Diversity 1993

• Institutions: – COP (Montreal)

-Subsidiary bodies-Subsidiary Body on scientific, technical and

technological advice-open ended working group on biosafety 1996-

1999-expert panel on access and benefit sharing-open ended ad hoc working group on article 8(j)

• Clearing House Mechanism – internet based

• Compliance: weak national reporting (art 26), financial compensation for compliance (art 20.2), social/economic incentives for compliance (art 11) but reports available to public de facto, igo/ngo observer status (art 23.5)

• No enforcement provision/protocol yet

• Financial mechanism through GEF/WB

• Access to genetic resources: practice

– 1995, the Philippines required bioprospectors to get "prior informed consent" from both the government and local peoples.

– Costa Rica's National Institute of Biodiversity (INBIO) signed a historic bioprospecting agreement with a major drug company to receive funds and share in benefits from biological materials that are commercialized.

– Countries of the Andean Pact (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela) have adopted laws and measures to regulate access to their genetic resources:

• submission of duplicate samples of genetic resources collected to a designated institution

• a national institution for collection of genetic resources• sharing existing information• sharing research results with the competent national authority• assisting in the strengthening of institutional capacities• sharing specific financial or related benefits.

• Access to technology practice?

– No particular legislation– But:

• Much scientific info available on internet/ published• Exchange of students

Convention on Biological Diversity 1993 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (117 parties,

in force since sept 2003)

• LMOs transgenic modification GMOs

Traditional modification

Therefore, protocol:

-advance informed agreement procedure (art 7)

-export/import notification (art 8, 9, 10)

-labelling requirements

-biosafety clearing house for information access

Post CBD

• Convention on Desertification 1994

• Forest Principles NON-LEGALLY BINDING AUTHORITATIVE

STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES FOR A GLOBAL CONSENSUS ON THE MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALL TYPES OF FORESTS

Pre CBD - Existing treaties

four main treaties:

• Ramsar Convention 1971

• World Heritage Convention 1972

• CITES 1973

• Migratory species convention 1979

Pre CBD - Existing treaties

• Common characteristics– Listing– protected areas– COP– national reporting– dispute settlement by negotiation only

-after CBD, practice of MoUs

-reservations to listings allowed!

Pre-CBDRamsar Convention 1971 (in force 1975, 144

parties

Wetlands of International Importance

• Lists int imp wetlands• Wise use concept

Pre-CBD

World Heritage Convention 1972(unesco in force 1975, 177 parties)

world heritage list

Pre-CBDWorld Heritage Convention 1972

World heritage in danger list

Pre-CBD

World Heritage Convention 1972

Australia v Tasmania (Tasmania Dam case 1983)

• Australia is a federation• states retain part of their sovereignty acc to their

constitution• Constitution defines the areas of federal legislation;

in residual areas, states have jurisdiction• federal government in Australia conducts foreign

affairs.  • Australia – fed gov - member of WHC, this site listed• Could federal government legislate in an area

covered by the treaty where it would have had no power to legislate had the treaty not been made?

• Yes : therefore, no dam to be built in archeol./ biol imp/sensitive area even if Tasmanian people want it

World Heritage Convention

also

• Return looted heritage– Eg Ethiopian obelisk from Rome – E

• Protecting heritage sites during wars

Convention on migratory species of wild animals 1979 (UNEP, in force 1983, 89 parties)

• Obligations depend on state of threat– App I most endangered: conserve and

restore habitats– App II not endangered: agreements to

restore

Pre CBD-Migratory species convention 1979

• APPENDIX I OF THE CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF WILD ANIMALS (CMS)

(as amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999 and 2002)

