Biological Treatment Processes

Humana PressHandbook of Environmental Engineering Series

Volume 1: Air Pollution Control Engineering. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 504 pp.(2004)

Volume 2: Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)526 pp. (2005)

Volume 3: Physicochemical Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas (eds.)723 pp. (2005)

Volume 4: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K.Shammas (eds.) 690 pp. (2006)

Volume 5: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K.Shammas (eds.) 710 pp. (2007)

Volume 6: Biosolids Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 820 pp.(2007)

Volume 7: Biosolids Engineering and Management. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)800 pp. (2008)

Volume 8: Biological Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas(eds.) 818 pp. (2009)

Volume 9: Advanced Biological Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung(eds.) (2009)

Volume 10: Environmental Biotechnology. L. K. Wang, J. H. Tay, V. Ivanov, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)(2009)

Volume 11: Environmental Bioengineering. L. K. Wang, J. H. Tay, S. T. Tay, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)(2009)

VOLUME 8HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Biological TreatmentProcesses

Edited by

Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEELenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA

Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MAZorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY

Norman C. Pereira, PhDMonsanto Company

St. Louis, MO (Retired)

Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEEDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

Consulting Editor

Nazih K. Shammas, PhDLenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA

Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA

EditorsLawrence K. Wang Yung-Tse HungDean & Director (retired), Professor, Department of Civil

Lenox Institute of Water Technology and Environmental EngineeringAssistant to the President (retired), Cleveland State University

Krofta Engineering Corporation 16945 Deerfield Drive, Strongsville, OH 44136, USAVice President (retired), y.hung@csuohio.edu

Zorex Corporation1 Dawn Drive, Latham, NY 12110 USAlarrykwang@juno.comlawrencekwang@gmail.com

Norman C. Pereira14620 Mill Spring Ct.Chesterfield, MO 63017ncpere@hotmail.com

Consulting EditorNazih K. ShammasProfessor and Environmental Engineering ConsultantEx-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water TechnologyAdvisor, Krofta Engineering Corporation35 Flintstone DrivePittsfield, MA 01201 USAn.shammas@shammasconsult.comnazih@n-shammas.org

ISBN 978-1-58829-163-9 e-ISBN 978-1-60327-156-1

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-156-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008922724

c© 2009 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLCAll rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher(Humana Press, c/o Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except forbrief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage andretrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developedis forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such,is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither theauthors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. Thepublisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

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Preface

The past thirty years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide thatpositive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from the degradingeffects of all forms of pollution – air, water, soil, and noise. Since pollution is a direct orindirect consequence of waste, the seemingly idealistic demand for “zero discharge”can be construed as an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However, as long aswaste continues to exist, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution byconverting it to a less noxious form. Three major questions usually arise when aparticular type of pollution has been identified: (1) How serious is the pollution?(2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justifythe degree of abatement achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the Handbookof Environmental Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to helpreaders formulate answers to the last two questions above.

The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollutionproblems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engi-neering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a “methodologyof pollution control.” However, the realization of the ever-increasing complexity andinterrelated nature of current environmental problems renders it imperative thatintelligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequisite tosuch planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations ofthe various methods of pollution abatement available for environmental scientistsand engineers. In this series of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broadspectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currentlybeing utilized, or of potential utility, for pollution abatement. We believe that theunified interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step inthe evolution of environmental engineering.

Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engi-neering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principlesand theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics. This emphasis onfundamental science recognizes that engineering practice has in recent years becomemore firmly based on scientific principles rather than on its earlier dependency onempirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended, though, to neglect empiricismwhere such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineeringsystems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in theseinstances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism.

Since an environmental engineer must understand science within the context ofapplication, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a particularsubject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations,

v

vi Preface

and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental quality control orremediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical design and calculation areillustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how orga-nized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Whereverpossible, pertinent cost data have been provided.

Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that thetrained engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles, be moreaware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems,and exhibit greater flexibility and originality in the definition and innovative solutionof environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should byconviction and practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress.

Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering hasdemanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships.Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits,the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a particular subject area;consequently, it has been difficult to treat all subject material in a homogeneousmanner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors’ favored topicscould not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merelymentioned or commented on briefly. All authors have provided an excellent list ofreferences at the end of each chapter for the benefit of interested readers. As eachchapter is meant to be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various textswas unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of theeditors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, thequestion of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible,the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the metric equivalent (mks,cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The editors sincerely hope that this duplicity of units’ usagewill prove to be useful rather than being disruptive to the readers.

The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to cover entireenvironmental fields, including air and noise pollution control, solid waste process-ing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological treat-ment processes, biosolids management, water resources, natural control processes,radioactive waste disposal and thermal pollution control; and (2) to employ a multi-media approach to environmental pollution control since air, water, soil and energyare all interrelated.

As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, no consideration is givento pollution by type of industry, or to the abatement of specific pollutants. Rather,the organization of the handbook series has been based on the three basic forms inwhich pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noisepollution control is included in the handbook series.

This particular book Volume 8, Biological Treatment Processes, is a sister book toVolume 9, Advanced Biological Treatment Processes. Both books have been designedto serve as comprehensive biological treatment textbooks as well as wide-rangingreference books. We hope and expect they will prove of equal high value to advanced

Preface vii

undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of water and wastewatertreatment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors welcome commentsfrom readers in all of these categories.

