Bird Specialist Report

Bird Specialist Report

Volume 4, Annex G

Lesotho Highlands Development Authority

Contract LHDA No.: 6004 Contract Name: Professional Services for the Environmental & Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Document Ref: P2W-6004-DFR-0008_02

Document Date: 29 September 2017

Revision History Version Issue Date Description of Changes

00 29/06/2017 First draft for Client review

01 31/07/2017 Second draft for Client review

02 29/09/2017 Final Report

Abbreviations and Acronyms AoI Area of Influence AWD Aircraft Warning Device BFD Bird Flight Diverter BPST Bulk Power Supply and Telecommunications BV Bearded Vulture CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora CR Critically Endangered DEM Digital Elevation Model DoE Department of Environment ECO Environmental Control Officer e.g. For example EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIS Environmental Impact Statement EMP Environmental Management Plan EN Endangered (relates to species on the IUCN Red Data Species List) ERM Environmental Resources Management Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment EWT Endangered Wildlife Trust GIS Geographic Information System GPS Geographic Positioning System ha Hectare i.e. ‘that is’ IFC International Finance Corporation IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature km Kilometre kp Kilometre Point kV Kilovolt KZN KwaZulu-Natal LEC Lesotho Electricity Company LHDA Lesotho Highlands Development Authority LHWP Lesotho Highlands Water Project m Metre masl Metres above sea level MDEC Maloti Drakensberg Ecology Consultants cc MDTP Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project MSc Masters of Science MTEC Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture NT Near Threatened (relates to species on the IUCN Red Data Species

List) NTS Non-Technical Summary PhD Doctor of Philosophy PRAI Polihali Reservoir and Associated Infrastructure PS Performance Standard PWAC Polihali Western Access Corridor PWAR Polihali Western Access Road RAP Resettlement Action Plan RD Roads Directorate SABAP2 Follow-up project to the Southern African Bird Atlas Project TP Turning Point UCT University of Cape Town UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

Abbreviations & Acronyms

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation VU Vulnerable (relates to species on the IUCN Red Data Species List) WHS World Heritage Site

Glossary of Terms

Technical Term Definition Area of Influence The area within which the impacts of the proposed development are likely to be

expressed (also see Project Area). Aircraft Warning Device

Large, spherical marker to make powerlines more visible to aircraft and birds.

Biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

Biodiversity Offset Biodiversity offsets are measurable conservation outcomes resulting from actions designed to compensate for significant residual adverse biodiversity impacts arising from development plans or projects after appropriate prevention and mitigation measures have been taken.

Bird Flight Diverter Coiled wire marker to make powerlines more visible to birds. Critical Habitat Areas with high biodiversity value, including (i) habitat of significant importance

to Critically Endangered (CR) and/or Endangered (EN) species; (ii) habitat of significant importance to endemic and / or restricted-range species; (iii) habitat supporting globally significant concentrations of migratory species and/or congregatory species; (iv) highly threatened and / or unique ecosystems; and/or (v) areas associated with key evolutionary processes (see IFC PS6, Paragraph 16).

Critically Endangered A taxon is Critically Endangered (CR) when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future, as defined by IUCN criteria (www.iucnredlist.org)

Ecoregion An ecoregion is defined as a "relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural communities that share a large majority of their species, dynamics, and environmental conditions”.

Ecosystem Services Defined as the benefits that people obtain from nature. These are typically divided into four categories. • Provisioning services are the goods or products obtained from ecosystems,

such as food, timber, medicines, fibre, and freshwater. • Regulating services are the benefits obtained from an ecosystem’s control

of natural processes, such as climate, disease, erosion, water flows, and pollination, as well as protection from natural hazards.

• Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits obtained from ecosystems, such as recreation, spiritual values, and aesthetic enjoyment.

• Supporting services are the natural processes that maintain the other ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling and primary production.

Endangered A taxon is Endangered (EN) when it is not Critically Endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future, as defined by the IUCN criteria (www.iucnredlist.org) or provisionally assessed by an expert group.

Endemic A species that has ≥ 95 % of its global range inside the country or region of analysis (IFC PS6 GN79).

Habitat The environmental or ecological area in which an animal, plant species or other organism lives.

Invasive Alien (vegetation)

Species are identified as invasive aliens when (i) they are non-native to an ecosystem, and (ii) their introduction is liable to cause environmental harm, or harm to human health and livelihoods, because they spread rapidly and have negative effects on native species through competition, predation, or disease. Invasive species can be flora, fauna, or other organisms (e.g. microbes) but generally refer to plants.

IUCN Red List This list has been developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and details the global conservation status of a wide range of biological species. The Red List website is http:/www.redlist.org.

Passerine A small, perching bird of the Order Passeriformes. Most of the small grassland birds covered in the study fall into this taxonomic group.

http://www.iucnredlist.org/

http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Glossary of Terms

Technical Term Definition Project Area The area within which most of the project impacts are likely to be expressed

(also see Area of Influence), in this case the area included within a 5 km radius of the PWAC.

Modified Habitat An area that may contain a large proportion of plant and/or animal species of non-native origin, and / or where human activity has substantially modified the primary ecological functions and species composition.

Natural Habitat An area composed of viable assemblages of plant and/or animal species of largely native origin, and/or where human activity has not essentially modified an area’s primary functions and species composition.

Restricted Range Restricted range species include those with ranges in the following criteria: endemic to a site or found globally at fewer than 10 sites; animal species having a distribution range less than 50 000 km2; or bird species with a global breeding range less than 50 000 km2 (IFC PS6)

Vulnerable A taxon is Vulnerable (VU) when it is not Critically Endangered (CR) or Endangered (EN) but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future, as defined by the IUCN criteria (www.iucnredlist.org).

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Acknowledgements

Sincere thanks to Jessica Hughes, Debbie Weldon and the ERM team for their expert management of the project.

Many thanks are also extended to the residents of the project area for welcoming us and allowing us to conduct fieldwork in the area.

Grant Benn provided excellent GIS support during the compilation of all our field data and production of mapping, and Jessica Hughes supported the field team, provided all the logistical planning for fieldwork, and assisted with all aspects of desk-top preparation and the review and editing of data and reports.

Lastly, many thanks to Warren McCleland of Ecorex Consulting Ecologists for providing bird atlas data.

Non-Technical Summary Scope and Methods

This study describes the birds of the Polihali Western Access Corridor (PWAC) Project Area, and assesses the impacts of the proposed new paved road and 132kV powerline on the local avifauna. It includes a review of the existing bird data for the affected area, and of nearby areas of similar habitat, and presents survey data collected in the Project Area over three field visits (September/October 2016, February 2017, and April 2017).

Fieldwork comprised:

(i) driven surveys of the proposed powerline and road alignments, during which SABAP 2 protocol bird atlas cards (at a 5’ x 5’ resolution) were compiled to detail the general avifauna present;

(ii) plotting and focussed surveys of cliffs within a ~5 km or line-of-sight radius of the alignments in order to confirm presence and numbers of cliff-nesting birds; and

(iii) walked transects to sample small bird populations over representative habitats in the PWAC.

Potential risks to birds of construction and operation of the road and powerline were assessed initially for four alternative routes in a route selection study. The powerline route received closer attention in a further route refinement process that was focussed on assessing route sensitivity for bird collision risks. This led to the selection of an alignment along “Route B” which has a reduced extent of high altitude (>2800 m) ground compared to the other option of Route D/C. This resulted in an improved powerline route with lower bird risks than the alternative options that had been put forward along Route D/C, and in so doing the route selection process maximised the avoidance of risks and adhered to the first step of the mitigation hierarchy: avoidance. The realigned powerline and PWAR along Route B forms the basis for the assessment of impacts of the construction and operation phases, and the identification of mitigation measures in this study. Mitigation is limited to technically feasible measures that can be implemented for the selected road and powerline.

Route Selection

A route selection study was undertaken as an initial task of the ESIA during which four route options between Katse and Polihali Dams for the PWAC were compared on ecological, social, technical and cost criteria in order to rank the options and recommend a preferred alternative. Bird criteria used to compare the route options were:

i) the distance of road or powerline route traversing mountainous areas over 2800 m altitude as these high-lying areas of Lesotho are important for localised endemic birds, and are those most frequently used by large, threatened birds (especially vultures);

ii) proximity of the proposed road and powerline to significant cliff-lines, occupied by scarce or threatened cliff-nesting birds (especially vultures, but including other key species);

iii) the distance of powerline route traversing exposed ridgelines, saddles or established wetlands, where collision risk for commuting species is potentially highest.

Overall, the routes with the longest distance traversed at high altitude were the least preferred for birds. Route B was selected as the preferred corridor for the road and powerline as it offered the best compromise for reducing ecological risks and optimising social benefits, balanced with cost.

This bird baseline and impact assessment is therefore based on Route B as the selected PWAC along which the PWAR and powerline route is broadly aligned, although the powerline deviates substantially in two stretches of the route for approximately 6.7 km in the east and 8 km in the west.

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Non-Technical Summary

Baseline Assessment – Key Findings

Avian Communities

• Overall, recorded or expected avian diversity in the project area was relatively low (<130 species), but levels of endemism (~25% of species) and the proportion of the avifauna made up of threatened species (~10%) were relatively high.

• Two avian communities were recognised as most important and of highest relevance to the assessment: large, threatened cliff-nesting species (including vultures, diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey, storks and ibises), and threatened and/or range-restricted grassland passerines.

• The present study found nest sites of Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus, Southern Bald Ibis Geronticus calvus, Black Stork Ciconia nigra and Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus, and areas of high use by commuting Bearded Vulture and Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres along the initially preferred powerline alignment (Route C), which motivated its realignment to the finally preferred route along Route B. The chosen powerline route traverses significant less high-altitude environments above 2800 m which are most commonly used or frequented by Bearded Vulture, Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi and Drakensberg Rockjumper Chaetops aurantius. However, the current powerline route does pass close to nest sites of Southern Bald Ibis, Lanner Falcon, Verreaux’s Eagle Aquila verreauxii, and possibly Black Stork. Passerine populations were depauperate, presumably because of the degraded condition of the grasslands in the affected area (and exacerbated by the drought conditions in the area at the time of the study), particularly in the eastern half of the PWAC closer to the Senqu valley.

Bird Species of Conservation Importance

• The study identified 12 priority bird species relevant to this assessment, including Bearded Vulture (globally Near-threatened, regionally Critically Endangered); Cape Vulture (globally and regionally Endangered, and regionally endemic); Southern Bald Ibis (globally and regionally Vulnerable, and regionally endemic); Lanner Falcon, Verreaux’s Eagle and Black Stork (all regionally Vulnerable); Mountain Pipit (regionally Near-threatened and locally endemic), and African Rock Pipit (regionally Near-threatened, and regionally endemic).

Current Ecological Status and Threats to Birds

• The entire Project Area along the PWAC is under intense grazing and browsing pressure from livestock and most areas of arable land are under cultivation, although these land use pressures are more pronounced closer to Ha Seshote in the western end of the route and the Senqu Valley at the eastern end of the route. These high levels of habitat degradation and destruction, exacerbated by drought conditions, have very likely led to significant decreases in both avian abundance and diversity in the catchment.

• Vultures and large raptors are significantly impacted by direct and indirect poisoning and persecution across the region; direct disturbance, and loss of habitat and depletion of prey bases are all factors depressing raptor numbers, both in the Lesotho Highlands and more broadly.

• All these effects are likely to be exaggerated by the spread of infrastructure and industrial development (e.g. dams, powerlines, roads, mines) and human settlement into previously remote catchments of Lesotho, and exacerbated by the overarching effects of increased drought periods.

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Key Potential Impacts

The following key potential impacts of the PWAC on birds have been identified and the impact ratings are summarised in the tables below:

• Construction phase impacts of the pylons, powerline, substation expansions, including creation of access tracks on birds are considered of Negligible to Minor significance.

• Construction phase impacts of site clearance for the road on birds is Minor to Moderate

significance with those of moderate significance predicted for the 9 km of road at high altitude. With mitigation these drop to Negligible to Minor, respectively.

• Construction phase impacts of the road (including blasting, trucking and moving of rock, and

associated noise and vibration), are of Moderate significance for birds for most of the route but potentially Major in the 9 km of road in the more remote and high lying sections on either side of the Semenanyane River valley. Proposed mitigation is expected to reduce these impacts to Minor and Moderate significance, respectively.

• Operation phase impacts of the powerline are related to increased risk of mortality of birds from

collisions with the powerlines, and possibly by electrocution on live elements of the infrastructure. The pre-mitigation impact significance is rated as Major to Critical for much of the route, and particularly where it intersects with areas of High or Very High sensitivity (totaling 8.7 km) in terms of avian collision risk. However, this impact is reduced to Minor and Moderate respectively with the implementation of mitigation, primarily full marking of the powerlines with bird diverters, and installation of aviation spheres in the highest risk sections).

• Operation phase impacts of the road are related to bird disturbance from traffic noise, vibration

and movement, and mortality from collision with traffic. This impact is assessed as Negligible for most of the road and Moderate for the highest 9 km section of the road where conservation priority endemic and threatened birds are most likely to occur. No feasible mitigation is possible to reduce this risk.

Construction Phase - Powerline

Low Sensitivity Medium Sensitivity High Sensitivity

26.5 km TP 0-16 & 23-32)

9.0 km (Ha Sekolopata – Makhoaba)

TP16-22 None

Pre-Mitigation Impact

Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Construction Disturbance of Powerline (Machinery and Human) on Birds Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Small Negligible Small Negligible NA NA

Sensitivity Low Low Medium Medium NA NA

Significance Negligible Negligible Minor Negligible NA NA Impact of Site Clearance / Habitat Loss for Powerline Construction on Birds Type of Impact Direct



Significance Negligible Negligible Minor Negligible NA NA

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Construction Phase - Road


26.5 km TP 0-16 & 23-32)


TP 16-22 None


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Road Construction Disturbance on Birds (including Blasting)

Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Large Medium Large Medium NA NA


Significance Moderate Minor Major Moderate NA NA Impact of Site Clearance/ Habitat Loss for Road Construction on Birds

Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Medium Small Medium Small NA NA


Significance Minor Negligible Moderate Minor NA NA

Operational Impacts – Powerline

Table 5.1 Impact of Powerline-related Mortality on Birds.

Medium Sensitivity High Sensitivity Very High sensitivity 26.5 km (75%) 4.5 km (13%) 4.2 km (12%)


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Powerline Collisions on Birds Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Large Small Large Small Large Small

Sensitivity Medium Medium High High Very High Very High

Significance Major Minor Critical Moderate Critical Moderate Note: Pre-mitigation impact ratings assume no specific bird mitigation is applied (i.e. the line is not marked with BFDs or AWDs); Residual ratings assume the mitigation described in Section 5.3.2.4 is applied. Overall, the powerline route is considered an optimal route given the mountainous terrain to be crossed between the Katse and Polihali Dams, and when fitted with BFDs and AWDs (as recommended), collision risks are expected to be mitigated to an acceptable level.

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Operational Impacts - Roads

Low Sensitivity Medium Sensitivity High sensitivity

26.5 km TP 0-16 & 23-32)


TP16-22 None


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Road Use and Construction Traffic on Birds Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Small Small Medium Medium NA NA


Significance Negligible Negligible Moderate Moderate NA NA Mitigation and Monitoring

The following additional measures are recommended to monitor and mitigate the negative impacts of the PWAC on birds:

Construction

• Minimise the footprint of site clearance during road and powerline construction by ensuring construction activities, including vehicular access, are restricted to the minimum area required and all construction works areas are delineated on site plans.

• Conduct a pre-construction survey of both the powerline and road alignments to confirm the status of sensitive avian sites (nest sites, key high-altitude habitat) located by this study, and to inform potential additional impact mitigation for the construction process, which might include scheduling construction activities or other measures to reduce disturbance levels around active nesting sites.

Operation

• Fit Bird Flight Diverters (BFDs) to the entire length of the new 132kV powerline (using diverters configured as per industry standards for a 132 kV powerline).

• Fit BFDs to sections of the 66kV line from Ha Lejone to Matsoku substation during the refurbishment. Where feasible, these should be fitted to the sections of the line that cross high ridgelines and the Katse Dam. Priority stretches to install BFDs are: pylons 6-8, 11-14, 16-20, 46-54, 57-58 (particularly 46-54).

• Fit appropriate Aircraft Warning Devices (AWDs) to high avian collision risk sections of the line as follows: pylons 14-16; at deviation pylon 17 (over the western ridge of the Semenanyane valley); at deviation pylon 21 (over the eastern ridge of the Semenanyane valley); as well as between deviation pylons 26-28 between Marasele and Thuhloane.

• Monitor bird mortality rates on the powerline (systematically, at least every two-months) and the road (opportunistically) for at least the first two years post-construction. If high collision risk sections of the powerline are identified, identify additional mitigation - such as installation of AWDs - in these sections.

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Conclusions

The originally proposed powerline route had the potential to result in significant and probably unsustainable impacts on the region’s birds, particularly in terms of powerline collision mortality affecting important populations of globally and regionally threatened vultures and other cliff-nesting species. The early-stage screening and route-selection work was effective in reducing these levels of risk, by diverting the powerline away from extended areas of very high-lying ground, where the likelihood of collisions (and disturbance impacts on endemic, range-restricted passerines) was greatest. However, while the finally selected road and powerline alignments is predicted to reduce the risks to high priority birds, the predicted impacts on vultures and other threatened birds remain highly significant particularly for the stretches of powerline that cross high lying ridgelines and valleys.

These impacts include (electrocution- and) collision-related mortality on power infrastructure, disturbance (and habitat loss) associated with construction and maintenance activities both during and post-construction, and collision mortality on the completed road. However, by implementing the above mitigation it should be possible to ensure that bird impacts are reduced to sustainable levels.

(i) applying standard, best practice protocols to all construction and maintenance activities; (ii) carefully checking both alignments immediately pre-construction to ensure that sensitive sites

(e.g. active nests) are clearly identified and accommodated in the ongoing management of the project; and

(iii) ensuring that the entire length of the new powerline is fitted with industry standard BFDs, key sections of sensitive terrain at high altitude are fitted with AWDs, and all new power infrastructure is bird-friendly in configuration and fully insulated.

