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EDITORS

Editor

Editor

Editor

Visual Editor

AUTHORS

Ramya Eyer

SPECIAL THANKS TO

Melody Truong

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

10 Things You Never Knew About Yourself................................................................4

Decoding: Vitamins…..............................................................................................................7

Sociopathy: An Antisocial Personality Disorder.................................................10

Having A Big Heart Is Not Always A Good Thing..............................................12

An Insider’s Words......................................................................................................................15

Death: A Walk Through..........................................................................................................................17

Could We Crossbreed With Other Species?...............................................................................................................19

The Solar Powered Animal....................................................................................................................................................21

Half-Male, Half-Female Organisms?..............................................................................................................................22

Misconceptions of Science: Advances in GMO Foods........................................................................................25

ON THE COVER Cover Photography by David Doubilet

The featured article on the cover

explores one of Nature’s hidden gems

and science’s most intriguing animal, the

solar powered sea slug (pg. 21).Having

a Big Heart is Not Always a Good Thing

delves deeper into the symptoms of

having an enlarged heart (pg. 12).

Misconceptions of Science: Advances in

GMO Foods explains the true meaning

of GMO and its impact on our lives.

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10 Things You

Never Knew

About

Yourself March 14, 2014

Written by Tram Nguyen

No one knows more about you than yourself, but that may not apply when it comes to the workings and functions of your body.

1. THERE ARE BUGS LIVING ON YOUR

FACE.

Around 25 face mites (Demodex mites) live in

the roots of your eyelash follicles and can be

found in other hair follicles. They’re mostly

harmless, but they may cause an allergic

reaction to more sensitive individuals.

2. YOUR SNEEZES NORMALLY EXCEED A

SPEED OF 100MPH WHILE YOUR

COUGHS CAN REACH TO ABOUT 60

MPH.

Sneezes are a protective reflex that happen

when the nasal passage is irritated by an

irritant or a cold virus, while a cough occurs

when an irritant stimulates cough receptors in

the lung as well as efferent and afferent

nerves in the body.

3. YOU ARE 1 CM TALLER IN THE

MORNING THAN YOU ARE AT NIGHT.

Throughout normal activities that happen

during the day, the cartilage in your knees

and other areas slowly compress and make

you shorter.

4. YOUR BRAIN ITSELF CANNOT FEEL

PAIN.

Some gory scenes in horror movies may not

look as painful as they seem. The brain

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itself does not have pain receptors. If you

have a headache, it is usually caused by pain

in the head or neck.

5. HUMANS ARE THE ONLY MAMMALS

THAT CANNOT SWALLOW AND BREATHE

AT THE SAME TIME.

The epiglottis, a cartilage flap found at the

root of the tongue which guards the larynx, is

ensuring that food doesn’t enter your lungs

when you swallow. This is why you won’t be

able to breathe with the path to your lungs

blocked.

6. YOU CANNOT CHOKE YOURSELF WITH

YOUR OWN HANDS.

As oxygen is being cut off from your brain,

your grip will loosen and you will faint.

Besides, your survival instincts will kick in

before it gets that far—which is hopefully

never.

7. THE SURFACE AREA OF YOUR LUNGS

IS EQUIVALENT TO THE SIZE OF A TENNIS

COURT.

In order to efficiently oxygenate blood, the

lungs’ surface area needs to be maximized in

order to accommodate as many blood vessels

as possible.

8. YOUR NAVAL IS A RAINFOREST

There are around 65 different species of

bacteria housed in your bellybutton. The more

warm, moist, and unclean your naval is, the

more bacterium there are, so it’s best to keep

it clean to prevent the bacteria from spreading

to other places.

9. THE BRAIN SOMETIMES THINKS

YOU’RE DEAD WHEN YOU’RE ASLEEP

If you’ve ever jerked awake in the middle of

the night with your heart racing for no

apparent reason, it’s because your brain is

trying to make sure that you’re alive. During

certain stages of sleep, your heartbeat may

become very faint, which may cause your

brain to think your heart has stopped beating.

10. YOU WILL PRODUCE 2500 QUARTS

OF SALIVA IN YOUR LIFETIME.