This book Volume 8, Biological Treatment Processes, covers the subjects, of funda-mental biological concepts, wastewater land application subsurface application, sub-merged aeration, surface aeration, spray aeration, activated sludge processes, pureoxygen activated sludge process, waste stabilization ponds, lagoons, trickling filters,rotating biological contactors, sequencing bath reactors, oxidation ditch, biologicalnitrification, denitrification, anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, composting, ver-micomposting, odor control and VOC control. The sister book Volume 9, AdvancedBiological Treatment Processes, covers the subjects of biological process kinetics,vertical shaft bioreactors, aerobic granulation technology, membrane bioreactors, SBRnutrient removal, simultaneous nitrification and denitrification, single-sludge nutri-ent removal system, nitrogen removal process selection, column bioreactor, upflowsludge blanket filtration, anaerobic lagoons, storage ponds, vertical shaft digestion,flotation, biofiltration, biosolids land application, deep-well injection, natural biolog-ical processes, emerging suspended growth biological processes, emerging attachedgrowth biological processes and environmental engineering conversion factors.

The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support receivedfrom their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor.We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for havingpatiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and comments. We are verygrateful to our respective families for their patience and understanding during somerather trying times. The editors are especially indebted to Dr. Nazih K. Shammas ofthe Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Massachusetts, for his services as ConsultingEditor of this Volume.

Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, MANorman C. Pereira, St. Louis, MO

Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, OH

Contents

Preface..................................................................................................................................... v

Contributors.......................................................................................................................... xxi

1. Fundamental Concepts for Environmental ProcessesMary Lou Bungay and Henry R. Bungay........................................................................ 1

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 12. The Cell................................................................................................................................................................................... 23. Biochemistry........................................................................................................................................................................... 3

3.1. Important Compounds ................................................................................................................................................... 33.2. Photosynthesis................................................................................................................................................................ 83.3. Chemosynthesis.............................................................................................................................................................. 93.4. Respiration...................................................................................................................................................................... 93.5. Nutrition.......................................................................................................................................................................... 11

4. Microbiology .......................................................................................................................................................................... 124.1. Bacteria........................................................................................................................................................................... 124.2. Archaea........................................................................................................................................................................... 134.3. Algae............................................................................................................................................................................... 134.4. Protozoa.......................................................................................................................................................................... 134.5. Fungi............................................................................................................................................................................... 144.6. Viruses............................................................................................................................................................................. 154.7. Other................................................................................................................................................................................ 15

5. Ecology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 155.1. Structure of the Ecosystem............................................................................................................................................ 165.2. Biogeochemical Cycles.................................................................................................................................................. 175.3. Interspecies Relationships ............................................................................................................................................. 185.4. Population Dynamics..................................................................................................................................................... 19

6. Physical and Biological Factors in Waste Treatment Ecosystems...................................................................................... 216.1. Chemical Composition of the Medium......................................................................................................................... 216.2. Indices of Pollution........................................................................................................................................................ 226.3. Flow Rates and Concentration....................................................................................................................................... 236.4. Surfaces and Substrata................................................................................................................................................... 236.5. Nutritional Shifts............................................................................................................................................................ 236.6. Biological Interactions................................................................................................................................................... 246.7. Ecological Succession.................................................................................................................................................... 25

7. Conclusions............................................................................................................................................................................. 26References.................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

2. Treatment by Application Onto LandDonald B. Aulenbach and Nicholas L. Clesceri.............................................................. 29

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 291.1. Scope............................................................................................................................................................................... 291.2. Philosophy...................................................................................................................................................................... 30

2. Types........................................................................................................................................................................................ 322.1. Surface Spreading.......................................................................................................................................................... 322.2. Slow Rate........................................................................................................................................................................ 32

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2.3. Rapid Infiltration—Percolation..................................................................................................................................... 352.4. Vegetative Cover vs. Bare Ground................................................................................................................................ 362.5. Final Residence of Liquid.............................................................................................................................................. 372.6. Chlorination.................................................................................................................................................................... 37

3. Processes................................................................................................................................................................................. 373.1. Physical........................................................................................................................................................................... 383.2. Physical-Chemical.......................................................................................................................................................... 403.3. Chemical......................................................................................................................................................................... 413.4. Biological........................................................................................................................................................................ 423.5. Process Applications...................................................................................................................................................... 45

4. Design...................................................................................................................................................................................... 524.1. Preliminary Studies........................................................................................................................................................ 524.2. Application Rates........................................................................................................................................................... 534.3. Distribution Facilities..................................................................................................................................................... 534.4. Monitoring...................................................................................................................................................................... 54

5. Evaluation ............................................................................................................................................................................... 555.1. Effectiveness................................................................................................................................................................... 555.2. Applicability................................................................................................................................................................... 565.3. Cost ................................................................................................................................................................................. 575.4. Ease of Design for Various Conditions......................................................................................................................... 58

Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................... 69References.................................................................................................................................................................................... 69

3. Treatment by Subsurface ApplicationNicholas L. Clesceri, Donald B. Aulenbach, and James F. Roetzer.............................. 75

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 752. Theory..................................................................................................................................................................................... 76

2.1. Pretreatment in a Tank................................................................................................................................................... 762.2. Subsurface Disposal....................................................................................................................................................... 79

