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Version 1.1 General Certificate of Education Biology / Biology (Human) Specification A This specification should be read in conjunction with: Specimen and Past Papers and Mark Schemes Examiners’ Reports Teachers’ Guide AQA ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY GCE BIOLOGY 5411 AQA ADVANCED GCE BIOLOGY 6411 AQA ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY GCE BIOLOGY (HUMAN) 5413 AQA ADVANCED GCE BIOLOGY (HUMAN) 6413
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Page 1: Biology / Biology (Human)

Version 1.1

General Certificate of Education

Biology / Biology (Human)

Specification A

This specification should be read in conjunction with:

Specimen and Past Papers and Mark SchemesExaminers’ ReportsTeachers’ Guide

AQA ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY GCE BIOLOGY 5411AQA ADVANCED GCE BIOLOGY 6411

AQA ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY GCE BIOLOGY (HUMAN) 5413AQA ADVANCED GCE BIOLOGY (HUMAN) 6413

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This specification will not be re-issued anually but will remain in force until further notice.

Details of any amendments to the document will be notified to centres both in print and onthe Website (www.aqa.org.uk). The version on the Website will be updated and become

the definitive version of the specification.

In the Spring Term before the start of the course, details of any year-specific information,such as set texts, theme/topics, will be notified to centres in print and on the Website.

Black sidelines indicate a significant change or addition made to the specification published for 2003

.

Further copies of this specification booklet are available from:Aldon House, 39, Heald Grove, Rusholme, Manchester, M14 4NATel: 0161 953 1170 Fax: 0161 953 1177

or download from the AQA Website: www.aqa.org.uk

© Assessment and Qualifications Alliance 2002

COPYRIGHTAQA retains the copyright on all its publications, including the specimen units and markschemes/teachers’ guides. However, the registered centres for AQA are permitted to copy materialfrom this specification booklet for their own internal use, with the following exception: AQA cannotgive permission to centres to photocopy any material that is acknowledged to a third party even forinternal use within the centre.

Set and published by the Assessment and Qualifications Alliance.Printed in Great Britain by Page Brothers, Mile Cross Lane, Norwich, Norfolk, NR6 6SA

The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA) is a company limited by guarantee, registered in England and Wales 3644723 and aregistered Charity 1073334Registered address Addleshaw Booth & Co., Sovereign House, PO Box 8, Sovereign Street, Leeds LS1 1HQThe AQA was formed by the merger of the Associated Examining Board (AEB)/Southern Examining Group (SEG) and the NorthernExaminations and Assessment Board (NEAB).Kathleen Tattersall, Director General.

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Contents

Background Information

1 Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level

Specifications 5

2 Specification at a Glance 6

3 Availability of Assessment Units and Entry Details 7

Scheme of Assessment

4 Introduction 9

5 Aims 10

6 Assessment Objectives 10

7 Scheme of Assessment – Advanced Subsidiary 12

8 Scheme of Assessment – Advanced Level (AS+A2) 14

Subject Content

9 Summary of Subject Content 17

10 AS Module 1 - Molecules, Cells and Systems

(Biology and Human Biology) 20

11 AS Module 2 - Making Use of Biology

(Biology only) 26

12 AS Module 3 - Pathogens and Disease

(Human Biology only) 31

13 AS Module 4 - Centre-Assessed Coursework

(Biology and Human Biology) 37

14 A2 Module 5 - Inheritance, Evolution, Ecosystems

(Biology and Human Biology) 38

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15 A2 Module 6 - Physiology and the Environment

(Biology only) 45

16 A2 Module 7 - The Human Life-Span

(Human Biology only) 53

17 A2 Module 8 /9 - Centre-Assessed Coursework and Synoptic

Paper (Biology and Human Biology) 61

Key Skills and Other Issues

18 Key Skills - Teaching, Developing and Providing

Opportunities for Generating Evidence 62

19 Spiritual, Moral, Ethical, Social, Cultural

and Other Issues 66

Centre-Assessed Components

20 AS - Module 4 – Requirements and Guidance

for Assessment 69

21 A2 - Module 8b/9b – Requirements and Guidance

for Assessment 77

22 Supervision and Authentication 83

23 Standardisation 84

24 Administrative Procedures 85

25 Moderation 87

Awarding and Reporting

26 Grading, Shelf-Life and Re-Sits 88

Appendices

A Grade Descriptions 89

B Coursework Record Forms 92

C Overlaps with other Qualifications 97

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Background Information

1 Advanced Subsidiary and

Advanced Level Specifications1.1 Advanced Subsidiary (AS) Advanced Subsidiary courses were introduced from September 2000

for award of the first qualification in August 2001. They may be usedin one of two ways:

• as a final qualification, allowing candidates to broaden their studiesand to defer decisions about specialism;

• as the first half (50%) of an Advanced Level qualification, whichmust be completed before an Advanced Level award can be made.

Advanced Subsidiary is designed to provide an appropriateassessment of knowledge, understanding and skills expected ofcandidates who have completed the first half of a full Advanced Levelqualification. The level of demand of the AS examination is thatexpected of candidates half-way through a full A Level course ofstudy.

1.2 Advanced Level (AS+A2) The Advanced Level examination is in two parts:

• Advanced Subsidiary (AS) – 50% of the total award;

• a second examination, called A2 – 50% of the total award.

Most Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level courses will bemodular. The AS will comprise three teaching and learning modulesand the A2 will comprise a further three teaching and learningmodules. Each teaching and learning module will normally beassessed through an associated assessment unit. The specificationgives details of the relationship between the modules and assessmentunits.

With the two-part design of Advanced Level courses, centres maydevise an assessment schedule to meet their own and candidates’needs. For example:

• assessment units may be taken at stages throughout the course, atthe end of each year or at the end of the total course;

• AS may be completed at the end of one year and A2 in January orJune;

• AS and A2 may be completed at the end of the same year.Details of the availability of the assessment units for eachspecification are provided in Section 3.

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2 Specification at a GlanceBiology/Human Biology

AS Examination

Unit 1 (Biology/Human Biology)

1½ hours 35% of the total AS marks17.5% of the total A Level marks

EITHER OR

Unit 2 (Biology only)

1½ hours 35% AS17.5% A Level

Unit 3 (Human Biology only)

1½ hours 35% AS17.5% A Level

AdvancedSubsidiary Award

Unit 4 (Biology/Human Biology)

5411 (Biology)5413 (Human Biology)

Centre-assessed Coursework 30% of the total AS marks15% of the total A Level marks

+

A2 Examination

Unit 5 (Biology/Human Biology)

1½ hours 15% of the total A Level marks

EITHER OR

Unit 6 (Biology only)(Terminal)

Unit 7 (Human Biology only)(Terminal)

1½ hours 15% A Level(inc. 5% synoptic)

1½ hours 15% A Level(inc. 5% synoptic)

Unit 8(a) (Biology only)(Terminal)

Unit 9(a) (Human Biology only)(Terminal)

Advanced Award1¾ hours 10% A Level

(all synoptic)1¾ hours 10% A Level

(all synoptic)

6411 (Biology) Unit 8(b)/9(b) (Biology/Human Biology)(Terminal)

6413 (Human Biology)Centre-assessed Coursework 10% of the total A Level marks

(5% synoptic)

AS Award Advanced Level Award

Biology Papers 1, 2, 4 (5411) Papers 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8(a) and 8(b) (5411) + (6411)

Human Biology Papers 1, 3, 4 (5413) Papers 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9(a) and 9(b) (5413) + (6413)

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3 Availability of Assessment Units

and Entry Details3.1 Availability of Assessment

Units

Examinations based on this specification are available as follows:

Availability of

UnitsAvailability of

Qualification

AS A2 AS A Level

January all all� �

June all all� �

3.2 Sequencing of Units A Level Biology consists of Units 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 8a and 8b.A Level Human Biology consists of Units 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9a and 9b.

It is recommended that the units are taken in numerical order. Units6 and 8a and 8b include the synoptic assessment of the whole A Levelcourse, testing candidates’ understanding of connections betweendifferent elements of Biology. Similarly, Units 7 and 9a and 9b are thesynoptic assessment for the A Level Human Biology.

3.3 Entry Codes Normal entry requirements apply, but the following informationshould be noted. The following unit entry codes should be used:

AS A2

Unit 1 - BYA1Unit 2/3 - BYA2 or BYA3

Unit 4 - BYA4

Unit 5 - BYA5Unit 6/7 - BYA6 or BYA7

Unit 8 – BYA8consisting of BYA8/1 (8a)and BYA89/2 (8b)

Unit 9 – BYA9

consisting of BYA9/1 (9a)and BYA89/2 (9b)

The Subject Code for entry to the AS only award is:5411 for Biology or5413 for Biology (Human).

The Subject Code for entry to the Advanced Level is made up of theAS code plus the A2 code, i.e.5411 plus 6411 for Biology5413 plus 6413 for Biology (Human).

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3.4 Prohibited Combinations Candidates entering for this examination are prohibited from enteringfor any other GCE Biology or Human Biology specification in thesame series. This does not preclude candidates taking AS and A2units in the same specification with AQA in the same examinationseries.

Every specification is assigned to a national classification codeindicating the subject area to which it belongs.

Centres should be aware that candidates who enter for more than oneGCE qualification with the same classification code, will have onlyone grade (the highest) counted for the purpose of the School andCollege Performance Tables.

The classification code for this specification is 1010 for Biology and1030 for Biology (Human).

3.5 Private Candidates This specification is not available to private candidates unless anAS/A2 award has already been made within 12 months. In whichcase the results for the coursework components, AS Unit 4 and/orA2 Unit 8b/9b may be carried forward, if the rest of the qualificationis being retaken.

Private candidates should write to AQA for a copy of “SupplementaryGuidance for Private Candidates”.

3.6 Special Consideration Special consideration may be requested for candidates whose workhas been affected by illness or other exceptional circumstances. Theappropriate form and all relevant information should be forwarded tothe AQA office which deals with such matters for the centreconcerned. Special arrangements may be provided for candidateswith special needs.

Details are available from AQA. Centres should ask for a copy of“Regulations and Guidance relating to Candidates with Particular

Requirements”.

3.7 Language ofExaminations

All assessment Units in this subject are provided in English only.

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Scheme of Assessment

4 Introduction

This GCE Biology/Biology (Human) specification complies with:

• the Subject Criteria for Biology;

• the GCSE, GCE and VCE Code of Practice 2000/2001;

• the GCE Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level Qualification-Specific Criteria;

• the Arrangements for the Statutory Regulation of ExternalQualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; CommonCriteria.

AQA has developed two specifications in Biology which offerdistinctive approaches to the teaching and assessment of the subjectand provide continuity for centres which followed the previoussyllabuses offered by AEB and NEAB.

This specification, Specification A, was modelled on the AEB syllabusand offers a Biology or Human Biology route through the AS and ALevel as shown in the ‘Specification at a Glance’ in Section 2.

Specification B was developed from the NEAB Biology syllabus andoffers optional modules (one of three) in A2 providing greater depthin specialist areas.

Prior level of attainment andrecommended prior learning

This specification has been designed to be accessible to a wide rangeof candidates in both full and part-time education. BothSpecifications A and B build on the knowledge, understanding andskills set out in the National Curriculum Key Stage 4 Programme ofStudy for GCSE Double Science.

Rationale The specification provides an opportunity to gain a soundunderstanding of biology through the study of fundamental biologicalprinciples whilst exploring modern applications of Biology/HumanBiology.

The specification provides an appropriate foundation for furtherstudy of Biology/Human Biology or related subjects in highereducation. In addition it provides a worthwhile course for candidatesof various ages and from diverse backgrounds in terms of generaleducation and lifelong learning.

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5 AimsThis AS and A Level specification encourages candidates to:

a. develop essential knowledge and understanding of concepts ofbiology, and the skills needed for the use of these in new andchanging situations;

b. develop an understanding of scientific methods;

c. be aware of advances in technology, including informationtechnology, relevant to biology;

d. recognise the value and responsible use of biology in society;

e. sustain and develop their enjoyment of, and interest in, biology.

In addition, the A Level specification encourages candidates to:

f. show knowledge and understanding of facts, principles and conceptsfrom different areas of biology and to make and use connectionsbetween them.

6 Assessment Objectives

Assessment objectives (AOs) 1, 2 and 3 are the same for AS andA Level. AO4 applies only to the A2 part of the A Level course.

The scheme of assessment will assess candidates’ ability to:

At AS and A Level

6.1 Knowledge with a.Understanding (AO1)

recognise, recall and show understanding of specific biological facts,terminology, principles, concepts and practical techniques;

b. draw on existing knowledge to show understanding of the ethical,social, economic, environmental and technological implications andapplications of biology;

c. select, organise and present relevant information clearly and logically,using appropriate specialist vocabulary.

6.2 Application of knowledge a.and understanding, analysis,synthesis and evaluation(A02)

describe, explain and interpret phenomena and effects in terms ofbiological principles and concepts, presenting arguments and ideasclearly and logically, using specialist vocabulary where appropriate;

b. interpret, and translate from one form into another, data presented ascontinuous prose, or in tables, diagrams, drawings and graphs;

c. apply biological principles and concepts in solving problems inunfamiliar situations including those which relate to the ethical, social,economic and technological implications and applications of biology;

d. assess the validity of biological information, experiments, inferencesand statements.

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6.3 Experiment and a.investigation (AO3)

devise and plan experimental and investigative activities, selectingappropriate techniques;

b. Demonstrate safe and skilful practical techniques;

c. make observations and measurements with appropriate precision andrecord these methodically;

d. interpret, explain, evaluate and communicate the results of theirexperimental and investigative activities clearly and logically usingbiological knowledge and understanding and using appropriatespecialist vocabulary.

At A Level

6.4 Synthesis of knowledge, a.understanding and skills(AO4)

bring together principles and concepts from different areas of biologyand apply them in a particular context, expressing ideas clearly andlogically and using appropriate specialist vocabulary;

b. use biological skills in contexts which bring together different areas ofthe subject.

6.5 Quality of WrittenCommunication

The quality of written communication is assessed in both the AS andA2 assessment units where candidates are required to produceextended written material. Candidates will be expected to:

• select and use a form and style of writing appropriate to purposeand complex subject matter;

• organise relevant information clearly and coherently, usingspecialist vocabulary when appropriate;

• ensure text is legible, and spelling, grammar and punctuation areaccurate, so that meaning is clear.

The assessment of the quality of written communication is included inall the Assessment Objectives.

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7 Scheme of Assessment -

Advanced Subsidiary (AS)

The Scheme of Assessment has a modular structure. The AdvancedSubsidiary (AS) award comprises three compulsory assessment units.

For Biology the Units are 1, 2 and 4.

For Human Biology the Units are 1, 3 and 4.

7.1 Assessment Units Unit 1 (Biology and Human Biology)

Written Unit 1½ hours

35% of the total AS marks 75 marks

This unit comprises short answer and structured questions whichassess Module 1 of the subject content:

Molecules, Cells and Systems

All questions are compulsory.

