Biology 2 Lecture Material For Macroevolution Systematics 2...Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics...

Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 1

Biology 2

Lecture Material

For

Macroevolution

&

Systematics


Microevolution:

Biological Species:

Two Patterns of Evolutionary Change

Allopatric Speciation:

Evidence of:

Favorable Conditions:


Sympatric Speciation:

Autopolyploidy:

Allopolyploidy:

Hybrid Zones:

Reinforcement:

Fusion:

Stability:

Adaptive Radiation:

The emergence of

numerous species from a

common ancestor

introduced into an

environment, presenting a

diversity of new

opportunities and

problems


Macroevolution:

Gradualism:

Three Types:

_______________________________: new traits

become established in a population by increasing their

frequency from a small fraction of the population to

the majority

_______________________________: New traits,

even those that are strikingly different from ancestral

ones are produced in small increments

_______________________________: On a

geological time scale, there are intermediate forms

connecting the phenotypes of ancestors and

descendents

Punctuated Equilibrium:


Macroevolution through many Speciation Events

Evolutionary Novelties

Evolution of Genes that control development

– Changes in Spatial Pattern

– Changes in Rate and Timing

Origin of Evolutionary Novelty

Exaptation (preadaptation):

Evolution of Genes that control development:

____________________________________________ (Julian Huxley)

1. Gradual evolution can be explained by small genetic changes that produce variation which is

acted upon by natural selection

2. The evolution at higher taxonomic levels and of greater magnitude can be explained by long

periods of time

“Evo-devo”


Changes in Spatial Patterns:

Homeotic Genes: Hox Genes:

Homeobox:


Changes in Rate and Timing:

Allometric Growth:

Heterochrony:

Paedeomorphosis:

Paedeogenesis:


Evolutionary Trends:

Species Selection (Steven Stanley):

Size:

Toe Reduction:

Tooth shape/size:

Fossil Records

Sedimentary Rocks:

Hard Parts:

Minerals:

Organic Material

Casts:

Trace Fossils:

Entire Organisms:


Fossil Record Limitations

Absolute Dating

HALF-LIFE

Use the concept of half-life to answer the following questions about the ages of fossils.

1. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. A fossil that is 22,920 years old would have what amount of the

normal portion of C-14 to C-12?

2. The half-life of potassium-40 is 1.3 billion years. If a rock specimen contained 12 milligrams of potassium-

40 when it was formed and now contained 3 milligrams of potassium-40, How old is the rock?

Relative Dating


ERA PERIOD EPOCH AGE EVENTS

Now – 0.01

MYA

0.01 - 2.6

MYA

2.6 – 5.3

MYA

5.3 - 23

MYA

23 – 33.9

MYA

33.9 - 55.8

MYA

55.8 - 65.5

MYA

65.5 – 145.5

MYA

145.5 - 199.6

MYA

199.6 - 251

MYA

251 – 299

MYA

299 - 359

MYA

359 – 416

MYA

416 – 444

MYA

444 – 488

MYA

488 – 542

MYA

635-542

MYA

2.1

BYA

2.7

BYA

3.5

BYA

3.8

BYA

4.6

BYA


Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift

Plate Tectonics:

Continental Drift:

Pangaea:

Laurasia:

Gondwana:

Mass Extinctions:


SYSTEMATICS:

Comparing the genes or genomes of two species is the most direct measure of inheritance from shared

ancestors. Comparisons can be made by using three methods: DNA-DNA hybridization, restriction

maps, and DNA sequencing. Use the information to determine where species A through F belong in the

phylogenetic tree. The information below is comparing the number of differences between an amino acid

sequence from a blood protein found in rodents. (Assumption: The larger the number, the longer they

have been separated from their common ancestor)

A B C D E F

A 0 10 4 9 14 10

B 10 0 11 5 16 2

C 4 11 0 10 15 10

D 9 5 10 0 15 6

E 14 16 15 15 0 16

F 10 2 10 6 16 0


PHYLOGENETIC GROUPINGS:

Monophyletic:

Paraphyletic:

Polyphyletic:

Use the diagram below to identify whether the grouping is monophyletic, paraphyletic or polyphyletic.

A B C D E F G H 1. A and B ____________________

2. A, B and C ____________________

3. D, E, and F ____________________

4. E, F, G and H ____________________

5. F, G, and H ____________________

6. E, F, and G ____________________


SIMILARITIES

Homology:

Analogy:

Molecular Homeoplasy:

ONTOGENY RECAPITULATES PHYLOGENY (Ernst Haekel)


SYSTEMATICS:

Classical Evolutionary (Linnaean) Systematics:

Cladistics:

Assumptions:

Synapomorphies: Shared ancestral characters

Plesiomorphies: Primitive characters

Apomorphies: Shared derived characters


Phylograms:

Ultrametric Trees:

Parsimony:

Maximum Likelyhood:



Cladistic taxonomy and classical evolutionary taxonomy are different methods of interpreting

phylogenetic data and classifying organisms. Read each statement below and check whether it relates to

the cladistic approach, the classical approach, or both. Cladistic Classical

1. Method of classifying organisms and reconstructing phylogeny ___ ___

2. Concerned only with the order of branching lineages ___ ___

3. Produces cladograms ___ ___

4. Concerned with branching and degree of divergence ___ ___

5. Differentiates between primitive and derived characters ___ ___

6. Puts lizards and crocodiles in one class, birds in another ___ ___

7. Becoming more popular with researchers ___ ___

8. Says birds are closer to crocodiles than to other reptiles ___ ___

9. Uses anatomy and molecular biology to determine relationship ___ ___

10. Places humans in the same family as some other apes ___ ___

11. Places humans in their own family, separate from apes ___ ___

12. The approach used 15 years ago ___ ___

13. Considered to be more objective approach ___ ___

14. Involves subjective judgements about divergence ___ ___

Place the new species into their proper position on the classical evolutionary phylogenetic tree

You are the first zoologist to penetrate the Timbasi Swamp and explore the Okongo Forest. You identify 7 new

species of guenon monkeys. You collect blood sample and compare the new species blood proteins and facial

markings to decide where on the current phylogenetic tree these new species belong. Match each of the new

monkey species with one of the letters inserted into the revised phylogenetic tree.

____ 1. Ann’s: More closely related to Diana than any other species

____ 2. Flat-topped: As close to Mona as Mona is to Campbell’s

____ 3. Gladstone’s: Closer to redtail and moustached than any other new species

____ 4. Bearded: Related to Diana but not as closely as Ann’s

____ 5. Liebaert’s: A ground-dweller not closely related to any of the others

____ 6. Perkins’s: Related to Mona and Campbell’s but it branched off earlier

____ 7. Striped: Equally related to blue and redtail, but closer to ancestor


Cladogram

Place the taxa (outgroup, A, B, C, and D) on the cladogram based on the presence or absence of

the characters 1-4 as shown in this table. Indicate before each branch point, which shared derived

character evolved in the ancestor of the clade.

Primate Phylogeny

Examine the three primate phylogenies shown. Do the three phylogenies show the same

relationships and the same order of branching? Do they give different impressions of whether there was

a “goal” of primate evolution or what the “highest” primate is? Explain.


Cladistic Analysis of a DNA Sequence

The study group below is an example of three species of chameleons, two from Madagascar and

one for Equatorial Guinea. The outgroup is a lizard that is a distant relative of chameleons. The

question is are the two Madagascan species (genus: Brookesia) really more closely related to each other

over one being more closely related to the Equatorial Guinea species (Chamaeleo). The information

below is from a piece of mitochondrial DNA sequence which encodes an amino acid of a protein called

NADH dehydrogenase subuit 2.

Uromastyx

AAACCTTAAAAGACACCACAACCATATGAACAACAACACCAACAATCAGCACACTAC

B. theili

AAACACTACAAAATATAACAACTGCATGAACAACATCAACCACAGCAAACATTTTAC

B. brygooi

AAACACTACAAGACATAACAACAGCATGAACTACTTCAACAACAGCAAATATTACAC

C. feae

AAACCCTACGAGACGCAACAACAATATGATCCACTTCCCCCACAACAAACACAATTT

Possible Cladograms

B. theili

1. B. brygooi Number of changes ______

C. feae

B. brygooi

2.

C. feae Number of changes ______

B. theili

B. theili

3.

C. feae Number of changes ______

B. brygooi



Now – 0.01

MYA

0.01 - 2.6

MYA

2.6 – 5.3

MYA

5.3 - 23

MYA

23 – 33.9

MYA

33.9 - 55.8

MYA

55.8 - 65.5

MYA

65.5 – 145.5

MYA

145.5 - 199.6

MYA

199.6 - 251

MYA

251 – 299

MYA

299 - 359

MYA

359 – 416

MYA

416 – 444

MYA

444 – 488

MYA

488 – 542

MYA

542 - 635

MYA

2.1

BYA

2.7

BYA

3.5

BYA

3.8

BYA

4.6

BYA



Now – 0.01

MYA

0.01 - 2.6

MYA

2.6 – 5.3

MYA

5.3 - 23

MYA

23 – 33.9

MYA

33.9 - 55.8

MYA

55.8 - 65.5

MYA

65.5 – 145.5

MYA

145.5 - 199.6

MYA

199.6 - 251

MYA

251 – 299

MYA

299 - 359

MYA

359– 416

MYA

416 – 444

MYA

444 – 488

MYA

488 – 542

MYA

542 - 635

MYA

2.1

BYA

2.7

BYA

3.5

BYA

3.8

BYA

4.6

BYA



Now – 0.01

MYA

0.01 - 2.6

MYA

2.6 – 5.3

MYA

5.3 – 23

MYA

23 – 33.9

MYA

33.9 - 55.8

MYA

55.8 - 65.5

MYA

65.5 – 145.5

MYA

145.5 - 199.6

MYA

199.6 - 251

MYA

251 – 299

MYA

299 - 359

MYA

359– 416

MYA

416 – 444

MYA

444 – 488

MYA

488 – 542

MYA

542 - 635

MYA

2.1

BYA

2.7

BYA

3.5

BYA

3.8

BYA

4.6

BYA

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Biology 2 Lecture Material For Macroevolution Systematics 2...Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics...

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