3. Design...................................................................................................................................................................................... 883.1. General Considerations.................................................................................................................................................. 893.2. Septic Tank Design......................................................................................................................................................... 903.3. Aerobic Tank Design...................................................................................................................................................... 913.4. Conventional Tile Field.................................................................................................................................................. 923.5. Aerobic Tile Field .......................................................................................................................................................... 963.6. Seepage Pit ..................................................................................................................................................................... 993.7. Institutional and Multiple Dwelling Systems...............................................................................................................1003.8. Construction....................................................................................................................................................................101

4. State of the Art........................................................................................................................................................................1014.1. Tank Treatment...............................................................................................................................................................1014.2. Effluent Disposal............................................................................................................................................................1024.3. Nutrient Removal...........................................................................................................................................................1024.4. Innovative Design...........................................................................................................................................................1034.5. Maintenance....................................................................................................................................................................1034.6. Restoration......................................................................................................................................................................104

5. Conclusions.............................................................................................................................................................................1056. Cost Estimation.......................................................................................................................................................................1057. Sample Design Problems.......................................................................................................................................................106Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................109References....................................................................................................................................................................................109Appendix......................................................................................................................................................................................112

Contents xi

4. Submerged AerationJerry R. Taricska, Jerry Y. C. Huang, J. Paul Chen,Yung-Tse Hung, and Shuai-Wen Zou...............................................................................113

1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................1132. Aeration Performance Evaluation .........................................................................................................................................114

2.1. Hydraulic Regimes of Performance Evaluation...........................................................................................................1152.2. Means of Deoxygenation...............................................................................................................................................1162.3. Oxygen Saturation Concentration.................................................................................................................................1172.4. Data Analysis and Interpretation...................................................................................................................................119

3. Submerged Aeration Systems................................................................................................................................................1233.1. System Components.......................................................................................................................................................1233.2. Major Types of Submerged Aerators............................................................................................................................125

4. Design Applications...............................................................................................................................................................1334.1. Types of Design Problems.............................................................................................................................................1334.2. Case Study Example......................................................................................................................................................134

5. Recent Development in Submerged Aeration.......................................................................................................................139Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................145References....................................................................................................................................................................................147

5. Surface and Spray AerationJerry R. Taricska, J. Paul Chen, Yung-Tse Hung,Lawrance K. Wang, and Shuai-Wen Zou.........................................................................151

1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................1512. Fundamental Concepts...........................................................................................................................................................152

2.1. Equilibrium.....................................................................................................................................................................1522.2. Gas Solubility.................................................................................................................................................................1532.3. Molecular Diffusion.......................................................................................................................................................1552.4. Turbulent Mixing............................................................................................................................................................1562.5. Air-Water Interface.........................................................................................................................................................157

3. Theories of Gas Transfer........................................................................................................................................................1573.1. Mass Transfer Equation.................................................................................................................................................1573.2. Two-Film Theory ...........................................................................................................................................................1583.3. Penetration Model..........................................................................................................................................................1603.4. Film-Penetration Model.................................................................................................................................................1613.5. Surface Renewal-Damped Eddy Diffusion Model.......................................................................................................1623.6. Turbulent Diffusion Model............................................................................................................................................1633.7. Other Models..................................................................................................................................................................1633.8. Comparison of Gas Transfer Coefficients.....................................................................................................................1633.9. Gas-Liquid Relation.......................................................................................................................................................164

4. Aeration Equation...................................................................................................................................................................1654.1. Significance of the Aeration Equation..........................................................................................................................1654.2. Influencing Factors.........................................................................................................................................................1664.3. Natural Reaeration .........................................................................................................................................................167

5. Surface Aeration.....................................................................................................................................................................1735.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................1735.2. Types of Surface Aerators..............................................................................................................................................1745.3. Techniques for Surface Aerator Performance Test ......................................................................................................1755.4. Surface Aerator Design..................................................................................................................................................1805.5. Artificial Instream Aeration...........................................................................................................................................180

xii Contents

6. Spray Aeration........................................................................................................................................................................1846.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................1846.2. Types of Spray Aerators.................................................................................................................................................1856.3. Spray Aeration Applications.........................................................................................................................................1886.4. Spray Aerator Design.....................................................................................................................................................190

7. Recent Development in Surface and Spray Aeration...........................................................................................................196Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................201References....................................................................................................................................................................................203

6. Activated Sludge ProcessesLawrence K. Wang, Zucheng Wu, and Nazih K. Shammas...........................................207

1. Concepts and Physical Behavior ...........................................................................................................................................2081.1. Definition of Process......................................................................................................................................................2081.2. Principles of Biological Oxidation................................................................................................................................2091.3. Energy Flow....................................................................................................................................................................2141.4. Synthesis and Respiration..............................................................................................................................................216

2. System Variables and Control................................................................................................................................................2172.1. Kinetics of Sludge Growth, and Substrate Removal....................................................................................................2182.2. Process Variables, Interactions and their Significance in Process Operation and Performance ............................... 2222.3. Aeration Requirements..................................................................................................................................................2262.4. Temperature Effect.........................................................................................................................................................227