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Table of Contents Section 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1-1 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................ 1-1 1.2 Study Team ........................................................................................................................ 1-1 1.3 Scope of Bird Study............................................................................................................ 1-2 1.4 Project Description and Location ....................................................................................... 1-2 1.5 Assessment of Alternatives ................................................................................................ 1-5 1.5.1 Routes Considered ....................................................................................................... 1-5 Section 2 Institutional and Legal Framework .......................................................... 2-1 2.1 Relevant Institutions ........................................................................................................... 2-1 2.2 Lesotho Legislation Specific to Biodiversity ....................................................................... 2-1 2.3 Protected Species .............................................................................................................. 2-2 2.4 Relevant Initiatives ............................................................................................................. 2-2 2.5 International Conventions .................................................................................................. 2-3 2.6 International Good Practice ................................................................................................ 2-4 2.6.1 Performance Standard 6 (PS6): Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable

Management of Living Natural Resources ................................................................ 2-4

Section 3 Approach and Methods ............................................................................ 3-1 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3-1 3.1.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 3-1 3.2 Methods and Activities ....................................................................................................... 3-1 3.3 Assumptions and Limitations ............................................................................................. 3-2 3.4 Review of Previous Data .................................................................................................... 3-2 3.4.1 Relevant Data ............................................................................................................... 3-2 3.5 Surveys and Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 3-3 3.5.1 Field Survey Areas and Methods .................................................................................. 3-3 3.6 Impact Assessment Methodology ...................................................................................... 3-9 Section 4 Baseline Environment .............................................................................. 4-1 4.1 Area of Influence ................................................................................................................ 4-1 4.2 General Description of the Birdlife in the Project Area and Surrounds .............................. 4-2 4.2.1 Cliff-nesting birds .......................................................................................................... 4-3 4.2.2 Small Passerines / General Avian Sampling ................................................................ 4-7 4.3 Threatened Species and Global and Regional Context ..................................................... 4-8 4.4 Existing Threats to Bird Populations .................................................................................. 4-9 4.5 Avian Sensitivity Mapping .................................................................................................. 4-9 Section 5 Assessment of Impacts on Birds ............................................................ 5-1 5.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 5-1 5.2 Construction Phase ............................................................................................................ 5-2 5.2.1 Impact of Powerline Construction and Substation Expansion on Birds ........................ 5-2

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Table of Contents

5.2.2 Impact of Road Construction on Birds .......................................................................... 5-5 5.3 Operation Phase ................................................................................................................ 5-8 5.3.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 5-8 5.3.2 Impact of Powerline Collisions on Birds........................................................................ 5-8 5.3.3 Impact of Road Use and Polihali Dam & Tunnel Construction Traffic on Birds ......... 5-13 Section 6 Mitigation and Monitoring ........................................................................ 6-1 6.1 Mitigation ............................................................................................................................ 6-1 6.1.1 Construction Phase....................................................................................................... 6-1 6.1.2 Operation Phase ........................................................................................................... 6-1 6.2 Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 6-1 Section 7 Conclusions .............................................................................................. 7-1

Section 8 References ................................................................................................ 8-1

Appendix A Bird Species Lists for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project Area ................................................................................................................. A-1

Appendix B Cliff-nesting Bird Survey Data for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project Area ............................................................................................. B-1

Appendix C Avian Abundance and Diversity Transect Data for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project Area ................................................................. C-1

List of Tables Table 1.1 Authors and Contributors to this Study ......................................................................... 1-1 Table 1.2 Summary Description of PWAR Design Specifications ................................................ 1-4 Table 1.3 Summary Description of BPST Powerline Design Specifications ................................ 1-4 Table 2.1 Legislation Relevant to Biodiversity .............................................................................. 2-1 Table 2.2 Initiatives Relevant to Biodiversity Protection in the Project Area ................................ 2-2 Table 2.3 International Conventions Relevant to the Project ....................................................... 2-3 Table 3.1 Teams and Timing of Bird Surveys on the Various Proposed Alignments for the

PWAC ........................................................................................................................... 3-4 Table 3.2 Details of Small Passerine Sampling Locations, Surveyed in Early February along

the PWAC and Polihali Vicinity ..................................................................................... 3-6 Table 3.3 Impact Significance Rating Matrix ................................................................................ 3-9 Table 4.1 Priority Bird Species Known or Considered Likely to Occur in the PWAC Project

Area and their Status .................................................................................................... 4-2 Table 4.2 Numbers of Definite and Possible Colonies and Nests of Cliff-nesting Birds Located

during Surveys Conducted along Routes B and C of the PWAC ................................. 4-3 Table 5.1 Powerline Route Sensitivity for Birds ............................................................................ 5-3 Table 5.2 Summary of Bird Sensitivity to Disturbance and Habitat Loss ..................................... 5-4 Table 5.3 Impacts of Powerline Construction on Birds ................................................................. 5-5 Table 5.4 PWAR Route Sensitivity for Birds ................................................................................. 5-6 Table 5.5 Summary of PWAR Route Sensitivity for Birds ............................................................ 5-7 Table 5.6 Impacts of Road Construction on Birds. ....................................................................... 5-8 Table 5.7 Summary of Bird Sensitivity to Powerline Collision .................................................... 5-11 Table 5.8 Impact of Powerline-related Mortality on Birds. .......................................................... 5-13 Table 5.9 Impacts of Road Use and Traffic on Birds .................................................................. 5-14 Table 6.1 Mitigation Measures for Birds ....................................................................................... 6-2 Table 6.2 Pre- and Post-Construction Monitoring Requirements for Birds .................................. 6-6

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Table of Contents

List of Figures Figure 1.1 PWAR and Powerline Route ........................................................................................ 1-3 Figure 1.2 Powerline and Road Options Assessed During the Route Selection Study ................ 1-6 Figure 3.1 Bird Atlas Coverage (and Pentad Species Counts) in the Project Area in

September/October 2016, and February and April 2017 ............................................. 3-5 Figure 3.2 Areas Visited and the Distribution of Cliffs Surveyed along the Four PWAC Alignment

Options in September/October 2016, and February and April 2017 ............................ 3-7 Figure 3.3 Distribution of Small Passerine Sample Locations (start points) in relation to the PWAC

Route B corridor in February 2017 ............................................................................... 3-8 Figure 4.1 Area of influence for the PWAC Route B ..................................................................... 4-1 Figure 4.2 Distribution of Colonies and Nest Sites of Cliff-nesting Birds, and Sightings of Bearded

and Cape Vultures within the PWAC Project Area ...................................................... 4-4 Figure 4.3 Large Cliff at the Western end of Route C, Supporting Breeding Bearded Vulture and

Other Cliff-nesting Species (top), Degraded Grassland at the Eastern End of Route C (middle), and High Elevation Shrub/Grassland along Route B (bottom) ..................... 4-5

Figure 4.4 Bearded Vulture Soaring over High Ground along Route B (top), Mountain Pipit in Boulder-strewn Alpine Grassland near Kosheteng along Route B (middle), and Cliff b3 near kp 10 on Route B, Occupied by Breeding Southern Bald Ibis, Lanner Falcon, and Possibly Black Stork (bottom) ...................................................................................... 4-6

Figure 4.5 Most Common Species Recorded in the Vicinity of the Polihali Dam Construction Site Compared with those Recorded in the Kosheteng (Semenanyane River Valley) area . 4-7

Figure 4.6 Avian Species Richness in the Vicinity of the Polihali Dam Construction Site Compared with the Kosheteng (Semenanyane River Valley) Area ............................................... 4-8

Figure 4.7 Avian Impact Sensitivity Along the Proposed PWAC, Assessed in Terms of the Predicted Density of Bearded Vultures Based on Tracking Data, Topography above 2750 masl, and Buffered Nest Site Locations Found During this Study. ................... 4-10

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Introduction Section 1

1.1 Background This report is the bird specialist report that covers the avifauna of the proposed road and powerline route of the Polihali Western Access Corridor (PWAC), which is required to facilitate construction of the Polihali Dam. The report has been compiled to provide inputs into the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) for the PWAC as outlined in Section 1.2.

In 2016 LHDA appointed Environmental Resources Management Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd (ERM) to conduct the ESIA for the PWAC. In turn, ERM appointed AVISENSE Consulting cc to characterise the avifauna of the affected area, assess the impacts on birds of this proposed development, and identify appropriate mitigation measures to address the identified impacts.

1.2 Study Team Authors and contributors to the bird assessment are summarised in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Authors and Contributors to this Study

Aspect Person Organisation / Company

Qualifications

Birds (Main author of this report)

Dr Andrew Jenkins

AVISENSE Consulting

• PhD in ornithology from UCT • >20 years of experience as a bird specialist, consulting to a

wide variety of industrial development projects • Junior bird specialist on both Phase 1a and 1b of the LHWP,

and participated in Phase 1 bird monitoring studies in 2014. Birds David Allan Durban Natural

Science Museum • Curator of Birds at Durban National Science Museum • >25 years of experience as a bird specialist, consulting to a

wide variety of industrial development projects • Senior bird specialist on both Phase 1a and 1b of the LHWP,

including 2014 bird monitoring studies for Anchor. Birds Dr David

Maphisa South African National Biodiversity Institute

• >20 years of experience as a field ornithologist in Lesotho • PhD in statistical ecology from UCT • Assistant bird specialist on both Phase 1a and 1b of the

LHWP. Birds Shobana

Makhubu Freelance field observer

• Active member of the Bearded Vulture Task Force of the Birds of Prey Programme, EWT

• >5 years of experience as a fieldworker on industrial development baseline and EIA bird surveys.

GIS Mapping & Analysis

Grant Benn Geocline Consulting

• MSc in Conservation Biology from UCT • >20 years as a practicing GIS specialist, servicing various

fields including aspects of both Phase 1a and 1b of the LHWP.

Birds - Field Assistant

Samuel Zwakala

Lesotho Dept of Environment

• Active member of the Bearded Vulture Task Force of the Birds of Prey Programme, EWT

• Extension worker for DoE, based in Mokhotlong area.

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Section 1 • Introduction

1.3 Scope of Bird Study The terms of reference for this study involved the following:

• Compile and integrate all existing bird data for the affected area; • Document the presence of any rare / threatened / endemic species, and their IUCN and/or

national status, and their regional distribution and rarity; • Compile an annotated list of all birds encountered and their status in the impact area; • Briefly review the literature on the impacts of roads, powerlines and communications

infrastructure on birds with particular relevance to avian communities in Lesotho; • Identify and assess the predicted impacts of the road and powerline in the PWAC, for the

construction, and operational phases; and • Propose impact mitigation and monitoring measures, including recommendations for layout or

design modification, and on-site mitigation. These will inform the overall EMP for the Project.

1.4 Project Description and Location Components included in this assessment of the Polihali Western Access Corridor (PWAC)1 are summarised below and in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3. The routing is shown in Figure 1.1.

• Polihali Western Access Road (PWAR): • Comprises a new, paved road link between the A8 in the vicinity of Ha Seshote to the

Polihali Reservoir, in the vicinity of Tloha-re-Bue; o Shall be designed in accordance with the Lesotho Roads Directorate (RD) standards

for a Class A road (as a minimum) and the Phase II Agreement, with due regard to the heavy traffic expected during construction;

o Has paved junctions to local access roads where required; and o Includes associated road infrastructure such as drainage, culverts and bridge

structures. A total of three main bridge structures are required for the crossing of the Matsoku, Liseleng and Semenanyane Rivers, and several culverts across the smaller streams traversed by the road.

• Bulk Power Supply and Telecommunications (BPST) Infrastructure (transmission lines and substations) that includes: • Upgrade of electrical infrastructure from the existing substation near Ha Lejone to

Matsoku Intake substation; • New 132kV powerline from the Matsoku Intake substation to a new Polihali substation to

supply the Phase II construction sites including the Polihali Dam, tunnel intake, and associated camp and office facilities;

• Re-alignment of the existing powerline along the A1 that crosses the Khubelu and Senqu Rivers where there is potential inundation of existing electrical infrastructure due to reservoir impoundment; and

• A telecommunications component that entails the provision of the required levels of telecommunications infrastructure to provide voice and data facilities (including teleconference) to the Phase II project areas.

Note: A separate ESIA for the Polihali Reservoir and Associated Infrastructure (PRAI) covers the BPST components for the realignment of the powerline along the A1 over the Khubelu and Senqu Rivers, and the new substation and telecommunications mast near the Polihali infrastructure area. The western construction camp for the PWAC falls under a separate EMP.

1 The infrastructure corridor is referred to as the PWAC. The BPST infrastructure (‘Power and Telecoms’) primarily follows the alignment of the PWAR although the powerline deviates from the PWAR in some locations (see Figure 1.1).

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Figure 1.1 PWAR and Powerline Route

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Table 1.2 Summary Description of PWAR Design Specifications

Feature Description Route Ha Seshote to Polihali via Ha Ratau-Makhoaba Junction and Ha Mei. Class Class A Road Length 54.3 km Total Width 10 m comprising two 3.5 m lanes and 0.5 -1 m shoulder (0.5 m in

restricted areas and a 1 m side drain). Extra climbing lanes to be located where required.

Servitude 30 m road reserve (15 m from centre line) and 60 m building restriction area (no new building zone).

Land Requirements: Total ~170 ha comprising: 164 ha for 30 m road reserve; and 5-6 ha for construction camp and site / works areas at bridges.

Bridges and Culverts Bridges 3 major bridges:

• Matsoku River – 60 m length at km 1.3 (3 spans 20 m length); • Semenanyane River – 90 m at km 21.8 (5 spans of 12-20 m length); • Makhoaba River – 80 m at km 37.6 (4 spans of ~20 m length).

Culverts 18 culverts across streams with catchments varying from 1-38 km2 Construction Requirements Volume of Cut and Fill 950,000 m3 of each (balanced). Blasting Blasting required at rock embankments to widen road, at bridge

locations, and at quarries and borrow pits. Duration of construction 20 months, split into two tenders. Scheduled to start in October 2018. Resettlement and compensation Some households will require resettlement and compensation for loss

of arable land and resources. Compensation and resettlement requirements and implementation are being handled by separate Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) consultants in accordance with the LHDA’s compensation policy.

Table 1.3 Summary Description of BPST Powerline Design Specifications

Feature Specifications Route Matsoku substation to new substation at Masakong (near Polihali). Power supply 132 kV Length of powerline 35.4 km Pylons 106 pylons, including 33 deviation point pylons. Land requirements ~18 ha permanent land required for pylons, local tower access tracks;

~120 ha temporary land (including 1.1 ha for laydown sites; 112 ha for 132kV servitude, and 7 ha for 33kV servitudes.

Access tracks ~42.5 km of access tracks for installation and maintenance of pylons. Servitude Width 31 m (15.5 m each side of centre line). Servitude Restrictions No house structures are permitted within the powerline servitude.

Graves may remain in the servitude provided no damage is caused during construction or maintenance. Arable land is permitted at owners’ risk.

Bird protection measures Bird Flight Diverters (BFDs) on the entire 132 kV line; BFDs on sections of the existing Ha-Lejone-Matsoku line to be

refurbished (where feasible); Aircraft or Aviation Warning Devices (AWDs) on four sections of the

line at high altitude across ridgelines; Anti-perching Devices or Bird Guards on cross-arms above vertical

insulators to reduce electrocution and flashover risk; and Minimum of 1800 mm phase to phase or phase to earth clearance.

Resettlement and compensation Powerline construction will require compensation for loss of arable land within the servitude, and some temporary loss for works areas. Compensation and resettlement requirements and implementation are being handled by separate RAP consultants in accordance with LHDA’s compensation policy.

Note: the specifications contained in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 form the basis of this assessment.

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1.5 Assessment of Alternatives 1.5.1 Routes Considered Four route options for the PWAC were assessed as part of a Route Selection phase of work for this ESIA, and which has informed the alternatives analysis. The routes had previously been assessed mainly on technical, cost and social grounds by (Barry and Partners, 2014a and b) and (SMEC, 2016). Since little attention had been given to ecological considerations of the four routes in the earlier studies, the scope of work for the Project required a Route Selection study with a focus on the ecological and social aspects of the four routes. Ecological and social criteria were identified that could be spatially identified and represented to compare the routes, as reported in the Route Selection report (ERM, 2017: P2W-6004-0002).

In relation to birds, the criteria used related to:

i) The distance of road or powerline route traversing mountainous areas over 2800 m altitude as these high-lying areas of Lesotho are important for localised endemic birds, and are those most frequently used by large, threatened birds (especially vultures);

ii) The proximity of the proposed road and powerline to significant cliff-lines, occupied by scarce or threatened cliff-nesting birds (especially vultures, but including other key species);

iii) The distance of powerline route traversing exposed ridgelines, saddles or established wetlands, where collision risks for commuting species is potentially highest.

Overall, the routes with the longest distance traversed at high altitude were the least preferred for avifaunal reasons.

The route selection study conducted by the engineers (Barry and Partners, 2014a,b; SMEC, 2016) preferred Route C and later Route D based on the shorter distance and lower cost for both the powerline and road (Routes A and B were not preferred). However, the Route Selection study (ERM, 2017: P2W-6004-DFR-0002) and some initial bird surveys in Sept/Oct 2016 confirmed some significant ecological constraints of Routes C and D. Route C includes significant lengths of both powerline and road at altitudes above 2800 m (shown in Green in Figure 1.2), which present a heightened risk of collision for commuting/foraging vultures and other already threatened, collision-prone species. Route C passes close to an occupied and active Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus nest site, a regionally significant Southern Bald Ibis Geronticus calvus colony, and nest sites of Black Stork Ciconia nigra and Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus. As such, this route was considered inherently problematic from a bird risk perspective (Jenkins, 2017; ERM, 2017: P2W-6004-DFR-0002). Route D (along the upper Liseleng River valley) has reduced exposure to high-lying areas, but still included too much risk to sensitive avifauna located at altitudes above 2800 m where it joins Route C. Route A is likely to impact on cliff-nesting birds along its western third, where the alignment runs closely in parallel with the Matsoku River (Figure 1.2), although surveys could not confirm this due to difficult access. As a result, Route B was initially selected as the preferred PWAC, as it presented the lowest perceived risk to birds in terms of the pre-defined assessment criteria (Jenkins, 2017).

The powerline route followed a separate preliminary design process and was initially routed along the Liseleng River valley (Route D/C) but was then proposed to follow a route up the Semenanyane River valley to the east to join Route C in order to reduce the length of route traversing areas >2800 m (Figure 1.2). However, the high bird collision risks of this route were further confirmed during bird surveys in early February 2017 when vultures were seen regularly flying along the upper Liseleng and Semenanyane valleys. This was further confirmed by a collision risk map developed for Bearded Vulture based on modelling of satellite tracking data (Reid et al., 2015). This modelling showed that even just the eastern half of Route C’s high-altitude section includes significantly more high-risk areas for Bearded Vulture than Route B. As a result of these findings, the powerline route was changed to follow the current alignment along Route B as shown in the yellow line in Figure 1.2.

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Figure 1.2 Powerline and Road Options Assessed During the Route Selection Study

Note: PWAR Route D comprises the western section of Route B (pink); the Liseleng valley link and eastern half of Route C (brown); Route C comprises the entire northern route (brown). The Semenanyane Valley (dashed black line) was an optional route for the powerline.

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Institutional and Legal Framework Section 2

2.1 Relevant Institutions Three government departments are most relevant to environmental protection issues in Lesotho as they pertain to the impacts of roads and powerlines:

• The Lesotho Department of Environment (under the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture (MTEC)) is ultimately responsible for drafting and enforcing the country’s environmental legislation, regulating development through EIA approval processes, and responsible for managing legislation and requirements of international conventions related to protected species.

• The Roads Directorate (as mandated by the Roads Directorate Act, No. 16 of 2010) is responsible for the planning, development and maintenance of roads and carrying out of quality assurance for all roads, as well as ensuring mitigation of negative environmental impacts from road construction and rehabilitation of affected areas in accordance with environmental guidelines.

• Lesotho Electricity Company (LEC) is responsible for the development and maintenance of Lesotho’s electricity infrastructure. LEC, through their Environmental Manager and officers, review EIAs relevant to powerlines and electrical infrastructure to ensure they meet their environmental requirements and conduct maintenance to minimise bird-related risks to their infrastructure.

2.2 Lesotho Legislation Specific to Biodiversity Legislation of specific relevance to biodiversity protection is summarised in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Legislation Relevant to Biodiversity

Legislation Requirements

Lesotho Environment Act No.10 of 2008

The Environment Act, 2008 provides a framework environmental law for the implementation of the National Environmental Policy. It sets out the principles of environmental management in Part II, Section 3(2) of the Act, which include:

• To reclaim lost ecosystems where possible and reverse the degradation of natural resources;

• To ensure that waste generation is minimised and safely disposed of; • To prevent interference with the climate and adverse disturbances of the atmosphere

and take compensatory measures for any unavoidable interference; • To require prior environmental impact assessment of proposed projects or activities

which are likely to have adverse effects on the environment or natural resources; and • To ensure that appropriate measures are taken to prevent soil erosion.