That’s basically two swimming pools’ worth of

saliva. Tests have shown that teens produce

500 mL of saliva per day, which would fill up

an entire plastic water bottle.

The human body is a marvel filled with

wonders that may have yet to be discovered.

With its fascinating functions, it is not

something to be underappreciated but to be

treasured and loved.

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Most consumers have been told numerous times by doctors, pharmacists, nutritionists, and other health professionals to eat a balanced, healthy diet containing a variety of vitamins. Despite following this advice, some Canadians may not know why it is necessary to take vitamins—aside from knowing that they are “good” for them. What are vitamins? Are there different types of vitamins? What do they do? It is time to decode this frequently used but mysterious substance.

All organic compounds contain the element, carbon; vitamins are organic compounds that are vital for normal cell growth, development, and function. The human body either cannot produce enough of a certain vitamin or cannot produce it at all. Thus, vitamins are found in food and supplements in minute amounts so they can be used to maintain the body’s good health. There are thirteen known vitamins: A, C, D, E, K, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, folate (B9), biotin (B7), and pantothenic acid (B5). Every one of the thirteen types of vitamins belongs to one of two types. Vitamins can either be fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins can dissolve in fat and are stored in fat tissue and the liver. They can be stored more easily than water-soluble ones and can be retained for a few days. In fact, some can

last for a few months. Vitamins A, E, D, and K are fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins are dissolvable in water. The remaining nine vitamins are water-soluble. They must be used immediately as they cannot be stored. The only exception is vitamin B12, which can be stored for up to a few years. Any unused vitamins will be flushed out through the excretory system. Each vitamin performs a specific function. For example, Vitamin A aids in the formation and preservation of teeth, bones, mucus membranes, skin, and soft tissue. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is an antioxidant that helps with maintaining healthy teeth and gums. It also helps the body absorb iron and keep healthy tissue, and plays a part in the body’s ability to heal wounds. Vitamin B6 (also called pyridoxine) helps in the formation of red blood cells and the maintenance of healthy brain function. Vitamin D, the “sunshine vitamin,” is produced after the body is exposed to sunlight. It helps the body absorb calcium and maintain appropriate levels of calcium and phosphorus. The last example is folate, which helps form red blood cells and is essential for the development of DNA. Consumers should also be aware of vitamin deficiency: the lack of a certain vitamin or

DECODING…

VITAMINS March 13, 2014 Written by Rachel Tran

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This vitamin wheel is a useful tool to help Canadians remember the thirteen vitamins and which

foods are high sources of each vitamin.

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vitamins in the body that can lead to specific and sometimes fatal illnesses. For instance, Vitamin A deficiency can cause problems with vision, such as night-blindness and keratomalacia. Night-blindness, also called nyctalopia, is a condition that causes a person to experience difficulty in seeing things properly at night or in dim light. Keratomalacia is caused when the body is extremely deficient of Vitamin A. Night-blindness is a symptom. It begins with the extreme dryness of the eyes, wrinkling, and the softening of the cornea of the eyes. If left untreated, blindness can occur. Most foods contain vitamins, but some are better sources than others. To get the greatest amount of vitamins, eat foods that are processed as little as possible. Good sources of Vitamin B6 are bananas, nuts, whole grains, and milk in its natural form. Natural sources of folate include leafy vegetables, sunflower seeds, and baker’s yeast. Be more aware of the variety of products offered in local supermarkets, and always remember to check the Nutritional Facts table on every package to ensure that vitamins are present.

WHAT ARE ANTIOXIDANTS?

While oxygen is vital in the process of cellular respiration and for metabolizing proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, it is a highly reactive element that can fuse with potentially dangerous molecules to form free radicals. Free radicals attack healthy cells and can lead to problems, such as cancer, a weakened immune system, and heart disease. Antioxidants control the formation of free radicals.

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SOCIOPATHY: AN ANTISOCIAL

PERSONALITY

DISORDER March 14, 2014 Written by Ramya Eyer

What is a Sociopath?

A sociopath is an individual

diagnosed with a variant of

Antisocial Personality Disorder, or

APD.

Symptoms of the disorder

include frequent deception

through charm and wit, not

following social norms, and often

having a high IQ—but don't go

around accusing every intelligent,

rebellious, and charming person

you know of being a sociopath.