3. System Modifications and Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................2283.1. Conventional Activated Sludge Process .......................................................................................................................2283.2. Step Aeration Process....................................................................................................................................................2303.3. Complete Mix Process...................................................................................................................................................2303.4. Extended Aeration Process............................................................................................................................................2313.5. Contact Stabilization Process........................................................................................................................................2313.6. Kraus Process.................................................................................................................................................................2333.7. Design Criteria ...............................................................................................................................................................2333.8. Other Processes..............................................................................................................................................................237

4. Computer Aid in Process Design and Operation..................................................................................................................2384.1. Prediction of Performance.............................................................................................................................................2384.2. Computer Program for Process Design ........................................................................................................................2414.3. Computer Aid in Process Operation.............................................................................................................................242

5. Practice and Problems in Process Control............................................................................................................................2455.1. Wasting Sludge, Feedback and Feed Forward Control................................................................................................2455.2. Bulking of Sludge and Rising of Sludge......................................................................................................................247

6. Capital and Operating Cost....................................................................................................................................................2486.1. Traditional Cost Estimates.............................................................................................................................................2496.2. Worksheet for Cost Estimates ....................................................................................................................................... 2516.3. Improvements of Cost Estimation Techniques.............................................................................................................251

7. Important Developments........................................................................................................................................................2537.1. High Rate Adsorption-Biooxidation Process...............................................................................................................2537.2. Carrier-Activated Sludge Processes..............................................................................................................................2547.3. Secondary Flotation Process..........................................................................................................................................2637.4. Nitrification and Denitrification....................................................................................................................................2647.5. Membrane Bioreactor ....................................................................................................................................................2657.6. Reduction of Excess Sludge..........................................................................................................................................266

8. Design Examples....................................................................................................................................................................266Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................................................................270Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................270Definition of Terms; Casso Program..........................................................................................................................................272References....................................................................................................................................................................................272Appendices...................................................................................................................................................................................279

Contents xiii

7. Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge ProcessNazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................... 283

1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................2832. Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge, Covered..............................................................................................................................284

2.1. Process Description........................................................................................................................................................2842.2. Applications....................................................................................................................................................................2852.3. Design Criteria ...............................................................................................................................................................2862.4. Performance....................................................................................................................................................................2862.5. Energy Requirements.....................................................................................................................................................2872.6. Costs................................................................................................................................................................................288

3. Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge, Uncovered..........................................................................................................................2893.1. Description......................................................................................................................................................................2893.2. Applications....................................................................................................................................................................2913.3. Design Criteria ...............................................................................................................................................................2913.4. Performance....................................................................................................................................................................2913.5. Energy Requirements.....................................................................................................................................................2913.6. Costs................................................................................................................................................................................293

4. Design Considerations............................................................................................................................................................2944.1. Input Data.......................................................................................................................................................................2944.2. Design Parameters..........................................................................................................................................................2954.3. Design Procedure...........................................................................................................................................................2954.4. Output Data.....................................................................................................................................................................304

5. Design Example......................................................................................................................................................................304Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................310References....................................................................................................................................................................................311Appendix......................................................................................................................................................................................314

8. Waste Stabilization Ponds and LagoonsNazih K. Shammas, Lawrence K. Wang, and Zucheng Wu...........................................315

1. Concepts and Physical Behavior ...........................................................................................................................................3161.1. Pond Ecology and Process Reactions...........................................................................................................................3161.2. Biology of Stabilization Ponds......................................................................................................................................3231.3. Classification of Stabilization Ponds.............................................................................................................................326

2. System Variables and Control................................................................................................................................................3272.1. Kinetics of Substrate Removal......................................................................................................................................3272.2. Oxygen Supply...............................................................................................................................................................3312.3. Temperature Effect.........................................................................................................................................................3342.4. Detention Time...............................................................................................................................................................335

3. Design Criteria........................................................................................................................................................................3363.1. Design Parameters..........................................................................................................................................................3363.2. Inlet Structures ...............................................................................................................................................................3363.3. Outlet Structures.............................................................................................................................................................3363.4. Transfer Pipes.................................................................................................................................................................3383.5. Berm Design...................................................................................................................................................................3383.6. Bottom Preparation........................................................................................................................................................339

4. Practice and Problems in Process Control............................................................................................................................3394.1. Staging of Ponds.............................................................................................................................................................3394.2. Pond Recirculation.........................................................................................................................................................3394.3. Pond Mixing and Aeration ............................................................................................................................................ 3404.4. Odor Control...................................................................................................................................................................3424.5. Algae Removal...............................................................................................................................................................3434.6. Insect Control .................................................................................................................................................................343

5. Capital and Operating Costs..................................................................................................................................................345

xiv Contents

6. Developments in Ponds Applications..................................................................................................................................3496.1. Nutrient Removal and Controlled Eutrophication...................................................................................................3496.2. Integrated Anaerobic-Facultative-Aerobic Pond Systems.......................................................................................3506.3. Activated Sludge Process Integration.......................................................................................................................3526.4. Integrated Duckweed and Stabilization Pond..........................................................................................................3526.5. Deep Self-regeneration and Anoxic Waste Stabilization Ponds.............................................................................3536.6. Algae and Phosphorus Removal by Induced Air Flotation.....................................................................................3546.7. Combination with Constructed Wetlands.................................................................................................................3556.8. Synopsis of Major Developments.............................................................................................................................356