Mammalia   CHIROPTERA               Molossidae Tadarida brasiliensis  PRIMATES              Hominidae (1)  Gorilla gorilla beringei CETACEA              Physeteridae Physeter macrocephalus *              Platanistidae Platanista gangetica gangetica *              Pontoporiidae Pontoporia blainvillei *              BalaenopteridaeBalaenoptera borealis *Balaenoptera physalus *Balaenoptera musculusMegaptera novaeangliae              Balaenidae Balaena mysticetusEubalaena glacialis (2) (North Atlantic)Eubalaena japonica (3) (North Pacific)Eubalaena australis (4)  CARNIVORA              Mustelidae Lontra felina (5)             Lontra provocax (6)              Felidae Uncia uncia (7)              Phocidae (8)  Monachus monachus *  SIRENIA               Trichechidae Trichechus manatus *  (populations between Honduras and Panama)  PERISSODACTYLA              EquidaeEquus grevyi  ARTIODACTYLA              Camelidae Camelus bactrianus             Vicugna vicugna * (except Peruvian populations)              CervidaeCervus elaphus barbarusHippocamelus bisulcus              BovidaeBos sauveliBos grunniensAddax nasomaculatusGazella cuvieriGazella damaGazella dorcas (only Northwest African populations)Gazella leptocerosOryx dammah *   Aves  SPHENISCIFORMES              Spheniscidae Spheniscus humboldti   PROCELLARIIFORMES               Diomedeidae Diomedea albatrusDiomedea amsterdamensis              Procellariidae Pterodroma cahowPterodroma phaeopygiaPterodroma sandwichensis (9) Puffinus creatopus               Pelecanoididae Pelecanoides garnotii PELECANIFORMES              Pelecanidae Pelecanus crispus *Pelecanus onocrotalus * (only Palearctic populations) CICONIIFORMES              Ardeidae Egretta eulophotes Gorsachius goisagi              Ciconiidae Ciconia boyciana              Threskiornithidae Geronticus eremita *  Platalea minor   PHOENICOPTERIFORMES                PhoenicopteridaePhoenicopterus andinus (10)Phoenicopterus jamesi (11)  ANSERIFORMES               AnatidaeAnser cygnoides *      Anser erythropus *Branta ruficollis *Chloephaga rubidiceps *Anas formosa *Marmaronetta angustirostris *Aythya nyroca *Polysticta stelleri *Oxyura leucocephala *   FALCONIFORMES                 AccipitridaeHaliaeetus albicilla *Haliaeetus leucoryphus *Haliaeetus pelagicus *Aquila clanga *Aquila heliaca *Aquila adalberti (12) *                Falconidae Falco naumanni * 

Mammalia  

CHIROPTERA

              Molossidae 

Tadarida brasiliensis

 PRIMATES

              Hominidae (

1

)

 

Gorilla gorilla beringei

 CETACEA

              Physeteridae 

Physeter macrocephalus *

              Platanistidae 

Platanista gangetica gangetica *

              Pontoporiidae 

Pontoporia blainvillei *

              Balaenopteridae

Balaenoptera borealis *

Balaenoptera physalus *

Balaenoptera musculus

Megaptera novaeangliae

              Balaenidae 

Balaena mysticetus

Eubalaena glacialis (

2

)

(North Atlantic)Eubalaena japonica (

3

)

(North Pacific)Eubalaena australis (

4

)

 CARNIVORA

              Mustelidae 

Lontra felina (

5

)

             

Lontra provocax (

6

)              Felidae 

Uncia uncia (

7

)

              Phocidae (

8

)

 

Monachus monachus *

  SIRENIA

              Trichechidae 

Trichechus manatus *  

(populations between Honduras and Panama)

  PERISSODACTYLA

              Equidae

Equus grevyi

  ARTIODACTYLA

              Camelidae 

Camelus bactrianus

             

Vicugna vicugna * (except Peruvian populations)

              Cervidae

Cervus elaphus barbarus

Hippocamelus bisulcus

              Bovidae

Bos sauveli

Bos grunniens

Addax nasomaculatus

Gazella cuvieri

Gazella dama

Gazella dorcas (only Northwest African populations)

Gazella leptoceros

Oryx dammah *

  Aves

 SPHENISCIFORMES

              Spheniscidae 

Spheniscus humboldti

  PROCELLARIIFORMES

              Diomedeidae 

Diomedea albatrus

Diomedea amsterdamensis

              Procellariidae 

Pterodroma cahow

Pterodroma phaeopygia

Pterodroma sandwichensis (

9

)

Puffinus creatopus

              Pelecanoididae 

Pelecanoides garnotii

 PELECANIFORMES

              Pelecanidae 

Pelecanus crispus *

Pelecanus onocrotalus * (only Palearctic populations)

 CICONIIFORMES

              Ardeidae 

Egretta eulophotes

 

Gorsachius goisagi

              Ciconiidae 

Ciconia boyciana

              Threskiornithidae 

Geronticus eremita *

 

Platalea minor

  PHOENICOPTERIFORMES

               Phoenicopteridae

Phoenicopterus andinus (

1

0

)

Phoenicopterus jamesi (

1

1

)

 ANSERIFORMES

               Anatidae

Anser cygnoides *

      

Anser erythropus *

Branta ruficollis *

Chloephaga rubidiceps *

Anas formosa *

Marmaronetta angustirostris *

Aythya nyroca *

Polysticta stelleri *

Oxyura leucocephala *

  FALCONIFORMES

                Accipitridae

Haliaeetus albicilla *

Haliaeetus leucoryphus *

Haliaeetus pelagicus *

Aquila clanga *

Aquila heliaca *

Aquila adalberti (

1

2

)

* 

               Falconidae 

Falco naumanni *

 GRUIFORMES

                Gruidae

Grus japonensis *

Grus leucogeranus *

Grus monacha *

Grus nigricollis *

Grus vipio *

                Rallidae 

Sarothrura ayresi *

                Otididae 

Chlamydotis undulata *

(only Northwest African populations)

Otis tarda * (Middle-European population)

 CHARADRIIFORMES

               Charadriidae

Vanellus gregarius(

1

3

)

*

               Scolopacidae

Numenius borealis *

Numenius tenuirostris *

Tringa guttifer *

Eurynorhynchus pygmeus *

Tryngites subruficollis *

               Laridae

Larus atlanticus

Larus audouinii *

Larus leucophthalmus *

Larus relictus

Larus saundersi

Sterna bernsteini

               Alcidae

Synthliboramphus wumizusume

 PSITTACIFORMES

               Psittacidae

Brotogeris pyrrhopterus

 PASSERIFORMES

               Tyrannidae

Alectrurus risora

            

Alectrurus tricolor

               Hirundinidae 

Hirundo atrocaerulea *

               Muscicapidae 

Acrocephalus paludicola *

               Emberizidae

Sporophila zelichi

Sporophila cinnamomea

Sporophila hypochroma

Sporophila palustris

               Parulidae 

Dendroica kirtlandii

               Icteridae

Agelaius flavus

               Fringillidae

Serinus syriacus

  Reptilia

  TESTUDINATA

               Cheloniidae

Chelonia mydas *

Caretta caretta *

Eretmochelys imbricata *

Lepidochelys kempii *

Lepidochelys olivacea *

                Dermochelyidae

Dermochelys coriacea *

                Pelomedusidae 

Podocnemis expansa * (only Upper Amazon populations)

  CROCODYLIA

                Gavialidae

Gavialis gangeticus

  Pisces

Elasmobranchii

  LAMNIFORMES

                 Lamnidae

Carcharodon carcharias *

  Actinopterygii

  SILURIFORMES

                 Schilbeidae 

Pangasianodon gigas

Pre-CBDCITES Convention on the international trade in endangered species of flora and fauna 1973 (IUCN, in force 1975, 167 parties)

Trade in endangered speciesAim: prevent commercial trade in..

3 appendices:

• Appendix I: species threatened with extinction; trade only in exceptional circumstances.

• Appendix II :species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but trade must be controlled to avoid future survival danger.

• Appendix III: species protected in at least one country, asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.

Pre CBDCITES- endangered species lists

• Appendices I, II and III valid from 16 October 2003

Appendix IAppendix II Appendix III F A U N A (ANIMALS)P H Y L U M C H O R D A T A CLASS

MAMMALIA (MAMMALS)

PRIMATES Apes, monkeys   Lemuridae Large lemurs Lemuridae spp.   Megaladapidae Sportive lemurs Megaladapidae spp. (possibly extinct)   Cheirogaleidae Dwarf lemurs Cheirogaleidae spp.   Indridae Avahi, indris, sifakas, woolly lemurs Indridae spp.   Daubentoniidae Aye-aye Daubentonia madagascariensis   Callitrichidae Marmosets, tamarins Callimico goeldii   Callithrix aurita

Pre-CBDCITES 1973

• States must establish management, scientific authority

• Permit system (export and import)

• Data collection and monitoring by NGOs

• National implementation

eg UK Criminal Justice Act Nov 2003

Marine biodiversity

Original legal status of seas:

• Territorial seas (3 miles)

• High seas

• Pacific Fur Seals arbitration– Migratory seals not sovereign property– Freedom of high seas– Joint conservation/management model but

regime failed

Marine biodiversity

• Iceland’s unilateral declaration of 12 mile territorial sea 1972

• Iceland declares exclusive fisheries zone 50 miles

• Icelandic fisheries cases 1974• UNCLOS III 1982

Legal status of seas today: territorial sea 12 miles: coastal statejur.exclusive economic zone 200 miles : coastal state jur. if declaredhigh seas : freedom

Marine Biodiversity

• Straddling Stocks Agreement 1995 (in force 2001)

• Convention for Regulation of Whaling 1946

• UNEP Regional Seas conventions

Indirect:Pollution treaties – oil spills, land based, from

vessels, emergencies

Biodiversity/ nature conservation• prohibitions, restrictions, trade control/sanctions for endangered species

• No customary law to protect endangered species/sites/habitats, all through treaty

• CBD principles – non binding – only provide guidance– Precautionary principle

– Equitable sharing - of benefits of traditional knowledge but only appropriate access to technology, not equitable access

– Intergenerational equity

• Obligation to cooperate

– info exchange of publicly available info, not private- governments to enable access to biotech research/ results of using genetic

resources

• Equity principles not so well developed complex re genetic resources and implementation/ enforcement up to state party

• Large nm of treaties, still piecemeal, CBD fills gaps overlaps/synergies need working out