Unit 2 (Biology only)

Written Unit 1½ hours35% of the total AS marks 75 marks

This unit comprises short answer and structured questions whichassess Module 2 of the subject content:

Making use of BiologyAll questions are compulsory.

Unit 3 (Human Biology only)

Written Unit 1½ hours35% of the total AS marks 75 marks

This unit comprises short answer and structured questions whichassess Module 3 of the subject content:

Pathogens and Disease

All questions are compulsory.

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Unit 4 (Biology and Human Biology)

Centre-assessed Coursework30% of the total AS marks 30 marks

This unit assesses the practical, Module 4. It requires candidates toplan, carry out and evaluate their work and should involve the use ofIT where appropriate.

It is marked by the teacher and moderated by AQA.

Further guidance can be found in Sections 20 – 25.

7.2 Weighting of AssessmentObjectives for AS

The approximate relationship between the relative percentageweighting of the Assessment Objectives (AOs) and the overallScheme of Assessment is shown in the following table.

Assessment Objectives Unit Weightings (%) Overall Weighting of

1 2/3 4 * AOs (%)

Knowledge withunderstanding (AO1)

20 20 10 50

Application of knowledge andunderstanding, analysis,synthesis and evaluation(AO2)

15 15 5 35

Experiment and investigation(AO3)

0 0 15 15

Synthesis of knowledge,understanding and skills(AO4)

0 0 0 0

Overall Weighting of Units (%) 35 35 30 100

* Centre-assessed Coursework

Candidates’ marks for each assessment unit are scaled to achieve the correct weightings.

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8 Scheme of Assessment -

Advanced Level (AS+A2)

The Scheme of Assessment has a modular structure. The A Levelaward comprises three compulsory assessment units from the ASScheme of Assessment and three compulsory assessment units fromthe A2 Scheme of Assessment.

Advanced Level Units

AS A2

Biology 1, 2, 4 5, 6, 8a and 8b

Human Biology 1, 3, 4 5, 7, 9a and 9b

The details of the AS Assessment Units are given in Section 7 aboveand comprise the following units.

8.1 AS Assessment Units Unit 1 (Biology and Human Biology)Written Unit 1½ hours

17.5% of the total A Level marks 75 marks

Unit 2 (Biology only)Written Unit 1½ hours

17.5% of the total A Level marks 75 marks

Unit 3 (Human Biology only)Written Unit 1½ hours

17.5% of the total A Level marks 75 marks

Unit 4 (Biology and Human Biology)

Centre-assessed Coursework15% of the total A Level marks 30 marks

8.2 A2 Assessment Units Unit 5 (Biology and Human Biology)

Written Unit 1½ hours15% of the total A Level marks 75 marks

This unit comprises short answer and structured questions andassesses Module 5 of the subject content:

Inheritance, Evolution and Ecosystems

All questions are compulsory.

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Unit 6 (Biology only)

Written Unit 1½ hours15% of the total A Level marks 75 marks

This unit comprises short answer and structured questions whichassess Module 6 of the subject content:

Physiology and the EnvironmentIt will also include some synoptic assessment (AO4) of the earliermodules.All questions are compulsory.

Unit 7 (Human Biology only)

Written Unit 1½ hours15% of the total A Level marks 75 marks

This unit comprises short answer and structured questions whichassess Module 7 of the subject content:

The Human Life-SpanIt will also include some synoptic assessment (AO4) of the earliermodules.All questions are compulsory.

Unit 8a (Biology only)

Written Unit 1¾ hours10% of the total A Level marks 60 marks

Unit 9a (Human Biology only)

Written Unit 1¾ hours10% of the total A Level marks 60 marks

Unit 8b/9b (Biology and Human Biology)

Centre-assessed Coursework10% of the total A Level marks 21 marks

Unit 8a/9a comprises 2 structured questions and 1 essay questionwhich tests synoptic skills (AO4). There will be a choice of essaytitles.

Unit 8b/9b assesses similar practical skills to Unit 4 with moreemphasis on synoptic skills (AO4).

The marks for Unit 8a and 8b and similarly 9a and 9b will becombined to give an overall result for Units 8 and 9.

Further guidance can be found in Sections 20 – 25.

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8.3 Synoptic Assessment The Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level Criteria state thatA Level specifications must include synoptic assessment representing20% of the total A Level marks (AO4).

In this specification the synoptic assessment is allocated as follows:

Unit 6/7 – 5% }} (externally assessed)

Unit 8a/9a – 10% }

Unit 8b/9b – 5% (internally-assessed)

8.4 Weighting of AssessmentObjectives for A Level

The approximate relationship between the relative percentageweighting of the Assessment Objectives (AOs) and the overallScheme of Assessment is shown in the following table.

A Level Assessment Units (AS + A2)

Assessment ObjectivesUnit Weightings (%)

OverallWeighting of

1 2/3 4* 5 6/7 8*/9* AOs (%)

Knowledge withunderstanding (AO1)

10 10 5 7.5 5 0 37.5

Application of knowledge andunderstanding analysis,synthesis and evaluation(AO2)

7.5 7.5 2.5 7.5 5 0 30

Experiment and investigation(AO3)

0 0 7.5 0 0 5 12.5

Synthesis of knowledge,understanding and skills (AO4) 0 0 0 0 5 15 20

Overall Weighting of Units (%) 17.5 17.5 15 15 15 20 100

Candidates’ marks for each assessment unit are scaled to achieve the correct weightings.

4* is a centre-assessed component.

8*/9* - These units contain a written component (8a and 9a) and a centre-assessed component (8b and 9b).

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Subject Content

9 Summary of Subject Content

9.1 AS Modules MODULE 1 - Molecules, Cells and Systems(Biology and Human Biology)

Most organisms are organised on a cellular basis. Biochemicalreactions occur within cells and these are regulated by the action ofenzymes and limited by the passage of substances across plasmamembranes. In larger organisms, cells are organised into tissues andtissues into organs which have specific functions. Organismsexchange substances with their environment and transport thesesubstances from one part of the body to another by mass flowsystems.It is anticipated that this module will allow consideration of theprinciples to be stressed rather than biochemical detail and willprovide an introduction to the acquisition of, and opportunities toassess, appropriate laboratory skills.

MODULE 2 - Making use of Biology(Biology only)

Biology influences our everyday lives in many ways. Enzymes can beisolated from microorganisms and have important applications inindustry and in medicine. A knowledge of the way in which genescode information that leads to the synthesis of specific proteins hasmany applications such as in the production of specific proteins andin forensic investigation. In agriculture, an understanding ofphysiological processes has enabled us to increase the productivity ofcrop plants and domestic animals.It is anticipated that this module will allow the continueddevelopment of basic skills as well as the opportunity to discuss theethical and moral issues that relate to the subject.

MODULE 3 - Pathogens and Disease(Human Biology only)

A variety of pathogenic organisms can cause human disease. Theserange from viruses and bacteria to larger parasites. They showadaptations which enable them to infect new hosts and survive inside.

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The blood, however, has a number of defensive functions which limitthe effects of many pathogens. A knowledge of the way in whichgenes code information, that results in the synthesis of specificproteins, can lead to an understanding of the way in which certaindiseases are caused, as well as allowing the production of specificproteins that can be used in their treatment and control. Non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancers also have asignificant impact on human health. Biotechnology has allowed thedevelopment of a variety of methods for the diagnosis and control ofdisease.It is anticipated that this module will allow the continueddevelopment of basic skills as well as the opportunity to discuss theethical and moral issues that relate to the subject.

MODULE 4 - Centre-Assessed Coursework(Biology and Human Biology)

Teacher assessment of practical skills (See Section 20).

9.2 A2 Modules MODULE 5 - Inheritance, Evolution and Ecosystems(Biology and Human Biology)

A Variation and the Mechanisms of Inheritance and Evolution

Genetic information is copied and transmitted from generation togeneration. Natural selection acting on genetic variation is thought tohave led to the enormous diversity of living organisms.

B The Biology of Ecosystems

Living organisms do not live in isolation but form structuredcommunities within dynamic and well defined ecosystems throughwhich energy flows and in which nutrients are cycled. This modulealso allows consideration of some of the ways in which human activitycan impose far reaching effects on the environment. It is expectedthat candidates will carry out fieldwork involving the collection ofquantitative data from at least one habitat and the application ofelementary statistical analysis to the results.

MODULE 6 - Physiology and the Environment(Biology only)

Living organisms do not live in isolation. They are part of complexecosystems in which they interact with the abiotic components. Thismodule allows consideration of some of the physiological processeson which animals and plants depend. The emphasis throughout hasbeen on adaptation to the environment.

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MODULE 7 - The Human Life-Span(Human Biology only)

The processes of reproduction, growth and ageing demonstrate theimportance of the interaction of physiological systems throughout thelife of an individual.

MODULE 8a/9a - Synoptic Assessment(Biology / Human Biology)

A written paper testing synopsis of the AS and A2 content(see Specimen and Past Papers).

MODULE 8b/9b - Centre-Assessed Coursework(Biology / Human Biology)

Teacher assessment of practical skills (see Section 21).

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10 AS Module 1

(Biology and Human Biology)

Molecules, Cells and Systems

Most organisms are organised on a cellular basis. Biochemicalreactions occur within cells and these are regulated by the action ofenzymes and limited by the passage of substances across plasmamembranes. In larger organisms, cells are organised into tissues andtissues into organs which have specific functions. Organismsexchange substances with their environment and transport thesesubstances from one part of the body to another by mass flowsystems.

It is anticipated that this module will allow principles to be stressedrather than biochemical detail and will provide an introduction to theacquisition of, and opportunities to assess, appropriate laboratoryskills.

10.1 The cell is the basic unit ofstructure in prokaryotic andeukaryotic organisms

Prokaryotic cells The main features of prokaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic cells The structure of plant and animal cells as seen through an opticalmicroscope.

Practical work to include the preparation of temporary mounts, theuse of simple staining techniques and the estimation of size.

10.2 The electron microscope andthe technique of cellfractionation may be used tostudy ultrastructure

Electron microscopes The principles and limitations of transmission and scanning electronmicroscopes.

The difference between magnification and resolution.

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Cell ultrastructure Interpretation of electron micrographs.

Identification of the principal features and organelles of a eukaryoticcell. Cell wall and plasma membranes, nucleus, chloroplasts,mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgiapparatus, microvilli and vesicles.

The functions of these structures.

The principal features of a bacterium.

Cell wall, capsule and genetic material.

Cell fractionation Principles of cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation as used toseparate cell components.

10.3 The properties of plasmamembranes are related to thepassage of substancesthrough them

Plasma membranes The arrangement of phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates in thefluid-mosaic model of membrane structure.

Diffusion Diffusion and the factors which determine its rate.

A qualitative consideration of Fick's law i.e. diffusion rate isproportional to

surface area × difference in concentrationthickness of exchange surface

Water potential Osmosis as the movement of water from a solution of less negativewater potential to a solution of more negative water potential througha partially permeable membrane.

Active transport andfacilitated diffusion

The role of protein molecules and energy in these processes.

Endo- and exocytosis

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10.4 Large molecules areimportant in the structureand functioning of cells

Biological molecules Biological molecules are based on a small number of chemicalelements and frequently consist of monomers combined intopolymers.

Condensation and hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates Structure and properties of carbohydrates.

The structures of α-glucose and β-glucose as:

and the linking of these monomers by glycosidic bonds.

Biochemical tests using Benedict's reagent for reducing sugars and fornon-reducing sugars after acid hydrolysis. Iodine/potassium iodidesolution for starch.

The basic structure of starch, glycogen and cellulose and therelationship of structure to the function of these substances in livingorganisms.

Proteins Structure of proteins.

The general structure of an amino acid molecule as:

and the linking together of amino acids with peptide bonds. Primary,secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure.

The relationship between the tertiary structure of a globular protein,its shape and its function.

The biuret test for proteins.

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Lipids The structure of lipids to include only saturated and unsaturatedtriglycerides and phospholipids.

The emulsion test for lipids.

Chromatography The technique of chromatography to illustrate how molecules may beseparated and identified.The calculation and use of R

f value.

Two-way chromatography.

10.5 Enzymes are proteins whichcontrol biochemical reactionsin cells

Enzyme action The protein nature of enzymes.

Enzymes as catalysts lowering activation energy through theformation of enzyme-substrate complexes.

The lock and key and induced fit models of enzyme action.

Factors which affect enzymeactivity

Description and explanation of the effects of temperature, pH,substrate and enzyme concentration and competitive and non-competitive inhibitors should be considered.

10.6 Tissues contain similar cells,and organs are structuresmade of different tissues

Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue lines many organs.

The essential features of the alveolar epithelium as a surface overwhich gas exchange takes place.

Blood Blood is specialised tissue containing a number of different cell types.Confined to recognition of red blood cells, lymphocytes, monocytesand granulocytes.

The structure of red blood cells in relation to their transport function.

The relationship between size and surface area to volume ratio.

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Blood vessels Blood vessels as examples of organs.

The structure of arteries, arterioles and veins in relation to theirfunction.

10.7 The blood system is a massflow system which movessubstances from one part ofthe body to another. It islinked with exchangesurfaces

Circulation The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal.Names only required of the carotid artery and of blood vesselsentering and leaving the heart, liver and kidneys.

Capillaries The structure of capillaries and their importance in metabolicexchange.

The formation of tissue fluid and its return to the circulatory system.Details of the lymphatic system are not required.

Lung function The gross structure of the human gas-exchange system.

The exchange of respiratory gases in the lungs.Fick's law, (section 10.3) provides an effective framework forconsideration of how the maximum rate of diffusion of respiratorygases is achieved.Details of transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood are not required.

This is covered in Section 15.5 of Module 6 and 16.6 of Module 7.

Ventilation Mechanism of ventilation and its nervous control.The composition of inhaled and exhaled air.The role of the medulla and the phrenic nerves in generating a basicbreathing rhythm.

10.8 The functioning of the heartplays a central role in thecirculation of blood andrelates to the level of activityof an individual

Heart structure The gross structure of the heart in relation to its function.

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Heart function Pressure and volume changes and associated valve movements duringthe cardiac cycle.

Myogenic stimulation of the heart and transmission of a subsequentwave of electrical activity.

Roles of sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node and bundle of His.

Effects of exercise Cardiac output as the product of heart rate and stroke volume.Pulmonary ventilation as the product of tidal volume and breathingrate.

Changes in cardiac output and pulmonary ventilation with exercise.

Nervous control of heart rate in relation to changing demands.

Redistribution of blood flow in response to varying degrees ofexercise.

The relative stability of blood supply to the brain, kidneys and heartand the increase to skeletal muscle.

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11 AS Module 2 (Biology only)

Making Use of Biology

Biology influences our everyday lives in many ways. Enzymes can beisolated from microorganisms and have important applications inindustry and in medicine. A knowledge of the way in which genescode information that leads to the synthesis of specific proteins hasmany applications such as in the production of specific proteins andin forensic investigation. In agriculture, an understanding ofphysiological processes has enabled us to increase the productivity ofcrop plants and domestic animals.

It is anticipated that this module will allow the continueddevelopment of basic skills as well as the opportunity to discuss theethical and moral issues that relate to the subject.

11.1 Enzymes may be isolatedfrom microorganisms andhave important applicationsin biotechnological processes

Isolation of enzymes The distinction between intracellular and extracellular enzymes.

A suitable example should be chosen to show that the commercialproduction of enzymes from microorganisms involves:

• the growth of large numbers of microorganisms using specificmedia and aseptic conditions;

• the isolation and purification of the enzyme product bydownstream processing.

Application of enzymes inbiotechnological processes

The applications of enzymes should be linked to a consideration oftheir functions (Module 1, Section 10.5)

Suitable examples should be selected to demonstrate that:

• because of their high sensitivity and specificity, enzymes may beused as analytical reagents;

• industrial processes require a high degree of thermostability;

• immobilised enzymes can be separated easily from reactants andproducts and can thus give a higher degree of control; they arealso more stable.

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11.2 Genetic information is passedfrom cell to cell duringdivision

Mitosis The process of mitosis emphasising the behaviour of chromosomes,the role of the spindle and the genetic identity of the products.

Use of appropriate staining techniques in the study of mitosis insuitable plant material.

The cell cycle Mitosis and the cell cycle.

The relationship between DNA replication and the events of the cellcycle.

Meiosis The importance of meiosis in halving the chromosome number ingametes so that, after fertilisation, the diploid chromosome number isrestored in the resulting zygote.

Details of chromosome behaviour are not required. This is covered in section14.1 of Module 5.

11.3 Genes incorporate codedinformation whichdetermines the metabolism oforganisms

The structure of DNA, mRNA and tRNA in terms of nucleotides,base pairing and hydrogen bonding.

DNA as genetic material Evidence that DNA is the genetic material.

Candidates will not be expected to link workers’ names with particular pieces of

work or to be familiar with the details of techniques. The exercise for candidatesshould be one of analysis and deduction using evidence derived from experimental

work.

The structure of nucleic acids This topic should be covered in sufficient detail to provide anunderstanding of the roles of nucleic acids in coding information,protein synthesis and the replication of DNA.

Replication of DNA The semi-conservative replication of DNA.

Protein synthesis The genetic code as a non-overlapping, degenerate code. Introns asnon-coding DNA.

The mechanism of protein synthesis involving the roles of mRNA,tRNA and the ribosomes.

Enzymes as proteins whose synthesis is controlled by DNA. Theycontrol metabolic pathways and thus influence the phenotype of anorganism.

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11.4 Gene technology has manyapplications in a modernworld

Recombinant DNA The production of recombinant DNA and its use in the production ofhuman insulin and other proteins.

Consideration should be given to the:

• isolation of the gene coding for the required protein;

• use of the enzymes: reverse transcriptase, restriction endonucleaseand ligase;

• sticky ends; insertion of the gene into a vector and its subsequentintroduction into host cells; plasmids and viruses as examples ofvectors;

• use of genetic markers such as genes conferring antibioticresistance to detect genetically modified organisms;

• multiplication of host cells.

The moral and ethical issues associated with recombinant DNAtechnology.

11.5 Forensic examination ofblood may draw on theprinciples of blood groupingand genetic fingerprinting

Principles of immunology Definition of antigen and antibody. The immunological response ofB-lymphocytes to stimulation by the appropriate antigen in terms ofproduction of plasma cells, memory cells and antibodies.

ABO blood groups can be distinguished by antigens present on theplasma membranes of red blood cells.Agglutination occurs when blood of a specific group is mixed with anappropriate antibody. This reaction forms the basis of bloodgrouping.The inheritance of ABO blood groups is not required.

Genetic fingerprinting The technique of genetic fingerprinting may be used to identifyindividual blood samples.

This process should be considered in such detail as to show that:

• restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into fragments;

• electrophoresis is used to sort DNA fragments according to size;

• radioactive DNA probes are used to locate specific DNAfragments;

Polymerase chain reaction The polymerase chain reaction and its importance in obtainingincreased amounts of DNA for analysis.

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11.6 Cultivated plants are adaptedto survive in particularenvironments. Humans canmanipulate the environmentof these plants to increaseproductivity

Adaptations of cereals Cereals form an important part of the human diet. Different speciesof cereal show structural and physiological adaptations which enablethem to grow in different parts of the world.

Consideration should be given to each of the cereals named below:

• rice as a swamp plant with hollow aerenchyma and a tolerance toethanol produced by anaerobic respiration;

• sorghum as a plant which grows in hot, dry conditions; itsxerophytic modifications include the presence of an extensive rootsystem, a thick cuticle and a reduced number of sunken stomata;both the adult plants and the embryos can tolerate hightemperatures;

• maize as a tropical plant with a specialised method ofphotosynthesis; the advantages of this method of photosynthesisin increased efficiency at high temperature and low carbon dioxideconcentrations. The biochemical details of photosynthesis are not required.

Controlling the abioticenvironment

Humans can change the abiotic environment of crop plants.

The effect of light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxideconcentration on rate of photosynthesis and productivity.Enhancement of these factors in commercial glasshouses.

Fertilisers Harvesting removes nutrients from the soil.The use of fertilisers to replace these.

The advantages and disadvantages of organic and inorganic fertilisers.The relationship between yield and the quantity of fertiliser added.The environmental issues arising from the use of fertilisers. Leachingand eutrophication.

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Pesticides Interspecific competition between weeds and crop plants.Reduction of crop yield by insects either directly, or indirectly byreducing the photosynthetic tissues of the plant.

The principles of using chemical pesticides, biological agents andintegrated systems in controlling pests of agricultural crops.

The environmental issues associated with pest control. Toxicity andbioaccumulation.

Candidates should be able to evaluate the issues involved in usingdifferent methods to control the pests.

11.7 Biotechnology allows themanipulation of reproductionin humans and domesticanimals

Reproduction and itshormonal control

The development of ovarian follicles and corpora lutea and changesin the uterine endometrium during the sexual cycle in a femalemammal.

The hormonal control of the female sexual cycle in a mammal.

The roles of FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone.

The detection and significance of oestrus in a named farm animal.

Manipulation and control ofreproduction

The use of extracted and synthetic hormones as contraceptives and incontrolling human infertility.

In domestic animals, the role of hormones in:

• producing large numbers of embryos for transplanting;

• synchronising breeding behaviour in sheep;

• increasing milk production.

The moral and ethical issues associated with using biotechnology tomanipulate reproduction.

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12 AS Module 3

(Human Biology only)

Pathogens and Disease

A variety of pathogenic organisms can cause human disease. Theserange from viruses and bacteria to larger parasites. They showadaptations which enable them to infect new hosts and survive inside.The blood, however, has a number of defensive functions whichlimits the effects of many pathogens. A knowledge of the way inwhich genes code information for the synthesis of specific proteinscan lead to an understanding of the way in which certain diseases arecaused, as well as allowing the production of specific proteins that canbe used in their treatment and control. Non-communicable diseasessuch as heart disease and cancers also have a significant impact onhuman health. Biotechnology has allowed the development of avariety of methods for the diagnosis and control of disease.

It is anticipated that this module will allow the continueddevelopment of basic skills as well as the opportunity to discuss theethical and moral issues that relate to the subject.

12.1 Bacteria and viruses areexamples of pathogenicmicroorganisms

Bacteria The sigmoid growth curve of a bacterial population and thecharacteristic log, lag, stationary and decline phases.The effect of temperature and nutrient availability on the growth ofbacterial populations.

Practical work to include investigations into population growth ofbacteria or yeast, involving sterile technique and the use of ahaemocytometer.

Viruses The structure of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and itsreplication.

The association ofmicroorganisms with disease

Koch’s postulates.

Disease can result from pathogenic organisms penetrating any of thebody’s interfaces with the environment.

Microorganisms can cause disease by damaging the cells of the hostand by producing toxins.

These principles should be illustrated by reference to the followingorganisms where appropriate:

Salmonella spp.

Mycobacterium tuberculosisHIV

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12.2 The parasites responsible formalaria and schistosomiasisshow structural andphysiological adaptationswhich enable them to infectnew hosts and survive insidethem

Parasites and parasitism The principal adaptations of parasites to their way of life as illustratedby Plasmodium and Schistosoma.

These organisms should be studied in sufficient detail to illustrate:

• their ability to survive in the hostile environment within the host;

• reduction of locomotory and other structures;

• modification of reproduction and the life cycle associated withinfecting a new host.

12.3 Mammalian blood possessesa number of defensivefunctions

General mechanism ofdefence against disease

Phagocytosis and the subsequent destruction of ingested pathogens.

The roles of thromboplastins, prothrombin, plasma enzymes, calciumions and fibrinogen in blood clotting.

Principles of immunology Definition of antigen and antibody.

The essential difference between humoral and cellular responses asshown by B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.The role of plasma cells and memory cells in producing primary andsecondary response.

Principles only should be stressed. The function of cell types other than

those specified and the classes of immunoglobulins are not required.

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Passive and active immunity Passive immunity.

Antibodies acquired naturally through the placenta and via lactationshould be considered as well as those acquired artificially.

Vaccination and immunisation.

Attenuated and dead microorganisms, and genetic engineering (seesection 12.5) as the basis for vaccines.

12.4 Genetic information is passedfrom cell to cell duringdivision

Mitosis The process of mitosis emphasising the behaviour of chromosomes,the role of the spindle and the genetic identity of the products.

Use of appropriate staining techniques in the study of mitosis insuitable plant material.

The cell cycle Mitosis and the cell cycle.

The relationship between DNA replication and the events of the cellcycle.

Meiosis The importance of meiosis in halving the chromosome number ingametes so that, after fertilisation, the diploid chromosome number isrestored in the resulting zygote.

Details of chromosome behaviour are not required. This is covered in section

14.1 of Module 5.

12.5 Genes incorporate codedinformation whichdetermines the metabolism oforganisms

The structure of DNA, mRNA and tRNA in terms of nucleotides,base pairing and hydrogen bonding.

DNA as genetic material Evidence that DNA is the genetic material.

Candidates will not be expected to link workers’ names with particular pieces ofwork or to be familiar with the details of techniques. The exercise for candidates

should be one of analysis and deduction using evidence derived from experimentalwork.

The structure of nucleic acids This topic should be covered in sufficient detail to provide anunderstanding of the roles of nucleic acids in coding information,protein synthesis and the replication of DNA.

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Replication of DNA The semi-conservative replication of DNA.

Protein synthesis The genetic code as a non-overlapping, degenerate code. Introns asnon-coding DNA.

The mechanism of protein synthesis involving the roles of mRNA,tRNA and the ribosomes.

Proteins whose synthesis is controlled by DNA control metabolicpathways and thus influence the phenotype of an organism.This section should be illustrated with reference to cystic fibrosis andphenylketonuria.

12.6 Gene technology may be usedin combating disease

Recombinant DNA The production of recombinant DNA and its use in the production ofhuman insulin and other proteins.

Consideration should be given to the:

• isolation of the gene coding for the required protein;

• use of the enzymes: reverse transcriptase, restriction endonucleaseand ligase;

• sticky ends; insertion of the gene into a vector and its subsequentintroduction into host cells; plasmids and viruses as examples ofvectors;

• use of genetic markers such as genes conferring antibioticresistance to detect genetically modified organisms;

• multiplication of host cells.

The moral and ethical issues associated with recombinant DNAtechnology.

12.7 Non-communicable diseaseincludes heart disease andcancer

The biological basis of heartdisease

Atheroma as the presence of fatty material within the walls of arteries.

Explanation of the link between atheroma and the increased risk ofaneurysm and thrombosis.

Myocardial infarction and its cause in terms of an interruption to theblood flow to the heart muscle.

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Risk factors associated with coronary heart disease.

Blood cholesterol, cigarette smoking and increased blood pressure.

The biological basis of cancer The main characteristics of tumours and tumour cells.

The distinction between benign and malignant tumours.

Consideration should be given to the following aspects:

• genes and the part they play in the control of normal cell growth;

• chemical carcinogens and radiation may damage DNA and causemutations in the genes controlling growth;

• tumour cells fail to respond to normal growth regulating processes;they undergo metastasis and invade other organs;

• the role of tumour suppressor genes in preventing tumour growth.

The incidence of lung and skin cancers in the United Kingdom.Factors which increase the incidence of these cancers.The emphasis should be placed on interpretation of data showing thepattern of incidence and links with possible causal factors.

The moral and ethical issues associated with cigarette smoking anddisease.

12.8 Disease may be diagnosed bya variety of techniques

DNA probes and diagnosis The use of DNA probes to identify the presence of specific genesassociated with human disease.

This process should be considered in such detail as to show that:

• restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into fragments;

• electrophoresis is used to sort fragments according to charge andsize;

• radioactive DNA probes are used to locate specific DNAfragments.

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Enzymes and diagnosis Disease can result in changes in the concentration and distribution ofenzymes in the body.

Pancreatitis may result in increased concentrations of digestiveenzymes in the blood or a decrease in the concentration of theseenzymes in the gut.

Because of their high sensitivity and specificity, enzymes may be usedas analytical reagents.The use of glucose oxidase and peroxidase in testing for glucose.

12.9 Drugs are used in the controland treatment of disease

Betablockers Beta blockers as drugs which can be used to reduce hypertension bybinding to receptor molecules.

Antibiotics Antibiotics may be used to treat bacterial disease by preventing theformation of bacterial cell walls or interfering with the processes ofDNA replication and protein synthesis.The importance of the cell wall in preventing osmotic lysis.

Bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics and their effect on bacterialpopulations.The mode of action of specific antibiotics will not be required.

Monoclonal antibodies The use of monoclonal antibodies in enabling the targeting of specificsubstances and cells.The method of production of monoclonal antibodies will not be required.

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13 AS Module 4

(Biology and Human Biology)

Centre-Assessed Coursework

Candidates will be assessed on the following ten practical skills.

A. Method of changing the independent variable.

B. Method of measuring the dependent variable.

C. Implementation of practical work.

D. Collection and presentation of raw data.

E. Drawing.

F. Analysing.

G. Drawing conclusions.

H. Evaluating.

I. Selecting and retrieving information.

J. Communicating.

This component will be marked by the teacher and moderated byAQA.

For further details see Section 20.

Evidence of the Skills in the shaded boxes A, B, F, G, H, I and J mustbe sent to the AQA moderator for each candidate in the sample. It isrecognised that the ephemeral nature of skills C, D and E makes themunsuitable for moderation.

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14 A2 Module 5

(Biology and Human Biology)

Inheritance, Evolution and

Ecosystems

A. Variation and theMechanisms of Inheritanceand Evolution

Genetic information is copied and transmitted from generation togeneration. Natural selection acting on genetic variation is thought tohave led to the enormous diversity of living organisms.

14.1 Continuity is maintained bythe transmission of geneticinformation from generationto generation

Meiosis The process of meiosis emphasising the reduction in chromosomenumber and the independent assortment of homologouschromosomes, chiasma formation and the exchange of geneticmaterial between homologous chromosomes.Names of subdivisions of prophase I are not required.

The principles of Mendelianinheritance

Candidates may be asked to solve problems involving any of thefollowing four features presented as data derived from specific crossesor as pedigrees:

• monohybrid and dihybrid crosses;

• multiple alleles;

• sex linkage;

• codominance.

Autosomal linkage is not required.

Reasons why experimental results may be expected only toapproximate to Mendelian ratios.

Application of chi-squared test to data obtained.

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14.2 Genetic and environmentalfactors influence variationbetween individuals

Investigating variation The need for random sampling and the importance of chance incontributing to differences between samples.

Collection and display of data by means of appropriate graphicaltechniques.

The concept of normal distribution about a mean. Understanding ofmean and standard deviation as a measure of the variation in asample.

The calculation and interpretation of standard error.

Candidates will not be required to calculate either standard deviation or standarderror in answer to questions on written papers.

The causes of variation Variation exists between members of a species.

The significance of meiosis in generating genetic variation.

Gene mutation. Restricted to substitution, addition and deletion ofbases.

Interaction of genetic and environmental factors resulting in thephenotype.

Polygenic inheritance.

14.3 Selection can influence thefrequency of alleles in apopulation

The Hardy-Weinberg principle The concept of the gene pool.

The Hardy-Weinberg equation and the conditions under which itapplies.

Calculation of allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies fromappropriate data and from the Hardy-Weinberg equation.

p2 + 2pq + q2 =1

Selection and change in allelefrequency

The concept of change in allele frequency due to selection.Directional, stabilising and disruptive selection.

Examples chosen to illustrate this concept should include a study ofthe incidence of sickle-cell anaemia in relation to malaria andconsideration of the evolution of resistance to pesticides andantibiotics as an example of the effect of human activity.

Speciation The importance of reproductive isolation in the formation of newspecies.

Allopatric and sympatric speciation.

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14.4 Evolution has resulted indifferent species oforganisms. They areclassified into five kingdoms

The concept of a species Definition of species in terms of variation and potential for breeding.

The five-kingdomclassification

Recognition that kingdoms are divided into phyla, classes, orders,families, genera and species.

The classification of living organisms into five kingdoms:Prokaryotae, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.The distinguishing characteristics of each kingdom.This hierarchy should be illustrated with reference to the classificationof familiar organisms. Candidates will not be expected to recall classification

of individual organisms.

B. The Biology of Ecosystems Living organisms do not live in isolation but form structuredcommunities within dynamic and well-defined ecosystems throughwhich energy flows and in which nutrients are cycled. This sectionalso considers some of the ways in which human activity can imposefar-reaching effects on the environment. It is expected thatcandidates will carry out fieldwork involving the collection ofquantitative data from at least one habitat and the application ofelementary statistical analysis to the results.

14.5 The concept of an ecosystem

Ecological terms An understanding of the following ecological terms:

• ecosystem;

• community;

• population;

• environment;

• habitat;

• niche.

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Investigating numbers anddistribution

A critical appreciation of some of the ways in which the numbers anddistribution of organisms may be investigated.

Random sampling with quadrats and counting along transects toobtain quantitative data.The use of mark-release-recapture techniques for more mobilespecies.

Diversity An understanding of the concept of diversity in the context ofecological stability.

Calculation of an index of diversity from the formula

d = � −

−)n(n

)N(N

1

1

where N = total number of organisms of all species

and n = total number of organisms of each species.

• In extreme environments the diversity of organisms is usually low.This may result in an unstable ecosystem in which populations areusually dominated by abiotic factors.

• In less hostile environments the diversity of organisms is usuallyhigh. This may result in a stable ecosystem in which populationsare usually dominated by biotic factors.

Succession Succession from pioneer species to climax community.

Changes in abiotic factors resulting in a less hostile environment andincreasing diversity.

14.6 Photosynthesis uses energyfrom sunlight to synthesiseorganic molecules frominorganic sources

The biochemistry ofphotosynthesis

The light-independent and light-dependent reactions in a typical C3

plant.

These processes should be considered only in such detail as to showthat

(i) in the light-dependent reactions:

• electrons in chlorophyll are excited by light energy;

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• energy from these excited electrons generates ATP andreduced NADP;

• photolysis of water produces protons and electrons;

• oxygen is a valuable waste product of photolysis.

(ii) in the light-independent reactions:

• ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) acts as a carbon dioxideacceptor leading to the formation of two molecules ofglycerate 3-phosphate (GP);

• ATP and reduced NADP are required for the reduction ofGP to triose phosphate;

• RuBP is regenerated in the Calvin cycle;

• Triose phosphate is converted to useful carbohydrates,amino acids and lipids.

Chloroplasts The role of chloroplasts in photosynthesis.

14.7 Energy is transferred throughfood chains and food webs ina community.

Ecological pyramids Pyramids of number, biomass and energy.

The trophic levels of producer, primary and secondary consumer anddecomposer.

Transfer of energy betweentrophic levels

A quantitative consideration of the transfer of energy between trophiclevels and its relative efficiency.

14.8 Respiration produces ATPwhich is the immediate formof energy for many cellactivities

Respiratory substrates andrespiratory quotient (RQ)

The use of different respiratory substrates and the determination,calculation and interpretation of RQ.

RQ should be considered with reference to lipid, protein andcarbohydrate.

The biochemistry ofrespiration

The release of energy from carbohydrate by aerobic respiration.The production of ethanol or lactate and the regeneration of NAD inanaerobic respiration.

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These processes should be considered only in such detail as to showthat:

• glycolysis involves the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate with thenet gain of ATP and reduced NAD;

• acetylcoenzyme A is produced from pyruvate and coenzyme A inthe link reaction;

• acetylcoenzyme A combines with a 4-carbon molecule to producea 6-carbon molecule in the Krebs cycle;

• in a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, the Krebs cyclegenerates reduced coenzymes and ATP by substrate-levelphosphorylation and carbon dioxide is lost;

• oxidative phosphorylation leads to the aerobic generation of ATPvia a chain of electron carriers;

• aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic respiration interms of ATP production.

The roles of the cytoplasm and of the mitochondria in theseprocesses.

The role of ATP ATP as an immediate source of energy in active transport, glycolysis,photosynthesis and other metabolic processes.

14.9 Decomposition and recyclingmaintain the balance ofnutrients in an ecosystem

Carbon and nitrogen cycles The importance of respiration and photosynthesis in giving rise toshort-term fluctuations and in the long-term global balance of oxygenand carbon dioxide.

The passage of nutrients through various trophic levels and the roleof microorganisms in converting organic molecules to inorganicsubstances which are made available to plants. Illustrated withreference to the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

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14.10 Human activity can imposefar-reaching effects on anecosystem. There is apotential conflict of interestbetween production andconservation

Deforestation Deforestation leading to the increase in land for agriculture.The influence of deforestation on diversity and on carbon andnitrogen cycling.

Conservation of forests allowing sustainable provision of resources.

Specific knowledge will be required of this example only, althoughcandidates may be required to interpret other material illustrating thegeneral theme of this section.

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15 A2 Module 6

(Biology only)

Physiology and the Environment

Living organisms do not live in isolation. They are part of complexecosystems in which they interact with the abiotic components. Inthis module, consideration has been given to some of thephysiological processes on which animals and plants depend. Theemphasis throughout is on adaptation to the environment.

15.1 Abiotic factors influenceuptake and loss of water inflowering plants

The passage of water througha plant

The structure of a dicotyledonous root in relation to uptake andmovement of water across the root by apoplastic and symplasticpathways.

The structure of xylem vessels and their distribution in the stem of aherbaceous dicotyledon.

Evidence for, and limitations of, theories which explain movement inxylem.

Capillarity, root pressure and cohesion-tension should be considered.

Transpiration and a quantitative study of the factors which affectwater loss.

Candidates should be familiar with the use of a simple potometer formeasuring water uptake.

Xerophytes Structural adaptations which promote the uptake of water and controlits loss in xerophytes.

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15.2 Homeostatic mechanismsfunction to maintain thebody in a state of equilibriumand allow a degree ofindependence from theenvironment

Principles of Homeostasis The control of temperature and blood glucose should be used toillustrate the following principles:

• homeostasis provides a constant internal environment andindependence from fluctuating external conditions;

• negative feedback tends to restore systems to their original levels;

• the possession of separate mechanisms controlling departures indifferent directions from the original state gives a greater degree ofcontrol;

• control mechanisms must be coordinated.

Temperature control The contrasting mechanisms of temperature control in an ectothermicreptile and an endothermic mammal. Mechanisms involved in heatproduction, conservation and loss. The role of the hypothalamus andautonomic nervous systems in temperature control in a mammal.

Control of blood glucoseconcentration

The factors which influence blood glucose concentration.

Role of hormones in activating enzymes involved in theinterconversion of glucose and glycogen.Details of biochemical pathways and individual enzymes are not required.

The roles of insulin and glucagon in controlling blood glucose.

Diabetes and its control with insulin and by manipulation ofcarbohydrate intake.

15.3 The functions of the liver andkidney are essential tohomeostasis

The liver as a homeostaticorgan

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Methods of removingnitrogenous waste

Animals have different methods of removing nitrogenous waste.The following should be considered:

• ammonia in fish;

• uric acid in insects and birds;

• urea in mammals;

The emphasis should be placed on the link between physiology andthe environment of the organism concerned.Details of biochemical pathways are not required in this section.

Deamination and theproduction of urea

This process should be considered only in such detail as to show that:

• the amino group is removed from an amino acid;

• the remainder of the amino acid molecule may be used inrespiration;

• the nitrogenous product of deamination is ammonia which isconverted to urea.

Kidney function The structure and arrangement of a nephron and its associated bloodvessels within the kidney in relation to its function.

The ultrastructure of the glomerulus, renal capsule and cells of thefirst convoluted tubule should be studied in relation to theirfunctions:

• the production of glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration in the renalcapsule;

• reabsorption in the first convoluted tubule;

• the countercurrent multiplier hypothesis.

Water balance The roles of the kidney and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in thehomeostatic regulation of water. Details of hormonal controlrestricted to ADH.

Control of the water budget in small desert mammals.

Meeting of water requirements largely from preformed and metabolicwater.

Minimisation of respiratory, cutaneous and excretory loss.

Behavioural adaptations.

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15.4 There is a conflict betweenthe need for an efficient gasexchange system and thecontrol of water loss

Gas exchange surfaces Essential features of surfaces over which gas exchange takes place.Fick’s law provides an effective framework for consideration of howthe maximum rate of diffusion of respiratory gases is achieved:

• by the body surface of a protoctistan;

• in a fish gill;

• in the tracheal system of insects;

• in the spongy mesophyll of a leaf.

Limiting water loss Structural and functional compromises between the opposing needsfor efficient gas exchange and limiting water loss shown by terrestrialinsects and mesophytic plants.

15.5 Respiratory gases aretransported betweenexchange surfaces and theindividual cells of anorganism

The transport of respiratorygases

The roles of haemoglobin and hydrogencarbonate ions in the carriageof respiratory gases and the control of blood pH.

The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve.

The Bohr effect.

Candidates should be aware that different organisms possess differenttypes of haemoglobin with different oxygen transporting properties.They should be able to relate these to the environment and way of lifeof the organism concerned.

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15.6 The digestive system inmammals involves thechemical breakdown of foodand its absorption from thegut

Digestion of food The importance of hydrolytic enzymes as illustrated by the digestionof:

• starch – the role of salivary and pancreatic amylases andof maltases located in the cells of the intestinalepithelium;

• proteins – exopeptidases and endopeptidases, activation oftrypsinogen and pepsinogen, peptidases locatedin the cells of the intestinal epithelium;

• lipids – pancreatic lipase, the role of bile;

• cellulose – the mutualistic relationship between ruminantsand rumen microorganisms emphasising theability of ruminants to survive on diets poor inprotein.

Absorption of products ofdigestion

Histology of the ileum in relation to its secretory and absorptivefunctions.

The layers of the gut wall and the ultrastructure of the epithelium.

Absorption and active uptake of the products of digestion.

Control of digestivesecretions

Nervous and hormonal control of salivary, gastric and pancreaticsecretions.

The importance of simple and conditioned reflexes and the hormonesgastrin, secretin and cholecystokinin-pancreozymin.

This section should be used to illustrate the important differencesbetween nervous and hormonal control in animals.

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15.7 The dietary requirements oforganisms vary at differentstages in their lives

Metamorphosis and insectdiet

Metamorphosis as illustrated by the life cycle of a lepidopterousinsect.

This section should reflect change in protein and energy requirementsassociated with growth in the larva and reproduction and dispersal inthe adult. Associated changes in food and gut enzymes.

Specific knowledge will only be required of this example, althoughcandidates may be required to interpret other material illustrating thegeneral theme of this section.

15.8 Action potentials andsynapses play a fundamentalrole in transmittinginformation through thenervous system

Neurones The structure of a myelinated motor neurone.

Action potentials and nerveimpulses

The role of the neurone membrane in the establishment of a restingpotential.

Explained in terms of electrochemical gradients and the movement ofsodium and potassium ions.

Change in membrane permeability leading to the generation of anaction potential.

The all-or-nothing nature of nerve impulses.

Refractory period.

Saltatory conduction.

Factors affecting the speed of conductance: myelination, axondiameter and temperature.

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Synaptic transmission Consideration should be given to the following aspects of synaptictransmission:

• undirectionality;

• summation;

• inhibition.

Emphasis should be placed on an understanding of the mechanismsby which transmission may be affected rather than on knowledge ofspecific chemicals.

The mechanism of transmission at an excitatory synapse.Knowledge of transmitters limited to acetylcholine and noradrenaline.

The agonistic and antagonistic effects of chemicals on synaptictransmission.

15.9 Receptors convert stimuliinto electrical impulses innerve cells

Pacinian corpuscles The basic structure of a Pacinian corpuscle as an example of areceptor.

The creation of a generator potential on stimulation.

The Pacinian corpuscle should be used as an example to illustrate thefollowing:

• receptors only respond to specific stimuli;

• stimulation of receptor membranes produces deformation ofstretch-mediated sodium channels leading to the establishment of agenerator potential.

The eye The structure of a mammalian eye and its transmissive and refractiveproperties in focusing an image on the retina.

The role of rod cells and cone cells in effecting monochromatic andtrichromatic vision.

The absorption of light by rhodospin causes a chemical changeleading to the creation of a generator potential.

Details of hyperpolarisation are not required.

The connection between sensory cells and the neurones of the opticnerve which allow sensitivity and acuity of vision.

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15.10 Patterns of behaviour areintegrated and controlled bythe nervous system

Spinal Reflexes The pathway and adaptive value of a simple spinal reflex involvingthree neurones.

The autonomic nervoussystem

An outline of the functions of the parasympathetic and sympatheticdivisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Specific physiological knowledge will only be required in the contextof the control of heart rate.

Simple behaviour patterns Taxes and kineses as simple responses which can maintain anorganism in a favourable environment.

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16 A2 Module 7

(Human Biology only)

The Human Life-Span

The processes of reproduction, growth and ageing demonstrate theimportance of the interaction of physiological systems throughout thelife of an individual.

16.1 Sexual reproduction involvesthe production and transferof gametes and theachievement of fertilisation

Gametes and gameteformation

The histology of the testis and ovary.

An outline of gametogenesis.Considered in sufficient detail to show the processes of mitosis,meiosis, growth and maturation and the differences and similaritiesbetween gamete formation in males and females.

Fertilisation The structure of a mature sperm cell and its movement through thefemale reproductive tract.

The acrosome reaction and penetration of the oocyte membranes.

16.2 The developing fetus in itsuterine environment isdependent on its mother

Implantation and earlydevelopment

The early development of the zygote to a blastocyst and itsimplantation.

Details of embryogenesis and the development of extra-embryonic membranes are

not required.

The developing fetus The following features of the circulatory system of the developingfetus:

• umbilical arteries and vein;

• ductus arteriosus;

• foramen ovale.

The structure and functions of the placenta.Emphasis should be placed on the functional adaptations of theplacenta for exchange and active transport.

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Maternal physiology The effect of pregnancy on aspects of maternal physiology:

• thermal balance;

• changes in blood volume and cardiac output and their significance.

The role of hormones during pregnancy and in controlling birth andlactation.Confined to oestrogen, progesterone, human chorionicgonadotrophin, prolactin and oxytocin.

16.3 The processes of growth anddevelopment lead to theformation of matureorganisms

Growth and its measurement Methods of measuring growth.Supine length, standing height and body mass.

Absolute growth and growth rate.

The advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional and longitudinalstudies.

Relative rates of growth of different tissues and organs from birth toadulthood in males and females.

Growth of the body as a whole, the brain and head, lymphoid andreproductive tissues and organs.

Puberty The physical and endocrinal changes associated with puberty.

The role of the following hormones in controlling early growth andthe changes associated with puberty:

• growth hormone;

• thyroxine;

• pituitary gonadotrophins;

• oestrogen and testosterone.

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16.4 The digestive system inhumans involves thechemical breakdown of foodand its absorption from thegut

Digestion of food The importance of hydrolytic enzymes as illustrated by the digestionof:

• starch – the role of salivary and pancreatic amylases andof maltases located in the cells of the intestinalepithelium;

• proteins – exopeptidases and endopeptidases, activation oftrypsinogen and pepsinogen, peptidases locatedin the cells of the intestinal epithelium;

• lipids – pancreatic lipase, the role of bile;

• lactose – lactose intolerance and the occurrence of lactaseenzymes in human populations.

Absorption of products ofdigestion

Histology of the ileum in relation to its secretory and absorptivefunctions.

The layers of the gut wall and the ultrastructure of the epithelium.

Absorption and active uptake of the products of digestion.

The principles of oral rehydration therapy in the control of gastro-intestinal infections.

Control of digestivesecretions

Nervous and hormonal control of salivary, gastric and pancreaticsecretions.

The importance of simple and conditioned reflexes and the hormonesgastrin, secretin and cholecystokinin-pancreozymin.

This section should be used to illustrate the important differencesbetween nervous and hormonal control.

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16.5 Dietary requirements differaccording to age, sex andoccupation

The principal nutrients in thediet and their role in the body

Role of carbohydrates and lipids in the body.Determination of energy content of food.Simple laboratory techniques for estimating energy content ofdifferent foods. Sources of error in methods used.

Role of proteins in the body.Essential and non-essential amino acids.Transamination. Biochemical pathways are not required.

Simple qualitative tests on food.

Role of vitamins with respect to vitamin D and of inorganic ionsillustrated by iron and calcium.

Dietary requirements Concept of basal metabolic rate (BMR).The relationship between BMR and body mass and surface area.

The pattern of energy expenditure and protein requirementsassociated with growth and ageing.

Rates of energy expenditure in adults engaged in different activities.Glycogen loading and the enhancement of athletic performance.

The concept of a balanced diet and specific problems which may arisefrom vegetarian and weight-loss diets.

Dietary demands of pregnancy and lactation, restricted to protein,energy content, iron and calcium.

Requirements for iron in human females, related to menstrual loss.Influence of IUDs and oral contraceptives on menstrual loss of iron.

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16.6 Respiratory gases aretransported betweenexchange surfaces and theindividual cells of anorganism

The transport of respiratorygases

The roles of haemoglobin and hydrogencarbonate ions in the carriageof respiratory gases and the control of blood pH.

Comparison of adult and fetal haemoglobin.

The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve.

The Bohr effect.

16.7 Action potentials andsynapses play a fundamentalrole in transmittinginformation through thenervous system

Neurones The structure of a myelinated motor neurone.

Action potentials and nerveimpulses

The role of the neurone membrane in the establishment of a restingpotential explained in terms of electrochemical gradients and themovement of sodium and potassium ions.

Change in membrane permeability leading to the generation of anaction potential.

The all-or nothing nature of nerve impulses.

Refractory Period.

Saltatory conduction.

Factors affecting the speed of conductance: myelination, axondiameter and temperature.

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Synaptic transmission Consideration should be given to the following aspects of synaptictransmission:

• undirectionality;

• summation;

• inhibition.

Emphasis should be placed on an understanding of the mechanismsby which transmission may be affected rather than on knowledge ofspecific chemicals.

The mechanism of transmission at an excitatory synapse.Knowledge of transmitters limited to acetylcholine and noradrenaline.

The agonistic and antagonistic effects of chemicals on synaptictransmission.

16.8 Receptors convert stimuliinto electrical impulses innerve cells

Pacinian corpuscles The basic structure of a Pacinian corpuscle as an example of areceptor.

The creation of a generator potential on stimulation.

The Pacinian corpuscle should be used as an example to illustrate thefollowing:

• receptors respond only to specific stimuli;

• stimulation of receptor membranes produces deformation ofstretch-mediated sodium channels leading to the establishment of agenerator potential.

The eye The structure of a mammalian eye and its transmissive and refractiveproperties in focusing an image on the retina.

The role of rod cells and cone cells in effecting monochromatic andtrichromatic vision.The absorption of light by rhodopsin causes a chemical changeleading to the creation of a generator potential.Details of hyperpolarisation are not required.

The connection between sensory cells and the neurone of the opticnerve which allow sensitivity and acuity of vision.

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16.9 Skeletal muscles arestimulated to contract bynerves and act as effectors

The sliding-filament theory ofmuscle contraction

Gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle including theultrastructure of a myofibril.

The roles of actin, myosin, calcium ions and ATP in myofibrilcontraction.

Muscles as effectors The roles of ATP and phosphocreatine in providing the energy supplyduring muscle contraction.

The structure, location and general properties of slow and fast skeletalmuscle fibres.

16.10 Patterns of behaviour areintegrated and controlled bythe nervous system

Spinal reflexes The pathway and adaptive value of a simple spinal reflex involvingthree neurones.

The autonomic nervoussystem

An outline of the functions of the parasympathetic and sympatheticdivisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Specific physiological knowledge will only be required in the contextof the control of heart rate.

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16.11 Homeostatic mechanismsfunction to maintain thebody in a state of equilibriumand allow a degree ofindependence from theenvironment

Principles of homeostasis The control of temperature and blood glucose should be used toillustrate the following principles:

• homeostasis provides a constant internal environment andindependence from fluctuating external conditions;

• negative feedback tends to restore systems to their original levels;

• the possession of separate mechanisms controlling departures indifferent directions from the original state gives a greater degree ofcontrol;

• control mechanisms must be coordinated.

Temperature control Mechanisms involved in heat production, conservation and loss.The role of the hypothalamus and autonomic nervous systems intemperature control.

Control of blood glucoseconcentration

The factors which influence blood glucose concentration.

Role of hormones in activating enzymes involved in theinterconversion of glucose and glycogen. Details of biochemical pathwaysand individual enzymes are not required.

The roles of insulin and glucagon in controlling blood glucose.

Diabetes and its control with insulin and by manipulation ofcarbohydrate intake.

16.12 Senescence is a characteristicfeature of the human life-span

The decline of physiologicaleffectiveness

The effect of age on:

• BMR;

• cardiac output;

• nerve conduction velocity.

The effect of age on reproductive function in the human female andthe consequent decline in fertility.The decrease in normal ovulatory cycles.Changes in secretion of pituitary gonadotrophins and ovarianhormones.

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17 A2 Module 8/9

(Biology [8]

and Human Biology [9])8a/9a Written Synoptic Papers

8b/9b Centre-Assessed Coursework

17.1 8a/9a Written Synoptic Papers

(see Specimen and Past Papers)

17.2 8b/9b Centre-Assessed Practical

Candidates will be assessed on the following practical skills:

A. Defining the problem.

B. Method of changing the independent variable.

C. Method of measuring the dependent variable.

D. Implementation.

E. Use of statistical techniques.

F. Interpretation of results.

G. Evaluating evidence and procedures.

This component will be marked by the teacher and moderated byAQA. For further details see Section 21.

Evidence of the skills in the shaded boxes A, B, C, E, F and G must besent to the AQA moderator for each candidate in the sample. It is

recognised that the ephemeral nature of Skill D makes it unsuitable formoderation.

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Key Skills and Other Issues

18 Key Skills - Teaching, Developing

and Providing Opportunities for

Generating Evidence

18.1 Introduction The Key Skills qualification requires candidates to demonstrate levelsof achievement in the Key Skills of Application of Number,Communication and Information Technology.

The units for the ‘wider’ Key Skills of Improving own Learning and

Performance, Working with Others and Problem-Solving are also available.The acquisition and demonstration of ability in these wider Key Skillsis deemed highly desirable for all candidates, but they do not formpart of the Key Skills qualification.

Copies of the Key Skills Units may be downloaded from the QCAWebsite www.qca.org.uk/keyskills

The units for each Key Skill comprise three sections:

A What you need to know.

B What you must do.

C Guidance.

Candidates following a course of study based on this specification forBiology/Human Biology can be offered opportunities to develop andgenerate evidence of attainment in aspects of all of the Key Skills.Areas of study and learning that can be used to encourage theacquisition and use of Key Skills, and to provide opportunities togenerate evidence for Section B of the units, are signposted below.More specific guidance on integrating the delivery of Key Skills incourses based upon this specification is given in the AQAspecification support material.

18.2 Key Skills Opportunities inBiology/Human Biology

This AS and A Level specification in Biology/Human Biologyprovides opportunities for developing and generating evidence forassessing the Key Skills listed below.

• Communication;

• Information Technology;

• Application of Number;

• Working with Others;

• Improving Own Learning and Performance;

• Problem Solving.

The broad and multi-disciplinary nature of Biology/Human Biologythat calls upon candidates’ abilities to demonstrate the transferabilityof their knowledge, understanding and skills, make it an ideal vehicle

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to assist candidates to develop their knowledge and understanding ofKey Skills and to produce evidence of their application

The matrices below signpost the opportunities for the acquisition,development and production of evidence for Section B of each of theKey Skills units at Level 3, in the teaching and learning modules of thisspecification. The degree of opportunity in any one module willdepend upon a number of centre-specific factors, including teachingstrategies and level of resources.

Communication

What you must do: Signposting of Opportunities for Generating Evidence inModules

1 2/3 4 5 6/7 8/9

C3.1a Contribute todiscussions

� � � � � �

C3.1b Make a presentation � � � � � �

C3.2 Read and synthesiseinformation

� � � � � �

C3.3 Write different typesof documents

� � � � � �

Application of Number

What you must do: Signposting of Opportunities for Generating Evidence inModules

1 2/3 4 5 6/7 8/9

N3.1 Plan and interpretinformation fromdifferent sources

� � � � � �

N3.2 Carry out multi-stagecalculations

� � � � � �

N3.3 Present findings,explain results andjustify choice ofmethods

� � � � � �

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Information Technology

What you must do: Signposting of Opportunities for Generating Evidence in

Modules

1 2/3 4 5 6/7 8/9

IT3.1 Plan and usedifferent sources tosearch for and selectinformation

� � � � � �

IT3.2 Explore, developand exchangeinformation andderive newinformation

� � � � � �

IT3.3 Present informationincluding text,numbers and images

� � � � � �

Working with Others

What you must do: Signposting of Opportunities for Generating Evidence in

Modules

1 2/3 4 5 6/7 8/9

WO3.1 Plan the activity � � � � � �

WO3.2 Work towardsagreed objectives

� � � � � �

WO3.3 Review the activity � � � � � �

Improving own Learning andPerformance

What you must do: Signposting of Opportunities for Generating Evidence inModules

1 2/3 4 5 6/7 8/9

LP3.1a Agree and plantargets

� � � � � �

LP3.2 Seek feedback andsupport

� � � � � �

LP3.3 Review progress � � � � � �

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Problem Solving

What you must do: Signposting of Opportunities for Generating Evidence inModules

1 2/3 4 5 6/7 8/9

PS3.1 Recognise, explainand describe theproblem

� � � � � �

PS3.2 Generate andcompare differentways of solvingproblems

� � � � � �

PS3.3 Plan and implementoptions

� � � � � �

PS3.4 Agree and reviewapproaches totackling problems

� � � � � �

NB The signposting opportunities recorded in the tables above representthe opportunities to acquire and produce evidence of the Key Skillsseen to be achievable through the specification. There may be otheropportunities to achieve these and other aspects of Key Skills, butthese are dependent on the detailed course of study delivered withincentres.

18.3 Key Skills in the Assessmentof Biology/Human Biology

The ‘main’ Key Skills of Communication and Application of Numbermust contribute to the assessment of Biology/Human Biology.Aspects of Communication and Application of Number are anintrinsic part of Assessment Objectives 1, 2 and 3 and hence will formpart of the assessment requirements for all units but more especiallythe A2 Units. In addition, in any science specification the skill ofProblem Solving is an integral part of the practical component.

18.4 Further Guidance More specific guidance and examples of tasks that can provideevidence of single Key Skills or composite tasks that can provideevidence of more than one Key Skill are given in AQA specificationsupport material.

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19 Spiritual, Moral, Ethical, Social,

Cultural and Other Issues19.1 Spiritual, Moral, Ethical,

Social and Cultural Issues

The study of Biology/Human Biology contributes to candidates’understanding of spiritual, moral, ethical and cultural issues.

Opportunities for discussion of these issues are indicated in thecontents of the modules.

This specification encourages candidates to appreciate the importanceof all aspects of the global environment and the necessity to achievesustainability to ensure the continuation of the human race.

Themes such as Gene Technology (Module 2, 11.4, Module 3, 12.6)Biotechnology (Module 2, 11.7, Module 3, 12.8) Pathogens andDisease (Module 3) and Ecosystems (Module 5) demonstrate the waysin which humans can help to make the global environment morestable and sustainable.

The themes of human activity (Module 5, 14.10), health and disease(Module 3), adaptations of cultivated plants and productivity(Module 2, 11.6) are linked with an understanding of the culturaldifferences between developed and developing countries.

In the AS Unit 4 candidates will be assessed on their ability to drawon existing knowledge to show understanding of the ethical, social,economic, environmental and technological applications of biology.

19.2 European Dimension AQA has taken account of the 1988 Resolution of the Council of theEuropean Community in preparing this Biology/Human Biologyspecification and associated specimen papers. The specification isdesigned to improve candidates’ knowledge and understanding of theinternational debates surrounding new technology and to fosterresponsible attitudes to such developments.

19.3 Environmental Education AQA has taken account of the 1988 Resolution of the Council of theEuropean Community and the Report “Environmental Responsibility: An

Agenda for Further and Higher Education” 1993 in preparing thisBiology/Human Biology specification and associated specimenpapers.

19.4 Avoidance of Bias AQA has taken great care in the preparation of this specification andassociated specimen papers to avoid bias of any kind.

19.5 Terminology The terminology used in all the written papers will be that describedin the Institute of Biology publication Biological Nomenclature,

Recommendation on Terms, Units and Symbols (3rd edition 2000). Theoverriding consideration in setting papers will continue to be clarityand lack of ambiguity rather than adherence to strict rules; alternativenames or units will be given whenever ambiguity might otherwisearise. The use in a candidate’s answer of names, formulae or unitsother than those included in the above publication will be accepted,provided that the essential biological information is correctly suppliedin the answer.

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19.6 Health and Safety An assessment of risks involved in all practical procedures must bemade before work commences under the COSHH regulations.Attention is drawn to the hazards associated with many materials andprocesses associated with the specification. Detailed information maybe found in pamphlets on safety issued by the Department forEducation and Employment. In addition, all work involving liveorganisms must be legal and humane. It is expected that allcandidates will be familiar with appropriate standards of safety in allaspects of practical work; in particular the potential hazards ofmicrobiological work.

19.7 Mathematical Requirements In order to be able to develop the knowledge, understanding andskills in the specification, candidates need to have been taught and tohave acquired competence in the areas of mathematics set out below.Material relevant to the A Level (A2) only is given in bold type.

Arithmetic and Computation Candidates should be able to

• recognise and use expressions in decimal and standard form;

• use ratios, fractions and percentages;

• make estimates of the results of calculations (without using acalculator);

• use calculators to find and use xn, 1/x, √ x.

Handling data Candidates should be able to

• use an appropriate number of significant figures;

• find arithmetic means;

• construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar chartsand histograms;

• have sufficient understanding of probability to understand

how genetic ratios arise;

• understand the principle of sampling as applied to biological

data;

• understand the importance of chance when interpreting data;

• understand the terms mean, median, mode, variance andstandard deviation;

• use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two

variables;

• use a simple statistical test (see Teachers’ Guide for further

guidance).

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Algebra Candidates should be able to

• change the subject of an equation;

• substitute numerical values into algebraic equations usingappropriate units for physical quantities.

Graphs Candidates should be able to

• translate information between graphical, numerical and algebraicforms;

• plot two variables from experimental or other data;

• calculate rate of change from a graph showing a linear relationship.

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Centre-Assessed Components

20 AS Module 4

(Biology and Human Biology)

Requirements and Guidance for

AssessmentThis Section must be read in conjunction with the Teachers’ Guide.

20.1 Introduction In order to establish progression from GCSE to AS and from AS toA2, centre-assessed components for AS differ from those for A2.Ten individual skills are to be assessed in the context of the ASsubject content. Eight of these address the four skills detailed in thesection on experiment and investigation in the subject criteria forBiology. The remaining two assess the ability of candidates to selectand organise relevant material in the context of demonstrating anunderstanding of the ethical, social, economic, environmental andtechnological implications and applications of biology. Courseworkalso provides opportunities for assessment of Key Skills (see Section18 of this specification).

The scheme of work derived from this specification should provideopportunities for suitable practical work so that candidates candevelop the necessary skills. Assessment should form part of acandidate's normal programme of coursework as opposed to a seriesof practical tests. Assistance in explaining the criteria on which workis to be assessed may be given by the teacher but this assistanceshould be generic rather than relating to the particular task underconsideration.

20.2 The number of assessmentsrequired

Centres may assess each of the ten skills on more than one occasionand are required to submit the best marks obtained by the candidatefor that particular group of skills. For AS, skills are assessed in thecontext of the groups listed below. These groups may form part ofseparate and discrete investigations.

20.3 Choice of tasks The support material provides a number of suggestions for tasks thatmight be undertaken for assessment purposes but centres areencouraged to develop material that suits the circumstances of theirstaff and students. Additional help and advice is available bytelephone from AQA’s network of Coursework Advisers.

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20.4 Group 1

Planning incorporating Skills

A and B

The mark submitted for the skills in this group should be the besttotal mark obtained for both skills in any one single exercise.

In order to allow candidates to design experimental approaches forthemselves it is essential that they are provided with a genuineopportunity to demonstrate these skills. It is therefore important thatthey are not provided with a situation with which they are alreadyfamiliar and are merely required to alter a different variable.

As the skills in this group are experimental and investigative skills,planning should be carried out in this context and not merely as atheoretical exercise. Strategies to enable this might include providingaccess to sufficient materials to allow candidates to carry out pilotexperiments, or to require implementation. If candidates are requiredto implement their plans, care must be taken that the suggestedprocedures are safe and ethically and environmentally acceptable. Itmay, therefore, be necessary for a plan to be amended before acandidate is allowed to proceed.

A plan should provide an indication of the intended experimentalprocedure and should therefore be written in the future tense.Formal accounts of investigations written after completion of thework are not acceptable as plans.

Planning Within this section, candidates should:

a. identify and define the nature of a question or problem using availableinformation and knowledge of biology;

b. choose effective and safe procedures, selecting appropriate apparatusand materials and deciding the measurements and observations likelyto generate useful and reliable results;

c. consider ethical implications in the choice and treatment of organismsand the environmental and safety aspects of the proposed procedures.

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SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Planning 0 1 2 3

AMethod ofchangingtheindependent(manipulated)variable

Method ofchanging theindependentvariable notrelevant to theproblem underinvestigation.

Description of methodof changing theindependent variablerelevant to the problemunder considerationbut would not allowimplementationwithout considerablefurther detail.

Description of methodof changing theindependent variablerelevant to the problemunder considerationand would allowimplementation withminor clarification ofdetail. Considerationgiven to maintainingsome of the othervariables constant orcontrolled.

Description of methodof changing theindependent variablerelevant to the problemunder considerationand would allowimplementation withoutfurther detail.Consideration given tomaintaining most or allof the other variablesconstant or controlled.

BMethod ofmeasuringthedependentvariable

Methodunlikely togenerate usefulquantitativedata.

Method would generatean inadequate range ofuseful quantitative data.

Method would generatea full range of usefulquantitative data butwith some limitationsconcerning reliability.

Method would generatea full range of usefuland reliable quantitativedata.

20.5 Group 2

Implementing incorporatingSkills C and D

The mark submitted for the skills in this group should be the besttotal mark obtained for both skills in any one single exercise.

Since the skills assessed in this group involve implementation, theyshould be assessed while the candidate is carrying out the practicalwork concerned. In order to provide appropriate opportunities todemonstrate the necessary skills, instructions provided should not beprescriptive but should allow candidates to make decisions forthemselves, particularly concerning the conduct of the work and thecollection of data.

A high performance level for Skill C should reflect the ability to workmethodically and safely, demonstrating competence in the requiredmanipulative skills and efficiency in managing time. The emphasiswith Skill D is placed on methodical collection of raw data.To gain maximum credit here manually collected measurementsshould be made to an appropriate level of accuracy and the datashould be recorded logically, preferably in tabular form. If IT is usedin the collection of data, the same criteria should apply.

Implementing Within this section candidates should:

a. use apparatus and materials in an appropriate and safe way;

b. carry out work in a methodical and organised way with due regard forsafety and with appropriate consideration for the well-being of livingorganisms and the environment;

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c. make and record detailed observations in a suitable way, and makemeasurements to an appropriate degree of precision, using IT whereappropriate.

SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Implementing 0 1 2 3

CImplemen-tation ofpracticalwork

Experimentconducted intotal disorderor candidateunable to usethe apparatusinvolved.

Experiment conductedin considerabledisorder withinsufficient regard tosafety, a failure toapproach the workmethodically or majorfailings in usingapparatus.

Experiment conductedadequately but with alack of full regard tominor aspects of safety,approach or use ofapparatus.

Experiment conductedin a well organisedmanner. Apparatusused skilfully with fullregard to safety.

DCollectionandpresentationof raw data

Appropriatedata notcollected.

Measurements notmade to an appropriatelevel of accuracy andpresented in ahaphazard form.

Either measurementsnot made to anappropriate level ofaccuracy or presentedin a haphazard form.

Measurements made toan appropriate level ofaccuracy and presentedin an appropriate form.

20.6 Group 3A

Drawing incorporating

Skill E

The mark submitted for this skill may be based on an independentactivity.

The drawing skill assesses the ability of candidates to draw materialaccurately from a suitable biological specimen. Thereforephotographs should not be used. The exercise may take the form ofdrawing a whole specimen or producing a low power tissue plan or ahigh power cell drawing of material seen with an optical microscope.Although candidates should be encouraged to follow the usualconventions of refraining from shading and other artisticembellishment, of labelling clearly and accurately and of adding a scaleand title, it is important to note that the only skill that is assessed isthat of accuracy of representation.

SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Analysing 0 1 2 3

EDrawing

Drawing un-representativeof specimen.

Material drawn fromspecimen but severalminor inaccuracies or asingle major inaccuracy.

Material drawn fromspecimen with fewminor inaccuracies.

Material drawnaccurately fromspecimen.

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20.7 Group 3B

Analysing, drawingconclusions and evaluatingincorporating Skills F, G and

H

The mark submitted for the skills in this group should be the besttotal mark obtained for all skills in any one single exercise. Thesethree skills should be assessed on practical work completed by thecandidate; this is particularly important in providing candidates withthe opportunity to recognise the limitations of the apparatus andtechniques adopted, and to be able to assess the reliability of the datacollected.

Skill F requires candidates to select relevant data to produce aneffective summary of the results of an investigation. An appropriategraph should be drawn and, to this end, they should be familiar withline graphs, bar charts and histograms. The conventions to beadopted are those specified in the Institute of Biology publication"Biological Nomenclature, Recommendations on Terms, Units and Symbols"

3rd Edition (2000).

Skill G involves the interpretation of results. Since maximum creditcan only be obtained where the candidate produces an appropriatedescription of the trends and patterns in the data obtained andaccompanies this with detailed conclusions related to biologicalknowledge, it is important that the task chosen offers sufficientopportunity. It is recommended that consideration be given topooling the results of group work so that candidates are not requiredto spend excessive time collecting sufficient data for analysis.

The evaluation of the work in Skill H requires substantially morethan a list of avoidable errors. Credit should only be given wherecandidates are able to identify the main sources of experimental erroror limitations in the data collected.

Analysing evidence anddrawing conclusions andevaluating a.

Within this section candidates should:

communicate biological ideas in appropriate ways, includingtabulation, line graphs, histograms, continuous prose, annotateddrawings and diagrams;

b. recognise and comment on trends and patterns in data;

c. draw valid conclusions by applying biological knowledge andunderstanding;

d. assess the reliability and precision of experimental data and theconclusions drawn from it;

e. evaluate the techniques used in the experimental activity, recognisingtheir limitations.

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SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Analysing 0 1 2 3

FUse ofgraphicaltechniques

Graph plottedfrominappropriatedata ortechniqueselected entirelyinappropriate.

Line graph, bar chart orhistogram appropriatelyselected and relevantinformation plotted butmajor errors such asthose involving scalingor accuracy of plotting.

Line graph, bar chart orhistogram appropriatelyselected and relevantinformation plotted butminor errors such asthose involving units orlabelling.

Line graph, bar chart orhistogram appropriatelyselected and relevantinformation plotted, allconventions followedand no errors apparent.

GInterpretationof results

Commentconfined totranslating datainto continuousprose.

Trends and patterns indata recognised anddescribed.

Trends and patterns indata recognised anddescribed. Some validconclusions drawn,supported byappropriate results andpartly related tobiological knowledge.

Trends and patternsrecognised anddescribed. Detailedconclusions drawn,fully supported byappropriate results andrelated to biologicalknowledge.

HEvaluationof practicalwork

Littleworthwhilecomment orcommentconfined tolistings ofpersonalfailings.

Main sources of errorin practical procedureidentified or limitationsof/and anomalies inresults recognised.

Main sources of errorin practical procedureidentified andlimitations of/andanomalies in resultsrecognised.

Evaluation made of theinfluence of mainsources of error inpractical procedure andlimitations of andanomalies in results.

20.8 Group 4

Communicating incorporating

Skills I and J

The mark submitted for the skills in this group should be the besttotal mark obtained for both skills in any one single exercise.

The task chosen for this exercise may be a piece of written workbetween approximately 500 and 1000 words. Alternatively,consideration may be given to other means of presentation such as asuitably informative poster or an oral presentation. However, if tasksother than written work involving continuous prose are involvedconsideration needs to be given to the assessment of Skill J. Thepurpose of this exercise is to assess the specific assessment objectiverequiring candidates to:

draw on existing knowledge to show understanding of the ethical,social, economic, environmental and technological applications ofbiology.

Tasks need, therefore, to be selected appropriately. It is visualisedthat this group of skills will normally be assessed during the course ofteaching of either Module 2 or Module 3 which both containappropriate subject material. Further details and suggestions appearin the support material which accompanies this specification.Candidates should be encouraged to use IT wherever possible incarrying out the assessment task.

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Skill I assesses the ability to select and use appropriate information.The number of sources referred to in the criteria for the performancelevels will depend on the suggested task and the resources availablebut stress should be placed on the range of resources used rather thanthe absolute number. There is no merit in confining a search forinformation to standard class textbooks.

Skill J is concerned with the assessment of the ability to present anargument logically and coherently and expressing ideas withappropriate scientific terminology. Spelling, punctuation andgrammar should be taken into account only insofar as they affect theclarity of the argument.

Communicating Within this section candidates should:Select, organise and present relevant information clearly and logically,using appropriate vocabulary.

SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Communicating 0 1 2 3

ISelectionand retrievalofappropriateinformation

Unable to findrelevantinformation orfound relevantinformationfrom limitednumber ofsources butfailed to usethis selectively.

Found relevantinformation from agood range of sourcesbut failed to use thisselectively in support ofan argument.

Found relevantinformation from agood range of sourcesbut only used some ofthis selectively insupport of anargument.

Found relevantinformation from agood range of sourcesand used all of thisselectively in support ofan argument.

JCommunicationofbiologicalinformation

Manyarguments lackclarity andlogicalpresentation.Poor use ofscientificterminology.

Most of the argumentsclearly and logicallypresented and someuse made ofappropriate scientificterminology.

Arguments clearly andlogically presentedthroughout, althoughnot always making useof appropriate scientificterminology.

Arguments clearly andlogically presentedthroughout. Makes useof appropriate scientificterminologythroughout.

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20.9 Evidence to Support theAward of Marks

Teachers are encouraged to annotate candidates’ reports to help guidethe moderator on their choice of the marks for each ability.

Teachers should keep records of their assessments during the course,in a form which facilitates the complete and accurate submission ofthe final assessments at the end of the course.

When the assessments are complete, the final marks awarded undereach of the assessment criteria must be entered on the CandidateRecord Form, with supporting information given in the spacesprovided. A specimen Candidate Record Form appears asAppendix B.

The Candidate Record Form must be attached to the candidate’swork.

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21 A2 Module 8b / 9b

(Biology and Human Biology)

Requirements and Guidance for

AssessmentThis Section must be used in conjunction with the Teachers’ Guide.

21.1 Introduction In order to establish progression from GCSE to AS and from AS toA2, centre-assessed components for A2 differ from those for AS.Seven individual skills are to be assessed in the context of the fullA Level subject content and must be assessed as part of a single complete

investigation. They address the four skills detailed in the section onexperiment and investigation in the subject criteria for Biology.Where criteria for assessment are identical to those for AS, thestandard is also identical and no allowance should be made by centresfor the academic maturity of the candidates concerned. Theprogramme of coursework also provides opportunities for assessmentof Key Skills (see Section 18 of this specification).

The scheme of work derived from this specification should provideopportunities for suitable practical work so that candidates candevelop the necessary skills. Skills A and F involve assessment of thecandidate's ability to:

use biological skills in contexts which bring together differentareas of the subject.

In order to achieve this objective, it is necessary for tasks to be setwhich provide the necessary opportunities. Further details andsuggestions appear in the support material which accompanies thisspecification. Assessment should form part of a candidate's normalprogramme of coursework as opposed to a series of practical tests.Assistance in explaining the criteria on which work is to be assessedmay be given by the teacher but this assistance should be genericrather than relating specifically to the particular task underconsideration.

21.2 The number of assessmentsrequired

Centres may assess these skills on more than one occasion but arerequired to submit the best set of marks obtained by the candidate forthe complete investigation.

21.3 Planning incorporating Skills

A, B and C

In order to allow candidates to design experimental approaches forthemselves it is essential that they are provided with a genuineopportunity to demonstrate these skills. It is therefore important thatthey are not provided with a situation with which they are alreadyfamiliar and are merely required to alter a different variable.

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The final report for the investigation should contain a title and anintroduction. The title should provide a clear and concise definitionof the problem under consideration. The introduction should drawon the candidate's biological knowledge across different areas of thespecification to justify the experimental approach described in theplan which should follow this section. Title and introduction shouldbe assessed using the criteria in Skill A.

The plan itself, which is assessed by Skills B and C, should providean indication of the intended experimental procedure and shouldtherefore be written in the future tense. Formal accounts ofinvestigations written after completion of the work are not acceptableas plans. Assessment of the plan should take place beforeimplementation.

Since candidates are required to implement their plans, care must betaken that the suggested procedures are safe and ethically andenvironmentally acceptable. It may, therefore, be necessary for a planto be amended before a candidate is allowed to proceed.

Planning Within this section candidates should:

a. identify and define the nature of a question or problem using availableinformation and knowledge of biology;

b. choose effective and safe procedures, selecting appropriate apparatusand materials and deciding the measurements and observations likelyto generate useful and reliable results;

c. consider ethical implications in the choice and treatment of organismsand the environmental and safety aspects of the proposed procedures.

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SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Planning 0 1 2 3

ADefining theproblem

Title fails todefine theproblem clearlyandintroductionprovides littleexplanation oftheexperimentalapproach.

Title provides anindication of theproblem underinvestigation andintroduction includessome justification ofthe experimentalapproach adoptedbased on relevant butsuperficial backgroundinformation.

Title provides a clearand concise definitionof the problem underinvestigation andintroduction includessome justification ofthe experimentalapproach adoptedbased on relevant andappropriatebackground biology.

Title provides a clearand concise definitionof the problem underinvestigation andintroduction includes acomprehensivejustification of theexperimental approachadopted based onrelevant andappropriate backgroundbiology drawn fromdifferent areas of theSpecification.

BMethod ofchangingtheindepen-dent(manipu-lated)variable

Method ofchanging theindependentvariable notrelevant to theproblem underinvestigation.

Description of methodof changing theindependent variablerelevant to the problemunder considerationbut would not allowimplementationwithout considerablefurther detail.

Description of methodof changing theindependent variablerelevant to the problemunder considerationand would allowimplementation withminor clarification ofdetail. Considerationgiven to maintainingsome of the othervariables constant orcontrolled.

Description of methodof changing theindependent variablerelevant to the problemunder considerationand would allowimplementation withoutfurther detail.Consideration given tomaintaining most or allof the other variablesconstant or controlled.

CMethod ofmeasuringthedependentvariable

Methodunlikely togenerate usefulquantitativedata.

Method would generatean inadequate range ofuseful quantitative data.

Method would generatea full range of usefulquantitative data butwith some limitationsconcerning reliability.

Method would generatea full range of usefuland reliable quantitativedata.

21.4 Implementationincorporating Skill D

Since this skill involves implementation, it must be assessed while thecandidate is carrying out the practical work concerned. A highperformance level for Skill D should reflect the ability to workmethodically and safely, demonstrating competence in the requiredmanipulative skills and efficiency in managing time.

It is possible for students to carry out the implementation of practicalwork in groups but if this strategy is adopted provision must be madefor assessing individual contributions.

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Within this section candidates should:

a. use apparatus and materials in an appropriate and safe way;

b. carry out work in a methodical and organised way with due regard forsafety and with appropriate consideration for the well-being of livingorganisms and the environment;

c. make and record detailed observations in a suitable way, and makemeasurements to an appropriate degree of precision, using IT whereappropriate.

SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Implementation 0 1 2 3

DImplemen-tation ofpracticalwork

Experimentconducted intotal disorderor candidateunable to usethe apparatusinvolved.

Experiment conductedin considerabledisorder withinsufficient regard tosafety, a failure toapproach the workmethodically or majorfailings in usingapparatus.

Experiment conductedadequately but with alack of full regard tominor aspects of safety,approach or use ofapparatus.

Experiment conductedin a well organisedmanner. Apparatusused skilfully and withfull regard to safety.

21.5 Analysing evidence anddrawing conclusions

incorporating Skills E and F

Skill E requires the selection and use of an appropriate statisticaltechnique (see Teachers’ Guide for further guidance). Centres shouldbe careful that the investigations undertaken by candidates allowprovision for the collection of sufficient data. In some cases it maybe necessary to provide additional figures to supplement thoseobtained by the candidate. In order to achieve the higherperformance levels calculations must lead to appropriate conclusionsin which candidates display their understanding of the concept ofstatistical significance. Further information concerning appropriatestatistical tests may be found in the support material whichaccompanies this specification.

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Skill F involves the interpretation of results. This skill involvesassessment of the candidate's ability to use biological skills in contextswhich bring together different areas of the subject.

Within this section candidates should:

a. communicate biological ideas in appropriate ways, includingtabulation, line graphs, histograms, continuous prose, annotateddrawings and diagrams;

b. recognise and comment on trends and patterns in data;

c. draw valid conclusions by applying biological knowledge andunderstanding.

SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

Analysingevidenceand drawingconclusions

0 1 2 3

EUse ofstatisticaltechniques

Techniqueselected entirelyinappropriateor calculationincomplete.

Technique selectedacceptable butcalculation incompleteor containing suchmajor errors thataccompanyingexplanations areinvalid.

Technique selectedacceptable andcalculation completeand accurate.Accompanyingexplanation of resultsincomplete orunjustified.

Technique selectedacceptable andcalculation completeand accurate.Accompanyingexplanation of resultscomplete and justified.

FInterpre-tationof results

Commentconfined totranslating datainto continuousprose.

Trends and patterns indata recognised anddescribed.

Trends and patterns indata recognised anddescribed. Some validconclusions drawn,supported byappropriate results andpartly related tobiological knowledge.

Trends and patterns indata recognised anddescribed. Detailedconclusions drawn,fully supported byappropriate results andrelated to biologicalknowledge drawn fromdifferent areas of theSpecification.

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21.6 Evaluating evidence andproceduresincorporating Skill G

The evaluation of the work in Skill G requires substantially more thana list of avoidable errors. Credit should only be given wherecandidates are able to identify the main sources of experimental erroror limitations in the data collected.

SKILL PERFORMANCE LEVEL

EvaluatingandCommunicating

0 1 2 3

G

Evaluatingevidenceandprocedures

Littleworthwhilecomment orcommentconfined tolisting personalfailings.

Main sources of errorin practical procedureidentified or limitationsof and anomalies inresults recognised.

Main sources of errorin practical procedureidentified and

limitations of andanomalies in resultsrecognised.

Evaluation made of theinfluence of mainsources of error inpractical procedure andlimitations of andanomalies in results.

21.7 Evidence to Support theAward of Marks

Teachers are encouraged to annotate candidates’ reports to help guidethe moderator on their choice of the marks for each ability.

Teachers should keep records of their assessments during the course,in a form which facilitates the complete and accurate submission ofthe final assessments at the end of the course.

When the assessments are complete, the final marks awarded undereach of the assessment criteria must be entered on the CandidateRecord Form, with supporting information given in the spacesprovided. A specimen Candidate Record Form appears asAppendix B.

The Candidate Record Form must be attached to the candidate’swork.

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22 Supervision and Authentication

22.1 Supervision of Candidates’Work

Candidates’ work for assessment must be undertaken underconditions which allow the teacher to supervise the work and enablethe work to be authenticated. If it is necessary for some assessedwork to be done outside the centre, sufficient work must take placeunder direct supervision to allow the teacher to authenticate eachcandidate’s whole work with confidence.

22.2 Guidance by the Teacher The work assessed must be solely that of the candidate concerned.Any assistance given to an individual candidate which is beyond thatgiven to the group as a whole must be recorded on the CandidateRecord Form.

22.3 Unfair Practice At the start of the course, the supervising teacher is responsible forinforming candidates of the AQA Regulations concerningmalpractice. Candidates must not take part in any unfair practice inthe preparation of coursework to be submitted for assessment, andmust understand that to present material copied directly from booksor other sources without acknowledgement will be regarded asdeliberate deception. Centres must report suspected malpractice toAQA. The penalties for malpractice are set out in the AQARegulations.

22.4 Authentication of Candidates’Work

Both the candidate and the teacher are required to sign declarationsconfirming that the work submitted for assessment is the candidate’sown. The teacher declares that the work was conducted under thespecified conditions, and records the details of any additionalassistance.

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23 Standardisation

23.1 Standardising Meetings Annual standardising meetings will usually be held in the autumnterm. Centres entering candidates for the first time must send arepresentative to the meetings. Attendance is also mandatory in thefollowing cases:

• where there has been a serious misinterpretation of thespecification requirements;

• where the nature of coursework tasks set by a centre has beeninappropriate;

• where a significant adjustment has been made to a centre’s marksin the previous year’s examination.

Otherwise attendance is at the discretion of centres. At thesemeetings support will be provided for centres in the development ofappropriate coursework tasks and assessment procedures.

23.2 Internal Standardisation ofMarking

The centre is required to standardise the assessments across differentteachers and teaching groups to ensure that all candidates at thecentre have been judged against the same standards. If two or moreteachers are involved in marking a component, one teacher must bedesignated as responsible for internal standardisation. Commonpieces of work must be marked on a trial basis and differencesbetween assessments discussed at a training session in which allteachers involved must participate. The teacher responsible forstandardising the marking must ensure that the training includes theuse of reference and archive materials such as work from a previousyear or examples provided by AQA. The centre is required to send tothe moderator the Centre Declaration Sheet, duly signed to confirmthat the marking of centre-assessed work at the centre has beenstandardised. If only one teacher has undertaken the marking, thatperson must sign this form.

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24 Administrative Procedures

24.1 Recording Assessments The candidates’ work must be marked according to the assessmentcriteria set out in Sections 20 (AS) and 21 (A2). The marks andsupporting information must be recorded in accordance with theinstructions in Section 20.9 (AS) and Section 21.7 (A2). Thecompleted Candidate Record Form for each candidate must beattached to the work and made available to AQA on request.

24.2 Submitting Marks andSample Work for Moderation

The total component mark for each candidate must be submitted toAQA on the Centre Mark Sheet provided or by Electronic DataInterchange (EDI) by 10 January (January series) or 15 May (Juneseries). At the same time the moderator should be sent either, thesecond and third copies of the centre mark sheet, or, for EDI centres,two copies of a printout of candidates’ marks. Centres will beinformed which candidates’ work is required in the samples to besubmitted to the moderator.

24.3 Problems with IndividualCandidates

Teachers should be able to accommodate the occasional absence ofcandidates by ensuring that the opportunity is given for them to makeup missed assessments.

Special consideration should be requested for candidates whose workhas been affected by illness or other exceptional circumstances.Information about the procedure is issued separately.

If work is lost, AQA should be notified immediately of the date of theloss, how it occurred, and who was responsible for the loss. AQAwill advise on the procedures to be followed in such cases.

Where special help which goes beyond normal learning support isgiven, AQA must be informed so that such help can be taken intoaccount when assessment and moderation take place.

Candidates who move from one centre to another during the coursesometimes present a problem for a scheme of internal assessment.Possible courses of action depend on the stage at which the movetakes place. If the move occurs early in the course the new centreshould take responsibility for assessment. If it occurs late in thecourse it may be possible to accept the assessments made at theprevious centre. Centres should contact AQA at the earliest possiblestage for advice about appropriate arrangements in individual cases.

24.4 Retaining Evidence andRe-Using Marks

The centre must retain the work of all candidates, with CandidateRecord Form attached, under secure conditions, from the time it isassessed, to allow for the possibility of an enquiry upon result. Thework may be returned to candidates after the issue of results providedthat no enquiry upon result is to be made which will includere-moderation of the coursework component. If an enquiry uponresult is to be made, the work must remain under secure conditionsuntil requested by AQA.

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Candidates repeating Unit 4 (BYA4) must resubmit coursework. Anynew work, produced as a result of the resubmission, must be basedupon different practical activities from those previously submitted.New work must provide evidence for all of the skills in the skillgroup(s) concerned. If, as part of the moderation process, a repeatingcandidate’s work is included in the moderation sample, all of the worksupporting the new total mark must be made available to themoderator.

Candidates repeating either unit BYA8 or BYA9 (where courseworkonly forms part of the unit) may carry forward the moderatedcoursework mark under the conditions outlined in the AQAAdministrative Procedures booklet.

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25 Moderation

25.1 Moderation Procedures Moderation of the coursework is by inspection of a sample ofcandidates’ work, sent by post from the centre to a moderatorappointed by AQA. The centre marks must be submitted to AQAand the sample of work must reach the moderator by a specified datein the year in which the qualification is to be awarded.

The sample must contain evidence of the assessment of the followingskills for each candidate in the sample:

AS – Skills A, B, F, G, H, I and J (not Skills C, D and E)

A2 – Skills A, B, C, E, F, and G (not Skill D)

Following the re-marking of the sample work, the moderator’s marksare compared with the centre marks to determine whether anyadjustment is needed in order to bring the centre’s assessments intoline with standards generally. In some cases it may be necessary forthe moderator to call for the work of other candidates. In order tomeet this possible request, centres must have available the courseworkand Candidate Record Form of every candidate entered for theexamination and be prepared to submit it on demand. Markadjustments will normally preserve the centre’s order of merit, butwhere major discrepancies are found, AQA reserves the right to alterthe order of merit.

25.2 Post-Moderation Procedures On publication of the GCE results, the centre is supplied with detailsof the final marks for the coursework component.

The candidates’ work is returned to the centre after the examination.The centre receives a report giving feedback to the centre on theappropriateness of the tasks set, the accuracy of the assessmentsmade, and the reasons for any adjustments to the marks.

Some candidates’ work may be retained by AQA for archivepurposes.

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Awarding and Reporting

26 Grading, Shelf-Life and Re-Sits

26.1 Qualification Titles The qualification based on these Specifications have the followingtitles:

AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Biology

AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Biology (Human)

AQA Advanced Level GCE in Biology

AQA Advanced Level GCE in Biology (Human)

26.2 Grading System Both the AS and the full A Level qualifications will be graded on afive-grade scale: A, B, C, D and E. Candidates who fail to reach theminimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified)and will not receive a qualification certificate.

Individual assessment unit results will be certificated.

26.3 Shelf-Life of Unit Results The shelf-life of individual unit results, prior to the award of thequalification, is limited only by the shelf-life of the specification.

26.4 Assessment UnitRe-Sits

Each assessment unit may be re-sat once only. The better result willcount towards the final award. Candidates may, however, re-sit thewhole qualification more than once.

An AS result can be converted into a full A Level award by taking theA2 examination at any examination series when Biology/HumanBiology is available.

Marks for individual AS or A2 units may be counted once onlytowards an AS and/or an A Level award.

26.5 Minimum Requirements Candidates will be graded on the basis of work submitted for theaward of the qualification.

26.6 Awarding and Reporting This specification complies with the grading, awarding andcertification requirements of the current GCSE, GCE, VCE andGNVQ Code of Practice, and will be revised in the light of anysubsequent changes for future years.

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Appendices

A Grade Descriptions

The following grade descriptions indicate the level of attainmentcharacteristic of the given grade at A Level. They give a generalindication of the required learning outcomes at each specific grade.The descriptors should be interpreted in relation to the contentoutlined in the specification; they are not designed to define thatcontent.

The grade awarded will depend in practice upon the extent to whichthe candidate has met the assessment objectives (as in Section 6)overall. Shortcomings in some aspects of the examination may bebalanced by better performances in others.

Grade A Candidates recall and consistently use biological knowledge, facts,principles and concepts from the whole specification with fewsignificant omissions and show good understanding of the principlesand concepts they use. They select biological knowledge relevant tomost situations and present their ideas clearly and logically, makinguse of appropriate biological terminology, particularly when referringto specific technical terms and in expressing more general conceptsand ideas.

Candidates carry out accurately a range of calculations in a logicalmanner with little guidance and, where appropriate, support theirsolutions by logical explanation. They demonstrate goodunderstanding of principles and apply them in familiar and newcontexts. They show insight into problems and suggest a number ofpossible solutions using techniques, arguments or knowledge andunderstanding from more than one area of the specification and otherareas of their experience. Most responses are correct, relevant andlogical. In particular, longer questions are answered to an appropriatedepth, communicating ideas effectively with coherent and detailedexplanations.

In experimental activities, candidates independently formulate a clearand accurate plan. They use a range of manipulative techniques safelyand skilfully, making and recording observations with appropriateprecision. They interpret and describe the trends and patterns shownby data presented in tabular or graphical form, indicating, whereappropriate, anomalies and inconsistencies. They provide coherent,logical and comprehensive explanations using appropriate biologicalknowledge and terminology. They comment critically on data,evaluate it and use it to support or reject various hypotheses. Theypresent clearly and concisely both sides of an argument by weighingup the evidence.

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Grade C Candidates recall and show a sound use of biological knowledge,facts, principles and concepts from many parts of the specificationand show understanding of some fundamental principles andconcepts. They frequently select biological knowledge relevant to aparticular situation or context and present their ideas clearly andlogically, making use of appropriate biological terminology.

Candidates carry out a range of calculations, making progress withminimal guidance. They show knowledge of fundamental principlesand are often able to apply these in new contexts. They bringtogether information from more than one area of the specification.Many responses are correct, relevant and logical.

In experimental activities, candidates formulate a plan which mayneed some modification. They use a range of techniques safely,making and recording observations and measurements which areadequate for the task. They interpret and explain experimental resultsrelating these to biological knowledge and understanding and, withhelp, evaluate their results. They comment on data and use selecteddata to support a particular hypothesis. They make choices instatistical sampling.

Grade E Candidates recall and use biological knowledge, facts, principles andconcepts from some parts of the specification and demonstrate someunderstanding of fundamental principles and concepts beyond thatexpected of sound GCSE candidates.

Candidates select discrete items of knowledge in response tostructured questions and use basic biological terminology. This maybe displayed consistently across the questions set or may vary betweenquite good and poor on different questions.

Candidates select appropriate facts and principles to solve problemsconcerning familiar material. Where problems are concerned withunfamiliar material, answers relate to the appropriate subject area evenif difficulties are experienced in applying the facts and principlesinvolved.

With some guidance, candidates carry out accurately straightforwardcalculations involving the rules of number, such as calculations ofpercentages, making clear the steps in the calculation. They applyknowledge and biological principles contained within the specificationto material presented in a familiar or closely related context.

They make connections between some ideas encountered in differentparts of the specification. Their answers show some logic andcoherence although they may include irrelevant material. They usecorrectly a limited range of biological terminology.

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In experimental activities, candidates formulate some elements of apractical approach when provided with guidance. They carry outfrequently encountered practical procedures in a reasonably skilfulmanner, recognising the risks in familiar procedures and obtainingsome appropriate results. They interpret broad trends shown by datapresented in tabular or graphical form. They select appropriate factsand principles to produce limited but relevant explanations and makesuperficial conclusions from data. They may need assistance to relatethese to biological knowledge and understanding.

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B Coursework Record Forms

Centre-assessed work

Candidate Record FormSeries/Year

AS Biology /Biology (Human) BYA4

Centre Name ...................................................................................................... Centre No.

Candidate Name ............................................................................................... Candidate No.

This side is to be completed by the candidate

Sources of advice and information

1. Have you received any help or information from anyone other than your subject teacher(s) in theproduction of this work? ………..............………………. (Write YES or NO)

2. If you have answered YES, give details. Continue on a separate sheet if necessary.

............................................................................................................................................................................

3. If you have used any books, information leaflets or other materials (e.g. videos, software packagesor information from the Internet) to help you complete this work, you must list these below unlessthey are clearly acknowledged in the work itself. To present material copied from books or othersources without acknowledgement will be regarded as deliberate deception.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

NOTICE TO CANDIDATE

The work you submit for assessment must be your own.

If you copy from someone else or allow another candidate to copy from you, or if you

cheat in any other way, you may be disqualified from at least the subject concerned.

Declaration by candidate

I have read and understood the Notice to Candidates (above). I have produced the attached work without anyhelp apart from that which I have stated on this sheet.

Signed ................................................................................................................... Date ..................................................................(Candidate)

This form should be completed and attached to the candidate’s work and retained at the Centre or sent to

the moderator as required.

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This side is to be completed by the teacher.

Marks must be awarded in accordance with the instructions and criteria in section 20 of the specification.

Supporting information to show how the marks have been awarded should be given [in the form ofannotations on the candidate’s work / in the spaces provided below].

Investigation title(s)

Please complete the boxes to show the marks awarded and use the spaces to make any summative commentswhich seem appropriate.

Criteria

for award of marks

Max.

Mark

Mark

awarded

Teacher’s supporting statement

A Changing independent variable 3

B Measuring dependent variable 3

C Conducting practical work 3

D Collecting raw data 3

E Drawing 3

F Graphical techniques 3

G Interpreting results 3

H Evaluating 3

I Selecting information 3

J Communicating 3

Total 30

Evidence of the shaded Skills A, B, F, G, H, I and J must be sent to the AQA moderator for each candidate in thesample.

Concluding Comments

Details of additional assistance given (if any)

Record here details of any assistance given to this candidate which is beyond that given to the class as awhole and beyond that described in the specification. Continue on a separate sheet if necessary.

Teacher’s signature ........................................................................................................................ Date .........................................

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Centre-assessed work

Candidate Record FormSeries/Year

A2 Biology /Biology (Human) BY89/2

Centre Name ...................................................................................................... Centre No.

Candidate Name ............................................................................................... Candidate No.

This side is to be completed by the candidate

Sources of advice and information

1. Have you received any help or information from anyone other than your subject teacher(s) in theproduction of this work? ………..............………………. (Write YES or NO)

2. If you have answered YES, give details. Continue on a separate sheet if necessary.

............................................................................................................................................................................

3. If you have used any books, information leaflets or other materials (e.g. videos, software packagesor information from the Internet) to help you complete this work, you must list these below unlessthey are clearly acknowledged in the work itself. To present material copied from books or othersources without acknowledgement will be regarded as deliberate deception.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

NOTICE TO CANDIDATE

The work you submit for assessment must be your own.

If you copy from someone else or allow another candidate to copy from you, or if you

cheat in any other way, you may be disqualified from at least the subject concerned.

Declaration by candidate

I have read and understood the Notice to Candidates (above). I have produced the attached work without anyhelp apart from that which I have stated on this sheet.

Signed ................................................................................................................... Date ..................................................................(Candidate)

This form should be completed and attached to the candidate’s work and retained at the Centre or sent to

the moderator as required.

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This side is to be completed by the teacher.

Marks must be awarded in accordance with the instructions and criteria in section 21 of the specification.

Supporting information to show how the marks have been awarded should be given [in the form ofannotations on the candidate’s work / in the spaces provided below].

Investigation title

Please complete the boxes to show the marks awarded and use the spaces to make any summative commentswhich seem appropriate.

Criteria

for award of marks

Max.

Mark

Mark

awarded

Teacher’s supporting statement

A Defining problem 3

B Changing independent variable 3

C Measuring dependent variable 3

D Implementing 3

E Statistical techniques 3

F Interpretating results 3

G Evaluating 3

Total 21

Evidence of the shaded Skills A, B, C, E, F and G must be sent to the AQA moderator for each candidate in thesample.

Concluding Comments

Details of additional assistance given (if any)

Record here details of any assistance given to this candidate which is beyond that given to the class asa whole and beyond that described in the specification. Continue on a separate sheet if necessary.

Teacher’s signature .................................................................................................................... Date .........................................

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Centre-assessed work

Centre Declaration SheetSeries/Year

Qualification [please tick]: GCE AVCE GNVQ Key Skills FSMU

Specification Title: .........................................................................................................................................................................

Unit Code(s): ........................................................................................... Centre No:

Centre Name: ....................................................................................................................................................................................

Authentication of candidates’ work

This is to certify that marks have been awarded in accordance with the requirements of the specificationand that every reasonable step has been taken to ensure that the work presented is that of the candidatesnamed. Any assistance given to candidates beyond that given to the class as a whole and beyond thatdescribed in the specification has been recorded on the Candidate Record Form(s) and has been taken intoaccount. The marks given reflect accurately the unaided achievement of the candidates.

Signature(s) of teacher(s) responsible for assessment Date: ...........................................................

Teacher 1 .............................................................................

Teacher 3 .............................................................................

Teacher 5 .............................................................................

Teacher 2 ..............................................................................

Teacher 4 ..............................................................................

Teacher 6 ..............................................................................

(continue overleaf if necessary)

Internal standardisation of marking

Each centre must standardise the assessments across different teacher/assessors and teaching groupsto ensure that all candidates at the centre have been judged against the same standards. If two or moreteacher/assessors are involved in marking, one of them must be designated as responsible for standardisingthe assessments of all teacher/assessors at the centre.

The teacher/assessor responsible for ensuring standardisation must sign declaration (a).If all the work has been marked by the same person, that person must sign declaration (b).

I confirm that [please tick either (a) or (b)]

(a) the procedure described in the specification has been followed at this centre to ensure that

the assessments are of the same standard for all candidates; or

(b) I have marked the work of all candidates.

Signed: ........................................................................................................................................ Date: ........................................

Signature of Head of Centre: ................................................................................................ Date: .........................................

This form should be completed and sent or given to the moderator with the sample of centre-assessed work.

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C Overlaps with other

Qualifications

GCE Biology The Subject Criteria for Biology require that all GCE Biologyspecifications will have at least fifty percentage overlap in contentwith each other but the depth of treatment of each topic and theassessment pattern will ensure that each specification is distinctive.

GCE Science The following topics receive some coverage on both specifications:

Cell StructurePhotosynthesis and RespirationEcosystemsNutrient CyclesEvolution and BiodiversityBiological MoleculesReproduction and InheritanceAdaptation to the EnvironmentGenes and Genetic Engineering

GCE Environmental Science Topics which occur in both specifications include:

EcosystemsNutrient cyclesNutritionGenetic EngineeringDeforestation

The approach, breadth and depth of coverage of these topics variesbetween the specifications.

GCE Chemistry Some aspects of biochemistry will be covered in both specifications,for example the structure of organic molecules, bonding, and theaction of enzymes.

GCE (AS) Science for PublicUnderstanding

The following topics are covered to varying depths in bothspecifications:

Infectious DiseasesGenetic DiseasesGenetic EngineeringEvolution

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AVCE Science(Single and Full Award)

The following compulsory AVCE units for both Single and FullAward display some overlap:

AVCE Unit 2:‘Monitoring the Activity of the Human Body’ includes the structureand function of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems, cellularrespiration and temperature control.

AVCE Unit 5: (Full Award only)‘Synthesising Organic and Biochemical Compounds’ includes thestructure of organic molecules, enzymes and their use in industrialprocesses and the principles of genetic engineering.

AVCE Unit 6:‘Carrying out scientific investigations’

Other Level 3 Qualifications There are no other Level 3 Qualifications for which there is anysignificant overlap with this specification.


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