7. Examples of Process Design................................................................................................................................................356Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................................................................363Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................364References....................................................................................................................................................................................365Appendix......................................................................................................................................................................................370

9. Trickling FiltersLawrence K. Wang, Zucheng Wu, and Nazih K. Shammas...........................................371

1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................3721.1. Process Description of Attached Growth Systems..................................................................................................3721.2. Historical Development and Applicability of Attached Growth Systems..............................................................3741.3. Microbiology and Ecology........................................................................................................................................376

2. Theories and Mechanisms....................................................................................................................................................3782.1. Transfer of Oxygen in Slime Layer and Liquid Film..............................................................................................3782.2. Transfer of Substrate in Liquid Film and Slime Layer............................................................................................379

3. Types of Trickling Filters.....................................................................................................................................................3813.1. General Description...................................................................................................................................................3813.2. Low-Rate, High-Rate, and Super-Rate Filters .........................................................................................................3813.3. Single- and Multi-Stage Trickling Filter Plants.......................................................................................................386

4. Performance Models and Design Procedures.....................................................................................................................3874.1. National Research Council Models ..........................................................................................................................3874.2. Velz Model..................................................................................................................................................................3894.3. Upper Mississippi River – Great Lakes Board Model.............................................................................................3894.4. Howland Models........................................................................................................................................................3904.5. Eckenfelder Models...................................................................................................................................................3904.6. Galler and Gotaas Model...........................................................................................................................................3914.7. Biofilm Model............................................................................................................................................................3924.8. US Army Design Formulas.......................................................................................................................................3924.9. US Environmental Protection Agency Model..........................................................................................................393

5. Design and Construction Considerations............................................................................................................................3946. Process Control Considerations...........................................................................................................................................3957. Energy Considerations.........................................................................................................................................................3988. Application, Performance, and Reliability..........................................................................................................................3999. Limitations and Environmental Impact...............................................................................................................................399

10. Recent Development of Trickling Filters............................................................................................................................40010.1. Treatment of Toxic and Volatile Organic Contaminants .........................................................................................40010.2. Metals and Biological Nitrogen Removal................................................................................................................40010.3. Structure of Biofilms and Characterization of Filter ...............................................................................................40110.4. Upgrading and Retrofitting........................................................................................................................................402

11. Design Examples..................................................................................................................................................................403Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................................................................427Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................427References....................................................................................................................................................................................428

Contents xv

10. Rotating Biological ContactorsLawrence K. Wang, Zucheng Wu, and Nazih K. Shammas.........................................435

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................4352. Factors Affecting Performance and Design.......................................................................................................................437

2.1. Microorganisms and Environmental Factors...........................................................................................................4372.2. Media Selection and Arrangement...........................................................................................................................4372.3. Loadings and Hydraulic Parameters ........................................................................................................................438

3. Performance Models and Design Procedures....................................................................................................................4393.1. US Environmental Protection Agency Model.........................................................................................................4393.2. Modified US Environmental Protection Agency Model.........................................................................................4393.3. Manufacturer’s Design Procedures..........................................................................................................................440

4. Process Control Considerations..........................................................................................................................................4425. Application, Performance and Reliability..........................................................................................................................4456. Limitations and Environmental Impact..............................................................................................................................4467. Recent Developments in RBC............................................................................................................................................446

7.1. Biodegradation of Hydrocarbon...............................................................................................................................4467.2. Bioremediation of Heavy Metals .............................................................................................................................4467.3. Denitrification............................................................................................................................................................4477.4. Improvement of RBC Design...................................................................................................................................4477.5. Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Purification..................................................................................................448

8. Design Examples.................................................................................................................................................................448Acknowledgement....................................................................................................................................................................456Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................456References.................................................................................................................................................................................456

11. Sequencing Batch ReactorsLawrence K. Wang and Yang Li......................................................................................459

1. Historical Development and General Process Descriptions..............................................................................................4601.1. All Sequencing Batch Reactor Processes................................................................................................................4601.2. Physicochemical SBR Process Involving Sedimentation Clarification.................................................................4601.3. Aerobic-Anoxic Biological SBR Process Involving Sedimentation Clarification................................................4601.4. Aerobic-Anoxic Biological DAF-SBR Process Involving Flotation Clarification...............................................4611.5. Physicochemical DAF-SBR Process Involving Flotation Clarification.................................................................4621.6. Biological Membrane-Bioreactor-(MBR-SBR) Process........................................................................................4621.7. Biological Anaerobic SBR Process..........................................................................................................................4621.8. Biofilm SBR Process.................................................................................................................................................4631.9. Solid Waste SBR Digestion Process........................................................................................................................463

1.10. Ion Exchange-SBR Process......................................................................................................................................4641.11. GAC-SBR Processes.................................................................................................................................................4641.12. PAC-SBR and PACT-SBR Processes.......................................................................................................................4651.13. VSB-SBR and VSD-SBR Processes........................................................................................................................4651.14. Physicochemical Membrane-SBR Process..............................................................................................................4661.15. Biosolids SBR Digestion Process ............................................................................................................................466

2. Traditional SBR Process Systems.......................................................................................................................................4662.1. Traditional SBR Process Description.......................................................................................................................4662.2. Traditional SBR Compared to Other Biological Treatment Systems....................................................................467