Relevant specific environmental protection provisions under Part IX of the Act include:

• Identification and protection of areas; • Re-forestation and afforestation of hilly and mountainous areas; • Protection of river, river banks and wetlands; • Conservation of biological diversity; • Conservation of biological resources; and • Management of rangelands. The Environmental Act specifies the need for an environmental licence that must be

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Section 2 • Institutional and Legal Framework

Legislation Requirements

obtained for certain types of projects and activities prior to construction of the development. A list of these types of developments is provided in Part A of the First Schedule of the Act. It specifically includes projects or activities that affect any of the following biodiversity-linked areas or features which have been demarcated as such by central or local authority [aspects related to birds highlighted in bold] :

17 a) Streams and river channels and their banks; 17 b) Floodplains and wetlands; 17 k) Landscapes; 17 m) Biotic assemblages; 17 n) Habitat of Red Data Book species; 17 p) Aquifers and aquifer recharge areas; 17 q) Areas with a high natural water table; 17 s) Unstable soil; 17 t) Natural resource areas; 17 w) Areas or sites of outstanding natural beauty; 17 y) Areas or sites of specific scientific interest; 17 bb) Bird migration sites.

Lesotho Water Act 15 of 2008

• No person shall engage in an activity of using or abstracting water without a water use permit;

• Where pollution occurs or is likely to occur as a result of activities on land, the person who owns, controls, occupies or uses the land in question shall be responsible for taking measures to prevent such pollution from occurring or continuing;

• If there is a discharge of effluent into water courses a permit in accordance with the Environment Act, 2008, must be obtained;

• Regulates the requirement for a construction permit for any water related activities such as storage, water purification, sewage treatment and effluent discharge.

Historical Monuments, Relics, Fauna and Flora Act No 41 of 1967

• No person may destroy or damage or remove from its original habitat or export from Lesotho any flora or fauna proclaimed under Section 8 as protected without the written consent of the commission;

• Protected flora and fauna include various avian taxa.

2.3 Protected Species The Historical Monuments, Relics, Fauna and Flora Act No 41 of 1967 effectively proclaims the following avian taxa as protected: All vultures, all cranes, storks and herons, all birds of prey, all hoopoes and all sunbirds.

2.4 Relevant Initiatives Relevant initiatives in Lesotho that support biodiversity protection are summarised in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Initiatives Relevant to Biodiversity Protection in the Project Area

Initiative Summary

Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project

A collaborative initiative between the Kingdom of Lesotho and the Republic of South Africa that aims to conserve and sustainably manage the globally significant natural and cultural heritage of the Maloti and Drakensberg Mountains. A key element of the biodiversity survey work was a reasonably comprehensive survey by road and helicopter of vultures and other cliff-nesting birds in 2005-2006, which included the training of key Lesotho personnel in bird survey and identification, several of whom continue to work in this field (e.g. Shobana Makhubu, Samuel Zwakala).

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Initiative Summary

Bearded Vulture Biodiversity Management Plan

A joint initiative by the SA Dept. of Environmental Affairs, the MDTP, KZN Wildlife and the EWT to develop and gazette a management plan (Krüger, 2013) to protect and conserve the Southern African population of the Bearded Vulture.

2.5 International Conventions International conventions that Lesotho has ratified and which are relevant to biodiversity are summarised in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 International Conventions Relevant to the Project

International Convention Key Provisions and Relevance to Lesotho

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar)

Requires “commitments from its member countries to maintain the ecological character of their Wetlands of International Importance.

No Ramsar site is located in the vicinity of the Project and nor are there significant wetlands for waterfowl in the PWAC or Polihali Project Area. Only Letseng la Letsie in Quthing District is a Ramsar site.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES);

Requires signatories to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

CITES listed bird species on Appendix 2 include Black Stork, Southern Bald Ibis, and all raptors including vultures.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1993)

CBD is dedicated to promoting sustainable development taking into consideration the underpinning principles of balancing social needs with ecosystems protection. It requires signatories to report and demonstrate progress towards protection of biodiversity through preparation of National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans and progress reports.

Lesotho has drafted regular CBD reports. The 2009 report noted the decline in vulture breeding pairs and reported on a vulture restaurant at Bokong Nature Reserve as a means for retaining local breeding pairs.

Africa Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (15/09/1968)

The fundamental principle of this Convention requires the Contracting States to adopt measures to ensure conservation, utilization and development of soil, water, flora and faunal resources in accordance with scientific principles and with due regard to the best interests of the people.

This convention establishes the species that the signatory states need to protect and establishes that protected areas need to be managed through planning on a scientific basis. It also requires signatories to take steps to combat soil erosion, protect water resources and flora and fauna.

World Heritage Convention (UNESCO).

Requires signatories to promote cooperation among nations to protect heritage of outstanding universal value and to protect globally important biodiversity and cultural heritage.

The Project Area is not within or near any designated World Heritage Sites. The upper Polihali catchment abuts that of the uKhahlamba Drakensberg World Heritage Site (WHS) in South Africa. Sehlabathebe National Park is a UNESCO WHS designated as such in 2012. However, Bearded Vultures are a flagship species of the uKhahlamba Drakensberg WHS and range widely across the Highlands (including the PWAC area).

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2.6 International Good Practice 2.6.1 Performance Standard 6 (PS6): Biodiversity Conservation and

Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources For biodiversity, international good practice typically refers to the IFC standards, specifically:

• Performance Standard 6 (PS6) – Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources.

PS6 is the primary standard concerned with biodiversity and ecosystem services. PS6 recognises that the protection and conservation of biodiversity, the maintenance of ecosystem services and the management of living natural resources are fundamental to sustainable development. The IFC standards contained in PS6 are based on the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The objectives of PS6 are stated as:

• To protect and conserve biodiversity; • To maintain the benefits from ecosystem services; and • To promote the sustainable management of living natural resources through the adoption of

practices that integrates conservation needs and development priorities.

To achieve these objectives, PS6 contains guidelines that cover the protection and conservation of biodiversity (refer to www.ifc.org for the full guidance notes for PS6), and specifies consideration of the following aspects of biodiversity assessment and management:

• Direct and indirect project-related impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services and identification of any significant residual impacts;

• Assessment of affected habitat as modified versus natural habitat; • Evaluation of affected habitat as Critical Habitat using defined criteria; • Assessment of ecosystem services (a component of defining Critical Habitat); • Assessment of the impact on legally protected and internationally recognised areas; • Adoption of the mitigation hierarchy of avoid-mitigate-rehabilitate-offset; • Outlines the applicability of biodiversity offsets; and • Defines the role of stakeholder engagement in developing biodiversity management plans.

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Approach and Methods Section 3

3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Objectives The main objective of the bird study was to describe the avifauna of the Project Area that will be potentially affected by the Project, highlight those elements that are of greatest significance and/or are most susceptible to the effects of the road and powerline development, and to assess the predicted impacts and best options for mitigation.

3.2 Methods and Activities The general approach adopted for this study included the following:

• Assembly and review of all relevant data, maps, and reports on the birds of the Katse/Polihali area, and of other similar catchment areas in the Lesotho Highlands (see Section 3.4), to provide guidance, background and context for the site-specific assessment, and to help determine the location of priority species.

• Review of the general literature on the impacts of road and powerline construction and operation on birds, to facilitate the identification of impact-susceptible species.

• Review of mapping, imagery and identification of key habitats potentially present in the Project Area. This included the production of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) based on a 30 m contour interval, which was used to pre-identify steep slopes and sheer cliffs as a guide to identifying focus areas for subsequent fieldwork.

• Field surveys conducted in late winter/early spring and mid-late summer, to generate data on the general composition of the avifauna, and to sample particular components of the local birdlife considered most relevant to the impact assessment. The timing of two field surveys allowed for seasonal variation in bird diversity and abundance. The early spring survey (conducted between 26th September and 5th October 2016) coincided with the mid-late breeding seasons of cliff-nesting birds in the area (thereby maximising the chances of locating as many occupied and active nesting territories as possible). The summer site visit (conducted from 31st January to 6th February 2017) coincided with the period in which summer-breeding passerines, including summer migrants, are present, breeding and are most conspicuous. A supplementary site visit (conducted from 12th to 16th April 2017) was conducted along the road and powerline route, primarily to assess the confirmed powerline alignments along Route B), and to obtain additional bird data along the PWAR. Details of the survey are described in Section 3.5.

• Assembly and mapping of field data into Excel spreadsheets; and mapping of survey areas and priority species in GIS.

• Compilation of baseline reporting as the basis for assessment of impacts.

• Impact assessment and mitigation of impacts of the project on birds and bird habitats.

• Identification of requirements for additional monitoring.

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Section 3 • Approach and Methods

3.3 Assumptions and Limitations The following assumptions and limitations applied to this study:

1. Road access: the team struggled to access and survey the full length of all the proposed alignment options because of persistent issues with weather and road quality. This problem was compounded by long commute distances between accommodation and survey areas each day, resulting in lost field survey time. However, three field surveys were completed that obtained sufficient bird data for both the road and powerline routes to do a thorough assessment of impacts and mitigation.

2. Available mapping and infrastructure design: the field survey was based on best available mapping of the planned alignments, which changed regularly through the bird study time frame, requiring various map iterations, and which is now presumed to be finalised.

3. Drought conditions and overgrazing: Lesotho has been experiencing drought conditions over the last two years, which has exacerbated land use pressures resulting in worsened degradation of grasslands, and probably an associated reduction in avian diversity. Consequently, bird data presented here may not be fully representative of the avian diversity and abundance that typically occur in the area under conditions of average rainfall.

4. Increased traffic on A8: This bird impact assessment does not include consideration of the impacts of road upgrades and increased collision and disturbance from increased construction traffic loads on the A8 route from Leribe to Ha Seshote required for the Polihali Dam construction. No bird surveys have been done along this stretch to identify priority birds that may be at risk from these activities.

3.4 Review of Previous Data 3.4.1 Relevant Data There are several (mostly unpublished) studies relevant to the broader project area and issues, and some published works that are key to understanding the impacts of powerlines and roads on birds. The most important reports, papers and data sources consulted for this study are listed in Box 3.1.

Survey work conducted in similar areas of the Lesotho Highlands to the one affected by the proposed Polihali Western Access Corridor (e.g. Allan, 2001; Allan and Jenkins, 2007; 2014a and b) indicate that while the Highlands birdlife is not diverse (comprising ~120-130 regular, resident species), it features high levels of endemism. It also includes important populations of threatened cliff-nesting birds (in particular, Bearded Vulture, Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres, Black Stork, Verreaux’s Eagle Aquila verreauxii, Southern Bald Ibis and Lanner Falcon) and restricted-range passerines (in particular Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi, Drakensberg Rockjumper Chaetops aurantius, Drakensberg Siskin Crithagra symonsi and African Rock Pipit Anthus crenatus). The former species are resident and breed on the sheer rock faces located along the river courses, and along high ridges in the upper regions of each watershed. Populations of these birds may lose cliff and foraging habitat to the inundation zones of major impoundments, and are probably also disturbed and exposed to a variety of escalating mortality and habitat degradation factors as human populations are displaced from flooded areas, and settlements and associated destructive activities expand into more remote and pristine areas (Allan and Jenkins, 2014a and b).

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Box 3.1 List of Relevant Publications, Reports and Other Data Sources

3.5 Surveys and Data Analysis 3.5.1 Field Survey Areas and Methods Field surveys included three main forms of data collection:

i) General assessment of habitats and birds present, done on foot and from a vehicle, and formally recorded in bird atlas cards;

ii) Cliff-surveys, involving plotting, characterisation and surveys of cliff habitats in the PWAC Project Area to confirm the presence and status of threatened and impact susceptible, cliff-nesting birds; and

iii) Walked transects: involving the recording of small bird diversity and abundance in a representative sample of habitats likely to be affected by the Project.

3.5.1.1 Timing and Survey Effort As much of each of the originally proposed alignments as possible, and all of the final PWAR road alignment, were driven and surveyed by a team of two observers in late September/early October 2016, and in early February and mid-April 2017, as summarised in Table 3.1. In each driven survey, the field team compiled atlas cards (see Section 3.5.1.2), assessed the avian habitat and general avifauna present in the vicinity of the route being covered, and surveyed the cliffs close to route for signs of resident and possibly breeding cliff-nesting birds (see Section 3.5.1.3). Most of this work was done during the September/October 2016 site visit, with supplementary surveys done in February and April 2017, although the latter two periods fell outside of the main breeding window for many of the target species.

Allan D G. 2001. The impact of the inundation of Katse Dam in the Lesotho highlands on the local avifauna,

based on a comparison of information collected during a pre-inundation baseline survey (1991) and a post-inundation monitoring study (1996-2000) – LHDA Project 615. AfriDev Consultants.

Allan D G and Jenkins A R. 2007. Status report and monitoring plan for Bearded and Cape Vultures in the Lesotho Highlands. Report for MDEC cc.

Allan D G and Jenkins A R. 2014a. LHDA Contract 1273: Biological Resources Monitoring within Phase 1 of the LHWP Catchments 2013-14 – Birds of the Katse Dam catchment. Anchor Environmental.

Allan, D G and Jenkins, A R. 2014b. LHDA Contract 1273: Biological Resources Monitoring within Phase 1 of the LHWP Catchments 2013-14 – Birds of the Mohale Dam catchment. Anchor Environmental.

AVISENSE. 2017. LHDA Contract 6014: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for the Polihali Reservoir and Associated Infrastructure. ERM Southern Africa.

Jenkins A R, Allan D G and Smallie J J. 2009. Does electrification of the Lesotho Highlands pose a threat to that country’s unique raptor fauna? Dubious evidence from surveys of three existing powerlines. Gabar 20: 1-11.

Krüger S C, Allan D G, Jenkins A R & Amar A. 2014. Trends in territory occupancy, distribution and density of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus meridionalis in Southern Africa. Bird Conservation International 24: 162-177.

Reid T, Krüger S, Whitfield D P and Amar A. 2015. Using spatial analyses of Bearded Vulture movements in Southern Africa to inform wind turbine placement. Journal of Applied Ecology 52: 881-892.

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Table 3.1 Teams and Timing of Bird Surveys on the Various Proposed Alignments for the PWAC

Date of fieldwork Personnel Route 30-Sep 2016 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Routes C and D 30-Sep-2016 D. Allan and S. Zwakala Route A and B 04-Oct-2016 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Routes B, C and D 04-Oct-2016 D. Allan and S. Zwakala Route A and B 02-Feb-2017 A. Jenkins and D. Allan Route C 02-Feb-2017 D. Maphisa and S. Makhubu Route B 12-April 2017 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Route B 13-April 2017 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Route B 14-April 2017 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Route B 15-April 2017 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Route B 16-April 2017 A. Jenkins and S. Makhubu Route B

3.5.1.2 Bird atlassing Bird atlassing was done incidentally while travelling around the study area, and broadly followed the “ad hoc” protocol of the Southern African Bird Atlas 2 project (SABAP2) (http://sabap2.adu.org.za/content.php) – new lists were compiled for each 5’ x 5’ square (referred to as a pentad), with species accumulated over a desired minimum of two hours (although this was not always achieved) and a maximum of five days (which was not achieved in any instance) of atlassing.

In total, 39 atlas lists were accumulated spread over 10 pentads covering all of the proposed alignment options, most of which were compiled during the February 2017 site visit (including 10 lists submitted by other ecology team members). The absence of multiple atlas lists per pentad precluded the generation of reporting rates as an index of species abundance (Appendix A-1).

Of the pentads covered, 70% were covered sufficiently well to yield at least 20 species (Appendix A-1). Note that those cards that yielded fewer species were atlassed less intensively and did not necessarily feature less diverse or abundant birdlife. More detailed surveys would be required to quantify real differences attributable to habitat and altitude differences across the Project Area, but this is not warranted for this assessment of road and powerline impacts.

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http://sabap2.adu.org.za/content.php


Figure 3.1 Bird Atlas Coverage (and Pentad Species Counts) in the Project Area in September/October 2016, and February and April 2017

3.5.1.3 Cliff nesting Surveys in Early Spring The early spring survey work (September/October 2016) focused mainly on cliff-nesting birds (e.g. Bearded Vulture, Cape Vulture, Verreaux’s Eagle, Jackal Buzzard, Lanner Falcon, Rock Kestrel, Black Stork and Southern Bald Ibis) that are late winter/early spring breeders and are best surveyed between mid-winter and spring.

Vertical sections of rock >10-15 m high that could be approached within at least 2 km were:

i) Plotted (directly onto maps and using a GPS); ii) Characterised (in terms of location and basic physical features – aspect, height and length

categories, verticality, and proximity to the proposed PWAR and powerline); iii) Searched (using binoculars and spotting scopes) for birds or signs of regular use by birds (e.g.

fresh ‘whitewash’ marking the rock at frequently used perches or roosts); iv) Checked for nest structures, or other signs of breeding (e.g. polluted ledges, cracks or cavities

that may have been used by species that do not build stick-nests); and v) Details recorded of located nesting sites including:

• Species; • Number of nests present (including alternative nests for solitary breeding species); • Height of nest/s up the cliff (expressed as a percentage of the cliff’s maximum height); • Descriptive details of the nests, e.g. amount of whitewash present; • Type of ledges used, e.g. potholes, ledges, etc.; and • Details of any visible nest/s contents.

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For more on this general methodology see (Malan, 2009). The locations of cliffs surveyed are shown in Figure 3.2, and summarised in Appendix B. 3.5.1.4 Transects Sampling sites for assessment of small bird populations were located at the lower, eastern end of the PWAC (in the vicinity of the Polihali Dam construction area) and in the high-lying, central part of the corridor, in two locations on either side of the Semenanyane Valley (Table 3.2, Figure 3.3). These included areas of high human use and activity (i.e. grazing, agriculture, residential areas) by villagers, and areas subjected to lower levels of land use in the higher lying more remote parts of the route.

In total, 39 walked transects were completed in the Project Area during the February 2017 site visit. Walked transects generally entailed 10 minutes or 500 m of walking and recording all birds seen or heard as the basis for assessing species composition of the small bird fauna along the PWAC (Table 3.2, Figure 3.3). The field methodology did not yield small bird density estimates, and relative abundance was rather based on a simple index of detectability (Maphisa et al., 2016; 2017). In effect, density was expressed as the number of times each species was recorded across the sample of transects rather than the number of individuals of each species per unit area. This method also allows the inclusion of larger birds which are not generally the focus of area-referenced sampling (Maphisa et al., 2016; 2017).

Table 3.2 Details of Small Passerine Sampling Locations, Surveyed in Early February along the PWAC and Polihali Vicinity

Sampling site Approximate latitude

Approximate longitude

Time of day

sampled

Weather conditions

N transects

Dam wall (Construction 1) 29˚ 16' 59.7" 28˚ 51' 48.3" Afternoon Fine 4 Masokong (Construction 2) 29˚ 16' 23.2" 28˚ 52' 14.8" Afternoon Fine 7 Malingoaneng (Construction 3) 29˚ 15' 52.5" 28˚ 52' 08.2" Morning Fine 5 Ha Tuke 29˚ 16' 46.4" 28˚ 53' 05.1" Afternoon Fine 4 Kosheteng-Liseleng 29˚ 15' 43.5" 28˚ 41' 30.3" Afternoon Fine 12 Kosheteng-woolshed 29˚ 17' 15.5" 28˚ 43' 33.4" Afternoon Fine 7

3-6

Figure 3.2 Areas Visited and the Distribution of Cliffs Surveyed along the Four PWAC Alignment Options in September/October 2016, and February

and April 2017

3-7

Figure 3.3 Distribution of Small Passerine Sample Locations (start points) in relation to the PWAC Route B corridor in February 2017

3-8


3.6 Impact Assessment Methodology Impacts were assessed in accordance with the standard impact assessment methodology provided by ERM and the ratings provided in Table 3.3, which are described in more detail in Chapter 3 of the ESIA. The impact significance matrix table allows for impacts of large magnitude on highly sensitive receptors or resources (e.g. endangered/critically endangered species or habitats) to be categorised as Critical, which aligns with critical habitat triggers used by IFC PS6 (IFC, 2012a; b).

In this bird assessment, a category of Very High sensitivity has been added to enable better differentiation of sections of the PWAC for bird risks, and which aligns with the mapping compiled for this assessment.

Table 3.3 Impact Significance Rating Matrix

Evaluation of Significance Sensitivity/Vulnerability/Importance of Resource/Receptor Low Medium High / Very High

Magnitude of Impact

Negligible Negligible Negligible Negligible Small Negligible Minor Moderate Medium Minor Moderate Major Large Moderate Major Critical

Positive Impacts Positive Minor Moderate Major

Magnitude ratings are derived from a combination of the assessed extent and duration of an impact, and scale and frequency, where impacts can be quantitatively calculated or modelled, e.g. where a percentage of a habitat or species loss can be determined. Where major unplanned events (i.e. ones which cannot be reasonably foreseen to occur (e.g. an oil spill or dam tailings break), the likelihood of the event occurring is also factored into the assignment of magnitude.

Sensitivity ratings were assigned based on the biodiversity importance of the vegetation or faunal receptors (i.e. threatened status or other values such as ecological condition or functional value) and taking into consideration their vulnerability and resilience to the particular impact assessed.

Significance ratings are assigned for impacts before mitigation is applied (‘pre-mitigation) and after mitigation has been applied (‘residual’)2.

2 Residual impact ratings are often referred to as post-mitigation ratings elsewhere but are considered the same in this report.

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Baseline Environment Section 4

4.1 Area of Influence Because of the highly-dispersed and wide-ranging nature of the most significant bird species of the Highlands avifauna, the Area of Influence (AoI) on birds of the PWAC extends beyond the simple footprint of the built infrastructure. The large foraging ranges of species such as Bearded Vulture, Cape Vulture and Black Stork (Reid et al., 2015; Kane et al., 2016), and their general scarcity in the environment, mean that pairs or colonies located up to 5 km from the corridor itself could potentially be affected by the Project.

Based on the above, the potential Area of Influence of the proposed PWAC (referred to in this report as the Project Area) on avifauna is shown in Figure 4.1 and comprises:

• The grassland and rocky ridges habitats within about 2 km of the selected alignments; and • Cliff-nesting bird habitats located up to 5 km from the selected alignments.

Note: Birds resident at cliffs well beyond the 5 km buffer which forage over the area (e.g. vultures, Black storks, Bald Ibis etc.) may be at risk of powerline collisions but are not represented in Figure 4.1 due to the scale of the mapping.

Figure 4.1 Area of influence for the PWAC Route B

4-1

Section 4 • Baseline Environment

4.2 General Description of the Birdlife in the Project Area and Surrounds

In keeping with general assessments of Lesotho avifauna (Osborne and Tigar, 1990; Allan and Jenkins, 2014a and b), the birdlife of the PWAC area features a relatively low diversity of species with <130 species recorded on site or expected to occur (Appendices A-1 and A-2), but high levels of endemism with 26 species or 21% of total avifauna considered regionally or locally endemic (Appendix A-2). The area also supports important populations of several threatened species (12 species or 10% of total avifauna regionally or globally red-listed; Appendix A-2). As with previous impacts studies conducted in the Lesotho Highlands, the avian groups considered most relevant to this study were (i) cliff-nesting raptors and storks, and (ii) endemic and range-restricted passerines.

For the purposes of this bird impact assessment, the complete list of potentially affected birds (Appendix A-2) can be abbreviated to a shortlist of 13 priority species (Table 4.1), which are representative of these groups of birds and, in many cases, serve as useful flagship species for the wider community of birds found in the Project Area.

Table 4.1 Priority Bird Species Known or Considered Likely to Occur in the PWAC Project Area and their Status3

Common name Conservation status

(regional / global)

Habitat Status Relative abundance

Residency Relative importance of affected population

Black Stork Ciconia nigra

Vulnerable / Least concern

Wetlands, cliffs

Rare Breeding resident

High; recognised core area for the species

Southern Bald Ibis Geronticus calvus

Vulnerable / Vulnerable

Grassland, cliffs

Common Breeding resident


Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres

Endangered / Endangered

Cliffs, ridges, Grassland



Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus


Cliffs, ridges, grassland

Uncommon Breeding resident


Verreaux's Eagle Aquila verreauxii




Medium; few pairs left in Highlands

Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus

Critically endangered / Near-threatened



Very high; Highlands are core of local range

Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus

- Cliffs, ridges, grassland



Cape Eagle-Owl Bubo capensis

- Cliffs, ridges, grassland



Drakensberg Rockjumper Chaetops aurantius

- Alpine grassland


High; core of global range

Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi

Near-threatened / Least concern

Alpine grassland

Uncommon Breeding summer migrant


African Rock Pipit Anthus crenatus

Near-threatened / Least concern

Grassland, ridges

Common Breeding resident

Medium; high densities occur

Drakensberg Siskin Crithagra symonsi

- Alpine grassland, cultivated lands



3 Note: Locally endemic species are highlighted in yellow, regional endemics in green.

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4.2.1 Cliff-nesting birds The study surveyed 38 cliffs or cliff-lines (Figure 3.2), and recorded four colonies (all of Southern Bald Ibis), and 84 nest sites or occupied nesting territories of seven cliff-nesting species within the full area surveyed (Figure 4.2, Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4, Appendix B-1). These numbers are considered conservative, compromised by i) the length of road and powerline and the timing and brevity of the survey period (which reduced the efficacy of the survey method, with early and late breeding pairs or species, and cryptic or nocturnal species such as owls, inevitably missed), and ii) the prevailing drought conditions in the area at the time (that may have depressed territory occupancy and/or the number/success of breeding pairs for some species).

Table 4.2 Numbers of Definite and Possible Colonies and Nests of Cliff-nesting Birds Located during Surveys Conducted along Routes B and C of the PWAC4

Species Route B Route C n colonies n nests n colonies n nests

Black Stork - 1 - 1 Southern Bald Ibis 1 11 3 54 Lanner Falcon - 3 - 2 Jackal Buzzard - 2 - 4 Verreaux's Eagle - 1 - 0 Bearded Vulture - 0 - 1 Cape Crow - 0 - 3 TOTAL 1 18 3 65

4 Globally threatened species are highlighted in red, regionally threatened species in orange.

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Figure 4.2 Distribution of Colonies and Nest Sites of Cliff-nesting Birds, and Sightings of Bearded and Cape Vultures within the PWAC Project Area

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Figure 4.3 Large Cliff at the Western end of Route C, Supporting Breeding Bearded Vulture and Other Cliff-nesting Species (top), Degraded Grassland at the Eastern End of Route C (middle), and High Elevation Shrub/Grassland along Route B (bottom)

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Figure 4.4 Bearded Vulture Soaring over High Ground along Route B (top), Mountain Pipit in Boulder-strewn Alpine Grassland near Kosheteng along Route B (middle), and Cliff b3 near kp 10 on Route B, Occupied by Breeding Southern Bald Ibis, Lanner Falcon, and Possibly Black Stork (bottom)

4-6


Most of the nest sites found was located along either Route B or C of the various alignment options as these were where most of the survey work was done. Route B clearly featured fewer nest sites of cliff-nesting species, and markedly fewer nest sites of regionally or globally red-listed species (Table 4.2).

During the course of driven surveys along the various PWAR route options a number of incidental records were made of priority species, including sightings of Bearded and Cape Vultures commuting along the high-lying ridges in the central sections of both Routes B and C (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.5 Most Common Species Recorded in the Vicinity of the Polihali Dam Construction Site Compared with those Recorded in the Kosheteng (Semenanyane River Valley) area

4.2.2 Small Passerines / General Avian Sampling Overall, sampling of the general avifauna, with an emphasis on the richness and structure of small passerine communities, yielded low-key results. The diversity of the observed avifauna was essentially as expected, although numbers of most species seemed low and were very likely depressed by the drought conditions prevailing in the area (even after reasonable late summer rains in January/February 2017).

Habitat around the proposed Polihali Dam wall and infrastructure area (at the eastern end of the PWAC, and representative of lower-lying, degraded habitats) includes villages, cultivated lands,

Ibis

Sou

ther

n Ba

ld

Bunt

ing

Cap

e

Falc

on A

mur

Lark

Red

-cap

ped

Pipi

t Afri

can

Roc

k

Swal

low

Gre

ater

-stri

ped

Spar

row

Cap

e

Stor

k W

hite

Swift

Afri

can

Blac

k

Whe

ater

Mou

ntai

n

Freq

uenc

y

0

5

10

15Construction area common birds

Lark

Lar

ge-b

illed

Bunt

ing

Cap

e

Cha

t sic

kled

-win

ged

Pipi

t Mou

ntai

n

Stor

k W

hite

Can

ary

Cap

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Cis

ticol

a W

ailin

g

Pipi

t Afri

can

Roc

k-ju

mpe

r Dra

kens

berg

Thru

sh C

ape

Roc

k

Freq

uenc

y

0

5

10

15Kosheteng Pass common

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recreational areas, and heavily-grazed grassland, and is generally degraded and bare, with excessive sheet erosion (Figure 4.3: middle). Species abundance differed subtly across the sampling sites (Figure 4.5, Appendix C-1). Overall, the eastern end of the PWAC ending in the vicinity of the dam wall construction site was characterised by low species richness and abundance, exacerbated by heavy grazing.

Figure 4.6 Avian Species Richness in the Vicinity of the Polihali Dam Construction Site Compared with the Kosheteng (Semenanyane River Valley) Area

The Kosheteng / Liseleng and Semenanyane transect areas were located at high altitude (2750-2800 m) where summer grazing is widespread. Grass was short but dense (Figure 4.3: bottom). Vegetation type varied according to slope and aspect with sheltered mountain slopes dominated by tall and less palatable Festuca caprina grass (Letsiri) while the warm, north to east-facing slopes were invaded by thick stands of woody shrubs: Chrysocoma ciliata and Asteraceae species. In comparison with the lower lying Polihali basin areas, the less degraded, higher elevation sites in the Kosheteng / Semenanyane River valley area along Route B featured many more restricted-range, endemic species such as Large-billed Lark Galerida magnirostris, Drakensberg Rockjumper Chaetops aurantius, Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi and Sickled-winged Chats Cercomela sinuata (Figure 4.5, Appendix C-1), and supported a markedly higher avian species richness (Figure 4.6).

4.3 Threatened Species and Global and Regional Context

The community of cliff-nesting birds that are resident within the broader impact area of the proposed PWAC is by far the most important component of the local avifauna in terms of existing global and regional threat status. In particular, the Bearded Vulture population of the Lesotho Highlands is of great regional and global importance for this regionally Critically Endangered species (Krüger et al., 2013; Krüger, 2015). Also, Southern Bald Ibis is confined to the grasslands of Southern Africa, and has drastically decreased in both number and aggregate range in the last 50-100 years (Henderson, 2015). While it is apparently able to exploit heavily degraded grassland, and can live commensally with quite high densities of rural human settlement, it is an obligate cliff-nester and cannot occur as a resident breeding species anywhere where cliffs are not available within range of preferred foraging grounds. Bald ibis cliffs are typically located in close proximity to rivers.

Freq

uenc

y

0

2

4

6

810 Damsite construction areas

Freq

uenc

y

0

24

6

8

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27

Kosheteng pass Area

Bird species richness

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Currently, there are no good data available on the status of Southern Bald Ibis populations in Lesotho.

Presumably because of the highly degraded and modified nature of the habitat (e.g. Maphisa et al., 2016 and 2017), the lower-lying sections of the Project Area in the eastern end of the PWAC support few endemic or red-listed grassland birds. However, these species – Drakensberg Rockjumper, Mountain Pipit, Drakensberg Siskin) were present at the highest elevations along Route B in the Liseleng and Semenanyane River valleys (Appendix C-1), confirming these parts of the route as more important and of higher biodiversity value for birds.

4.4 Existing Threats to Bird Populations The unique avifauna of the Lesotho Highlands generally, and of the PWAC development area more specifically, is already threatened by a variety of anthropogenic factors. Bearded and Cape Vulture populations are severely affected by the scourge of poisoning (Allan, 2015; Krüger, 2015) and are likely to suffer mortality in collisions with existing powerlines. Verreaux’s Eagle, Lanner Falcon and Jackal Buzzard populations are probably depleted by direct persecution by local village residents and herders because of actual or perceived predation on small-stock and poultry. Black Storks are likely to be reduced by the degradation of the area’s river systems with knock-on effects on fish and amphibian populations. Similarly, the ranges and abundance of unique, upland passerines are probably drastically reduced by widespread and extreme levels of over-grazing (Barnes, 2001; Zunkel, 2003), particularly in the easternmost portions of the PWAC.

In terms of existing direct threats on birds, all priority species such as Bald Ibis, Bearded and Cape Vulture, and other raptors such as owls and eagles are presumed to be subject to unknown levels of illegal harvesting for body parts, to be used by traditional healers, and intended either for local use or export. All these negative factors are further exacerbated by the spread of human settlement and industrial development (roads, mines, powerlines, dams) into previously remote areas as well as increasing unemployment from mining retrenchment (and associated escalating levels of human disturbance). These threats are compounded by the gradual and diffuse (but profound and pervasive) effects of drought and other climate-related changes (Huntley and Barnard, 2012).

Importantly, the negative effects on birds of the Polihali Dam project and its associated infrastructure (including the PWAC) must be viewed in the context of the documented impacts of the Phase 1 dams – Katse and Mohale – and their associated infrastructure. Both of these dams were shown to result in changes in the composition of raptor, waterbird and small passerine communities, and were associated with catchment-level depletion or even extinction of Black Stork and Bearded Vulture populations (Allan and Jenkins, 2014a and b). Polihali Dam, the PWAC and other infrastructure components of the overall Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) Phase II project will inevitably compound these existing impacts, contributing to an even greater cumulative impact on the birdlife of the Lesotho Highlands.

4.5 Avian Sensitivity Mapping A map of avian impact sensitivity in relation to the proposed PWAC (Figure 4.7) was developed primarily to reflect mortality risk by integrating the field data collected during this study with a digital elevation model, and a dataset that describes the predicted density of Bearded Vultures present across the species’ Southern African range (Reid et al., 2014). High Sensitivity areas were deemed to be those within the nest site buffers of priority species and/or those above 2800 masl, while Very High Sensitivity areas were those within the nest site buffers for Bearded Vulture, and/or those above 2800 masl and with slopes of <10º, and/or those with predicted Bearded Vulture density indices of >0.006. The sections of moderate, high and very high sensitivity are summarised in Table 5.7 to inform the collision risk mitigation requirements.

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Figure 4.7 Avian Impact Sensitivity Along the Proposed PWAC, Assessed in Terms of the Predicted Density of Bearded Vultures Based on

Tracking Data, Topography above 2750 masl, and Buffered Nest Site Locations Found During this Study.

Buffers: Bearded Vulture = 2 km Very High, Large Southern Bald Ibis Colonies and Verreaux’s Eagle = 2 km High, Lanner Falcon, small Southern Bald Ibis colonies and Black Stork = 1 km High.

4-10

Assessment of Impacts on Birds Section 5

5.1 Overview The impacts of the proposed Polihali Western Access Corridor project on the area’s birds will occur over both the Construction and Operational Phases of the project, and will take the form of direct destruction or degradation of avian habitat, direct and indirect disturbance and displacement of bird populations, and mortality in collision and electrocution incidents. A major factor contributing to the severity of these impacts is the alignment selected for the corridor in relation to avian sensitivities identified in the general area. Through careful, up-front screening of alignment options, and further refinement of these options during the course of this study, the possible impact profile of the corridor has already been substantially reduced. The final selection of Route B for the PWAR, with the powerline running along the same corridor except for some deviations to accommodate practical and cost constraints (Figure 1.1), presents a much lower risk to threatened, priority species such as Bearded Vulture, Cape Vulture, Southern Bald Ibis and Mountain Pipit.

The construction and maintenance of new powerlines, including associated infrastructure such as substations, servitudes and temporary roadways, causes both temporary and permanent habitat destruction and disturbance, and the powerlines themselves pose a collision risk for overflying birds, and a risk of electrocution for certain species (Lehman et al., 2007; Jenkins et al., 2010). Similarly, the construction, use and maintenance of new roads causes direct destruction and loss of habitat within the footprint of the roadway and temporary destruction or degradation in all the construction camp, laydown areas and temporary roads created and used during the construction process. In addition, the completed used and maintained road is an ongoing source of noise and movement disturbance (Benítez-López et al., 2010), and birds may be killed in collisions with vehicles (e.g. Loss et al., 2014)

Some habitat destruction and alteration inevitably takes place during the construction of powerlines, substations and associated access roads. Also, powerline service roads or servitudes may have to be cleared of excess vegetation at regular intervals in order to allow access to the line for maintenance. In some areas vegetation may need to be cut back or removed should trees (e.g. woodlot plantations or riparian vegetation) intrude into the legally prescribed clearance gaps between the ground and the conductors (although this is expected to be limited in extent because of widespread overgrazing). These activities have an impact on birds breeding, foraging and roosting in or close to the servitude, and the retention of cleared servitudes can have the effect of habitat fragmentation and alteration of bird community structure along the length of powerlines (e.g. King and Byers, 2002).

Overhead powerlines pose a collision risk to all birds, but birds which are particularly collision prone are generally: (i) large species and/or species with high ratios of body weight to wing surface area (wing loading), which confers low manoeuvrability (cranes, bustards, vultures, gamebirds, waterfowl, falcons), (ii) species which fly at high speeds (gamebirds, pigeons and sandgrouse, swifts, falcons), (iii) species which are distracted in flight - predators or species with aerial displays (many raptors, aerial insectivores, some open country passerines), (iv) species which habitually fly in low light conditions, and (v) species with narrow fields of forward binocular vision (Bevanger, 1994 and 1998; Janss, 2000; Drewitt and Langston, 2006; Jenkins et al., 2010). These traits confer high levels of susceptibility, which may be compounded by high levels of exposure to man-made obstacles such as overhead powerlines and wind turbine areas (Jenkins et al., 2010). Exposure to artificial obstacles is greatest in: (i) very aerial species, (ii) species inclined to make regular and/or long-distance movements (migrants, any species with widely separated resource areas - food, water, roost and nest sites), and (iii) species that regularly fly in flocks (increasing the chances of incurring multiple fatalities in single collision incidents).

Mitigation of collision risk involves the informed selection of low impact alignments for new powerlines relative to movements and concentrations of high risk species, and the use of either static or dynamic marking devices to make the powerlines (and in particular the earth wires) more

5-1

Section 5 • Impact Assessment

conspicuous. While various marking devices have been used globally, many remain largely untested in terms of their efficacy in reducing collision incidence, and those that have been fully assessed have all been found to be only partially effective (Drewitt and Langston, 2006; Jenkins et al., 2010).

Avian electrocutions occur when a bird perches or attempts to perch on an electrical structure and causes an electrical short circuit by physically bridging the air gap between live components and/or live and earthed components (Lehman et al., 2007). Electrocution risk is strongly influenced by the voltage and design of the powerlines erected (generally occurring on lower voltage infrastructure where air gaps are relatively small), and mainly affects larger, perching species, such as vultures, eagles and storks, easily capable of spanning the spaces between energised components. Mitigation of electrocution risk involves the use of bird-safe structures (ideally with critical air gaps >2 m), the physical exclusion of birds from high risk areas of live infrastructure, and comprehensive insulation of such areas (Lehman et al., 2007).

In addition to the habitat lost to the physical footprint of new roadways, and the temporary, peripheral impacts associated with road construction (e.g. damage to habitat, high levels of noise and traffic movement disturbance etc.), associated with aspects of the construction process, completed roads can introduce damaging levels of disturbance to previously remote habitats that can affect the distribution, density and diversity of birds in the receiving environment, and depress breeding success of resident avifauna (Benítez-López et al., 2010; Torres et al., 2011; Long et al., 2017). In addition, traffic using completed roads can be a significant source of collision-related mortality, sometimes to the point of causing localised declines in populations of the most susceptible species (Loss et al., 2014).

5.2 Construction Phase 5.2.1 Impact of Powerline Construction and Substation

Expansion on Birds 5.2.1.1 Description of Impact Powerline construction impacts on birds will arise from two causes:

• Disturbance of birds in the construction areas resulting from presence and operation of vehicles, particularly large trucks and bulldozers, and teams of workers required to clear access tracks, construct pylon foundations and erect and string the conductors. This will generate significant levels of noise and movement disturbance, which will directly affect birds in the construction vicinity and possibly more sensitive species within a 1-2 km radius of the infrastructure; and

• Clearance of bird habitats to make way for construction camp and laydown sites, substation expansion (Matsoku), and along the powerline access tracks and for pylon foundations. These activities will result in some peripheral damage or degradation of habitat, and some direct and permanent loss of habitat from the final footprint of the development. An estimated 18 ha of land is required for powerline construction and substation expansion (permanent) and a further 120 ha for temporary construction activities (servitude and camps) (see Table 1.3).

5.2.1.2 Sensitivity of Receptors Sensitivity of the powerline route for birds is summarised in Table 5.1. Most of the powerline route (26.5 km or 75%) is classed as Low sensitivity for birds to construction-related disturbance and habitat loss as most birds susceptible to construction disturbance are common and widespread grassland birds. Areas of Moderate sensitivity to construction disturbance occupy 9 km (or 25%) of the route and comprise the central high-lying sections located between pylons 16 to 22 from Ha Sekolopata to Makhoaba Junction, including the Semenanyane River valleys. These areas support endemic priority bird species such as Drakensberg Rockjumper and Mountain Pipit which will be disturbed or lose habitat to access road and pylon clearance. The proposed alignment runs close

5-2


to nest sites of priority species: two Southern Bald Ibis nest areas, three Lanner Falcon nest sites, and a possible Black Stork nest site (Figure 4.2).

Table 5.1 Powerline Route Habitat Sensitivity for Birds5

Pylons Length (m)

Altitude (m) Area / village

Sensitivity to Habitat Loss and Disturbance

Matsoku 2182 Matsoku substation Low

1 /C-1.2 793 2155 Nts'oha Low

2 /C-2 581 2099 Matsoku River Low

3 /C3.2 879 2100 Low

4 /C-5 689 2203 Ha Makhoana Low

4.3 2384 Low

5 /C-6 1186 2392 Ha Makhoana - Pitseng Low

6 /C-8 401 2250

Low

7 /C-9.2 372 2199 Liseleng River Low

8 /I-1 1807 2199 Liseleng river crossing Low

9 /I-4.2 1137 2266 Liseleng valley Low




13 / I-14 757 2442 Liseleng valley Low


15 /J-A-2.3 635 2693 Ha Sekila Low

16 /J-A-3.2 1709 2683 Ha Sekolopata Medium

17 /J-A-5.3 1652 2799 Semenanyane River valley Medium 19.2 /J-B 3.3 837 2565 Semenanyane River crossing Medium

20 /J-D-3.3 1293 2547 Kosheteng Medium

21 /J-D-5.2 752 2710 Makhoaba Junction Medium 22 / J-D-7.3 2625 2789 Makhoaba Junction Medium

23 /K-1.2 837 2799 Maotoana Low

24 /K-3.2 1000 2497 Low

25 /K6.2 1148 2421 Low

26 /K-8.2 739 2401 Marasele Low

27 /K-9.2 2152 2462 Low

28 /K-12.2 2519 2703 Thuhloane Low

29 /L-3.2 1498 2494 Low

30 /L-5.2 1275 2116 Ha Ramonakalali Low

31 /L6.3 696 2042 Low

32 /L-7.2 623 2151 Masokong Low

33/Polihali 35,383 2078 Polihali Substation Low

5 Sensitivity assigned to stretches of line between deviation pylon.

5-3


Table 5.2 Summary of Bird Sensitivity to Disturbance and Habitat Loss

Class Length (m) % Low 26,514 75

Medium 8,868 25

High 0 0 Total 35 383 100

5.2.1.3 Assessment of Impacts Impacts related to disturbance of birds caused by the construction of the powerline will be short term (limited to the duration of construction activities at each pylon location, estimated in the order of a few weeks in total and will be limited to localised areas that are directly affected (e.g. substations, along access tracks and pylon locations), with an overall assigned magnitude of Low. Given the variable sensitivity of birds along the route ranging from Low to High (Table 5.1), overall impact significance ranges from Negligible for areas of Low sensitivity (comprising 26.5 km of route); and Minor for areas of Medium sensitivity (comprising 9 km of route) (Table 5.3).

The impact of habitat loss to construction of the powerline will be permanent and localised in extent in the affected areas. However, given the small footprint permanently affected for the powerline (~18 ha), the overall magnitude is assessed as Small. The significance of this impact along most of the powerline route that is categorised as Low sensitivity is assessed as Negligible while that in the higher lying parts (9 km) that have been assessed as Medium sensitivity is Minor.

5.2.1.4 Mitigation Measures The following mitigation measures are recommended to minimise powerline construction impacts on birds:

• Locate all works areas and camps in disturbed areas of the route and minimise the required footprint of these sites and vehicular routes. No construction camps should be located in high altitude areas of the route between Ha Thene and Makhoaba Loop between PWAR kp 16-30;

• Conduct a pre-construction survey of the selected route to confirm the presence and breeding status of priority species at selected sensitive sites identified during this study. Should any threatened or other priority species be found to be breeding in close proximity to construction areas, the contractor may be requested to reprioritise the construction schedule (primarily related to blasting) where possible, to focus on less sensitive areas during the breeding season;

• Limit construction activities in the vicinity of all those areas mapped as Higher or Highest Sensitivity along the selected route (Figure 4.7), and particularly so during the breeding seasons of priority species (June/July to November/December).

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Table 5.3 Impacts of Powerline Construction on Birds


26.5 km TP 0-16 & 23-32)


TP16-22 None


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Construction Disturbance of Powerline (Machinery and Human Disturbance) on Birds Type of Impact Direct



Significance Negligible Negligible Minor Negligible NA NA Impact of Site Clearance/ Habitat Loss for Powerline Construction on Birds Type of Impact Direct



Significance Negligible Negligible Minor Negligible NA NA 5.2.1.5 Residual Impact The residual impact significance after implementation of the mitigation measures listed in Section 5.2.1.4 is predicted to be Negligible for powerline construction disturbance and habitat loss in all sensitivity classes.

5.2.2 Impact of Road Construction on Birds 5.2.2.1 Description of Impact Road construction impacts on birds will stem from two main sources (similar to powerline construction above but significantly more extensive and of longer duration (which explains the reason they are assessed separately). These are:

• Disturbance of birds in the construction areas caused by the presence and operation of vehicles, particularly large trucks and bulldozers that are required to widen the road servitude. This will involve blasting of rock quarries and embankments to form cut faces, and bulldozing or trucking of rock and its disposal along slopes below the road. This together with the presence of a large workforce will be associated with significant levels of noise, vibration and movement disturbance from road building machinery, which will directly affect birds in the construction vicinity and possibly more sensitive species within a 2 km radius;

• Clearance and loss of bird habitats to create the 10 m wide road servitude and construction

camps and laydown sites, and from deposition of rock on adjacent roadsides, will cause direct and permanent loss of habitat from the final footprint of the road. The road is expected to affect ~164 ha within the 30 m road reserve and a further ~5 ha for camps and laydown areas.

These intensive construction activities are likely to persist for several months along individual stretches of road and probably for extended hours every day. This will cause significant levels of noise and movement disturbance, directly affecting birds in the construction area, and possibly affecting areas up to 2-3 km away, especially when blasting.

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5.2.2.2 Sensitivity of Receptors The sensitivity of different stretches of the PWAR to construction activities are summarised in Table 5.3 and Table 5.4 and described in Section 5.2.1.2. In summary ~37 km or 68.5% of the route is rated Low sensitivity and 17 km or 31.5% as Medium sensitivity to construction activities. Birds most susceptible to construction activities are the grassland bird community which mostly comprises common and widespread species across most of the route, except in the less disturbed high-lying areas >2800 m which has more endemic birds such as Mountain Pipit, Drakensberg Rockjumper, and Drakensberg Siskin. The proposed PWAR alignment runs close to nest sites of priority species: including two Southern Bald Ibis (globally Vulnerable) nest areas near kp 10 and 51; three Lanner Falcon (regionally Vulnerable) nest sites at kp 4, 10 and 35, and a possible Black Stork (regionally Vulnerable) nest site at kp 10.

Table 5.4 PWAR Route Sensitivity for Birds

Location / PWAR stretch

Altitude (m) Villages Habitat

Status Habitat Types Bird

Sensitivity to PWAR

Length of

PWAR (km)

Road Reserve 30m (ha)

km 0-6.5 2175-2340 Ha Seshote – Ha Salemone Modified Arable land,

settlement Low 6.5 19.5

km 6.5-10 2340-2440 Ha Salemone – Ha Tlelase

Near-natural

Grassland, wetland / seep

zone (rare plants)

Low 3.5 10.5

km 10-14 2440-2450 Ha Tlelase – Ha Sekila

Near – natural

Grassland, seeps Low 4 12

km 14-17.5 2450-2850

Ha Sekila-Ha Sekolopata- top of Semenanyane valley

Near – natural

Grassland, Liseleng River,

Valley head fen wetlands

Medium 3.5 10.5

km 17.5-22 2850-2550

Top of Semenanyane valley - Kosheteng

Near - natural

Montane shrubland,

Valley-head fen wetlands,

Semenanyane River

Medium 4.5 13.5

km 22-31 2550-2800-2500

Kosheteng-Makhoaba -Ha Monothotsa

Near – natural

High altitude grassland /

montane shrubland,

wetlands

Medium 9 27

km 31-37.5 2500-2180 Ha Monothotsa- Makhiseng Modified

Arable land, settlement,

existing road Low 6.5 19.5

km 37.5-41 2180 – 2140

Makhiseng-Makhoaba River-Lipeleng

Modified

Makhoaba River,

degraded grassland,

arable land, settlement

Low 3.5 10.5

km 41-54 2150 - 2046

Lipeleng-Masokong Modified

Degraded grassland,

arable land, settlement

Low 13 39

54 162 Note: Numbers are rounded. Total length is 54.3 km

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Table 5.5 Summary of PWAR Route Sensitivity for Birds

Class Length (km) Area (ha) % Low 37 111 68.52

Medium 17 51 31.48

High 0 0 0

Total 54 162 100

5.2.2.3 Assessment of Impact Disturbance of birds caused by road construction will be short to medium-term over the two-year construction period along the 54.3 km route, remaining localised within an estimated 2 km corridor. Taking into account the relatively short construction time frame (20 months) and localised extent along the PWAR, the overall magnitude is rated as Medium. Impact significance in the Low sensitivity stretches of the route is rated as Minor, while significance in the Medium sensitivity stretches at high altitude is Moderate due to the disturbance and loss of habitat. The avifauna affected could include threatened, priority species, particularly in the more remote parts of the selected route. As a result, the impact magnitude will be Large, and before the implementation of any mitigation measures, the significance of this impact on birds is considered to be High.

The impact of habitat loss to road construction will be permanent and localised in extent, and is assigned a Medium magnitude. For habitats of Low sensitivity, this impact is assigned a pre-mitigation significance of Minor while for habitats of Medium sensitivity this impact is assigned a pre-mitigation significance of Moderate.

5.2.2.4 Mitigation Measures Mitigation measures for road construction are the same as those described in Section 5.2.1.4 for powerline construction. Additional measures include:

• Keep habitat losses around the development footprint to a practical and reasonable minimum, by limiting the number and size of construction camps and laydown areas. Construction camps and laydown areas should only be located in disturbed areas;

• Where possible, avoid or minimise the siting of construction camps, laydown areas or aggregate crushing plants in high altitude areas of the route between Ha Thene and Makhoaba Loop between PWAR (kp 16-30);

• Where surplus rock-spoil needs to be disposed of, avoid deposition on steep slopes where it will spread over a larger footprint or where rocks will disperse / roll down slopes and possibly disturb sensitive avian sites below (e.g. Southern Bald Ibis nest/s at Makhoaba River close to kp 40-41).

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Table 5.6 Impacts of Road Construction on Birds.

Refer to Table 5.4 for location of route sensitivity classes.


26.5 km TP 0-16 & 23-32)


TP 16-22 None


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Road Construction Disturbance on Birds (including Blasting) Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Large Medium Large Medium NA NA


Significance Moderate Minor Major Moderate NA NA Impact of Site Clearance/ Habitat Loss for Road Construction on Birds Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Medium Small Medium Small NA NA


Significance Minor Negligible Moderate Minor NA NA 5.2.2.5 Residual Impact Implementation of the measures described in Section 5.2.2.4 is predicted to reduce the impact significance of bird disturbance impacts to Minor in areas of Low sensitivity and Moderate in areas of Medium sensitivity, while residual impacts of habitat loss on birds are Negligible for Low sensitivity areas and Minor in areas of Medium sensitivity.

5.3 Operation Phase 5.3.1 Overview Operational phase impacts assessed here are:

• Mortality and injury of birds in powerline collisions and by electrocution on live hardware; • Mortality and injury of birds in collisions with vehicular traffic; and • Disturbance of birds by vehicular traffic.

Impacts associated with road and powerline maintenance have been screened out and are not assessed here as they are expected to be of negligible significance since these activities would be done by small teams of field technicians and limited to minor levels of noise and traffic disturbance.

5.3.2 Impact of Powerline Collisions on Birds 5.3.2.1 Description of Impact Factors that contribute to the susceptibility of birds to collision or electrocution mortality are highlighted in Section 5.1. The completed powerline and its associated infrastructure will present a significant mortality risk for many birds, including priority species such as Bearded Vulture, Cape Vulture, Southern Bald Ibis, Black Stork, Verreaux’s Eagle and Lanner Falcon, all of which are likely to regularly fly in the vicinity of the powerline. All of these species are known or reasonably suspected to be prone to collision with overhead lines (Jenkins et al., 2010). In particular, powerline-related fatalities have been listed as a significant source of anthropogenic mortality for

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both vulture species present in the area, contributing to the escalating regional and global threat status of both Bearded Vulture and Cape Vulture (Allan, 2015; Krüger, 2015).

Cape Vultures and other large and medium-sized birds that habitually perch on utility structures (e.g. Jackal Buzzard, Cape Eagle-Owl Bubo capensis, Southern Bald Ibis) may also be susceptible to electrocution. This problem applies mainly to lower voltage lines (e.g. 33 kV or 66 kV) where air-gaps between live elements are smaller and can be bridged more easily by perching birds, and is easily prevented by using well-insulated, bird-friendly pylon configurations.

The life histories of many large, scarce birds (typically long-lived and slow reproducing) make them particularly vulnerable to the population-level effects of new sources on unnatural mortality. For example, the localised extinction of the Cape Vulture in the western reaches of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa is thought to be directly the result of mainly electrocution mortality of these birds on poorly designed and unmitigated powerlines (Boshoff et al., 2011).

In addition to the risk of electrocution, large birds perching on power structures can cause power outages or flashovers when they defecate, which affects the quality of electricity supply. This applies especially to situations where birds are inclined to perch directly above the conductors, and it is sometimes advisable to install bird guards or perch deterrents at such points to prevent or mitigate this problem (e.g. Jenkins et al., 2013).

In the preliminary design report for the PWAC powerline (Plantech, 2017), the engineers propose the use of bird flight diverters, aviation spheres and bird guards to address bird issues, as summarised in Table 1.3. This acknowledgement of the risks posed by the line to the local avifauna, and the design team’s preparedness to introduce pre-emptive mitigation is welcomed. However, the assessment of the pre-mitigation impact of bird collision with powerlines has assumed no collision or mitigation devices are incorporated into the design and construction of the powerline, while the residual impact significance is based on the installation of such devices as specified below.

5.3.2.2 Sensitivity of Receptors Avian sensitivity to collision mortality along the route is summarised in Table 5.7 and Table 5.8, with areas of highest sensitivity shown in Figure 4.7. Areas of Very High sensitivity and High sensitivity account for 4578 m (13%) and 4240 m (12%) of the line, respectively. These are areas that intersect with medium-high predicted densities of Bearded Vulture (Reid et al., 2015), and/or are within buffer areas of known nest sites of priority cliff-nesting birds and where cliffs are modelled. Areas of highest risk occur along 1513 m of the powerline and are typically areas with relatively flat, ridge-tops or plateaux above 2800 masl and have slopes of <10o. Given that the entire area supports populations of scarce, threatened, collision-prone birds that could collide with the line at any point along its length, the remainder of the AoI (26.5 km or 75%) is considered of Medium sensitivity, and there are no areas of Low sensitivity.

Table 5.7 Bird Sensitivity to Powerline Collision for All Sections of Powerline

Altitude of Bend Pylons

Span Length

(m) Location of High

Sensitivity

Sensitivity Category (Length in m)

Section Very High High Medium 1.0 - Ss1.1 2155 m 191.11 Matsoku 62.28 0.00 128.83 Ss1.1 - Ss1.2 73.21 Matsoku 73.21 0.00 0.00 Ss1.2 - 2.0 528.62 Matsoku 33.24 0.00 495.38 2.0 - 3.0 2099 m 581.22 0.00 0.00 581.22 3.0 - Ss3.1 2100 m 486.38 0.00 0.00 486.38 Ss3.1 - 4.0 392.65 0.00 0.00 392.65 4.0 - Ss4.1 2203 m 447.13 Ha Makhoana ridge 67.23 0.00 379.90 Ss4.1 - 5.0 242.22 Ha Makhoana ridge 165.20 0.00 77.02 5.0 - Ss5.1 2392 m 600.86 Ha Makhoana ridge 30.84 0.00 570.02 Ss5.1 - Ss5.2 91.46 0.00 0.00 91.46

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Span Length


Sensitivity


Section Very High High Medium Ss5.2 - Ss5.3 229.63 0.00 0.00 229.63 Ss5.3 - 6.0 263.66 0.00 0.00 263.66 6.0 - 7.0 2250 m 401.09 0.00 303.21 97.88 7.0 - 8.0 2199 m 371.72 Liseleng Valley 0.00 371.72 0.00 8.0 - Ss8.1 2199 m 464.87 Liseleng Valley 0.00 464.87 0.00 Ss8.1 - Sc8.2 756.16 Liseleng Valley 0.00 756.16 0.00 Sc8.2 - Ss8.3 288.17 Liseleng Valley 33.87 254.29 0.00 Ss8.3 - 9.0 297.39 Liseleng – Ha Salemone 294.59 2.80 0.00 9.0 - Ss9.1 2266 m 246.99 Liseleng – Ha Tlelase 95.26 151.73 0.00 Ss9.1 - Ss9.2 155.72 Liseleng Valley 155.72 0.00 0.00 Ss9.2 - Ss9.3 277.05 Liseleng Valley 90.36 186.69 0.00 Ss9.2 - 10.0 457.63 0.00 457.63 0.00 10.0 - Ss10.1 2417 m 281.41 0.00 281.41 0.00 Ss10.1 - 11.0 425.18 0.00 425.18 0.00 11.0 - Ss11.1 2383 m 444.74 0.00 444.74 0.00 Ss11.1 -

SS11.2 339.36 0.00 139.89 199.46 Ss11.2 - Ss11.3 266.61 0.00 0.00 266.61 Ss11.3 - 12.0 406.74 0.00 0.00 406.74 12.0 - Ss12.1 2400 m 272.8 0.00 0.00 272.80 Ss12.1 - Ss12.2 496.76 0.00 0.00 496.76 Ss12.2 - 13.0 140.58 0.00 0.00 140.58 13.0 - Ss13.1 2442 m 210.74 0.00 0.00 210.74 Ss13.1 - Ss13.2 365.16 0.00 0.00 365.16 Ss13.2 - 14.0 181.16 0.00 0.00 181.16 14.0 - Ss14.1 2500 m 629.92 Ha Ratau 75.25 0.00 554.67 Ss14.1 - Ss14.2 79.23 Ha Ratau 12.15 0.00 67.07 Ss14.2 - Ss14.3 779.83 Ha Ratau 145.48 0.00 634.35

Ss14.3 - 15.0 226.95 Ha Ratau/Ha Sekokopata 139.54 0.00 87.40

15.0 - 16.0 2693 m 635.17 174.53 0.00 460.64 16.0 - Ss16.1 2683 m 407.91 0.00 0.00 407.91 Ss16.1 - Ss16.2 364.5 0.00 0.00 364.50 Ss16.2 - Ss16.3 538.53 0.00 0.00 538.53 Ss16.3 - 17.0 397.66 Semenanyane Ridge 197.67 0.00 199.99 17.0 - Ss17.1 2799 m 458.88 Semenanyane Ridge 23.64 0.00 435.24 Ss17.1 - Ss17.2 306.1 Semenanyane Ridge 283.02 0.00 23.08 Ss17.2 - Ss17.3 535.53 Semenanyane Valley 179.40 0.00 356.14 Ss17.3 - 19.0 351.98 Semenanyane Valley 0.00 0.00 351.98 19.0 - 20.0 2565 m 837.06 Semenanyane River 0.00 0.00 837.06 20.0 - Ss20.1 2547 m 412.64 Semenanyane River 0.00 0.00 412.64 Ss20.1 - Ss20.2 320.98 Semenanyane River 0.00 0.00 320.98 Ss20.2 - Ss20.3 242.4 Semenanyane River 25.94 0.00 216.46 Ss20.3 - 21.0 317.02 Semenanyane River 278.64 0.00 38.38 21.0 - 22.0 2710 m 752.3 Kosheteng 189.83 0.00 562.47 22.0 - Ss22.1 2789 m 223.27 Makhoaba Junction 96.79 0.00 126.48 Ss22.1 - Ss22.2 126.79 Makhoaba Junction 91.22 0.00 35.57 Ss22.2 - Ss22.3 587.98 Makhoaba Junction 232.87 0.00 355.11 Ss22.3 - Ss22.4 171.13 0.00 0.00 171.13 Ss22.4 - Ss22.5 281.35 0.00 0.00 281.35 Ss22.5 - Ss22.6 403.88 0.00 0.00 403.88 Ss22.6 - Ss22.7 255.63 0.00 0.00 255.63

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Span Length


Sensitivity


Section Very High High Medium Ss22.7 - 23.0 575.05 0.00 0.00 575.05 23.0 - Ss23.1 2799 m 321.1 Makhoaba Junction 0.00 0.00 321.10 Ss23.1 - 24.0 515.67 0.00 0.00 515.67 24.0 - Ss24.1 2497 m 360.08 0.00 0.00 360.08 Ss24.1 - Ss24.2 406.79 0.00 0.00 406.79 Ss24.2 - 25.0 232.96 86.09 0.00 146.86 25.0 - Ss25.1 2421 m 322.86 Marasele 0.00 0.00 322.86 Ss25.1 -Ss 25.5 155.46 Marasele 129.73 0.00 25.73 Ss25.5 - 26.0 669.26 Marasele-Thuhloane 45.12 0.00 624.15 26.0 - Ss26.1 2401 m 229.65 Marasele-Thuhloane 80.83 0.00 148.83 Ss26.1 - Ss26.2 370.97 Marasele-Thuhloane 370.97 0.00 Ss26.2 - 27.0 138.58 Marasele-Thuhloane 138.58 0.00 27.0 - Ss27.1 2462 m 465.69 Marasele-Thuhloane 147.78 0.00 317.91 Ss27.1 - Ss27.2 394.41 0.00 0.00 394.41 Ss27.2 - Ss27.3 297.14 0.00 0.00 297.14 Ss27.3 - Ss27.4 331.6 0.00 0.00 331.60 Ss27.4 - Ss27.5 423.79 Thuhloane 81.85 0.00 341.94 Ss27.5 - 28.0 239.77 0.00 0.00 239.77 28.0 - Ss28.1 2703 m 236.42 0.00 0.00 236.42 Ss28.1 - Ss28.2 722.91 0.00 0.00 722.91 Ss28.2 - Ss28.3 339 0.00 0.00 339.00 Ss28.3 - Ss28.4 236.14 0.00 0.00 236.14 Ss28.4 - Ss28.5 888.98 Makokoaneng ridge 66.07 0.00 822.91 Ss28.5 - 29.0 95.67 Makokoaneng ridge 95.67 0.00 0.00 29.0 - Ss29.1 2494 m 384.34 Makokoaneng ridge 88.26 0.00 296.08 Ss29.1 - Ss29.2 554.67 0.00 0.00 554.67 Ss29.2 - 30.0 559.31 0.00 0.00 559.31 30.0 - Ss30.1 2116 m 444.63 0.00 0.00 444.63 Ss30.1 - Ss30.2 297 0.00 0.00 297.00 Ss30.2 - 31.0 533.69 0.00 0.00 533.69 31.0 - 32.0 2042 m 695.63 0.00 0.00 695.63 32.0 - Ss32.1 2151 m 381.66 0.00 0.00 381.66 Ss32.1 - 33/ Pol Sub 241.46 0.00 0.00 241.46

Total Length: 35,383.15 4578.74 4240.31 26,564.11 Percentage: 12.94 11.98 75.08

Note: Pylon 18 is missing as this bend point pylon location was bypassed during route realignment.

Table 5.8 Summary of Bird Sensitivity to Powerline Collision

Class Length (m) % Low 0 0

Medium 26,564 75.08

High 4240 11.98

Very High 4578 12.94 Total 35,383 100

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5.3.2.3 Assessment of Impact The impact of powerline-related avian mortality could be of regional extent due to the wide foraging ranges of threatened species, particularly vultures that may be affected, and the permanent impact on these species. The magnitude of this impact is therefore considered to be Large. Given the High to Very High sensitivity along certain sections of the line (i.e. ~4.2 km and 4.5 km, respectively), and Medium sensitivity along the rest (~26 km), the overall impact significance is predicted to be Major for the sections of the line with Medium sensitivity, and Critical for the sections with High and Very High sensitivity.

5.3.2.4 Mitigation Measures The following measures are recommended as mitigation for the impact of powerlines:

• Ensure the new 132kV powerline is marked with bird flight diverters along its entire length, using industry standard markers and marker fitting protocols (e.g. BFD 1519/LD2 bird flight diverter from Preformed Line Products - http://www.preformed.com/). Note that current understanding of collision risk in birds precludes any guarantee of successfully distinguishing high-risk from medium- or low-risk sections of a new powerline (Bevanger, 1994; Jenkins et al., 2010; Shaw et al., 2010a and b; Barrientos et al., 2011). The relatively low cost of marking the entire length of a new powerline during construction more than offsets the risk of not marking the line, causing unnecessary avian mortality, and then incurring the much greater cost of retro-fitting the powerline post-construction.

• Ensuring that all live infrastructure is fully-insulated, and configured so that even the largest birds cannot be electrocuted by bridging the air-gaps between live components. Ideally all such air-gaps should be at least 2 m wide.

• Installing aircraft warning devices or “aviation balls” on those sections of the powerline that intersect significantly with areas designated Very High sensitivity and likely to be frequented by Bearded and Cape Vultures. These are specifically sections: Pylons 14-16, over the western ridge of the Semenanyane valley at deviation pylon 17, over the eastern ridge of the Semenanyane valley at deviation pylon 21, as well as between deviation pylons 26-28.

The use of aircraft warning devices (e.g. AWD 20-521/588 - from Preformed Line Products - http://www.preformed.com/) should increase the visibility of these sections of line to approaching birds and further reduce the likelihood of the line resulting in Bearded Vulture and Cape Vulture fatalities, and should provide additional protection for other key species too. Gyps vultures (e.g. Cape Vulture) have been shown to have very poor forward peripheral vision (Martin et al., 2012), further motivating for the use of extra-large line marking devices on the high, exposed ridges, along which vultures are most likely to commute. AWDs should be fitted as per industry-standard protocols, but using the highest frequency of markers permitted within the engineering constraints of the line.

• Periodically (at least every two months during the dam construction) survey the powerline, or at least sample sections amounting to a minimum of one third of the length of the line (and including all of the Very High sensitivity sections), for the remains of collision victims. This will yield a quantitative estimate of the actual impact of the powerline on the birds of the area, and allow for the identification of collision hot-spots that might require additional mitigation.

• Periodically survey the line to determine what, if any, species have built nests in the pylons, and additional impact mitigation measures are feasible. It is possible that priority species might nest in the lattice structure of the new pylons – e.g. Lanner Falcon might take over the stick-nest of a Cape Crow Corvus capensis – and require special protection from maintenance work on the line during the birds’ breeding seasons.

• During the refurbishment of the existing 66 kV powerline from Ha Lejone to Matsoku substation, which will involve configuring the line to carry 132 kV (Plantech, 2017), BFDs should be fitted to the sections of the line that cross high ridgelines and the Katse Dam to

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http://www.preformed.com/

http://www.preformed.com/


mitigate this high collision-risk line, where feasible. Priority stretches to install BFDs are Pylons 6-8, 11-14, 16-20, 46-54, 57-58 (particularly 46-54).

Table 5.9 Impact of Powerline-related Mortality on Birds.

See Table 5.8 for location of sensitivity classes along powerline route.

Medium Sensitivity High Sensitivity Very High sensitivity 26.5 km (75%) 4.5 km (13%) 4.2 km (12%)


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Powerline Collisions on Birds Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Large Small Large Small Large Small

Sensitivity Medium Medium High High Very High Very High

Significance Major Minor Critical Moderate Critical Moderate Note: Pre-mitigation impact ratings assume no specific bird mitigation is applied (i.e. the line is not marked with BFDs or AWDs); Residual ratings assume the mitigation described in Section 5.3.2.4 is applied. Overall, the powerline route is considered an optimal route given the mountainous terrain to be crossed between the Katse and Polihali Dams, and when fitted with BFDs and AWDs (as recommended), collision risks are expected to be mitigated to an acceptable level.

5.3.2.5 Residual Impact Implementation of the measures described in Section 5.3.2.4 is predicted to reduce the impact significance to Minor for the 26.5 km of route that is assessed as Medium sensitivity and to Moderate significance for the 8.7 km (or the ~25%) of route assessed as High and Very High sensitivity.

5.3.3 Impact of Road Use and Polihali Dam & Tunnel Construction Traffic on Birds

5.3.3.1 Description of Impact The completed road will carry volumes of heavy and/or fast-moving traffic and thereby will pose a risk to birds as a result of disturbance from vehicular noise and vibration (e.g. from heavy vehicle engines and brakes) and movement, and from injury or mortality from increased collision risk.

Empirical studies of the effects of traffic noise on birds have yielded mixed results, although avian densities generally decline with proximity to major roadways, and particularly in areas of open, previously remote habitat such as that traversed by the PWAR (Benítez-López et al., 2010). There is a chance that priority species may be displaced from nest sites and/or important foraging areas, either permanently or whenever the road is very busy (particularly during dam construction) and/or under rehabilitation or maintenance.

These impacts may be of most relevance to populations of red-listed and/or endemic species present in the higher-lying sections of the road (such Mountain Pipit, Drakensberg Rockjumper and possibly Cape Eagle-Owl), although there is no good empirical evidence from Southern Africa to suggest that certain groups of birds are more or less susceptible to vehicle collision, and no good data describing exactly how or why collisions occur.

5.3.3.2 Sensitivity of Receptors Sensitivity of birds along different sections of the road to vehicular collisions is summarised in Table 5.4. Areas of highest sensitivity for bird disturbance and collision risk are the more remote and high lying sections between Ha Sekolopata and the top of the Makhoaba Pass where a number of endemic passerine birds and likelihood of threatened birds such as vultures and storks occur. This

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potential impact is likely to affect the avifauna generally, but populations of priority species such as Southern Bald Ibis, Lanner Falcon, Black Stork, Mountain Pipit and Drakensberg Rockjumper would be more exposed to this risk. This area is rated as Medium sensitivity.

5.3.3.3 Assessment of Impact The impact of construction and other road traffic on birds through disturbance and injury or mortality will be a permanent impact of local extent, resulting in an assigned magnitude of Medium for the areas of Medium sensitivity. Since the avifauna affected is assigned a Medium sensitivity the pre-mitigation significance is predicted to be Moderate. In areas of Low sensitivity, magnitude is Small and overall significance is predicted to be Negligible.

5.3.3.4 Mitigation Measures Mitigation for bird: vehicle collisions are limited and there are no empirically-confirmed ways of achieving effective mitigation for traffic disturbance and collision risk on birds.

Table 5.10 Impacts of Road Use and Traffic on Birds

Low Sensitivity Medium Sensitivity High sensitivity

26.5 km TP 0-16 & 23-32)


TP16-22 None


Residual Impact


Residual Impact


Residual Impact

Project Phase: Operation Phase Impact of Road Use and Construction Traffic on Birds Type of Impact Direct

Magnitude Small Small Medium Medium NA NA


Significance Negligible Negligible Moderate Moderate NA NA

5.3.3.5 Residual Impact Due to the lack of practically feasible mitigation measures for traffic disturbance and collision risks to birds, the significance of impacts remains Negligible for most of the road corridor which is assigned Low sensitivity, and Moderate for the 9 km assigned as Medium sensitivity.

.

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Mitigation and Monitoring Section 6

6.1 Mitigation 6.1.1 Construction Phase Table 6.1 sets out the mitigation measures that should be implemented to avoid and minimise expected impacts on birds of the PWAC. These include additional surveys prior to construction, as referred to in Section 6.2 below and listed in Table 6.2 in order to identify appropriate responses to any priority bird issues arising from such surveys.

It is assumed that standard mitigation measures to minimise the infrastructure and works areas footprints will be covered under a standard construction EMP to be implemented by the relevant contractors. These will include restricting works areas to the minimum footprint required; managing access/ haul routes used by vehicles/equipment; separation and stockpiling of topsoil and reinstatement of disturbed works areas post-construction; pollution and waste management controls, and controls on worker behaviour.

6.1.2 Operation Phase Mitigation of bird impacts during the operation phase of the powerline is limited to regular monitoring surveys to confirm the extent of use of pylons for perching and the associated electrocution risks in order to execute prompt and appropriate management action. No mitigation for road use and associated impacts on birds is considered likely or practically feasible.

6.2 Monitoring Monitoring requirements for birds during the construction and operation phase are specified in Table 6.2, and are linked with mitigation measures listed in Table 6.1.

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Table 6.1 Mitigation Measures for Birds

Ref Activity Requirements / specifications Responsibility Scheduling / Timing/ Frequency

Phase Performance Indicator(s) Training Requirements

1 Detailed Powerline Design Planning for Bird Protection Measures Objective: Design planning to minimise the impacts of powerline collision on sensitive avifauna and habitat

1.1 Incorporate bird mitigation measures into tender design documents and costing

• Plan and cost for bird diverters to be installed along entire length of powerline.

• Plan and cost for Aviation Spheres (AWDs) to be installed along 11 sections of line in areas of highest impact sensitivity. These are mostly where the line crosses high altitude ridge-tops and plateau, but also at lower elevations where it intersects with areas of relatively high predicted densities of Bearded Vulture.

• Include above bird mitigation in tender design documentation and contract bird specialist to review design.

Detailed design engineers


Bird specialist

Pre-construction once off

Detailed Design

• Engineer to include bird mitigation specified in tender documentation.

• Bird specialist contracted to review design of bird mitigation.

• Bird diverters installed along entire powerline during construction.

• AWDs installed in specified high-impact sections of powerline.

1.2 Planning for camp and laydown locations and vehicular access routes

• Locate all works areas / camps in disturbed areas of the route and minimise the required footprint of these sites and vehicular routes.

• Designate the boundaries of all works areas and vehicle routes on site layout plans and demarcate on site with rocks / marking tape.

• Where possible, avoid the siting of construction camps or laydown areas or aggregate crushing or cement batching plants in high altitude areas of the route between Ha Thene and Makhoaba Loop between PWAR (kp 16-30).


Pre-construction once off

Detailed Design

• Site layout plans include camps, laydown areas and vehicular use areas.

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Ref Activity Requirements / specifications Responsibility Scheduling /

Timing/ Frequency


2 Disturbance and Habitat Loss during Construction of the Powerline and the Road Objective: Minimise the impacts of construction activities on sensitive avifauna and habitat

2.1 Powerline and road construction activity disturbance and habitat loss impacts on birds

• Undertake pre-construction surveys by ornithologist to inspect the final alignments and confirm the status of known and possibly new nest sites and other sensitive locations in proximity to the road and powerline.

Bird specialist to be appointed by LHDA / Design Engineers

One month before the start of construction

Pre-construction

• Survey report with additional mitigation recommendations such as scheduling of high-impact activities around bird breeding cycles.

See Table 6.2

2.2 Installation of prevention measures to minimise bird collision and electrocution on powerlines

• Fit Bird Flight Diverters (BFDs) along entire length of new line; deploy as per industry standard.

• Fit ‘Aviation Balls’ or Aircraft Warning Devices (AWDs) to all pylon spans included in the 11 highest-impact sections of the line.

• Number/density of BFDs and AWDs per span should be as high as allowed by the engineering constraints of the line to maximise the conspicuousness of the line to oncoming birds.

• While refurbishing the existing 66 kV line from Ha Lejone to Ha Seshote, fit BFDs to this line, at least along the section between Katse Dam and the Matsoku substation.

Design engineers / contractors

During construction

Operation • BFDs and AWDs installed on powerline as specified.

2.3 Restrictions on blasting and aggregate crushing

• Adhere to additional recommendations that may be included in preconstruction bird survey report.

• Regulate the timing and frequency of blasting, which may include restrictions on blasting at certain road or quarry sites during breeding seasons of conservation priority species (generally June-November).

• No stone crushing or cement

Construction team / Environmental Control Officer (ECO)

Throughout construction

Construction • Compliance reports from ECO.

-

6-3


Timing/ Frequency


batching plants to be located in high altitude habitats between PWAR kp 16-22 and kp 23-30.

2.3 Disposal of rock spoil to minimise loss of bird habitat

• Avoid disposal of blast rock from cuttings on steep slopes.

• ‘Zones designed as ‘no rock spoil’ zones shall be designated on site plans and given to all contractors. These include the following areas in close proximity to streams/rivers: • Kp 3.5-5 Liseleng River

• kp 14.5-15.5 Liseleng River

• kp 30-36 Makhoaba River

• kp 37.5-40.5 Makhoaba River & waterfall.

• Restrict deposition of rock spoil to absolute minimum and only if necessary between kp 16-30 Makhoaba loop.

• Sites for deposition of rock spoil shall be pre-approved by ECO and Site Engineer.

• Avoid deposition of surplus rock on steep slopes where it will spread over a larger footprint or where rocks will disperse / roll down slopes.

• Recover and rehabilitate construction areas by reinstating topsoil and reseeding or revegetation with indigenous species, especially in areas of high altitude grassland and shrubland.

Construction team / Site Engineer / ECO

Throughout construction

Construction • Compliance reports from ECO.

• No rock spoil zones designated on site plans.

• No evidence of deliberate rock spoil in rivers/streams or down steep slopes.

-

3 Disturbance and Mortality during Operation of the Powerline and the Road Objective: Minimise the mortality of collision-prone birds

3.1 Monitoring of bird collisions with powerline to identify additional

• Conduct period surveys along the line and specifically sample sections at higher altitude which

Bird specialists and local

Throughout life of line; surveys at every two-

• Reports on the number and identity of bird carcasses found along powerline.

Members of the local community trained by the bird

6-4


Timing/ Frequency


mitigation requirements could include interviews with local herders or nearby villagers who may come across bird carcasses under powerlines.

trainees months for first two years.

specialist team to survey the powerline for collision casualties.

3.2 Mortality of birds in collisions with vehicles

• Where feasible, conduct opportunistic surveys along the new road for collision victims.

Road maintenance team, local trainees or university student

Throughout life of road; surveys ongoing for the first two years.

Operation • Reports on the number and identity of bird carcasses found along road.

Bird specialist to train members of the road maintenance team, local community or student to survey the road.

6-5

Table 6.2 Pre- and Post-Construction Monitoring Requirements for Birds

No. Aspect Objectives Method Frequency and months

Sampling locations Detection limit / Performance Target

Responsibility Reporting

Pre-Construction Survey Requirements 1 Survey of

sensitive avian sites located along or close to the final powerline and road alignments

To determine the status of priority species nest sites and other important locations, and advise accordingly on construction mitigation requirements.

Use existing infrastructure to drive or else walk along the proposed alignments to check all possible sensitive sites for the presence of priority species.

Once, 1-2 months before the start of construction.

Out to at least 2 km on either side of both the powerline and the road alignments.

All colony or nest sites of priority species located and assessed, and all other key locations (e.g. prime habitat for breeding Mountain Pipit).

Bird specialist team, but with considerable scope to train and build long-term field data capture skills in local observers.

A single report for each alignment (as described in Table 6.1).

Bird Mortality Monitoring Requirements 1 Monitoring

avian mortality rates on the new powerline

To determine what species of birds, and how many, are killed on the new powerline and advise on ways to improve mitigation.

Two observers walk about 5 m either side of the powerline, either along its entire length or along representative sample sections (e.g. 3 x 5 km), and record all evidence of avian fatalities – feather sprays, whole carcasses or portions thereof – found along the way, detailing location, habitat, condition of remains, probable cause of death, identity and number. Conduct interviews with herders and local villagers to obtain anecdotal information on bird collisions they may find.

At least every two months after the completion of the line, for the first two years; then to re-assess.

A 20 m wide strip along the length of the powerline, or along selected samples of the line (e.g. 3 x 5 km).

As many carcasses as possible located; may have to calibrate for scavenge, decomposition and searcher efficiency rates – established by placing and monitoring experimental carcasses.

Bird specialist team, but with considerable scope to train and build long-term field data capture skills in local observers. Ideally, local monitors take over field work after first one or two surveys.

Field reports after each survey, summarised in annual reports for each year of the survey work (as described in Table 6.1).

2 Monitoring avian collision rates on the new road

To determine what species of birds, and how many, are killed on the new road, possibly identify collision hot-spots, and advise on ways to improve mitigation.

Delegated and trained observers who regularly travel the road record all evidence of avian fatalities, detailing location, habitat, condition of remains, probable cause of death, identity and number.

Ongoing, opportunistic or done as a post-graduate survey.

At least 5 m on either side of the road and the width of the road itself, along the length of the road.

As many carcasses as possible located.

Bird specialist team trains local capacity to gather data opportunistically and report back to specialists.

Field reports after each survey, summarised in annual reports for each year of the survey work (as described in Table 6.1).

6-6

Conclusions Section 7

The originally proposed powerline route had the potential to result in significant and probably unsustainable impacts on the region’s birds, particularly in terms of powerline collision mortality affecting important populations of globally and regionally threatened vultures and other cliff-nesting species. The early-stage screening and route-selection work was effective in reducing these levels of risk, by diverting the powerline away from extended areas of very high-lying ground, where the likelihood of collisions (and disturbance impacts on endemic, range-restricted passerines) was greatest. However, while the finally selected road and powerline alignments is predicted to reduce the risks to high priority birds, the predicted impacts on vultures and other threatened birds remain highly significant particularly for the stretches of powerline that cross high lying ridgelines and valleys.

These impacts include (electrocution- and) collision-related mortality on power infrastructure, disturbance (and habitat loss) associated with construction and maintenance activities both during and post-construction, and collision mortality on the completed road. However, by implementing the proposed mitigation it should be possible to ensure that bird impacts are reduced to sustainable levels. These include:

(i) applying standard, best practice protocols to all construction and maintenance activities; (ii) carefully checking both alignments immediately pre-construction to ensure that sensitive sites

(e.g. active nests) are clearly identified and accommodated in the ongoing management of the project, and

(iii) ensuring that the entire length of the new powerline is fitted with industry standard BFDs, key sections of sensitive terrain at high altitude are fitted with AWDs, and all new power infrastructure is bird-friendly in configuration and fully insulated.

7-1

References Section 8

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Allan D G. 2001. The impact of the inundation of Katse Dam in the Lesotho highlands on the local avifauna, based on a comparison of information collected during a pre-inundation baseline survey (1991) and a post-inundation monitoring study (1996-2000) – LHDA Project 615. AfriDev Consultants.

Allan D G. 2015. Cape Vulture. In: Taylor, M R, Peacock, F, and Wanless, R M (Eds) The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. Pp 174-178.

Allan D, Jenkins A, Barnes K and Whittington P. 1996. Chapter 5: Birds. In: AfriDev Consultants, Volume 3 - Fauna. Final Report Contract No. 1008. Baseline Biology Survey and Reserve Development, Phase 1B. Lesotho Highlands Water Project.

Allan D G and Jenkins A R. 2007. Status report and monitoring plan for Bearded and Cape Vultures in the Lesotho Highlands. MDEC.

Allan D G and Jenkins A R. 2014a. Biological Resources Monitoring within Phase 1 of the LHWP Catchments 2013-14 – Birds of the Katse Dam catchment. LHDA Contract 1273. Anchor Environmental.

Allan D G and Jenkins A R (2014b) LHDA Contract 1273: Biological Resources Monitoring within Phase 1 of the LHWP Catchments 2013-14 – Birds of the Mohale Dam catchment. Anchor Environmental.

AVISENSE. 2017. Bird Specialist Report for Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for the Polihali Reservoir and Associated Infrastructure. LHDA Contract 6014. Report for ERM Southern Africa. Ref. P2W-6014-DFR-0006.

Barnes K N (ed.). 1998. The important bird areas of Southern Africa. BirdLife South Africa: Johannesburg.

Barnes K N. 2001. Lesotho. In: Fishpool, L D C and Evans M I (Eds.) Important Bird Areas in Africa and associated islands: priority sites for conservation. Pisces Publications and BirdLife International, BirdLife Conservation Series 11.

Barrientos R, Alonso J C, Ponce C and Palacín C. 2011. Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of marked wire in reducing avian collisions with powerlines. Conservation Biology 25: 893-903.

Barry and Partners. 2014a. Polihali Western Access Road: Route Selection Report Lesotho Highlands Development Authority. Ref: Y11503-DOC-007. Jan 2014.

Barry and Partners. 2014b. Polihali Western Access Road: Addendum to Route Selection Report. Lesotho Highlands Development Authority. Ref: Y11503-DOC-008. Feb 2014.

Benítez-López A, Alkemade R and Verweij P A. 2010. The impacts of roads and other infrastructure on mammal and bird populations: a meta-analysis. Biological Conservation 143: 1307-1316.

Bevanger K. 1994. Bird interactions with utility structures: collision and electrocution, causes and mitigating measures. Ibis 136: 412-425.

Bevanger K. 1998. Biological and conservation aspects of bird mortality caused by electric powerlines. Biological Conservation 86: 67-76.

8-1

Section 8 • References Boshoff A, Minnie J, Tambling C and Michael M. 2011. The impact of powerline-related mortality on the Cape Griffon Gyps coprotheres in a part of its range. Bird Conservation International, Published online July 2011.

Drewitt A L and Langston R H W. 2008. Collision effects of wind-power generators and other obstacles on birds. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 1134: 233-266.

ERM, 2017. Route Selection Report for the Polihali Western Access Corridor. LHDA Contract No. 6004. Ref: P2W-6004-DFR-0002.

Henderson K L. 2015. In: Taylor M R, Peacock F, and Wanless R M (Eds.) The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. Pp 225-226.

Hockey P A R, Dean W R J, Ryan P G (Eds.). 2005. Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

Huntley B and Barnard P. 2012. Potential impacts of climate change on Southern African birds of fynbos and grassland biodiversity hotspots. Diversity and Distributions 18: 769-781.

IFC. 2012a. Performance Standard 6: Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources.

IFC. 2012b. Guidance Note 6. Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources.

Janss G F E. 2000. Avian mortality from powerlines: a morphologic approach of a species-specific mortality. Biological Conservation 95: 353-359.

Jenkins A. 2017. Polihali Western Access Corridor: Bird Specialist Study Field Report, February 2017. ERM Southern Africa. For LHDA Contract 6004.

Jenkins A R, Allan D G and Smallie J J. 2009. Does electrification of the Lesotho Highlands pose a threat to that country’s unique raptor fauna? Dubious evidence from surveys of three existing powerlines. Gabar 20: 1-11.

Jenkins A R, Smallie J J and Diamond M. 2010. Avian collisions with powerlines: a global review of causes and mitigation with a South African perspective. Bird Conservation International 20:263-278.

Jenkins A R, de Goede J H, Sebele L and Diamond M. 2013. Brokering a settlement between eagles and industry: sustainable management of large raptors nesting on power infrastructure. Bird Conservation International 23: 232-246.

Kane A, Wolter K, Kotze A, Naidoo V and Monadjem A. 2016. Home range and habitat selection of Cape Vultures Gyps coprotheres in relation to supplementary feeding. Bird Study 63: 387-394.

King D I and Byers B E. 2002. An evaluation of powerline rights-of-way as habitat for early-successional shrubland birds. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30: 868-874.

Krüger S C. 2013. Draft biodiversity management plan for Gypaetus barbatus meridionalis. SA Government Gazette 36697: 3-62.

Krüger S C. 2015. Bearded Vulture. In: Taylor M R, Peacock F, and Wanless R M (Eds.) The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. Pp 55-57.

Krüger S C, Allan D G, Jenkins A R and Amar A. 2013. Trends in territory occupancy, distribution and density of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus meridionalis in Southern Africa. Bird Conservation International 24(2): 162-177.

8-2

Section 8 • References Krüger S C, Simmons R E and Amar A. 2015. Anthropogenic activities influence the abandonment of Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) territories in southern Africa. Condor 117: 94-107.

Lehman R N, Kennedy P L and Savidge, J A. 2007. The state of the art in raptor electrocution research: a global review. Biological Conservation 136: 159-174.

Loss S R, Will T and Marra P P. 2014. Estimation of bird-vehicle collision mortality on U.S. roads. The Journal of Wildlife Management 78: 763-771.

Long A M, Colón M R, Bosman J L, Robinson D H, Pruett H L, McFarland T M, Methewson H A, Szewak J M, Newman J C and Morrison M L. 2017. A before-after control-impact assessment to understand the potential impacts of highway construction noise and activity on an endangered songbird. Ecology and Evolution 7: 379-389.

Loxton Venn and Associates. 1993. Baseline biological survey, fauna and flora Lesotho Highlands Water Project Phase 1A. Contract No. 75. Volume 7: Birds. Lesotho Highlands Development Authority.

Malan G. 2009. Raptor survey and monitoring – a field guide for African birds of prey. Briza, Pretoria.

Maphisa D H, Smit-Robinson H, Underhill L G, and Altwegg R. 2016. Drivers of bird species richness within moist high-altitude grasslands in eastern South Africa. Plos One 11: DOI: 10. 1371/journal.pone.0162609.

Maphisa D H, Smit-Robinson H, Underhill L G, and Altwegg R. 2017. Management factors affecting densities of common grassland birds of high elevation grasslands of eastern South Africa: Ingula as case study. Avian Research 8: DOI: 10.1186/s40657-017-0063-8.

Martin G R, Portugal S J, Murn C P. 2012. Visual fields, foraging and collision vulnerability in Gyps vultures. Ibis 154: 626-631.

Osborne P E and Tigar B J. 1990. The status and distribution of birds in Lesotho. Alexander Library, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford (unpublished manuscript).

Plantech. 2017. LHDA Contract 3008: Professional services for the Bulk Power Supply and Telecommunications for Lesotho Highlands Water Project Phase 2 – Preliminary Design/Cost/Programme Report (Transmission Lines).

Reid T, Krüger S, Whitfield D P and Amar A. 2015. Using spatial analyses of Bearded Vulture movements in southern Africa to inform wind turbine placement. Journal of Applied Ecology 52: 881-892.

Shaw J, Jenkins A R and Ryan P G. 2010a. Modelling powerline collision risk in the Blue Crane Anthropoides paradiseus in South Africa. Ibis 152: 590-599.

Shaw J, Jenkins A R, Ryan P G and Smallie J. 2010b. A preliminary survey of avian mortality on powerlines in the Overberg, South Africa. Ostrich 81: 109-113.

SMEC. 2016. Options Study Report: Task 2. LHDA Contract No. 3014, Report No. W3014-DFR-09-01.

Torres A, Palacín C, Seoane J and Alsonso J C. 2011. Assessing the effects of a highway on a threatened species using before-during-after and before-during after-control-impact designs. Biological Conservation 144: 2223-2232.

Taylor M R. 2015a. Black Stork. In: Taylor, M R, Peacock, F, and Wanless, R M (Eds) The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. pp 267-268.

8-3

Section 8 • References Taylor M R. 2015b. Verreaux’s Eagle. In: Taylor, M R, Peacock, F, and Wanless, R M (Eds.) The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. pp 206-208.

Taylor M R. 2015c. Lanner Falcon. In: Taylor M R, Peacock F, and Wanless R M (Eds.). The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. pp 209-210.

Taylor M R, Peacock F, and Wanless R M (Eds.). 2015. The 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg.

Zunkel K. 2003. Managing and conserving Southern African grasslands with high endemism. Mountain Research and Development 23: 113-118.

8-4

Appendix A Bird Species Lists for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project Area

Appendix A-1 Bird Atlas Data Accumulated During Survey Work Done in the Vicinity of the Polihali Dam and the Polihali Western Access Corridor in September/October 2016, and February and April 2017

Common name

Scientific name

Pentads 2910_2830 2910_2835 2910_2840 2910_2845 2910_2850 2915_2830 2915_2835 2915_2840 2915_2845 2915_2850

Atlas cards per pentad 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3

Hamerkop Scopus umbretta

1 1 1

Black Stork Ciconia nigra 1

White Stork Ciconia ciconia 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Southern Bald Ibis

Geronticus calvus

1 1 1 1 1 1

African Black Duck

Anas sparsa 1 1

Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres

1 1 1

Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus 1 1 1 1 1 1

Amur Falcon Falco amurensis

1 1 1 1 1 1

Red-footed Falcon

Falco vespertinus

1

Rock Kestrel Falco rupicolus 1 1 1 1

Verreaux's Eagle

Aquila verreauxii

1

Bearded Vulture

Gypaetus barbatus

1 1 1

Jackal Buzzard

Buteo rufofuscus

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Common Buzzard

Buteo buteo 1 1 1

Black Harrier Circus maurus 1

African Harrier Hawk

Polyboroides typus

1

Grey-winged Francolin

Scleroptila afra 1

Common Quail Coturnix coturnix

1 1 1 1

Three-banded Plover

Charadrius tricollaris

1 1

A-1

Common name

Scientific name

Pentads 2910_2830 2910_2835 2910_2840 2910_2845 2910_2850 2915_2830 2915_2835 2915_2840 2915_2845 2915_2850

Speckled Pigeon

Columba guinea

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cape Turtle Dove

Streptopelia capicola

1 1 1

Laughing Dove

Spilopelia senegalensis

1 1

Common Swift Apus apus 1 1

African Black Swift

Apus barbatus 1 1 1 1 1

White-rumped Swift

Apus caffer

Horus Swift Apus horus 1 1 1 1 1

Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba

1 1 1 1 1

Ground Woodpecker

Geocolaptes olivaceus

1 1 1 1 1

Eastern Long-billed Lark

Certhilauda semitorquata

1 1 1

Large-billed Lark

Galerida magnirostris

1 1 1

Red-capped Lark

Calandrella cinerea

1 1 1 1

Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica 1 1 1 1

Greater Striped Swallow

Cecropis cucullata

1 1 1 1 1

Rock Martin Ptyonoprogne fuligula

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Common House Martin

Delichon urbicum

1 1

Brown-throated Martin

Riparia paludicola

1 1 1 1

Cape Crow Corvus capensis

1 1 1 1 1 1

White-necked Raven

Corvus albicollis

1 1 1 1

Grey Tit Melaniparus afer

1 1 1 1 1 1

A-2

Common name

Scientific name

Pentads 2910_2830 2910_2835 2910_2840 2910_2845 2910_2850 2915_2830 2915_2835 2915_2840 2915_2845 2915_2850

Drakensberg Rockjumper

Chaetops aurantius

1

Sentinel Rock Thrush

Monticola explorator

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Mountain Wheatear

Myrmecocichla monticola

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Familiar Chat Oenanthe familiaris

1 1

Sickle-winged Chat

Emarginata sinuata

1 1 1 1 1 1

African Stonechat

Saxicola torquatus

1 1 1 1 1 1

Cape Robin-Chat

Cossypha caffra

1

Cape Grassbird

Sphenoeacus afer

1 1 1

Neddicky Cisticola fulvicapilla

1

Wailing Cisticola

Cisticola lais 1 1 1

Karoo Prinia Prinia maculosa

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cape Wagtail Motacilla capensis

1 1 1 1 1 1

African Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus

1 1 1 1 1

Long-billed Pipit

Anthus similis 1 1 1 1

Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi 1 1 1

African Rock Pipit

Anthus crenatus

1 1 1 1 1 1

Southern Fiscal

Lanius collaris 1 1 1 1

Bokmakierie Telophorus zeylonus

1 1

Red-winged Starling

Onychognathus morio

1 1 1

Pied Starling Lamprotornis bicolor

1 1 1 1

A-3

Common name

Scientific name

Pentads 2910_2830 2910_2835 2910_2840 2910_2845 2910_2850 2915_2830 2915_2835 2915_2840 2915_2845 2915_2850

Malachite Sunbird

Nectarinia famosa

1 1

Cape White-eye

Zosterops virens

1

Cape Sparrow Passer melanurus

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cape Weaver Ploceus capensis

1 1

Southern Masked Weaver

Ploceus velatus 1 1 1 1

Southern Red Bishop

Euplectes orix 1 1

Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis

1 1 1 1

Common Waxbill

Estrilda astrild 1

African Quail-Finch

Ortygospiza atricollis

1

Drakensberg Siskin

Crithagra symonsi

1 1 1

Cape Canary Serinus canicollis

1 1 1 1 1 1

Black-throated Canary

Crithagra atrogularis

1

Yellow Canary Crithagra flaviventris

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cinnamon-breasted Bunting

Emberiza tahapisi

1 1 1 1

Cape Bunting Emberiza capensis

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Species recorded per pentad 10 36 41 39 27 13 16 30 36 43

A-4

Appendix A-2 Annotated List of Birds Seen or Expected to Occur (shaded grey) in the Vicinity of the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project, based on Observations made in September/October 2016, and February and April 2017

Common name Scientific name Conservation status

(regional / global)

Endemism Habitat Status Relative abundance


White-breasted Cormorant Phalacrocorax lucidus - - Wetlands, cliffs Uncommon Breeding resident Low Reed Cormorant Microcarbo africanus - - Wetlands Uncommon Visitor Low Grey Heron Ardea cinerea - - Wetlands, cliffs Uncommon Breeding resident Low Black-headed Heron Ardea melanocephala - - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis - - Grassland Uncommon Visitor Low Hamerkop Scopus umbretta - - Wetlands, cliffs Uncommon Breeding resident Medium Black Stork Ciconia nigra Vulnerable /

Least concern - Wetlands, cliffs Rare Breeding resident Very high

White Stork Ciconia ciconia - - Grassland, cliffs Common Summer migrant Medium Southern Bald Ibis Geronticus calvus Vulnerable /

Vulnerable Regional endemic

Grassland, cliffs Common Breeding resident Very high

Hadeda Ibis Bostrychia hagedash - - Wetlands, Riparian woodland, cliffs

Common Breeding resident Low

Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca - - Wetlands, cliffs, cultivated fields

Uncommon Breeding resident Low

African Black Duck Anas sparsa - - Wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Medium Yellow-billed Duck Anas undulata - - Wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Low Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius Vulnerable /

Vulnerable Grassland Rare Occasional visitor Low

Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres Endangered / Endangered

Regional endemic

Cliffs, ridges, Grassland Rare Breeding resident Very high

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus - - Cliffs, ridges, grassland Rare Visitor Low Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus Vulnerable /

Least concern - Cliffs, ridges, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident High

Amur Falcon Falco amurensis - - Grassland, Riparian woodland, settlements

Common Summer migrant Medium

Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Near-threatened / Near-threatened

- Grassland, Riparian woodland

Very rare Summer migrant Low

Rock Kestrel Falco rupicolus - - Cliffs, ridges, grassland Common Breeding resident Medium European Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus - - Riparian woodland,

grassland Very rare Summer migrant Low

A-5


(regional / global)



Verreaux's Eagle Aquila verreauxii Vulnerable / Least concern

- Cliffs, ridges, grassland Rare Breeding resident Medium

Booted Eagle Hieraeetus pennatus - - Cliffs, ridges, grassland Rare Visitor Low Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus Critically

endangered / Near-threatened

- Cliffs, ridges, grassland Rare Breeding resident Very high

Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus - Regional endemic

Cliffs, ridges, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident High

Common Buzzard Buteo buteo - - Grassland Uncommon Summer migrant Low Rufous-breasted Sparrowhawk

Accipiter rufiventris - - Riparian woodland, grassland

Rare Breeding resident? Low

Black Sparrowhawk Accipiter melanoleucus - - Riparian woodland, grassland

Rare Breeding resident? Low

Black Harrier Circus maurus Endangered / Vulnerable

Regional endemic

Grassland, wetlands Rare Summer migrant Low

African Harrier Hawk Polyboroides typus - - Cliffs, Riparian woodland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Swainson’s Spurfowl Pternistis swainsonii - - Cultivated fields Rare Visitor Low Grey-winged Francolin Scleroptila afra - Regional

endemic Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Common Quail Coturnix coturnix - - Grassland, cultivated fields Uncommon Summer migrant Low Red-knobbed Coot Fulica cristata - - Wetlands Rare Breeding resident? Low Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris - - Wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Low Speckled Pigeon Columba guinea - - Cliffs, grassland, cultivated

fields Common Breeding resident Low

Red-eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata

- - Riparian woodland, cultivated fields


Cape Turtle Dove Streptopelia capicola - - Riparian woodland, cultivated fields

Abundant Breeding resident Low

Laughing Dove Spilopelia senegalensis - - Riparian woodland, cultivated fields


Diederik Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius - - Riparian woodland, cultivated fields

Uncommon Summer migrant Low

Western Barn Owl Tyto alba - - Cliffs, grassland, cultivated fields


Cape Eagle-Owl Bubo capensis - - Cliffs, ridges, grassland Rare Breeding resident High

A-6


(regional / global)



Spotted Eagle-Owl Bubo africanus - - Cliffs, ridges, grassland, cultivated fields


Common Swift Apus apus - - grassland Uncommon Summer migrant Low African Black Swift Apus barbatus - - Cliffs, grassland Abundant Breeding resident Low White-rumped Swift Apus caffer - - Settlements, grassland Uncommon Summer migrant Low Horus Swift Apus horus - - Cliffs, grassland Common Breeding resident Medium Little Swift Apus affinis - - Settlements, cliffs, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba - - Cliffs, grassland Common Breeding resident Low Giant Kingfisher Megaceryle maxima - - Wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Low Malachite Kingfisher Alcedo cristata - - Wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Low African Hoopoe Upupa africana - - Riparian woodland,

settlements Uncommon Breeding resident? Low

Ground Woodpecker Geocolaptes olivaceus - Regional endemic

Grassland, ridges Uncommon Breeding resident Medium

Eastern Long-billed Lark Certhilauda semitorquata

- Regional endemic

Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Large-billed Lark Galerida magnirostris - Regional Endemic

Alpine grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Red-capped Lark Calandrella cinerea - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica - - Grassland Uncommon Summer migrant Low White-throated Swallow Hirundo albigularis - - Wetlands, grassland Uncommon Summer migrant Low Greater Striped Swallow Cecropis cucullata - - Grassland, settlements Common Breeding summer

migrant Low

Rock Martin Ptyonoprogne fuligula - - Cliffs, grassland Common Breeding resident Low Common House Martin Delichon urbicum - - Cliffs, grassland Uncommon Breeding summer

migrant Low

Brown-throated Martin Riparia paludicola - - Wetlands, grassland Common Breeding resident Low Pied Crow Corvus albus - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident? Low Cape Crow Corvus capensis - - Grassland, cliffs Common Breeding resident Low White-necked Raven Corvus albicollis - - Cliffs, ridges, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Grey Tit Melaniparus afer - Regional

Endemic Alpine grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Drakensberg Rockjumper Chaetops aurantius - Local endemic

Alpine grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Very high

A-7


(regional / global)



African Red-eyed Bulbul Pycnonotus nigricans - - Riparian woodland, settlements


Karoo Thrush Turdus smithi - Endemic Riparian woodland, settlements


Cape Rock Thrush Monticola rupestris - Regional endemic

Grassland Common Breeding resident Low

Sentinel Rock Thrush Monticola explorator - Regional endemic

Alpine grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Medium

Mountain Wheatear Myrmecocichla monticola

- - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low

Familiar Chat Oenanthe familiaris - - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low Sickle-winged Chat Emarginata sinuata - Regional

Endemic Alpine grassland Common Breeding resident Low

African Stonechat Saxicola torquatus - - Grassland Common Breeding summer migrant

Low

Cape Robin-Chat Cossypha caffra - - Riparian woodland Uncommon Breeding resident Low African Reed Warbler Acrocephalus

baeticatus - - Wetlands Rare Visitor Low

Cape Grassbird Sphenoeacus afer - Regional Endemic

Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidus - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Wing-snapping Cisticola Cisticola ayresii - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Neddicky Cisticola fulvicapilla - - Riparian woodland,

grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Wailing Cisticola Cisticola lais - - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low Levaillant's Cisticola Cisticola tinniens - - Wetlands, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus - - Riparian woodland Uncommon Summer migrant Low Layard’s Tit-Babbler Sylvia layardi - Regional

Endemic Alpine grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Medium

Karoo Prinia Prinia maculosa - Regional Endemic

Grassland Abundant Breeding resident Low

Fairy Flycatcher Stenostira scita - Regional Endemic

Grassland Uncommon Summer migrant Low

African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp - - Wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident? Low Cape Wagtail Motacilla capensis - - Wetland, grassland Common Breeding resident Low African Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus - - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low

A-8


(regional / global)



Long-billed Pipit Anthus similis - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi Near-threatened

/ Least concern Local breeding endemic

Alpine grassland Uncommon Breeding summer migrant

Medium

African Rock Pipit Anthus crenatus Near-threatened / Least concern

Regional endemic

Grassland, ridges Common Breeding resident Medium

Yellow-breasted Pipit Anthus chloris Vulnerable / Vulnerable

Regional Endemic

Grassland Rare Breeding resident? Medium

Cape Longclaw Macronyx capensis - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Southern Fiscal Lanius collaris - - Riparian woodland Common Breeding resident Low Bokmakierie Telophorus zeylonus - - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low Red-winged Starling Onychognathus morio - - Cliffs, grassland Common Breeding resident Low Pied Starling Lamprotornis bicolor - Regional

endemic Grassland Common Breeding resident Low

Malachite Sunbird Nectarinia famosa - - Grassland Common Breeding resident Low Cape White-eye Zosterops virens - Regional

Endemic Riparian woodland Common Breeding resident Low

House Sparrow Passer domesticus - - Settlements Common Breeding resident Low Cape Sparrow Passer melanurus - - Riparian woodland,

settlements Abundant Breeding resident Low

Southern Grey-headed Sparrow

Passer diffusus - - Grassland, settlements Uncommon Breeding resident Low

Cape Weaver Ploceus capensis - Regional Endemic

Riparian woodland Common Breeding resident Low

Southern Masked Weaver Ploceus velatus - - Riparian woodland Common Breeding resident Low Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea - - Grassland, wetlands Uncommon Visitor Low Southern Red Bishop Euplectes orix - - Grassland, wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Low Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis - - Wetlands, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Yellow-crowned Bishop Euplectes afer - - Wetlands, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Long-tailed Widowbird Euplectes progne - - Wetlands, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild - - Wetlands, grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low African Quail-Finch Ortygospiza atricollis - - grassland, cultivated fields Uncommon Breeding resident Low Pin-tailed Whydah Vidua macroura - - grassland, wetlands Uncommon Breeding resident Low Drakensberg Siskin Crithagra symonsi - Local

endemic Alpine grassland, cultivated lands

Uncommon Breeding resident High

A-9


(regional / global)



Cape Canary Serinus canicollis - - Riparian woodland, grassland

Abundant Breeding resident Low

Black-headed Canary Serinus alario - Regional Endemic

Grassland Rare Vagrant Low

Black-throated Canary Crithagra atrogularis - - Grassland Rare Summer migrant Low White-throated Canary Crithagra albogularis - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident Low Yellow Canary Crithagra flaviventris - - Alpine grassland Common Breeding resident Low Streaky-headed Seedeater Crithagra gularis - - Grassland Uncommon Breeding resident? Low Cinnamon-breasted Bunting

Emberiza tahapisi - - Grassland, ridges Common Breeding resident Low

Cape Bunting Emberiza capensis - - Grassland Abundant Breeding resident Low

A-10

Appendix B Cliff-nesting Bird Survey Data for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project Area

Appendix B-1 Characteristics and Avian Occupancy of Cliffs Surveyed in the Vicinity of the Polihali Western Access Corridor, based on

Surveys done in September/October 2016 and February and April 2017

Cliff no.

Google Earth waypoint no.

Date Route Cliff parameters Species No. of pairs

Nest status Height Length Verticality Aspect

61 DGA61 30-Sep-16 B 2 1 1 s Cape Crow / White-necked Raven

1 2 corvids flying at cliff but too far to identify; high good cliff well above river, well whitewashed

62 DGA62 30-Sep-16 B 63 DGA63 30-Sep-16 B 3 3 3 s Jackal Buzzard 1 adult sitting 64 DGA64 30-Sep-16 B 1 1 1 w 1 huge nest, clearly ringed with copious

whitewash, in full sun, large chick fully feathered

65 DGA65 30-Sep-16 B 3 3 2 s Southern Bald Ibis 1 1 adult incubating, small waterfall gorge 112 DGA112 04-Oct-16 A 113 DGA113 04-Oct-16 A 3 3 3 s Jackal Buzzard 1 1 adult sitting, middle of cliff c1 c1 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 1 sw good whitewash, locals say Bearded

Vulture has bred here; no birds or obvious structures seen

c2 c2 30-Sep-16 C 3 2 2 s Jackal Buzzard 1 adult on nest c3 c3 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 2 sw c4 c4 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 2 se c5 c5 30-Sep-16 C 1 1 1 nw Bearded Vulture 1 pair tending large, feathered nestling at

nest in well-white-washed pothole c5 c5 30-Sep-16 C 1 1 1 nw Southern Bald Ibis 34 adults on nests c5 c5 30-Sep-16 C 1 1 1 nw Lanner Falcon 1 pair active on cliff; couldn't find nest ledge c5 c5 30-Sep-16 C 1 1 1 nw Jackal Buzzard 1 adult on nest c6 c6 30-Sep-16 C 3 2 2 se ridge-top cliff; good whitewash c7 c7 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 1 ne Southern Bald Ibis 15 adults on nests c8 c8 30-Sep-16 C 3 2 2 nw Cape Crow 1 adult on nest c9 c9 30-Sep-16 C 3 2 2 ne cliff orlooking river; good Rock Kestrel

whitewash c10 c10 30-Sep-16 C 2 3 2 se Black Stork 1 adult on nest c10 c10 30-Sep-16 C 2 3 2 se Southern Bald Ibis 5 adults on nests

B-1

Cliff no.




c11 c11 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 2 s large, well-whitewashed stick-nest under overhang - alternative Black Stork or White-necked Raven?

c12 c12 30-Sep-16 C 3 3 2 w Jackal Buzzard 1 pair of adults at active nest c13 c13 30-Sep-16 C 3 3 2 nw Jackal Buzzard 1 fresh nest c14 c14 30-Sep-16 C 3 2 2 se c15 c15 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 2 se ridge-top cliff, good whitewash - Southern

Bald Ibis? c16 c16 30-Sep-16 C 2 2 2 sw c17 c17 30-Sep-16 C 2 3 2 sw c18 c18 30-Sep-16 C 3 3 2 sw Lanner Falcon 1 pair seen coming in to roost and mobbing

single Verreaux's Eagle on 01 Feb 2017; Southern Bald Ibis

c19 c19 04-Oct-16 C 2 2 2 sw well whitewashed, probably Southern Bald Ibis roost

c20 c20 04-Oct-16 C 3 2 2 n well whitewashed, probably Southern Bald Ibis roost

b1 b1 04-Oct-16 B 2 3 2 se Jackal Buzzard 1 fresh nest b2 b2 04-Oct-16 B 3 2 2 nw Lanner Falcon 1 good Lanner Falcon whitewash, pair

present and perched on cliff b3 b3 04-Oct-16 B 2 2 2 e Southern Bald Ibis 10 adults on nests; horseshoe cliff on Liseling

River below Ha Tlelase b3 b3 04-Oct-16 B 2 2 2 e Lanner Falcon 1 pair present in area; horseshoe cliff on

Liseling River below Ha Tlelase b3 b3 04-Oct-16 B 2 2 2 e Cape Eagle-Owl? habitat good and locals say owls are

resident here; ; horseshoe cliff on Liseling River below Ha Tlelase

b3 b3 04-Oct-16 B 2 2 2 e Black Stork 1 habitat good and locals say storks breed here; ; horseshoe cliff on Liseling River below Ha Tlelase; also used by roosting White Storks

B-2

Cliff no.




505 505 03-Feb-17 C 2 1 1 ne Cape Crow 2 2 nests, one with large nestlings, one with attendant adults; heavily used by White Storks for roosting along edge; moulted Cape Eagle-Owl feather on top of cliff, good Rock Kestrel whitewash, Jackal Buzzard, Lanner Falcon, Southern Bald Ibis?

Ba Ba 15-Apr-17 B 3 2 2 s possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard Bb Bb 15-Apr-17 B 3 2 2 s possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard Bc Bc 15-Apr-17 B 3 2 2 s possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard Bd Bd 15-Apr-17 B 2 2 3 sw possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard Be Be 15-Apr-17 B 2 2 3 s Lanner Falcon 1 according to local Bf Bf 15-Apr-17 B 2 2 2 w possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard Bg Bg 15-Apr-17 B 2 2 2 w possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard Bh Bh 15-Apr-17 B 3 3 1 sw possible for Rock Kestrel / Jackal Buzzard

B-3

Appendix C Avian Abundance and Diversity Transect Data for the Polihali Western Access Corridor Project Area

Appendix C-1 Bird Species Recorded During Walked Transects at the eastern end of the PWAC Project Area (near the Polihali Dam

Construction Site Area and in the High-lying Areas around Kosheteng in February 2017. Endemic species are shaded green.

Common Name Scientific Name Habitat association Regional Threat status

Polihali Dam construction area Kosheteng Masakong

Hill Masokong

Village Malingoaneng

Village Ha Tuke Fields

Southern Red Bishop Euplectes orix Wetlands/grasslands - X Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis wetlands/grasslands - X Cape Bunting Emberiza capensis grasslands - X X X X X Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus grasslands - X Cape Canary Serinus canicollis trees & shrubs - X Yellow Canary Crithagra flaviventris trees & shrubs - X X Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris grasslands - X Sickle-winged Chat Cercomela sinuata grasslands - X Wailing Cisticola Cisticola lais grasslands - X Cape Crow Corvus capensis grasslands - X Amur Falcon Falco amurensis grasslands - X X X Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus grasslands Vulnerable X Hamerkop Scopus umbretta wetlands - X African Harrier Hawk Polyboroides typus general - X X Southern Bald Ibis Geronticus calvus grasslands Vulnerable X X X Rock Kestrel Falco rupicolus grasslands - X X X Eastern Long-billed Lark

Certhilauda semitorquata

grasslands - X X

Large-billed Lark Galerida magnirostris grasslands - X Red-capped Lark Calandrella cinerea grasslands - X X X Rock Martin Hirundo fuligula aerial - X X Speckled Pigeon Columba guinea general - X X X X African Pipit Anthus Cinnamomeus grasslands - X X X African Rock Pipit Anthus crenatus grasslands Near-

threatened X X X X

Mountain Pipit Anthus hoeschi grasslands Near-threatened

X

Karoo Prinia Prinia maculosa grasslands - X X Common Quail Coturnix coturnix grasslands - X African Quailfinch Ortygospiza

fuscacrissa grasslands - X X

C-1

Common Name Scientific Name Habitat association Regional

Threat status Polihali Dam construction area Kosheteng

Masakong Hill

Masokong Village

Malingoaneng Village

Ha Tuke Fields

White-necked Raven Corvus albicollis grasslands - X Drakensberg Rockjumper

Chaetops aurantius grasslands - X

Cape Sparrow Passer melanurus grasslands - X X Pied Starling Lamprotornis bicolor grasslands - X Red-winged Starling Lamprotornis bicolor trees & shrubs - X X African Stonechat Saxicola torquatus grasslands - X White Stork Ciconia ciconia grasslands - X X X Malachite Sunbird Nectarinia famosa trees & shrubs - X X Greater-striped Swallow Cecropis cucullata aerial - X X African Black Swift Apus barbatus aerial - X X X X Horus Swift Apus horus aerial - X Cape Rock Thrush Monticola rupestris grasslands - X Sentinel Rock Thrush Monticola explorator grasslands - X Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus grasslands Critically

Endangered X

Cape Turtle Dove Streptopelia capicola trees & shrubs - X Cape Wagtail Motacilla capensis water - X Southern Masked Weaver

Ploceus velatus trees & shrubs - X

Mountain Wheatear Oenanthe monticola grasslands - X X X Ground Woodpecker Geocolaptes olivaceus grasslands - X Total 10 7 17 13 37

C-2

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