Also, compulsive lying is a behaviour commonly found in sociopaths, so is a disregard for what is

right and wrong and irresponsible work behaviour—also the symptom of chronic laziness.

Furthermore, they have a lack of impulse, with the ability to enable reckless, violent behaviour. Often

times, children exhibit this behaviour through the lack of interaction with others, the tormenting of other

people and animals, and the setting of things on fire for pleasure (not accidentally).

All of these symptoms are driven by a lack of empathy and remorse for others; sociopaths do not

feel guilt when they do something morally unsound.

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How Does this Behaviour Develop?

Their behaviour is a result of both genetic

and environmental factors. Even though the

causes are not a fully genetically based, there

have been studies done to prove that genes

play a huge factor in the development of this

disorder. The evidence for the genetic cause of

the disorder is through mono-zygotic (identical)

twins with APD having been reared separately.

The twin of an individual is more likely to exhibit

the symptoms of the condition, suggesting that

there is a genetic factor to the disorder. There is

not one particular gene that controls a

sociopath's behaviour. Rather, there are genes

that give people a predisposition of the

disorder. It is also evident that sociopaths have

parents who also exhibited similar traits to those

of their offspring.

Environmental factors, such as how they

bonded with their parents and life experiences,

have the tendency to induce sociopathic

behaviour. Often, the cause of their lack of

consciousness that causes their violent behaviour

is a result of a lack of communication between

an infant and the mother. A possible reason for

this lack of communication is that the mother

could have neglected her infant; another

common symptom of sociopathy. Also,

sociopaths who resulted to murderous behaviour

(for example, serial killers) were exposed to an

environment with high stress factors.

Additionally, it has been proven that

sociopaths have neurological differences from

an average person without the disorder. MRI

scans have been performed on people who are

and are not sociopaths. Those without the

disorder were showed emotionally stimulating

photos which enabled the functioning of the

amygdala, the part of the brain that causes

emotions and concern for other people.

However, when this experiment was conducted

with sociopaths, there was no response from the

amygdala. Their brains were psychologically

incapable of feeling compassion for others.

Sociopaths in Society

One in every 25 people (or 4% of the world's

population) are identified as sociopaths. Often,

sociopaths are all labelled as serial killers;

despite the common belief, a majority of

sociopaths are not serial killers. However,

nearly all serial killers are sociopaths. There are

plenty of high functioning sociopaths in society.

In fact, 1 in 10 Wall Street executives are

sociopaths—roughly two and a half times that of

the average population. Also, beloved

characters like 'the Joker' and BBC's modern

take on Victorian detective Sherlock Holmes are

both examples of sociopaths. However,

sociopaths are often found in abusive

relationships, where they would control or

manipulate their significant other and often

neglect to take care of their children. They are a

cause for alarm when it comes to forming

relationships with others.

Sociopathy is often misunderstood, as it is

often mislabelled as another mental disorder

and it is often unaddressed, as there many

sociopaths who live their lives without causing

alarm to society. Also, there is more to what

triggers this degree of antisocial behaviour,

such as genetic, environmental and neurological

factors; more than a person can control with

their mind.

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While societal norms and expectations have

taught people to “open their hearts” to others

and demonstrate compassion to those in need,

they have made most of society ignorant to the

alternative meaning of having a “big heart.”

One can have a big heart…literally, and the

enlargement of the heart is a medical condition

known as cardiomegaly.

Cardiomegaly is a heart condition not to be

taken lightly. An enlarged heart is caused by

the excessive growth of cardiac muscles in the

organ, which can be resulted from one of two

other medical conditions: hypertrophic

cardiomyopathy (HCM) or left ventricular

hypertrophy (LVH). Both conditions are closely

related to each other.

HCM is a heritable heart condition in which

cardiac muscle thickens. This is problematic

because it reduces the size of some heart

chambers and makes the heart work harder to

circulate blood. Often, one side of the heart

becomes much larger than the other as a result.

Researchers believe that HCM is caused by a

defect in the genes that control heart muscle

growth in a person. Youth under the age of 30

are more likely to suffer from more severe cases

of HCM. However, anyone at any age

can be susceptible.

LVH is the thickening of cardiac muscle

around the walls of the left ventricle and is not

heritable. Various factors contribute to LVH, but

almost all trace back to one main cause: the

overworking of the left ventricle. This chamber

of the heart performs the vital function of

pumping oxygenated blood into the aorta, the

artery that allows blood to be carried

throughout the body.

HAVING A BIG HEART

IS NOT ALWAYS A GOOD THING March 12, 2014 Written by Rachel Tran

March 12, 2014

Written by Rachel Tran

This diagram compares a normal heart with a heart diagnosed with HCM. In the heart to the right, the cardiac muscle has grown obtrusively around the walls of the left ventricle and the septum (the wall of muscle that separates the left and right ventricles).

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There are four main causes of LVH: aortic

stenosis, hypertension, HCM, and intense

physical training for long periods of time. Aortic

stenosis is an uncommon condition in which the

aortic valve, which controls the flow of blood

from the left ventricle to the aorta, does not

open fully. This is caused by the narrowing of

the aorta, which is in turn caused by various

factors, such as calcium build up. As a result of

this, the blood pressure in the left ventricle

increases in order to pump the blood through.

This causes the left ventricle to work harder and

develop more muscles around its walls.

Hypertension is also known by its more

familiar name: high blood pressure. While

arteries, which are responsible for carrying

blood away from the heart, are designed to

withstand levels of blood pressure, they do have

limits. Hypertension forces the heart to work

harder than normal to push blood through these

arteries.

There are many symptoms of cardiomegaly

one can identify. Such symptoms include:

shortness of breath, chest pain, heart

palpitations or unsteady heart beatings,

dizziness, fainting, and rapid exhaustion with

physical activity. Should one experience these

symptoms, a consultation with a physician is

necessary.

Physicians are most likely to recommend

treatments that are dependent on the severity

and individual causes of HCM or LVH. Though

there are treatments, there is no cure to

cardiomegaly. They focus controlling symptoms

and preventing the condition from complicating

and worsening. Treatment for LVH could involve

medication to reduce blood pressure or surgery

in more severe cases. Treatment for HCM

focusses on allowing the heart to pump blood

more efficiently, specifically controlling and

correcting excess cardiac muscle and irregular

heart rhythm. This can be achieved through

specific medication or inserting a device called

an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD)

into the patient through surgery. This device

controls heart palpitations.

One can reduce his or her chances of

developing LVH by knowing and controlling his

or her blood pressure, staying active, and

eating foods that are low in fat—especially

saturated and trans fat. Although developing a

big heart is something most people aim toward,

it is important to make sure one’s heart does not

grow that big.

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15

AN INSIDER’S WORDS For many, a career in the sciences seems

demanding, tedious, and risky. Not many know

what steps to take or what field to choose from

the broad range of disciplines in science. So,

for this week’s issue, we asked for words of

guidance, advice, and experience from an

insider, Melody Truong. In this exclusive

interview, she opened up about her career path

in pharmaceutical sciences. This was what she

had to say:

BW: What is your current occupation?

MT: I’m currently a student at the University of Toronto, and am completing my degree in the Combined Bachelor of Pharmacy – Doctor of Pharmacy program.

BW: What did you study in university?

MT: Previously, I had studied biomedical sciences for two years at the University of Waterloo. I am now completing my fourth year of a 5-year pharmacy program at the University of Toronto.

BW: What or who influenced you to pursue what you studied?

MT: My first experience in pharmacy practice was volunteering at a local independent pharmacy (meaning it was not a chain such as

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Shoppers Drug Mart). This was right after I graduated from high school, when I had no previous interest in pursuing a pharmacy degree. I had merely wanted an extra-curricular to add to my resume, but grew increasingly fascinated with both the vast array of medications available, as well as the patient-centered role a pharmacist can provide.

After two more years of volunteering, my goal was set!

BW: Are you pursuing post-graduate studies? If so, what are they?

MT: Seven years of school is enough for me! Right now, I have no plans to pursue studies outside of my professional degree. Since I’m hoping to practice as a clinical pharmacist though, I am considering applying for a 1-year hospital residency for additional training.

BW: What was your most memorable academic experience while you were in university?

MT: I would have to say the most memorable experience would be my acceptance to the Combined program mentioned earlier. The program accepted 30 students from the original 240 of the Bachelor of Pharmacy program, along with 6 post-baccalaureates.

Truthfully, the workload is intense. The gains far outweigh the amount of caffeine I inhale everyday though, since our class [has] provided the opportunity to achieve a higher level of learning, as well as exposure to a variety of sectors (experiential rotations include hospital, industry, academia, etc.).

N.B. There has been a shift in pharmacy education as of 2013, whereby the original Bachelor of Pharmacy program will be replaced by an entry-level Doctor of Pharmacy program. The curriculum is similar to the Combined

program, but since our cohort includes post-baccalaureate students, it may be regarded as a form of post-graduate studies.

BW: How would you describe the transition from high school to university?

MT: I would highly encourage students to live outside of home during university, whether on residence or student housing. Obviously finance and proximity has to be taken into account, but if the opportunity is there, it’s a great experience and lesson on independence.

This advice, of course, stems from my own years living on and off campus. The transition may take longer to adapt to, but the ability to immerse in student life is invaluable. Aside from that, it also teaches you to juggle school and daily routine rather quickly (do your laundry!).

BW: What is some advice you can give to high school students entering university?

MT:

1) Work hard, play hard. On one hand, you won’t be of any help to anyone burnt out. On the other, you probably don’t want to be living in your parents’ basement at the age of 30.

2) It is very much okay to not know what to become straight out of high school. I have friends who switched from chemical engineering to mechanical engineering, from chemistry to computer science, from public health to medical radiation. The point is: choices change, opinions change, and the road to success is not a race unless you make it one.

3) Pursue a career that YOU love. Your happiness will thank you.

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In our current society, the leading causes of death are heart disease, cancer, strokes, respiratory disease, Alzheimer’s and various accidents. It seems like no one can escape death without an illness or injury. Yet, on some occasions, we hear of people dying of old age or simply “dying in peace”. How is that possible?

Actually, dying of old age usually means dying from diseases tied with aging. But it can also mean the body is breaking down. The human body wasn’t made to last forever, and just like a machine, humans can have certain functions or systems break down without a specific cause or reason.

THE PROCESS The process of dying occurs when the body isn’t getting enough oxygen it needs to survive. Different cells die at different rates, so the duration of the dying process depends on which cells

are deprived of oxygen. The brain uses a great amount of oxygen to function but reserves very little, so any cut-off of oxygen to the brain can bring quick cell death, which can explain why strokes can kill people so quickly.

There are signs that signal the slow breakdown of the systems in the body. The person will sleep more to preserve the little energy that remains. Once the energy is close to being drained, the person will lose the craving to eat, and eventually, to drink. The slow deconstruction of the digestive system can lead to difficulty in swallowing and a dry mouth, so forcing the person to eat can result in choking. Eventually, the dying person will lose bladder and bowel control. However, these accidents will become less frequent as the gastrointestinal functions shut down and the person consumes less.

MARCH 15 2014

WRITTEN BY TRAM NGUYEN

Death: A Walk-Through

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THE AFTERMATH Once the heart stops beating, the

body will go cold and decrease its

temperature until it reaches room

temperature. Since blood is no

longer circulating, it will pool and

settle, causing the body to stiffen.

Bacteria and enzymes break down

the host body. Acids from the

stomach and pancreas cause the

body to digest itself. As these

decomposing elements break down

the rest of the body’s organs, the

body changes colour from green, to

purple and, eventually, to black.

The bacteria create a rotten-smelling

gas that causes the body to bloat,

making the eyes pop from its

sockets and the tongue to swell.

Eventually, the skin, hair, teeth and

nails fall out as the internal organs

liquefy. This causes the body to

burst open to leave a skeleton

remaining.

Any pain at this stage can be treated by a doctor. This stage would be called the agonal phase. During this phase, the dying person may feel disoriented and extremely uncomfortable, regardless of any circumstances. It will seem like they’re trying to catch a breath after a workout. There will be long pauses between loud, laboured breaths, and if there is fluid in the lungs, the dying person may produce a sound called “the death rattle”. As the cells inside the body lose their connections, the body may start to convulse or spasm.

Once heartbeats and breathing

stop, the person would have

experienced clinical death.

However, the person can still be

revived through CPR, so long as the

person hasn’t reached biological

death.

Biological death occurs 4 to 6

minutes after clinical death, during

which brain cells begin to die from

lack of oxygen. There is no chance

of survival after biological death.

● ● ●

Although death is inevitable, it

is best to stay as strong and

healthy as possible to withhold a

terrible fate that can leave a

lasting, painful memory for our

loved ones. Let the process of

death be a chilling reminder to

love your body while it lasts.

● ● ●

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COULD WE

CROSSBREED

WITH OTHER

SPECIES? Written By Ramya Eyer

Hybrid animals are the offspring of two animals of different species, done under human experimentation and genetic manipulation. Some hybrid animals ensure qualities that are ideal for living in human housing, such as domesticated cats and dogs. Others are often created after inter-species interactions in zoological gardens. Hybrids such as ligers are created when lions and tigers, as well as other “big cats”, are often housed in the same enclosure. If other animals have done it, is it possible for humans to be cross-bred with their closest relative, the chimpanzee?

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Ilya Ivanov was an accomplished Russian scientist of the 1920s in what was a new field at the time: artificial insemination, a process in which the sperm of one species is injected into the ovum of another while still in the body. This process was done with animals that were closely related anatomically and genetically. By the year 1924, he managed to create a cow-bison, guinea-rabbit and zedonk. In the year 1926, he attempted to answer Stalin's call to create a “living war machine”; a type of human being that was tough-skinned, that could not succumb to pain. In his attempt to do so, he decided to use his expertise in reproduction science by trying to crossbreed humans with genetically similar chimpanzees. He injected the ovum of 3 female chimpanzees into the genetic material of humans (artificially inseminated), but failed to have their eggs impregnated.

There are various reasons why this controversial experiment should not and could not be carried out. Top science magazine Wired.com put the experiment in their article, “Seven Creepy Experiments That Could Teach Us So Much (If They Weren’t So Wrong)”. Also, in April of 1998, various scientists specialized in bioethics decided to ban transgenic technology, as it had the potential to create a race of slaves, such as in Ivanov's intention to create the “Humanzee” for the sole purpose of

enhancing the strength of the Red (Russian Communist) Army. Also, many people, such as blogger Beth Benson, do not agree with the idea of humans meddling with the instincts of other animals.

A common explanation for this failed attempt is that humans have 46 chromosomes and chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, hence their incompatibility for reproduction. However, a zorse was successfully bred; the zebra father had 44 chromosomes while the horse mother had 64 chromosomes. So, this is an invalid argument since they had different numbers of chromosomes. Also, chimpanzees and humans have 98% of the same genetic material, which sets the grounds for the development of the hybrid species.

Although attempts to breed a hybrid of the chimpanzee and the human have not been successful, it does not necessarily mean that it cannot be done. It has been done with other species under the same grounds, in terms of genetic similarity and chromosome compatibility. Even though this has not been done just yet, and regardless of how controversial the idea is, it is not entirely out of the question.

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THE SOLAR POWERED ANIMAL

Sea slugs are now the cutting edge of harvesting alternative energy. It’s a well-known fact in science that plants can self-produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis, while animals have to search for food sources. However, there are exceptions, and sea slugs happen to be one of them.

Sea slugs are well recognized for their vibrant colours that warn of poison, intricate patterns and fascinating jelly-like shapes. They can be found in oceans throughout the world, but are mostly densely populated in shallow, tropical waters. Their bodies are lined with vertical projections called cerata that wave like streamers, where many undischarged stinging cells are stored. Since sea slugs have no gills, the cerata are used for respiration. When pursued by a predator, the nudibranch removes the cerata from its body, which would distract the predator as the nudibranch itself escapes. The area of the discarded cerata is then regrown.

Two groups of sea slugs are able to harvest energy from sunlight: the nudibranchs and the sacoglossans. Nudibranchs are carnivores that prey on algae, sponges, anemones, corals, barnacles, and even other sea slugs. They can derive colour from the food they eat for camouflage, as well as store their prey’s poisons for defense mechanisms. Sacoglossans are herbivorous and survive by ingesting the internal contents of algae. Like the nudibranch, it also uses substances from the food it eats to camouflage from predators.

March 12, 2014 Written by Tram Nguyen

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HOW ARE THEY SOLAR POWERED?

Certain nudibranchs and sacoglossans are

solar-powered through a symbiotic phenomenon

called kleptoplasty. This symbiotic relationship

occurs when chloroplasts (or plastids) from algae

are isolated by the host organism (which is the

sea slug in this case). The algae are eaten

normally and are partially digested, leaving the

chloroplasts intact. The chloroplasts are then

maintained within the sea slug’s outer tissues (like

the cerata), retaining functional photosynthesis

for use by the host. The sea slug is able to live off

the sugars produced by the algae’s chloroplasts.

With the discovery that the sea slug, an

animal, can be photosynthetic, it is only

certain to question whether humans can be

too. However, research has shown that

even if it were possible, it would not be

efficient due to the likelihood of getting

sunburn or skin cancer while gaining

energy from sunlight, and that an hour’s

worth of energy in the sun would only be

equivalent to one sixth of an apple. While

it is fun to muse with the possibility of

being solar-powered, it is best we

appreciate sea slugs as one of Mother

Nature’s jewels.

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In July 2011, a BBC science reporter announced the birth of a very special Great Mormon butterfly in London’s Natural History Museum. The creature was split exactly in half; one side was male and the other side was female. Only two hundred of the museum’s 4.5 million butterflies lived with similar conditions. In fact, they are part of a group of genetically altered animals called gynandromorphs.

Gynandromorphy is a very rare occurrence in which an animal possesses male and female body parts. It does not necessarily mean the animal is exactly half male and half female, like the butterfly aforementioned. Gynandromorphy occurs differently depending on which animal kingdom a creature belongs to. Even now, scientists do not know why gynandromorphy occurs in some animals. Luckily, there is an explanation to how insects become gynandromorphs.

In insects, gynandromorphy occurs during meiosis, a type cell division that results in the daughter cells having half of the chromosomes of each of the parent cell. X and Y chromosomes determine the sex of an animal. In insects, a

male will have two X chromosomes (or more than two in some cases) and a female will have one X and one Y chromosome (or just one X). During meiosis, the two chromosomes in a cell duplicate to form two pairs of attached sister chromatids. The attached sister chromatids are still considered a single chromosome.

Typically, the pairs of sister chromatids will be separated in the first stage of meiosis, and two new daughter cells will each contain one of the pairs. However, in gynandromorphy, non-disjunction occurs during cell division. This means that the chromosomes (and sometimes chromatids) have not been separated, causing one

HALF-MALE, HALF-FEMALE

ORGANISMS? March 15, 2014

Written by Rachel Tran

A photo of the Great Mormon gynandromorph butterfly

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daughter cell to have more chromosomes than necessary and the other daughter cell to have less than required chromosomes or no chromosomes at all.

In the case of gynandromorph insects, non-disjunction occurred in a cell with two X chromosomes (a male insect cell) and one daughter cell ended up having three chromatids, leaving the other with only one. This meant that one daughter cell was male and the other was female. While these daughter cells continued to perform cell division, some parts of the insect became male and other parts became female.

Non-disjunction can occur at any time during the growth of an insect. If the insect was exactly half-male and half-female—in which case it would be called a bilateral gynandromorph—non-disjunction would have occurred when the zygote first divided. The zygote is the first cell of any organism, and from there it divides into different cells. Another contributing factor to bilateral gynandromorphy is related to determinate cell division in insects. In other words, cells specialize immediately after the first division

of the zygote. The functions of each cell are predetermined. The first division of the zygote establishes the left and right sides of the insect. Thus, non-disjunction at that time will create bilateral gynandromorphs. A mosaic can be formed if the male and female parts of an animal are unevenly divided.

After reading about gynandromorph insects, one may wonder if humans can be gynandromorphs. It is highly likely that humans cannot be bilateral gynandromorphs, as cell division after the zygote is indeterminate. This means that human cells do not specialize immediately after cell division, which explains why cells after the division of the zygote are totipotent stem cells. However, non-disjunction can occur in humans, which can lead to genetic disorders, such as Klinefelter Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome. One thing is certain: gynandromorphs are precious gems in the biological world and should not be taken for granted.

This Tiger Swallowtail is a bilateral gynandromorph. The left half is male, while the right half is female.

The diagram above illustrates non-disjunction. One daughter cell has three separated chromosomes. The other has one.

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MISCONCEPTIONS OF SCIENCE: ADVANCES IN GMO FOODS

March 13, 2014 Written by Ramya Eyer

The concept of Genetically Modified

Organisms (GMOs) in food—or anything

genetically modified—is often misinterpreted as

tampering with the genetic information of food

to ensure damage to humans and other living

organisms. It often has a negative connotation

to it, as often man-made objects do.

However, the formal definition of an

organism that is genetically modified is one

containing genetic material that has been

artificially altered so as to produce a desired

characteristic. It does not necessarily guarantee

the use of harmful chemicals to bring about a

specific trait. Yet, GMO farming is not the

safest method of food production when done in

certain ways. It is carried out harmlessly,

without chemicals, through selected cross-

breeding, accompanied with the knowledge of

hereditary genetics. One of the first known

studies on this was carried out by Gregor

Mendel, Austrian monk and a pilot of the field,

a century and a half ago. He would castrate,

or selectively pollinate, types of pea plants

exhibiting certain physical traits (otherwise

known as phenotypes) and found that the

genotype or genes used (at the time, called

determining factors) of their offspring caused

the phenotype in plants to differ. However, not

all offspring exhibited traits of their parents in

exactly the same way. Therefore, he concluded

that based on the selected breeding of

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offspring, he could breed desired traits from

various species of pea plants. This is a method

of GMO farming used to surface variety in

plants for human consumption.

Methods of GMO farming that have been

taken to the lab have been known to save

people in poverty rather than harm them. On a

February night in 1999, Professor Peter Beyer

was analyzing samples of rice sent from a

colleague in Zurich. He noticed that a grain of

rice was translucent yellow, atypical to its usual

shade of white. He performed a chemical

analysis and he found that this was the first

grain of rice in agricultural history containing

beta-carotene, a substance contributing to the

pigment of carrots and corn. It later became

known as “Golden Rice”.

He accidentally came up with a way to save

tens of thousands of people every month from

Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)! The lack of

Vitamin A causes the death of roughly 1 million

of the poorest children every year, and with the

benefits of this biochemical concoction,

“Golden Rice” is known for having life-saving

properties.

Monsanto is a multinational company

centralized in GMO food production and

pesticides. The company owns 80% of the

world's seeds and is a parent of the herbicide,

“Round-up”. It has been involved in various

scandals, from water pollution to international

affairs—many U.S. Diplomats are sponsored

by the company. It is notorious for having high

connections with the U.S. Government; its

owners use it as an advantage to legalize its

products, such as a cow hormone drug,

without being properly tested first by the FDA

(the US Department that maintains the safety of

food). Also, “Round-up Ready” seeds are a

prime example of a product of recombined

DNA to form the structure of seeds that resist

the formula of Monsanto's own herbicide. As

well, the company's seeds are patented as

though they were inventions. This is so farmers

have to pay for new seeds and would be sued

if they re-used the seeds of old ones.

Monsanto is responsible for the spread of

PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), industrial

chemicals used in the manufacturing of

electrical equipment. This was found in the

company’s pesticides and herbicides. On

November 12, 1966, Monsanto requested for

zoologist Professor Ferguson and his research

team to test the waters in Snow Creek in St.

Louis, Missouri. They placed three fish in the

creek; they were dead in 3 1/2 minutes. Later

that month, the Brussels branch of the company

received a letter from Stockholm, discussing

findings of DDT

(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, another

harmful chemical) accumulated in the organs

and tissues of animals throughout the food-web

in the area and the accidental discovery of

PCB, the same substance that killed the fish in

St. Louis. Despite all of this, Monsanto failed to

report to the residents of the area that the air,

water, and soil were highly contaminated.

There are more stories of the above that

have given this powerful corporation, GMO

foods, and biotechnology a bad reputation in

general. Nevertheless, GMO foods in all are

not as harmful as they are made out to be; they

make for a more diverse variety of plants for

human consumption and can save the lives of

many in poverty. However, as seen with

Monsanto, that is not always the entire truth.

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