3. Principles and Operation of Traditional SBR Process ......................................................................................................4693.1. Process Principles......................................................................................................................................................4693.2. Operational Phases....................................................................................................................................................4693.3. Food to Microorganism Ratio (F:M)........................................................................................................................471

xvi Contents

4. Process Applications.........................................................................................................................................................4724.1. BOD Reduction.........................................................................................................................................................4724.2. Nitrogen Removal .....................................................................................................................................................4724.3. Phosphorus Removal.................................................................................................................................................4734.4. Municipal Domestic Applications............................................................................................................................4734.5. Industrial Applications..............................................................................................................................................474

5. Process Design...................................................................................................................................................................4745.1. Flow and Cycle Time................................................................................................................................................4745.2. Process Phase Design................................................................................................................................................4745.3. Process Modifications...............................................................................................................................................4785.4. Decanter System Design...........................................................................................................................................4785.5. Skimming System Design.........................................................................................................................................4815.6. Energy Input Optimization.......................................................................................................................................4815.7. Three Design Steps ...................................................................................................................................................482

6. Summary and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................4826.1. General Summary......................................................................................................................................................4826.2. Performance Evaluation............................................................................................................................................4836.3. Cost Evaluation .........................................................................................................................................................4856.4. Operation Evaluation ................................................................................................................................................4856.5. Online Information....................................................................................................................................................487

7. Design Examples...............................................................................................................................................................487Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................508References.................................................................................................................................................................................508

12. Oxidation DitchNazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................................513

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................5142. Process Description...........................................................................................................................................................5143. Applicability ......................................................................................................................................................................5164. Advantages and Disadvantages.........................................................................................................................................5165. Design Criteria...................................................................................................................................................................517

5.1. Solids Retention Time (SRT)....................................................................................................................................5175.2. BOD Loading............................................................................................................................................................5175.3. Hydraulic Retention Time........................................................................................................................................ 517

6. Performance.......................................................................................................................................................................5186.1. Casa Grande Water Reclamation Facility................................................................................................................5186.2. Edgartown, Massachusetts WWTP..........................................................................................................................518

7. Package Oxidation Ditch Plants .......................................................................................................................................5197.1. Description.................................................................................................................................................................5197.2. Applicability..............................................................................................................................................................5207.3. Advantages and Disadvantages................................................................................................................................5207.4. Design Criteria...........................................................................................................................................................5207.5. Performance...............................................................................................................................................................5217.6. Costs...........................................................................................................................................................................522

8. Operation and Maintenance..............................................................................................................................................5228.1. Residuals Generated..................................................................................................................................................5228.2. Operating Parameters................................................................................................................................................522

9. Design Considerations.......................................................................................................................................................5229.1. Input Data ..................................................................................................................................................................5229.2. Design Parameters.....................................................................................................................................................5239.3. Design Procedure......................................................................................................................................................5239.4. Output Data................................................................................................................................................................526

10. Costs...................................................................................................................................................................................52711. Design Example.................................................................................................................................................................530

Contents xvii

Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................534References.................................................................................................................................................................................535Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................538

13. Biological Nitrification and Denitrification ProcessesYue-Mei Lin, Joo-Hwa Tay, Yu Liu, and Yung-Tse Hung............................................539

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................5392. Fundamentals of Nitrification.............................................................................................................................................540

2.1. Stoichiometry...............................................................................................................................................................5402.2. Metabolism..................................................................................................................................................................5412.3. Methods for Nitrifier Identification............................................................................................................................5432.4. Nitrification Kinetics...................................................................................................................................................5462.5. Factors Affecting Nitrification....................................................................................................................................547

3. Fundamentals of Denitrification Process............................................................................................................................5503.1. Microbiology...............................................................................................................................................................5503.2. Stoichiometry...............................................................................................................................................................5513.3. Metabolisms.................................................................................................................................................................5513.4. Methods for Identifying Denitrifiers..........................................................................................................................5533.5. Procedures for Measuring Denitrification..................................................................................................................5543.6. Denitrification Kinetics...............................................................................................................................................5543.7. Factors Influencing Denitrification.............................................................................................................................554

4. Modeling of Nitrification and Denitrification....................................................................................................................5564.1. Suspended-Growth Models.........................................................................................................................................5564.2. Fixed-Growth Models.................................................................................................................................................557

5. Biological Nitrification and Denitrification Processes......................................................................................................5575.1. Nitrification Processes.................................................................................................................................................5585.2. Biological Denitrification Process..............................................................................................................................562

6. Commercialized Nitrogen Removal Processes..................................................................................................................5667. New Biology for Nitrogen Removal...................................................................................................................................568

7.1. Nitrite Route................................................................................................................................................................5687.2. Aerobic Denitrification...............................................................................................................................................5687.3. Autotrophic Denitrification.........................................................................................................................................5697.4. Heterotrophic Nitrification..........................................................................................................................................5697.5. Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation (Anammox).........................................................................................................5707.6. New Metabolisms........................................................................................................................................................571

8. New Findings of Bacteria for Nitrogen Removal..............................................................................................................5739. Design Example...................................................................................................................................................................573Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................578References.................................................................................................................................................................................580

14. Anaerobic DigestionJerry R. Taricska, David A. Long, J. Paul Chen, Yung-Tse Hung,and Shuai-Wen Zou..........................................................................................................589

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................5892. Theory ..................................................................................................................................................................................591

2.1. Nature of Organic Wastes...........................................................................................................................................5912.2. Biochemistry and Microbiology of the Anaerobic Process......................................................................................5912.3. Reactor Configurations ...............................................................................................................................................5932.4. Organic Loading Parameters ......................................................................................................................................5952.5. Time and Temperature Relationships.........................................................................................................................5962.6. Nutrient Requirements................................................................................................................................................5972.7. Gas Production and Use..............................................................................................................................................598

xviii Contents

3. Design Practice....................................................................................................................................................................5993.1. Anaerobic Treatability Studies...................................................................................................................................5993.2. Anaerobic Reactor Design and Sizing.......................................................................................................................6013.3. Tank Construction and System Components.............................................................................................................6043.4. System Equipment and Appurtenances ..................................................................................................................... 6053.5. Gas Use........................................................................................................................................................................6153.6. Sludge Pumping and Piping Considerations ............................................................................................................. 615

4. Management of Digestion...................................................................................................................................................6164.1. Control of Sludge Feed...............................................................................................................................................6164.2. Withdrawal of Sludge and Supernatant......................................................................................................................6164.3. Maintenance of Reactor Stability...............................................................................................................................6174.4. Digester Performance Criteria....................................................................................................................................617

5. Capital and Operating Costs ...............................................................................................................................................6185.1. General.........................................................................................................................................................................6185.2. Items Included in Cost Estimates...............................................................................................................................618

6. Design Examples.................................................................................................................................................................6196.1. Example Using Standards Design..............................................................................................................................6196.2. Example Using Solids Loading Factor ......................................................................................................................6216.3. Example Using Modified Anaerobic Contact Process..............................................................................................624

7. Recent Development in Anaerobic Process.......................................................................................................................625Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................631References.................................................................................................................................................................................631

15. Aerobic DigestionNazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................................635

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................6362. Process Description.............................................................................................................................................................636

2.1. Microbiology...............................................................................................................................................................6362.2. Advantages...................................................................................................................................................................6372.3. Disadvantages..............................................................................................................................................................637

3. Process Variations................................................................................................................................................................6373.1. Conventional Semi-Batch Operation..........................................................................................................................6373.2. Conventional Continuous Operation..........................................................................................................................6383.3. Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (Using Air) .....................................................................................6383.4. Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (Using Oxygen)..............................................................................639

4. Design Considerations.........................................................................................................................................................6404.1. Temperature.................................................................................................................................................................6404.2. Solids Reduction..........................................................................................................................................................6404.3. Oxygen Requirements.................................................................................................................................................6424.4. Mixing..........................................................................................................................................................................6434.5. pH Reduction...............................................................................................................................................................6434.6. Dewatering...................................................................................................................................................................643

5. Process Performance ...........................................................................................................................................................6445.1. Total Volatile Solids Reduction..................................................................................................................................6445.2. Supernatant Quality.....................................................................................................................................................644

6. Process Design.....................................................................................................................................................................6456.1. Input Data ....................................................................................................................................................................6456.2. Design Parameters.......................................................................................................................................................6466.3. Design Procedure ........................................................................................................................................................6466.4. Output Data..................................................................................................................................................................649

7. Cost.......................................................................................................................................................................................6497.1. Capital Cost .................................................................................................................................................................6497.2. Operation and Maintenance Cost...............................................................................................................................650

Contents xix

8. Recent Developments and Summary................................................................................................................................6518.1. Recent Developments ............................................................................................................................................. 6518.2. Summary..................................................................................................................................................................652

9. Design Examples...............................................................................................................................................................653Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................660References.................................................................................................................................................................................661Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................667

16. Biosolids CompostingNazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................................669

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................6702. Applicability and Environmental Impact.........................................................................................................................6713. Compost Quality................................................................................................................................................................6744. Process Description...........................................................................................................................................................675

4.1. Moisture...................................................................................................................................................................6764.2. Temperature.............................................................................................................................................................6774.3. pH.............................................................................................................................................................................6784.4. Nutrient Concentration ...........................................................................................................................................6784.5. Oxygen Supply........................................................................................................................................................678

5. Design Criteria and Procedures........................................................................................................................................6785.1. Compost Processes with no External Bulking Agent...........................................................................................6815.2. Compost Processes Using External Bulking Agent..............................................................................................683

6. Windrow Process...............................................................................................................................................................6846.1. Methodology and Design........................................................................................................................................6846.2. Energy Requirements..............................................................................................................................................6876.3. Public Health and Environmental Impacts............................................................................................................687

7. Aerated Static Pile Process ...............................................................................................................................................6897.1. Process Description.................................................................................................................................................6897.2. Individual Aerated Piles..........................................................................................................................................6907.3. Extended Aerated Piles...........................................................................................................................................6917.4. Oxygen Supply........................................................................................................................................................6927.5. Bulking Agent .........................................................................................................................................................6927.6. Energy Requirements..............................................................................................................................................6937.7. Public Health and Environmental Impacts............................................................................................................693

8. In-Vessel Composting System..........................................................................................................................................6948.1. Process Description.................................................................................................................................................6948.2. Advantages and Disadvantages..............................................................................................................................6988.3. Applicability............................................................................................................................................................699

9. Costs...................................................................................................................................................................................70010. Design Examples...............................................................................................................................................................701

10.1. Design Example 1-Windrow Process.....................................................................................................................70110.2. Design Example 2-Extended Aerated Pile System...............................................................................................704

Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................709References.................................................................................................................................................................................709Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................714

17. Vermicomposting ProcessLawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and Kathleen Hung Li......................................715

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................7151.1. Summary..................................................................................................................................................................7151.2. Process Description.................................................................................................................................................716

2. Technology Development ................................................................................................................................................. 716

xx Contents

3. Problems and Technology Breakthrough...........................................................................................................................7203.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................7203.2. Problems......................................................................................................................................................................7203.3. Progress in Vermicomposting outside the U.S.A......................................................................................................722

4. Pioneers, Current Status and Resources.............................................................................................................................7234.1. Pioneers and Current Status........................................................................................................................................7234.2. Resources.....................................................................................................................................................................725

5. Process Design Considerations...........................................................................................................................................7265.1. Process Adoption and Advantages.............................................................................................................................7265.2. Process Operation and Troubleshooting....................................................................................................................7265.3. Process Limitations.....................................................................................................................................................7275.4. Process Design Criteria...............................................................................................................................................728

6. Process Application Examples............................................................................................................................................7287. Future Development and Direction ....................................................................................................................................729References.................................................................................................................................................................................729

18. Biological Odor and VOC Control ProcessGregory T. Kleinheinz and Phillip C. Wright ................................................................ 733

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................7332. Types of Biological Air Treatment Systems......................................................................................................................735

2.1. General Descriptions...................................................................................................................................................7352.2. Novel or Emerging Designs........................................................................................................................................736

3. Operational Considerations.................................................................................................................................................7393.1. General Operational Considerations..........................................................................................................................7393.2. Biofilter Media.............................................................................................................................................................7413.3. Microbiological Considerations.................................................................................................................................7433.4. Chemical Considerations............................................................................................................................................7443.5. Comparison to Competing Technologies...................................................................................................................746

4. Design Considerations/Parameters.....................................................................................................................................7474.1. Pre-design....................................................................................................................................................................7474.2. Packing.........................................................................................................................................................................747

5. Case Studies.........................................................................................................................................................................7485.1. High Concentration 2-Propanol (IPA) and Acetone..................................................................................................7485.2. General Odor Control at a Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facility.....................................................................748

6. Process Control and Monitoring.........................................................................................................................................7547. Limitations of the Technology............................................................................................................................................7558. Conclusions..........................................................................................................................................................................755Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................756References.................................................................................................................................................................................756

Appendix: Conversion Factors for Environmental EngineersLawrence K. Wang............................................................................................................759

Index....................................................................................................................................... 805

Contributors

DONALD B. AULENBACH, PhD, PE, DEE • Professor, Lenox Institute of Water Technology,Lenox, MA and Emeritus Professor, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY

MARY LOU BUNGAY, M.S • Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NYHENRY R. BUNGAY, PhD • Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Rensselaer

Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NYJ. PAUL CHEN, PhD • Associate Professor, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular

Engineering, National University of Singapore, SingaporeNICHOLAS L. CLESCERI, PhD • Emeritus Professor, Department of Civil and Environ-

mental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Bolton Landing, NYJERRY Y. C. HUANG, PhD, PE • President, Huang & Associates, Carmichael, CAYUNG-TSE HUNG, PhD, PE, DEE • Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental

Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OHGREGORY T. KLEINHEINZ, PhD • Assistant Professor, Department of Biology and Micro-

biology, University of Wisconsin – Oshkosh, Oshkosh, WIKATHLEEN HUNG LI, MS • Senior Technical Writer, NEC Unified Solutions, Inc., Irving,

TXYAN LI, PE, MS • Senior Sanitary Engineer, State of Rhode Island, Office of Waste Manage-

ment, Department of Environmental Management, Providence, RIYUE-MEI LIN • Research Scholar, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Nanyang Technological University, SingaporeYU LIU, PhD • Assistant Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Nanyang Technological University, SingaporeDAVID A. LONG, PhD • Emeritus Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Pennsylva-

nia State University, University Park, PANORMAN C. PEREIRA, PhD • Monsanto Company (retired), St. Louis, MOJAMES F. ROETZER, PhD • Alternative Environmental Strategies, LLC, Williamsville, NYNAZIH K. SHAMMAS, PhD • Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant, Ex-

Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA and Krofta Engi-neering Corporation, Lenox, MA

JERRY R. TARICSKA, PhD, PE, DEE • Senior Environmental Engineer/Associate, HoleMontes, Inc., Naples, FL

JOO-HWA TAY , PhD, PE • Professor and Division Head, School of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

xxi

xxii Contributors

LAWRENCE K. WANG, PhD, PE, DEE • Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of WaterTechnology, Lenox, MA; Assistant to the President (retired) Krofta Engineering Corpora-tion, Lenox, MA and VP, Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY

PHILLIP C. WRIGHT, PhD • Reader in Chemical Engineering and EPSRC AdvancedResearch Fellow, Department of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering, Heriot-WattUniversity, Riccarton Edinburgh, Scotland

ZUCHENG WU, PhD • Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering, ZhejiangUniversity, Hangzhou, China

SHUAI-WEN ZOU, M. Eng • Research Scholar, Department of Chemical and BiomolecularEngineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore