Bladder Management - Jewish Hospital & St. Mary's HealthCare

403

The International Journal of Bilingualism

Accessing bilingual codeswitching competence

Accessing bilingual code-switching competenceAlmeida Jacqueline ToribioThe Pennsylvania State University

AcknowledgmentVersions of this paper were presented at the 17th National Conference on Spanish in the United States atFlorida International University in March 1999 and at the City University of New York Graduate Center inOctober 1999 A briefer version is to appear in a volume of selected papers from the former conference(Toribio 2000e) I am grateful to the audiences of these gatherings for helpful comments I would also liketo recognize the contributions of two anonymous readers for The International Journal of Bilingualism whose constructive criticisms have led to considerable improvements in this final version All errors andomissions are of course the sole responsibility of the author This research was supported in part by afellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities (FA- 34114- 96)

AbstractThe present work is inspired by an interest in the syntactic regularities that underlielanguage alternations in Spanish-English bilingual speech and the methodologiesthat may prove most reliable and informative in this exploration Accordinglyit attends to the conceptual and methodological issues that must be addressedand surmounted and taking account of these concerns presents new method-ologies for gathering codeswitching data The robust findings attest to thevalidity of the methodologies and of the elicited data affording a valuablesource of facts for further research

1 Introduction

The present work is inspired by an interest in the syntactic regularities that underlie languagealternations in Spanish-English bilingual speech and the methodologies that may prove mostreliable and informative in this exploration To that end it critically surveys the researchliterature attending to the conceptual and methodological issues that must be addressed andsurmounted in the study of codeswitching competence Taking account of these concernsthe work presents new methodologies for gathering codeswitching data examining permis-sible and unacceptable language alternations in the reading recounting and writing ofcodeswitched narratives by 10 Spanish-English bilinguals and the potential differentialstatus of codeswitching across these controlled and naturalistic tasks The findings attest tothe validity of the methodologies and of the elicited data which converge in revealing bilin-gualsrsquo strong sensitivity to syntactic well-formedness in all three conditions The study thusaffords a valuable source of facts for further research into codeswitching informing syntactic-theoretical debates and elucidating models of bilingual language processing

Address for correspondence

IJB Volume 5 Number 4 December 2001 403ndash 436

Department of Spanish Italian and Portuguese 352 North Burrowes Building The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park PA 16802-6203 USA e-mail ltajt5psuedugt

Key words

codeswitching

competence

syntax

404


A J Toribio

2Preliminary overview

As a convenient point of departure the discussion commences with a cursory overview ofthe language contact phenomenon of interest and subsequently turns to survey the method-ologies that subserve recent investigations into codeswitching In so doing the ensuingparagraphs make explicit the rationale and methodology for the investigation that is thekernel of the work

21Codeswitching as rule-governed bilingual behavior

Codeswitching refers to the ability on the part of bilinguals to alternate between their linguisticcodes in the same conversational event1 With respect to its linguistic form codeswitchingin intraturn utterances may be intersentential or intrasentential as exemplified in the Spanish-English sentences in (1a-b) respectively (For ease of exposition the Spanish-language formsin codeswitched examples are rendered in italics Slashes indicate language switches in thetranslations)

(1)a Eacuterase una vez una linda princesita blanca como la nieve Her stepmother the queenhad a magic mirror on the wall

lsquoOnce upon a time there was a beautiful princess as white as the snowHer stepmotherthe queen had a magic mirror on the wallrsquo

b Por la noche los siete enanitos found her on the ground seemingly deadlsquoAt night the seven dwards found her on the ground seemingly deadrsquo

The status of intrasentential codeswitching had been much disputed in the early liter-ature Some linguists viewed it as indicative of imperfect language acquisition extremecross-linguistic interference or language erosion (but cf Toribio 2000d 2000f) and numerousothers despaired of finding any constraints on what Lance (1975) called a ldquowilly-nillyrdquocombination of language forms However subsequent studies have revealed that code-switching is rule-governed and systematic (cf Aguirre 1977 Gingragraves 1974 Pfaff 1979Timm 1975) demonstrating grammatical regularities that reflect the operation of under-lying syntactic restrictions (cf Lipski 1985 McClure 1981 Poplack 1980 Zentella 1981)For example Spanish-English bilingual speakers will agree that the sentences in (2) repre-sent possible codeswitches whereas those in (3) do not although they may be unable toarticulate exactly what accounts for this differential judgment2

(2)a Al cumplir ella los veinte antildeos el rey invitoacute many neighboring princes to a partylsquoOn her 20th birthday the king invitedmany neighboring princes to a partyrsquo

1 The term ldquocodeswitchingrdquo was first employed to refer to the coexistence of more than one structural system in thespeech of one individual by Jakobson Fant and Halleacute (1952) who use ldquocoderdquo in the abstract information theoreticalsense In later writings ldquocoderdquo has come to be synonymous with ldquolanguagerdquo or ldquospeech varietyrdquo For a brief overviewof codeswitching consult Gumperz and Toribio (1999) see also the highly instructive chapters in Romaine (1995) andthe edited anthologies of Jacobson (1990) Milroy and Muysken (1995) and Auer (1998) for in-depth cross-discipli-nary studies

2 In the notation common to generative linguistic research an asterisk designates an infelicitous sentence

405



b Since she was unmarried he wanted her to choose un buen esposolsquoSince she was unmarried he wanted her to choosea good husbandrsquo

c Princess Grace was sweet y carintildeosa con todoslsquoPrincess Grace was sweetand affectionate with everyonersquo

d Juro por Dios que te casareacute con el primer hombre that enters this roomlsquoI swear by God that I will marry you with the first man that enters this roomrsquo

e At that exact moment a beggar arrived en el palaciolsquoAt that exact moment a beggar arrivedin the palacersquo

(3)a Very envious and evil the reina mandoacute a un criado que matara a la princesalsquoVery envious and evil thequeen sent a houseboy to kill the princessrsquo

b Out of compassion the houseboy abandonedla en el bosquelsquoOut of compassion the houseboy abandonedher in the forestrsquo

c La reina le ofrecioacute a Blancanieves una manzana que habiacutea laced with poisonlsquoThe queen offered Snow White an apple that she hadlaced with poisonrsquo

d En la cabina viviacutean siete enanitos que returned to find Snow White asleeplsquoIn the cabin there lived seven dwarfs thatreturned to find Snow White asleeprsquo

e Los enanitos intentaron pero no succeeded in awakening Snow WhitelsquoThe dwarfs tried but did notsucceed in awakening Snow Whitersquo

Moreover speakers furnish these judgments in the absence of overt instructionmdash bilin-guals are not instructed in how to codeswitch And yet just as monolingual native speakersof Spanish and English have an intuitive sense of linguistic well-formedness in their languagesSpanish-English bilinguals are able to rely on unconscious linguistic knowledge in distin-guishing between permissible and unacceptable codeswitched forms

As expressed by Bhatia and Ritchie (1996 p 645) the challenge in contemporaryresearch on codeswitching ldquois not whether or not it is subject to grammatical constraints buthow best to capture these constraints and how to make deeper claims about human languagein general and bilingualsrsquo mixing competence and their language acquisition in particularrdquoAccordingly recent years have witnessed considerable effort devoted to examining codeswitchingwithin the context of Chomskyrsquos Principles and Parameters theory (Chomsky 1981 19861993 1995) These studies generally evaluate the extent to which codeswitching data can

be predicted by and in so doing support particular linguistic constructs (cf Belazi Rubinamp Toribio 1994 Di Sciullo Muysken amp Singh 1986 MacSwan 1997 Rubin amp Toribio1995 Toribio 2000b 2000c Toribio amp Rubin 1996 Woolford 1983) Our discussion willnot be detained in the elaboration of such proposals at the moment though we return inSection 4 to consider albeit briefly how the data to be presented herein may be couched withinthe generative syntactic framework Our immediate concern is in the methodologies for thecollection and selection of data on which syntactic generalizations are based

22Accessing codeswitching competence

Works addressing the grammar of codeswitching in bilingual speech have made use of awide variety of methodologies chief among these interviews and naturalistic recordings

406


A J Toribio

Unfortunately these approaches may be of limited value in the study of linguistic compe-tence as they yield data that reflect the speakersrsquo competence only indirectly at bestInterviews and self-reports about bilingual speech are unreliable Bilinguals often find itdifficult to remember which language was used in any particular speech exchange (cfGumperz 1982) Moreover the problem of self-reporting is exacerbated in situations ofsocial stigma (cf Gumperz 1971 among numerous others) as a speaker may refrain fromswitching when being observed or recorded owing to subjective factors such as the appro-priateness of codeswitching to the interview situation and the esteem in which the practiceis held (cf Toribio 2000a Zentella 1997) Recordings of naturalistic utterances are met witha more acute criticism The linguistic performance of a speaker in the form of natural datamay not be indicative of that speakerrsquos underlying linguistic knowledge Indeed studies ofcodeswitching performance in diverse bilingual communities have revealed significant vari-ability and yielded counterexamples to many of the constraints posited (cf for example Pfaff1976 Poplack 1980 1981) of course this is to be expected since there are likewise noexceptionless constraints on monolingual performance (cf Poplack 1983) Hence we main-tain with Jacobson (1977 p 229) that since ldquoutterances containing elements from twolanguages follow specific patterns of co-occurrence and display the same rule-governedbehavior that we normally associate with unilingual coderdquo the distinction between compe-tence and performance is applicable to the study of codeswitching But given performancedata alone a researcher might erroneously conclude that there are no constraints on the formthat Spanish-English language alternation takes

The problem adduced here is endemic to almost all of the codeswitching researchreported to date Especially noteworthy in this respect is the work of Mahootian and Santorini(1996) who admit only recordings of spontaneous speech on the grounds that linguistictheory must account for natural occurrences of the data for which it has been constructedThis focus on natural codeswitching data is incompatible with syntactic-theoretical modesof inquiry since the absence of violations of deep principles in spontaneous utterances cannotbe unequivocally ascribed to a constraint that exists on the speakerrsquos grammar In assessinga speakerrsquos competence syntactic studies normally test his her ability to judge a givensentence as a grammatical or ungrammatical string of the language the assumption is thatthe correct response indicates that the speaker has applied the principle that licenses thestructure of the intended form Unfortunately studies along these lines have been relativelyuncommon in codeswitching research this in spite of the fact that the early studies ofthe 1970s (cf for example Aguirre 1977 Gingragraves 1974 Jacobson 1977 Lipski 1978Timm 1975) already indicated that there is a linguistic competence of codeswitching As aptlynoted by McClure (1981 p 72)

without native speakersrsquo judgments about the grammaticality of an utterance it is oftendifficult to determine whether the utterance clearly reflects the speakerrsquos competence andso should be included in the corpus for which rules must account or whether it has beenaffected by performance factors such as lapses of attention and hence should be exclud-ed from consideration

Thus recordings of spontaneous speech must be complemented by elicitation ofspeakersrsquo beliefs about ungrammatical sentences

407



However as remarked in Schuumltze (1996 p xi) the problems of intuition ldquodemand acareful examination of judgments not as pure sources of data but as instances of metalinguisticperformancerdquo (cf Birdsong 1989 for additional extended discussion on this point) Thereforewhile judgments may offer insight into competence we must concede that they are them-selves subject to performance variables and findings based on judgment data are susceptibleto the same confounding factors that plague findings founded in production samples Speakingto codeswitching data in particular it can be readily observed that a speaker or researcher mayaccept or reject a codeswitched sentence or response for nonlinguistic reasons We have alreadynoted the problems inherent in soliciting norms of stigmatized behavior (cf Toribio 2000a2000b Toribio amp Rubin 1996) And caution must additionally be taken in interpreting code-switching judgments once obtained In this light we should reconsider MacSwanrsquos (1997)dismissal of items such as that in (3a) which reference the ill-formedness of switching betweena determiner and its complement His assessment (contrary to the claims of eg Zentella 1981that the same language is normally maintained across such pairings) is founded on the infor-mally elicited judgments of two bilinguals who report that a short pause before the codeswitchimproves such forms considerably (1997 p 247) Clearly this fact bears directly on the issueat handmdashit may represent the speakersrsquo attempt to comply with the injunction against switchingat this site3 Owing to mitigating factors such as those outlined here these previous contra-dictory accounts must be acknowledged but interpreted with caution syntactic theorizationmust rely on and reflect data which are indicative of syntactic competence We thus coincidein Schuumltzersquos conclusion that while grammaticality judgments are indispensable forms of datafor linguistic theorizing they require new ways of being collected and used4

As made evident in the preceding discussion then methodological issues are at thecore of current debates in the characterization of codeswitching competence The ease withwhich counterexamples to any proposed generalization are found may be attributable not onlyto differences in the methods of data collection but also to the subsequent selection of thedata for which linguistic constraints are formulated (cf Toribio amp Rubin 1996) While theseand other challenges confronting researchers in codeswitching should not be understated(cf Grosjean 1998 Toribio 2000a 2000b) the present work undertakes to redress at leastsome of the aforementioned methodological shortcomings

3The present study Methodologies

The objective of the present study is in accessing bilingual codeswitching competence whilecircumventing some of the methodological difficulties that have compromised previousresearch findings To that end three instruments of codeswitching behavior were developedand deployed a reading task a recounting task and a writing task each described in (4) Theelection of fairy tale narratives as a methodological tool for these tasks is well-motivated assuch texts present familiar macrostructures Of interest would be the patterns of language

3 Judgments similarly solicited from these two informants lead MacSwan to dismiss items such as those in (3d) whichreference the ill-formedness of switching after a complementizer as ldquoerroneous datardquo and conclude that ldquothere is noban on switches at this juncturerdquo (1997 p 241) contrary to the claims of for example Gumperz (1976)

4 For thorough discussion of the role and use of grammaticality judgments in linguistic theory consult Schuumltze (1996)

408


A J Toribio

alternation that are sanctioned in narratives and the potential differential status of codeswitchedforms across the three conditions

(4) Tasks

a Reading Task

Participants are instructed to read aloud two fairy tale fragments mdash ldquo Snow White andthe Seven Dwarfs Blancanieves y los Siete Enanitosrdquo which includes grammaticallyunacceptable codeswitching and ldquoThe Beggar PrinceEl Priacutencipe Pordioserordquo preparedin well-formed codeswitched sentencesmdash and respond to questions that reference read-ability comprehension enjoyability and grammatical form The reading recital andresponses to the questions that follow are recorded and subsequently transcribed

b Recounting Task

Participants are instructed to recount the ending of ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs Blancanieves y los Siete Enanitosrdquo or ldquoThe Beggar PrinceEl Priacutencipe Pordioserordquo incodeswitching the narratives are recorded and subsequently transcribed

c Writing Task

Participants are instructed to retell in writing the tale of ldquoLittle Red Riding HoodLaCaperucita Rojardquo as depicted in a sequence of color drawings the narrations are typedfrom the handwritten originals faithfully reproducing the content and form

These tasks were designed to combine characteristics of controlled and naturalisticlanguage activities The reading task required the bilingual participants to draw on theirlanguages automatically without forethought while eliciting unconscious reactions andexplicit judgments about acceptable and unacceptable language combinations the recountingtask was intended to engage the participants in bilingual speech production offering ameasure of codeswitching performance via a common monological narrative activity andthe writing task was devised to elicit texts that would be illustrative of the creativity ofbilingual code-alternation while at once revealing of the notions of grammatical well-formed-ness that modulate bilingual speakersrsquo codeswitching expression Of course as these tasksrepresent the elicitation of codeswitching behavior the linguistic forms obtained should notnecessarily duplicate the forms observed in spontaneous speech In this sense the elicitationsituation before the participants is artificialmdash the subject is being asked to demonstrate abehavior that may be very different from hisher everyday speech modemdash raising the stan-dard issues of ecological validity in linguistic research (cf Schuumltze 1996) Nevertheless thelanguage samples yielded by means of all of these tasks were assumed to provide importantinsights into speakersrsquo sensitivity to codeswitching norms More generally the method-ologies would advance the aim of compiling a valid data set establishing the constraints thatcharacterize Spanish-English codeswitching competence

The objectives are accomplished by reference to the linguistic behavior of 10 speakersmdashYanira Federico Guadalupe Carlos Carmen Belinda Emma Sara Noemiacute and Lorenzomdashonthe three measures These participants were randomly selected from a larger study of Spanish-English bilingualism56 All were native Spanish speakers of Mexican heritage who had livedin Santa Barbara County for a minimum of 15 years at the time of observation They wereindividually tested in the language center on a university campus Each sat at a separatecubicle furbished with a tape-player and headset (earphones with attached microphone)

409



contributing to the desired privacy and silence Concise written instructions (in English orSpanish as requested) were presented for each task and the sessions were untimed7

4Results

The ensuing discussion further expounds on the tasks and presents the data elicited Thesection ends with an analysis and synthesis of the methodologies and results

41Reading task

In the first of the codeswitching narrative tasks participants were instructed to read twofairy tales aloud and then respond to the questions that followed The two narrative textspresented in randomized order were of similar length and incorporated a comparable numberof switches though they differed significantly in the type of codeswitching representedldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo included switches at those boundaries that are thought to serve ascommon switch sites in bilingual speech (eg between subject and predicate between verband object between noun and subordinate clause) and ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquoincluded switching at boundaries known to violate codeswitching norms (eg between auxil-iary and main verb between object pronoun and main or auxiliary verb between noun andmodifying adjective) Excerpts of each fairy tale appear in (5)8

5 The study on which this work is based was carried out in 1997 ndash98 at the University of California SantaBarbara in the context of a research group convened and directed by the author The group was motivatedby a broad interest in Spanish in the United States and sought to explore questions pertaining to the histor-ical and continued presence of Spanish and Spanish-English bilingualism in present-day cosmopolitansocieties with special attention focused on the City of Santa Barbara The aim of the study was in identi-fying those factors including linguistic social and psychological which influence the form of the locallanguage The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the National Endowment for the Humanitiesand various intramural funding agencies among these the Interdisciplinary Humanities Center UC Mexusand the Academic Senate and expresses sincere appreciation to seven student researchers for their commit-ment and effort in completing the project Reneacutee Basile Mimi Beller Cecilia Montes-Alcalaacute SilviaPeacuterez-Loacutepez Christina Piranio Guillermo Vaacutesquez and Patxi Zabaleta

6 A review of responses by all 50 participants in the present context would entail the management of a wealthof data and require a concision in analysis or a synthesis of isolated linguistic features that would under-mine the investigation As the student collaborators were interested in diverse aspects of bilingual speech(eg attrition and innovation of morphosyntactic structures written vs oral codeswitching etc) we soughtout for transcription and analysis the language samples of informants who produced large quantities ofspeech Within those however subjects were not specially chosen for the linguistic behavior (although oneinformant was excluded here for her sociolinguistic attitudes mdashowing to her negative view of codeswitchingbehavior she did not produce any intrasentential switches)

7 This is but one of three components of the larger study referenced above Also administered was an exten-sive sociolinguistic survey this questionnaire was developed in 1994 ndash95 in the context of a research focusgroup codirected with HS Gopal and Kimberly Noels A second instrument tested participantsrsquo knowledgeof diverse morphosyntactic properties of Spanish (cf Zabaleta 2000) All test instruments were preparedin English and Spanish to maximize participantsrsquo comfort (A fourth narrative task is omitted from consid-eration here this picture-telling task was intended to provide a base measure of speakersrsquo Spanish languageabilities (cf Toribio 2000a))

8 Note that it is not possible to assign a basematrix and embedded language to these codeswitched texts fordiscussion of such notions and distinctions see Joshi (1981) Nishimura (1986) and Myers-Scotton (1993)among numerous others

410


A J Toribio

(5) Narrative reading texts

aldquo The Beggar PrincerdquolsquoEl Priacutencipe Pordioserorsquo

El rey Arnulfo teniacutea una hija muy hermosa que se llamaba Graciela Al cumplir ella losveinte antildeos el rey invitoacute many neighboring princes to a party Since she was unmarriedhe wanted her to choose un buen esposo Princess Grace was sweet y carintildeosa con todosTeniacutea solamente un defecto she was indecisive Surrounded by twelve suitors she couldnot decide and the king se enojoacute Gritoacute ldquoiexclJuro por Dios que te casareacute con el primer hombrethat enters this roomrdquo At that exact moment a beggar who had evaded a los porterosentroacute en la sala Exclamoacute ldquoiexclAcabo de oiacuter lo que dijo usted iexclJuroacute por Dios The princessis minerdquo There was no going back on such a solemn oath y el pordiosero se preparoacutepara la boda Everyone was surprised to see lo bien que se veiacutea in his borrowed clothesDespueacutes de algunas semanas the beggar made an announcement to the princess Elnuevo esposo le dijo a la princesa that the time had come to leave the palace They hadto return to his meager work and a house que era muy humilde hellip

lsquoKing Arnold had a very beautiful daughter named Graciela On her 20th birthday theking invitedmany neighboring princes to a party Since she was unmarried he wantedher to choosea good husbandPrincess Grace was sweetand affectionate with everyoneShe had only one defectshe was indecisive Surrounded by twelve suitors she couldnot decide and the kingbecame angry He cried ldquoI swear by God that I will marry youwith the first man that enters this roomrdquo At that exact moment a beggar who hadevadedthe doormen entered into the room He exclaimed ldquoI heard what you said Youswore by GodThe princess is minerdquo There was no going back on such a solemnoathand the beggar prepared for the weddingEveryone was surprised to seehow wellhe looked in his borrowed clothesAfter a few weeks the beggar made an announce-ment to the princessThe new husband told the princessthat the time had come to leavethe palace They had to return to his meager work and a housethat was very humble helliprsquo

bldquoSnow White and the Seven DwarfsrdquolsquoBlancanieves y los Siete Enanitosrsquo

Eacuterase una vez una linda princesita blanca como la nieve Su madrastra la reina teniacuteaun maacutegico mirror on the wall The queen often asked ldquoWho is the maacutes hermosa delvallerdquo Y un diacutea el mirror answered ldquoSnow White is the fairest one of allrdquo Very enviousand evil the reina mandoacute a un criado que matara a la princesa El criado la llevoacute albosque y out of compassion abandoned la alliacute A squirrel took pity on the princess andled her to a pequentildea cabina en el monte En la cabina viviacutean siete enanitos que returnedto find Snow White asleep in their beds Back at the palace the stepmother again askedthe espejo ldquoY ahora iquestquieacuten es la maacutes bellardquo El espejo otra vez le answered withouthesitation ldquoSnow Whiterdquo The queen was very angry and set out to find the casita delos enanitos Disfrazada de vieja la reina le ofrecioacute a Blancanieves una manzana quehabiacutea laced with poison When Snow White bit into the apple she calloacute desvanecida alsuelo Por la noche los enanitos la found seemingly dead hellip

lsquoThere once was a beautiful princess as white as the snow Her stepmother the queen hada magicmirror on the wall The queen often asked ldquoWho is themost fair in the valleyrdquoAnd one day themirror answered ldquoSnow White is the fairest one of allrdquo Very enviousand evil thequeen sent a houseboy to kill the princess The houseboy took her to theforest andout of compassion abandonedher thereA squirrel took pity on the princess

411



and led her to asmall cabin in the forest In the cabin there lived seven dwarfs thatreturnedto find Snow White asleep in their beds Back at the palace the stepmother again askedthemirror ldquoAnd now who is the most beautifulrdquo the mirror again answeredher withouthesitation ldquoSnow Whiterdquo The queen was very angry and set out to find thehouse ofthe dwarfs Disguised as an old lady the queen offered Snow White an apple that shehadlaced with poison When Snow White bit into the apple shefell fainting to thefloor At night the dwarfs foundher seemingly dead helliprsquo

By their performance as by their assertions sampled below all 10 participants read thewell-formed codeswitched text ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo with little effort but had consistent prob-lems with the ill-formed codeswitched ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo demonstratingvarious types of disfluency including pauses false starts breakdowns even laughter Someparticipants unknowingly corrected ill-formed switches in their reading for example bychanging ldquoshe calloacuterdquo to ldquose calloacuterdquo and ldquoel mirrorrdquo to ldquothe mirrorrdquo other attempts at self-corrections included the rendering of ldquofound lardquo as ldquola found herrdquo And some stammered inproducing phrases such as ldquothehellip thehellip the espejordquo as if ensuring that a switch was intendedat a particular inopportune juncture9

Participantsrsquo actions however inadvertent were substantiated by their introspectionson the two texts As reported in (6) ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo was judged to be easily read andunderstood Several participants believed their reading fluency owed to their facility with Englishand Spanish others reported their success due to the fact that the text reflected their own code-switching practice In contrast ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo was deemed confusingdespite participantsrsquo acquaintance with the story Some found the text unnatural and harshand several offered up ways of editing the language switching to make it ldquosound rightrdquo

(6) Narrative reading task

Was the segment of the fairy tale easily read Was it easily understood

a Comments referencing ease of readability and comprehension of ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo

Carlos The segment was interesting it was easily read and understood

Federico Siacute siento que el fragmento del cuento fue faacutecil de leer y faacutecil de entenderporque puedo leer en los dos idiomas me imagino que al mismo nivel no me causoacute ninguna angustia leer este cuento hellip

lsquoYes I feel that the fragment of the story was easy to read and easy to under-stand because I can read both languages I imagine that at the same level itdid not cause me any anguish to read the storyrsquo

Sara No fue difiacutecil estoy impuesta a cambiar helliplsquoIt was not difficult I am accustomed to switching helliprsquo

Lorenzo I think this one flowed a little bit better it was easier to go from back to forthin English and Spanish [ hellip ] it was pretty well understood there was no harsh grammatical errors that made it hard to transition [sic]

9 One reviewer suggests that a statistical analysis is warranted for these readily quantifiable miscues However thepaper is not grounded in psycholinguistics or applied linguistics it does not aim to present quantifiable data butto attend instead to the description of language alternation and the demonstration of its rule-governed nature

412


A J Toribio

b Comments referencing ease of readability and comprehension of ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo

Yanira Too much switching made it confusing

Carmen It was harder to read hellip and because it was so hard to read it was harder tounderstand

Belinda It was hard to shift from English to Spanish or vice versa

Federico Este fragmento del cuento de ldquoBlancanievesrdquo fue un poco maacutes difiacutecil de leerno fue difiacutecil de entender pero se me hizo un poco maacutes difiacutecil la lecturahellip en el aspecto de que no llevaba un ritmo o sea que el ritmo de la lecturafue un poco interrumpida por el hecho que unas palabras las usaron en el cuentoen una manera que yo no las uso generalmente en ocasiones que he mezcladoel lenguaje

lsquoThis fragment of the story of ldquoSnow Whiterdquo was a little more difficult toread it was not difficult to understand but the reading was a little morediffcult for me hellip in the sense that it did not have a rhythm that is that therhythm of the reading was a little interrupted by the fact that some words wereused in the story in a way that I donrsquot generally use them on occasions whenI have mixed the languagersquo

Sara hellip habiacutea algunas oraciones quehellip didnrsquot make sense helliplsquo hellip there were sentences thathellip didnrsquot make sense helliprsquo

Lorenzo The segment of the fairy tale was somewhat easily read although what it isis that some of the sentences couldrsquove changed from Spanish to English in abetter way there are certain places that really werenrsquot really right to breakfrom English to Spanish or from Spanish to English The story was easily under-stood because I understand English and Spanish but I just think like forexample the last sentence ldquoWhen Snow White bit into the apple she calloacutedesvanecida al suelordquo that I wouldnrsquot say it it doesnrsquot sound right I wouldprobably say ldquoWhen White bit into the apple ella se calloacute al suelordquo Or ldquoshefell desvanecida al suelordquo hellip

The participants were then asked to compare the two texts again on measures of read-ability comprehension and enjoyability Consistent with their reading and evaluations ofthe individual fragments most expressed a preference for ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo as articulatedin (7a) There were exceptions one participant Lorenzo stated that he just did not like thestories (7b) and two other participants indicated a preference for ldquoSnow White and the SevenDwarfsrdquo though as explained in (7c) they favored the text for the well-known plot andvocabulary rather than for its grammatical form


In comparing the two texts which one was more easily read More easily understoodWhich one did you enjoy best

a Comments indicating preference for ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo

Yanira ldquo The Beggar Princerdquo flowed better You didnrsquot get stuck on the switcheshellip it didnrsquot mix the languages so often

413



GuadalupeI enjoyed this one ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo I donrsquot know why

Carmen The first one Why Because it was easier to read and I actually understood the story

b Comments indicating no preference

Lorenzo Irsquod have to say that theyrsquore both the same me dio igual los dos I donrsquot knowI guess I really donrsquot like stories10

lsquoIrsquod have to say that theyrsquore both the same it was the same to mehelliprsquo

c Comments indicating preference for ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo

Federico Se me afigura que el fragmento de lsquoCaperucita Rojarsquo [ldquoEl Priacutencipe Pordioserordquo]fue un poco maacutes faacutecil y de entenderse tambieacuten hellip Me gustoacute maacutes el deldquoBlancanievesrdquo pero eso es porque me gusta maacutes ese cuento no necesaria-mente la manera en que estaacute escrito pero si tuviera yo que leerle el cuentoa otra persona me gustariacutea leerle mejor de ldquoCaperucita Rojardquo [ldquo El PriacutencipePordioserordquo]11

lsquoI figure that the fragment of lsquoLittle Red Riding Hoodrsquo [lsquoThe Beggar Princersquo]was a little more easy and to read too hellip I like the ldquoSnow Whiterdquo one morebut that is because I like that story more not necessarily the way it is writtenbut if I had to read the story to someone else I would rather read ldquoLittle ReadRiding Hoodrdquo [ldquo The Beggar Princerdquo]rsquo

Emma I think the ldquoSnow Whiterdquo was more easy to read because there was some wordsin ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo that I didnrsquot really know before hellip so I enjoyed theone about Snow White and the seven dwarfs more

Finally participants were asked to reflect and comment specifically on the code-switching forms represented in the two texts All 10 participants recognized the differentiatingcodeswitching patterns which they perceived to be more abrupt more frequent and lesspatterned in ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo than in ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo Samplecomments are transcribed in (8)

(8) Comments referencing codeswitching across the two texts

Yanira There is mixing in ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo but it makes sense ldquoSnow Whiterdquochanges without a pattern

Federico Como mencioneacute anteriormente la diferencia el tipo de mezcla es un poco maacutesinadecuada de mi punto de vista el de ldquoBlancanievesrdquo Se me hizo un pocomaacutes difiacutecil la manera en que se fragmentaron las frases del espantildeol al ingleacutes

lsquoAs I mentioned previously the difference in the type of mixing is a little bitmore inadequate in lsquoSnow Whitersquo in my point of view The manner in which

10 Lorenzorsquos expressed dislike of the stories may be attributed not to his aversion to the linguistic or grammatical form ofthe stories but to their simplicity he produced the most creative and lengthy ldquoBeggar Princerdquo narrative in the study

11 Federico later corrected his ldquoerrorrdquo in misidentifying the fairy tale saying ldquoQuiero hacer una correccioacuten a lo quedije anteriormente Me equivoqueacute con el tiacutetulo del cuento que habiacutea leiacutedo Se llama lsquoEl Priacutencipe Pordioserorsquo nolsquoCaperucita Rojarsquo estaba confundidordquo lsquoI want to make a correction to what I said previously I made a mistake inthe title of the story I had read Itrsquos called ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo not ldquoLittle Red Riding Hoodrdquo I was confusedrsquo

414


A J Toribio

the sentences were fragmented from Spanish to English was a little moredifficult for mersquo

Guadalupe I donrsquot know for some reason I liked ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo It read more smoothly I think

Carmen I donrsquot know really what the difference is but the other one [ldquoThe BeggarPrincerdquo] was half in Spanish and half in English and so was this one [ldquo SnowWhiterdquo] but the other one was just easier to read I donrsquot know exactly if itrsquosthe way part of the sentence or which words you use Spanish and which youdonrsquot

Belinda The changes in ldquoSnow Whiterdquo were harder to understand

Emma There is more a mixing in the first one ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquohellip

Sara hellip ldquoSnow Whiterdquo [ hellip ] thatrsquos not how I mix languages

Lorenzo ldquo The Beggar Princessrdquo hellip didnrsquot have such breaks in between sentences it didnrsquot go where they wouldnrsquot connect Blancanieveshellipif it began in Englishand went into Spanish it was a point where it shouldnrsquot or it just didnrsquotsound right

Thus the reading task proved useful in accessing intuitions and judgments on distinctcodeswitching forms Specifically all of the participants demonstrated fewer errors inproducing the language forms in ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo and admitted a more positive dispo-sition towards this well-formed text with respect to readability comprehension enjoyabilityand patterns of language alternation Taken together the participantsrsquo responses revealed amarked sensitivity to specific codeswitching patterns However it was deemed important toinclude less controlled measures that would elicit more naturalistic bilingual behavior andaccordingly two storytelling tasks were administered

42Recounting task

In the recounting component participants were instructed to select one of the fairy tale frag-ments previously presented and recount the ending in Spanish-English codeswitching12 Theproductions were recorded and subsequently transcribed and analyzed for linguistic contentAll but one of the 10 story-telling narratives produced in this condition were well-elaboratedin codeswitched speech a representative excerpt appears in (9)13 Even a cursory overviewof the oral narratives reveals a broad use of both languages bringing into question the assump-tion that one language must be the base or matrix language in codeswitched speech

(9) Por la noche los enanitoshellip they found uhhh Blancanieves seemingly dead Se pusieronmuy tristes y a llorarhellip and then one of them had an idea to bury her Arriba en la

12 While it is unusual to divorce codeswitching production from its social context such ldquoisolatedrdquo tasks prove a neces-sary step in controlling for the variables that would otherwise confound the inferences drawn from the study Forinstance an extensive background questionnaire indicated that some participants seldom engaged in codeswitchingin their natural speech productions for lack of opportunity or inclination and thus codeswitching had to be elicited(cf Toribio 2000a)

13 Pauses or breaks in the narration are marked with ellipses ( hellip )

415



montantildea donde estuviera rodeada por todos sus heridos queridoshellip all the little birdsthe little possums all the little animals of the forest because she loved them so muchhellip Entonces se la llevaron este hellip in a procession they marched up there Y como comoeran hellip muy imaginativos ellos muy hellip este hellip they they built a casket of ahhh clearcrystal casket Y alliacute es donde la metieron y la velaron por un diacutea dos diacuteas y todos losanimalitos del bosque were there with themhellip all sad because she was a very beautifuldoncella hellip Ya que habiacutean pasado unos dos hellip tres diacuteas hellip pasoacute por alliacute a very hand-some prince hellip era alto moreno hellip de ojos grandes nice long lasheshellip he was justhellip passing by becausehellip andaba buscando a su amor perdido hellip y de repente he seesBlancanieves in the clear casket y eacutel sabiacutea algo le dijo en su corazoacuten que ella era hellipella era la persona sontildeada la persona que andaba buscando toda su vida hellip y subelleza took him by surprise hellip he wanted to see her up close y se le acercoacute hellip y la sacoacutedel atauacuted and without knowing why helliphe kissed her on the lips hellip En eso Blancanievesdespertoacute de un suentildeo tan profundo hellip el priacutencipe la habiacutea sacado del abismo hellip As sheopened her eyes she saw the most handsomehellipbeautiful princehellipy entonces Blancanievessupo que tambieacuten era el amor de su vida hellip y se fueron hellip a vivir una vida hermosallena de amor y pues coloriacuten colorado este cuento se ha acabado (Sara)

lsquoAt night the dwarfs hellip they found uhhh Snow White seemingly dead14They becamevery sad and began to cry hellipand then one of them had an idea to bury herAtop themountain where she would be surrounded by her wounded loved ones hellipand the littlebirds the little possums all the little animals of the forest because she loved them somuch hellipThen they took her uhhh in a procession they marched up thereAnd as asthey were hellip very imaginative very hellip uhhh hellipthey they built a casket of ahhh clearcrystal casketAnd there is where they put her and they mourned her a day two daysand all of the animals of the forestwere there with themhellip all sad because she was avery beautifulmaid hellip When there had passed some two hellip three dayshellip there passedby therea very handsome prince helliphe was tall dark hellip with big eyesnice long lasheshellip he was just hellip passing by because helliphe was looking for his preferred love hellip andsuddenlyhe sees Snow White in the clear casketand he knew something told him inhis heart that she was hellip she was the dream person the person that he had been searchingfor all of his life hellip and her beautytook him by surprise hellip he wanted to see her upcloseand (he) got nearer to herhellipand he took her out of the casketand without knowingwhy hellip he kissed her on the lipshellip At once Snow White awoke from a deep sleep hellip theprince had brought her out of an abyss hellipAs she opened her eyes she saw the most hand-some hellip beautiful prince hellipand then Snow White knew that he too was the love of herlife hellip and they left hellip to live a splendid life filled with love and well thatrsquos all folksrsquo

For all participants in this condition the vast majority of language switches occurredat sentence boundaries many preceded by pauses signaling principal discourse breaks requiredin recalling and reformulating the story The narratives additionally included other stylisticfeatures commonly marked by language alternations in bilingual speech as outlined in (10)some of these stylistic strategies are especially germane to storytelling (cf Gumperz1976 1982 Montes-Alcalaacute 2000 Valdeacutes 1976 Zentella 1981 1997)

14 Switch boundaries that border on the proper names of fairy tale characters have generally been excluded from analysisas names could be more salient in one or the other language

416


A J Toribio

(10) Stylistic language alternations

a Switching for reported speech

Lorenzo hellip pero dijo ella ldquoIrsquoll give it some timerdquo helliplsquo hellip but she saidldquoIrsquoll give it some timerdquo helliprsquo

b Switching for repetition or emphasis

Yanira hellip un priacutencipe Prince Charminghellip estaba pasando por el bosque helliplsquo hellip a princePrince Charming hellipwas passing through the forest helliprsquo

Belinda hellip un gran palacio a great palace y alliacute entonces la princesa helliplsquo hellip a great palacea great palaceand there the princess then helliprsquo

c Switching for qualification or elaboration

Sara hellip por todos sus heridos queridoshellip all the little birds the little possums allthe little animals of the forest hellip

lsquofor all of her wounded loved oneshellip all the little birds the little possums allthe little animals of the forest helliprsquo

Lorenzo hellip queacute tipo de animales habiacutean what type of trees flowers helliplsquo hellip what kinds of animals there werewhat type of trees flowers helliprsquo

Lorenzo hellip she wanted to experiment queriacutea ver queacute habiacutea allaacute fuera helliplsquo hellip she wanted to experimentshe wanted to see what was out there helliprsquo

Lorenzo No habiacutea cuartos there was no living room there was no not even a bathroomlsquoThere were no roomsthere was no living room there was no not even a bathroomrsquo

d Switching for fixed or formulaic phrases

Belinda Y asiacute vivieron they lived happily ever afterlsquoAnd they lived that way they lived happily ever afterrsquo

Belinda hellip she met this lobo feroz that asked where she was goinglsquo hellip she met this fierce wolf that asked where she was goingrsquo

Also attested in participantsrsquo oral productions were lexical insertions and tag-switchesLexical insertions exemplified in (11a) represent the introduction of individual items intoa recipient language as occasioned by unavailability or temporary lapses in memory theseinsertions often trigger a language switch for ensuing material Tag-switches such as okayso pues lsquowellrsquo and verdad lsquorightrsquo function as sentence fillers or reveal a speakerrsquos disposi-tion towards the content of an utterance they typically occur at phrase or clause boundariesas in the Example (11b)15

(11) Other features common in bilingual speech

a lexical insertions

Sara hellip because she was a very beautiful doncellahellip Ya que habiacutean pasado unos diacuteas hellip

lsquohellipbecause she was a very beautiful maidhellipWhen there had passed some dayshelliprsquo

15 As expected lexical insertions and tags may be evidenced in both monolingual and bilingual modes of interaction incontrast codeswitching of interest here is illustrative of a bilingual speech mode which requires a high degree of bilingualcompetence

417



Belinda hellip ella estaba acostumbrada a todas las umm luxuries of her palace helliplsquo hellip she was accustomed to all of theummm luxuries of her palace helliprsquo

b tag-switches

Lorenzo hellip se quedoacute unos you know ella dijo ldquoMe voy a quedar aquiacute un mes helliplsquohellipshe stayed some daysyou knowshe said ldquoIrsquom going to stay here a monthrdquohelliprsquo

Although intersentential switches predominated in the oral narratives there were alsoattested numerous examples of intrasentential codeswitching especially at major phraseboundaries The excerpts shown in (12) illustrate switching between clauses (12a) betweencoordinated clausal conjuncts (12b) between coordinated conjuncts (12c) between subjectand predicate (12d) between verb and complements (12e) between noun and relative clauses(12f) and between clause and sentential modifiers (12g)

(12) Codeswitching produced in narrative story-telling task

a Between sentential clauses with pause

Yanira They donrsquot know what to do and they pick her up y la llevan a la casa helliplsquoThey donrsquot know what to do and they pick her upand they take her to the house helliprsquo

Guadalupe They prepared for a funeral y pusieron muchas flores helliplsquoThey prepared for a funeraland they put many flowers helliprsquo

Emma He saw that she was very beautiful y la besoacutelsquoHe saw that she was very beautifuland he kissed herrsquo

Sara Se pusieron muy tristes y a llorarhellipand then one of them had an idea to bury herlsquoThey became very sad and began to cry hellipand then one of them had an ideato bury herrsquo

b Between coordinated clausal conjuncts16

Yanira Se asomoacute a la casa de los enanitos and he saw that helliplsquoHe got closer to the dwarfsrsquo houseand he saw that helliprsquo

Noemiacute Llegoacute un priacutencipe y vioacute a Blancanievesand he approached her and gave her a kisslsquoThe prince arrived and saw Snow Whiteand he approached her and gave her a kissrsquo

Sara hellip y la sacoacute del atauacuted and without knowing why hellip he kissed her on the lipslsquo hellip and he took her out of the casketand without knowing why hellip he kissed her on the lipsrsquo

c Between coordinated conjuncts

Carlos Her mother le habloacute and sent her to make to take helliplsquoHer motherspoke to herand sent her to make to take helliprsquo

Sara He wanted to see her up close y se le acercoacutelsquoHe wanted to see her up close and (he) got nearer to herrsquo

16 The possibility of null subjects in Spanish makes it difficult to distinguish between coordination of full clauses andcoordination of predicates the analysis here errs on the side of conservatism coordination of clauses must includetwo distinct subjects as indicated by overt content or by verbal morphology

418


A J Toribio

Lorenzo hellip accepted the decision that the husband had made y se fueron al bosque helliplsquo hellip accepted the decision that the husband had madeand they went to the forest helliprsquo

d Between subject and predicate

Emma Ellos se enamoraron y el priacutencipe wanted to get marriedlsquoThey feel in love and the princewanted to get marriedrsquo

Sara Y todos los animalitos del bosque were there with themlsquoAnd all of the little animals of the forest were there with themrsquo

Sara hellip pasoacute por alliacute a very handsome prince helliplsquo hellip there passed by therea very handsome prince helliprsquo

Sara hellip y su belleza took him by surpriselsquo hellip and her beauty took him by surprisersquo

Noemiacute Y Blancanieves y el priacutencipe y los siete enanitos were very happylsquoAnd Snow White and the prince and the seven dwarfs were very happyrsquo

e Between verb and complements

Carmen Al fin ella decidioacute to go back to her palacelsquoIn the end she decided to go back to her palacersquo

Noemiacute Blancanieves despertoacute y los enanitos estaban very happylsquoSnow White awoke and the seven dwarfs were very happyrsquo

Lorenzo She wanted to see la belleza que teniacutea helliplsquoShe wanted to see the beauty that it had helliprsquo

Lorenzo Nunca habiacutea salido out of the forest beforelsquoShe had never goneout of the forest beforersquo

f Between noun and relative clause

Lorenzo hellip se fueron al bosque where they would both live in the little houselsquo hellip They went to the forestwhere they would both live in the little housersquo

Lorenzo hellip the beauty que el bosque le dabalsquo hellip the beauty that the forest offered herrsquo

g For sentential modifiers

Carlos While on her way se topoacute con el lobo helliplsquoWhile on her wayshe ran into the wolf helliprsquo

Carlos Al mismo tiempo the wolf continued on the original path helliplsquoAt the same timethe wolf continued on the original path helliprsquo

Carlos When Caperucita arrived to her grandmotherrsquos le preguntoacute por queacute teniacutea dientes tan grandes

lsquoWhenLittle Red Riding Hoodarrived to her grandmotherrsquosshe asked her why she had such big teethrsquo

Lorenzo Al llegar a la casita she noted helliplsquoOn arriving at the little houseshe noted helliprsquo

Lorenzo hellip durante una semana it started getting to her helliplsquo hellip within one week it started getting to her helliprsquo

419



While the grammatically-sanctioned intrasentential switches illustrated in (12) proceededsmoothly others representing potential ill-formed intrasentential switches gave rise todisfluencies For example as shown in (13) switching after a coordinating conjunctionsubordinating complementizer and determiner is preceded by pauses or prevented by animmediate reiteration17 Moreover there were no incidences of codeswitching at the boundarybetween auxiliary and main verb or between negative marker and verb or between demon-strative and noun among other syntactic junctures where grammatical norms do not favorcodeswitching (recall the discussion in Section 1) In fact not one of the participants whoelected to tell the ending to the ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo fairy tale replicated theill-formed switching modeled in the exemplar this finding is significant as it suggests thatthe codeswitching in the fairy tale model was indeed incompatible with proficient bilingualproduction18

(13) Circumventing ill-formed switches

a Disfluency

Yanira hellip not frowns buthellip un poco tristes helliplsquo hellip not frowns but hellipa little sad helliprsquo

Yanira hellip they continued working andhellip en eso iba pasando un priacutencipe helliplsquohellip they continued working andhellipat that time there was passing a prince helliprsquo

Belinda hellip dijo quehellip all of a sudden helliplsquo hellip he said that hellipall of a sudden helliprsquo

Sara hellip passing by becausehellip andaba buscando a su amor perdido helliplsquohellip passing by because helliphe was looking for his preferred love helliprsquo

Noemiacute hellip pensoacute que Snow White was dead helliplsquo hellip he thought thatSnow White was dead helliprsquo

b Repair

Guadalupe el hellip the queen was not happy that she was still alive hellip 19

lsquothe (masc) hellip the queen was not happy that she was still alive helliprsquo

Noemiacute Ella se she came back to life helliplsquoShe wasshe came back to life helliprsquo

Noemiacute hellip y umm he and he fought with her and he killed herlsquo hellip andumm he and he fought with her and he killed herrsquo

17 The low incidence of such switching reported in the early work of the 1970 s has been tested with experimentalmeasures by Toribio (2000b)

18 For discussion of the grammatical competence that is required for successful codeswitching consult Toribio (2000b)Therein I discuss several studies of child and adult bilingual populations which reveal that increased competence inthe component languages is a prerequisite for rule-governed codeswitching (eg Bhatia amp Ritchie 1996 McClure1981 Meisel 1989 Poplack 1980 Rakowsky 1989 Toribio Roebuck Lantolf amp Perrone 1993)

19 This example does not represent a correction for misassignment of gender the remainder of the oral text confirmsthat reina lsquoqueenrsquo is marked with the default masculine gender in the speakerrsquos lexicon Her uncertainty regarding gram-matical gender in Spanish is verified in the written codeswitching task and in a separate Spanish-language narrativetask not reproduced here (cf Toribio 2000a 2000d 2000f)

420


A J Toribio

Lorenzo hellip con las with the leaves of the treeslsquo hellip with thewith the leaves of the treesrsquo

Lorenzo Y the house was just a one-room houselsquoAnd the house was just a one-room housersquo

The remaining participant Federico experienced difficulty in meeting the demandsof the task and gave verbal expression to his frustration As shown in the transcript (14) herecounted the ending of ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo fully in Spanish and was apologetic in hisresignation before the task He made a second attempt to comply with the instructions thistime relating the segment fully in English with a single insertion of an adverbial modifier

(14) hellip y ella se hizo una mujer muy humilde y muy buena de corazoacuten Nunca maacutes quiso todaslas riquezas que queriacutea antes porque antes era una una nintildea fresa no trataba bien asus compantildeeros y ahora era maacutes buena de corazoacutenhellipcomo ven se me hizo un poco difiacutecilmezclar el ingleacutes con el espantildeol No es que no lo puedo hacer pero casi siempre piensoo estoy pensando en espantildeol No estoy pensando en ingleacutes y hellip y hellip y a veces es maacutes esmaacutes faacutecil terminarlo de una manera pero y hellip I guess I could do it both ways I donrsquotknow Itrsquos hard for me though yeah you know if I start talking in one language I keeptalking in one language so itrsquos kind of hard I canrsquot concentrate on doing that Umm hellip soIrsquom not gonna try to do it hellip umm hellip she lived happily ever after humildemente ummwithout all the riches that thehellip see I canrsquot I donrsquot know for some reason I hold myselfback sometimes (Federico)

lsquo hellip and she became a very humble woman and very good at heart She never wanted allof the riches that she wanted before because before she had been a spoiled child she didnrsquottreat her peers well and now she was better at hearthellip as you can see it was difficult forme to mix Spanish with English It isnrsquot that I cannot do it but I almost always think oram thinking in Spanish I am not thinking in Englishhellip and hellip and sometimes itrsquos moreitrsquos easier to finish it one way but and hellipI guess I could do it both ways I donrsquot knowItrsquos hard for me though yeah you know if I start talking in one language I keep talkingin one language so itrsquos kind of hard I canrsquot concentrate on doing that Umm hellip so Irsquorsquomnot gonna try to do it hellip umm hellip she lived happily ever after humblyumm without allthe riches that thehellip see I canrsquot I donrsquot know for some reason I hold myself back some-timesrsquo

However Federicorsquos behavior does not impugn the validity of the storytelling taskrather it makes evident that not all bilinguals possess the requisite communicative compe-tence to engage in codeswitching As often noted in the research literature (cf for exampleAguirre 1977 Valdeacutes 1976) competence in two languages is a necessary precondition butinsufficient prerequisite in determining successful codeswitching performance member-ship in a community in which codeswitching is practiced may also be a required20 Thismitigating factor was controlled for in the narrative writing task that ensued

20 An extensive background questionnaire revealed that Federico does not belong to such a speech community he partic-ipates in largely monolingual-speaking Spanish mdashand English-language communities so it is not surprising that acodeswitching storytelling performance would prove arduous for him (cf Toribio 2000a)

421



43Writing task

In the final narrative task participants were asked to review a sequence of color pictures depictingthe ldquoLittle Red Riding Hoodrdquo fairy tale and recount the story in mixed speech but this timein written form To be sure this task was not intended to render speech samples that wouldbe equivalent to the oral narratives produced in the task preceding Lipski (1985) has pointedto the ldquoobvious limitationsrdquo inherent in the use of written samples of bilingual codeswitchingas representative of speaker norms (cf Montes-Alcalaacute 2000) However the task at hand didnot elicit literary artifacts but orthographic renditions of a renowned fairy tale narrative andas such the texts were expected to more closely approximate unmarked verbal behavior thanprose or poetry21 Thus while the task was designed to examine speakersrsquo creative manip-ulation of two languages its greater purpose was to evoke speakersrsquo notions of codeswitchingwell-formedness while abstracting away from the demands of performance and practice

All participants successfully completed the task producing comprehensive fairy talenarratives that were permeated by intrasentential switches An excerpt of Lorenzorsquos writingsample is reproduced in (15) without editorial correction (save for the italics that identifythe Spanish-language segments)

(15) Once upon a time en un lugar lejano there was a little girl que se llamaba CaperucitaRoja She liked walking through the forest escuchando los pajaritos oliendo las floresy apreciando la belleza natural One day su mamaacute la mando a la casa de su abuelitaShe told LRRH que su abuelita ocupaba some medicine for some sickness Caperucitawent to her grandmotherrsquos house a llevarle medicina On the way to the house se topocon un lobo feo The wolf gave her flowers and asked where she was heading Ella le contestoque iba a la casa de su abuelita The wolf then left her and headed to the grandmotherrsquoshouse corriendo lo mas pronto posible par ganarle a Caperucita When he arrived semetio y persiguido a la abuelita Caperucita luego llegoacute and began to knock The wolfchanged into the grandmotherrsquos clothes y se metio de bajo de las cobijas LRRH wentinside and noticed que su abuelita looked different She began to ask questions aboutthe wolfrsquos nose eyes ears and mouth Cuando Caperucita asked the last question el lobobrincoacute y la empeso a corretiar At the same time a little squirrel had warned a hunterin the forest about this big bad wolf El hombre corrio en seguida a la casa de la abuelitaThere he found the wolf persiguiendo a Caperucita LRRH ran outside y el lobo lasiguio Entonces el hombre levanto su rifle and fired it at the wolf matandolo Caperucitaentonces empeso a llorar The man asked her porque estaba llorando y ella le dijo queporque el lobo se habiacutea comido a su abuelita At that same time the grandmother cameout of the dogrsquos house Ella se habiacutea escondido el la casa del perro durante todo ese tiempoAsi que feliz termina este cuento de Little Red Riding Hood [sic] (Lorenzo)

lsquoOnce upon a timein a far away placethere was a little girlwho was named Little RedRiding HoodShe liked walking through the forest listening to the little birds smellingthe flowers and appreciating the natural beautyOne dayher mother sent her to her grand-motherrsquos houseShe told LRRHthat her grandmother needed some medicine for

21 For relevant discussion on the narrative structure of codeswitching the reader is referred to Lipski (1985) Montes-Alcalaacute (2000) Torres (1997) Valdeacutes (1976) and the literature grounded in Keller (1979)

422


A J Toribio

some sickness Little Red Riding Hood went to her grandmotherrsquos houseto take hermedicineOn the way to the houseshe ran into an ugly wolfThe wolf gave her flowersand asked where she was headingShe answered him that she was going to her grand-motherrsquos houseThe wolf then left her and headed to the grandmotherrsquos houserunningthe fastest possible to beat Little Red Riding Hood When he arrived he got in andfollowed the grandmother Little Red Riding Hood later arrivedand began to knock Thewolf changed into the grandmotherrsquos clothesand got under the coversLRRH wentinside and noticed that her grandmother looked differentShe began to ask questionsabout the wolfrsquos nose eyes ears and mouthWhen Little Red Riding Hoodasked thelast questionthe wolf jumped and started to chase herAt that same time a little squirrelhad warned a hunter in the forest about this big bad wolfThe man ran at once to thegrandmotherrsquos houseThere he found the wolffollowing Little Red Riding HoodLRRHran outsideand the wolf followed her Then the man raised his rifleand fired it at thewolf killing it Little Red Riding Hood then began to cryThe man asked herwhy shewas crying and she told him that because the wolf had eaten her grandmotherAt thatsame time the grandmother came out of the dogrsquos houseShe had been hiding in the dogrsquoshouse during all that time So happily ends the story of Little Red Riding Hoodrsquo

As in the oral production task the participants demonstrated a broad use of bothlanguages in achieving a diversity of stylistic effects for example in signaling a change inroles (16a) marking direct or indirect speech (16b) shifting for declarative or interrogative(16c) attracting attention (16d) heightening an interjection or exclamation (16e) and insertingfixed or formulaic phrases (16f)

(16) Stylistic codeswitching

a Switching for change in roles

Sara ldquo Oh grandma what a big nose you haverdquo ldquoPara olerte mejor mijitardquo hellip [sic]lsquoldquoOh grandma what a big nose you haverdquoldquoThe better to smell you my childrdquohelliprsquo

b Switching for reported speech

Noemiacute El wolf le preguntomdash where are you going Caperucita And she told him ldquoA la casa de mi abuelita helliprdquo [sic]

lsquoThewolfasked mdashwhere are you going Little Red Riding Hood And she told himldquoTo my grandmotherrsquos house hellip rdquorsquo

c Switching for declarative or interrogative

Emma El lobo le preguntoacute where did she live helliplsquoThe wolf asked herwhere did she lived helliprsquo

d Switching for attracting attention

Belinda Mira so that you get to her house sooner vete por este camino helliplsquoLookso that you get to her house soonertake this path helliprsquo

e Switching for interjections or exclamation

Sara ldquoOh que bien where does she liverdquo [sic]lsquoldquoOh goodwhere does she liversquordquo

f Switching for fixed or formulaic phrases

Carmen Once upon a time habiacutea una nintildea llamada Caperucita Roja hellip

423



lsquoOnce upon a timethere was a girl named Little Red Riding Hood helliprsquo

Emma Y la historia termina con un happy endinglsquoAnd the story ends with ahappy endingrsquo

And just as the oral narratives the written narratives incorporated lexical insertion ofculturally salient nouns such as wolf ardillita lsquosquirrelrsquo hunter mom abuelitalsquograndmotherrsquo grandma and mrsquohija lsquomy childrsquo the example in (17) demonstrates two suchlexical insertions in one sentence22

(17) Lexical insertion

Federico On the way to abuelarsquos house she runs into the lobo and he asks her where she is going After she tells him they both go on their way

lsquoOn the way tograndmotherrsquoshouse she runs into thewolfand he asks her where she is going After she tells him they both go on their wayrsquo

A longer view of the Spanish and English segments of discourse produced in thesewritten narratives reveals that the participants generally possess an advanced degree ofbilingual competence this ability was invoked in producing texts that incorporated intersententialand intrasentential codeswitching Interestingly the intersentential alternations attested inthe written narratives are significantly reduced when compared with those produced in theoral narratives intrasentential codeswitching prevailed in this task as evidenced in the exam-ples in (18) (Note again that the written texts are faithfully reproduced without editing)

(18) Codeswitching in written narratives

a Between coordinated clausal conjuncts

Yanira They both finish talking y el lobo camina en otra direccioacuten helliplsquoThey both finish talkingand the wolf walks in another direction helliprsquo

Yanira Le dispara and the wolf dieslsquoHe shootsand the wolf diesrsquo

Carmen Ella anda perdida so she asks him for directions helliplsquoShe is wandering lostso she asks him for directions helliprsquo

Carmen El lobo llega a la casa de la abuela and he hides her in the closet helliplsquoThe wolf arrives at the grandmotherrsquos houseand he hides in the closet helliprsquo

Belinda She was a very nice and sweet child y todos la querian mucho [sic]lsquoShe was a very nice and sweet childand everyone loved her very muchrsquo

Belinda She thanked him for this advice y se despidieronlsquoShe thanked him for this adviceand they took leaversquo

Emma hellip knew of a short cut y Caperucita se fue por ahi [sic]lsquo hellip knew of a short cut and Little Red Riding Hood went that wayrsquo

22 But unlike the oral narrative production task this third task produced no tag switches as expected given their typicalfunctions in oral discourse More notably unlike the previous condition the written narrative task gave rise to varioustypes of cross-linguistic transfers Examples such as la house of the grandmother modeled on lsquola casa de la abuelarsquoand hablar con estrangers modeled on lsquotalk to strangersrsquo demonstrate the influence of the structure of one languageon the other

424


A J Toribio

b Between coordinated phrasal conjuncts

Yanira hellip with flowers in one hand y una canasta en el otro brazolsquo hellip with flowers in one handand a basket in the other armrsquo

Yanira En eso llega la nintildea saludaacutendola but points to her big teeth helliplsquoAt that moment the girl arrives greeting herbut points to her big teeth helliprsquo

Yanira hellip so frightened pero alegre de estar reunida con su grandma otra vezlsquo hellip so frightenedbut happy to be reunited with her grandmother againrsquo

Federico She suspects something y le hace muchas preguntaslsquoShe suspects somethingand asks her lots of questionsrsquo

Federico Caperucita and her grandmother reunite y viven felices el resto de sus vidaslsquoLittle Red Riding Hood and her grandmother reuniteand they live happily the rest of their livesrsquo

Carlos Llego a la casa de la habuela and scared her off [sic]lsquoHe arrived at the grandmotherrsquos houseand scared her offrsquo

Carmen hellip he hides her in the closet y le quita su gorro y se mete en la cama helliplsquo hellip he hides her in the closetand takes off her cap and gets into the bed helliprsquo

Emma Caperucita lo encontro sospechoso and pointed out thathellip [sic]lsquoLittle Red Riding Hood finds him suspiciousand pointed out that helliprsquo

Sara El hombre lobo se le acerco a Caperucita and said where are you going mija [sic]

lsquoThe man wolf got nearer to Little Red Riding Hoodand said where are you going my childrsquo

Lorenzo Caperucita luego llegoacute and began to knocklsquoLittle Red Riding Hood later arrivedand began to knockrsquo

Lorenzo The wolf changed into the grandmotherrsquos clothes y se metio debajo de las cobijas [sic]

lsquoThe wolf changed into the grandmotherrsquos clothesand got under the coversrsquo

Lorenzo hellip el hombre levantoacute su rifle and fired it at the wolf helliplsquo hellip the man raised his rifleand fired it at the wolf helliprsquo

c Between subject and predicate

Federico The story empieza en que su mamaacute le hace un encargo helliplsquoThe storybegins with her mother making a request helliprsquo

Emma Un dia la mamaacute de Caperucita Roja asked Caperucita to take some food helliplsquoOne day Little Red Riding Hoodrsquos motherasked Little Red Riding Hood to take some food helliprsquo

Emma When the wolf she iba a comer a Caperucita the hunter came hellip [sic]lsquoWhen the wolfwas going to eat Little Red Riding Hoodthe hunter came helliprsquo

Sara hellip cada quien went on their own waylsquo hellip each onewent on their own wayrsquo

Lorenzo hellip noticed que su abuelita looked differentlsquo hellip noticed that her grandmother looked differentrsquo

425



Lorenzo Cuando Caperucita asked the last question helliplsquoWhen Little Red Riding Hoodasked the last question helliprsquo

d Between verb and subordinate clause

Emma Caperucita told him que iba a visitar a su grandmotherlsquoLittle Red Riding Hood told him that she was going to visit hergrandmotherrsquo

Emma El lobo le preguntoacute where did she live helliplsquoThe wolf asked herwhere did she live helliprsquo

Sara hellip after telling him donde vive la grandma cada quien went on their own waylsquohellip after telling him where the grandma lived each onewent on their own wayrsquo

Lorenzo She told LRRH que su abuelita ocupaba helliplsquoShe told LRRH that her grandmother needed helliprsquo


Lorenzo The man asked her porque estaba llorando [sic]lsquoThe man asked herwhy she was cryingrsquo


Yanira La madre de Caperucita le da a jar of honeylsquoLittle Red Riding Hoodrsquos mother gave hera jar of honeyrsquo

Federico In the title frame we see Caperucita Roja en el bosque helliplsquoIn the little frame we seeLittle Red Riding Hood in the forest helliprsquo

Guadalupe hellip pidioacute que ella lleva some food to her gradmother [sic] helliplsquo hellip asked to takesome food to her grandmother helliprsquo

Carmen hellip siempre traiacutea a red cloth over her headlsquo hellip always worea red cloth over her headrsquo

Carmen hellip su abuelita que estaba sicklsquo hellip her grandmother who wassickrsquo

Emma The wolf asked Caperucita a donde iva [sic]lsquoThe wolf asked Little Red Riding Hood where she was goingrsquo

Sara hellip para que le llevara food to her grandmotherlsquo hellip to take food to her grandmotherrsquo

Lorenzo hellip que su abuelita ocupaba some medicine for some sicknesslsquo hellip that her grandmother neededsome medicine for some sicknessrsquo

Lorenzo Caperucita went to her grandmotherrsquos house a llevarle medicinalsquoLittle Red Riding Hood went to her grandmotherrsquos houseto take her medicinersquo

f Between preposition and objects

Yanira El lobo platica con Little Red Riding Hood for a whilelsquoThe wolf chatted withLittle Red RidingHood for a whilersquo

Federico hellip goes to la casa de la abuelita helliplsquo hellip goes to the grandmotherrsquos house helliprsquo

426


A J Toribio

Carlos hellip and sent her to take honey to su abuelalsquo hellip and sent her to take honey toher grandmotherrsquo

Sara hellip recuerda no hables con strangers along the way helliplsquo hellip remember donrsquot talk withstrangers along the way helliprsquo

g Between noun and relative clause

Lorenzo hellip there was a little girl que se llamaba Caperucita Rojalsquo hellip there was a little girl who was named Little Red RidingHoodrsquo

h For phrasal modifiers

Carmen hellip directions para llegar a la casa de su abuelalsquo hellip directionsto get to her grandmotherrsquos housersquo

Emma Esta es la historia of the ldquoLittle Red Riding HoodrdquolsquoThis is the storyof the ldquoLittle Red Riding Hoodrdquorsquo

i For sentential modifiers

Yanira As Little Red Riding Hood is walking along the forest se encuentra con un lobolsquoAs Little Red Riding Hood is walking along the forestshe encounters a wolfrsquo

Guadalupehellip y llego when the wolf was chasing Little red riding Hood [sic]lsquo hellip and he arrivedwhen the wolf was chasing Little Red Riding Hoodrsquo

Carlos hellip to take this path por que era mas corto [sic]lsquo hellip to take this path because it was shorterrsquo

Carlos At the same time Caperucita encontro a su habuela [sic]lsquoAt the same timeLittle Red Riding Hood found her grandmotherrsquo

Carmen Her mom had given her some soup para que le llevara a su abuela helliplsquoHer mom had given her some soup to take to her grandmother helliprsquo

Carmen hellip se mete en la cama to pretend that he is the grandmother helliplsquo hellip he gets into the bed to pretend that he is the grandmother helliprsquo

Belinda hellip en el camino she met this lobo feroz that asked where she was goinglsquo hellip on the pathshe met thisfierce wolfthat asked where she was goingrsquo

Belinda hellip so that you get to her house sooner vete por este camino helliplsquo hellip so that you get to her house soonertake this path helliprsquo

Emma hellip to her grandmotherrsquos house porque su abuelita estaba enfermalsquo hellip to her grandmotherrsquos house because her grandmother was sickrsquo

Lorenzo Once upon a time en un lugar lejano there was a little girl helliplsquoOnce upon a time in a place far way there was a little girl helliprsquo

Lorenzo On the way to the house se topo con un lobo feo [sic]lsquoOn the way to the houseshe ran into an ugly wolfrsquo

Lorenzo hellip headed to the grandmotherrsquos house corriendo lo maacutes pronto posible helliplsquo hellip headed to the grandmotherrsquos houserunning the fastest possible helliprsquo

Thus the written mode did not constrain but encourage switching at a diversity ofsyntactic junctures Still though the number and variety of switch sites increased the written

427



narratives were similar to the oral narratives in revealing a preference for switching at majorsyntactic boundaries

44Analysis and synthesis of the results

The findings for the reading recounting and writing components are robust across subjectsand tasks By their reading performance as by their introspection on the differential code-switching in the two model texts the participants demonstrated a sensitivity to grammaticalcoherence in codeswitching patterns While the language alternations in ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquowere thought to be systematic and more correct the switches in ldquoSnow White and the SevenDwarfsrdquo were rejected as affected and forced Several participants involuntarily self-correctedthe ill-formed switches in their readings of this fairy tale and others proposed explicit editingrecommendations for improving on the ill-formed combinations in the text Since the partici-pants would later demonstrate their ability at alternating easily and effortlessly betweenlanguages the repeated performance ldquoerrorsrdquo that they evidenced in reading particularSpanish-English combinations could be argued to have their origin in grammatical violations23

And the participant Federico who was unable to produce an oral codeswitched narrative wasnevertheless successful in identifying and articulating the differences between the texts inthe reading task These findings are telling of the unconscious knowledge that licensespermissible switches and disallows unacceptable alternations in bilingual speech

The controlled reading task was complemented by two more ldquonaturalrdquo activities inwhich participants were required to recount fairy tales in oral and written codeswitching Theproductions in both conditions converged in reflecting a strict compliance to codeswitchingnorms The oral narratives incorporated intersentential alternations and intrasentential code-switching at major phrasal boundaries in addition to the lexical insertions and formulaicexpressions frequent in bilingual (and monolingual) speech Significantly language switchesthat would violate phrasal coherence were circumvented or repaired such that there were notrue violations of codeswitching norms attested The preponderance of language alterna-tions at sentence boundaries may be explained by the conditionmdash a lone speaker directingspeech into a microphone in an individual carrel mdash which precludes the casual interchangein which intrasentential codeswitching is favored24 The participants were able to more fullydraw on their bilingual resources in the writing task The quantity and types of intrasententialcodeswitching were significantly increased in the writing activity In fact a careful consid-eration of the codeswitching produced in this condition especially in view of the reducedcodeswitching modeled for them in the ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo fairy tale attest to the partici-pantsrsquo skillful interpolation of Spanish and English The abundance of intrasententialcodeswitching was likely fostered by the specifics of the task the visual aids and lack of timeconstraints for formulating the story were certain to reduce anxiety However the task engen-dered reflection and self-correction and as a consequence codeswitching well-formedness

23 Consult Poulisse (1999) for informative discussion of recent developments in research on slips of the tongue brieflynoted in Section 42

24 This speaks directly to the need for complementing ldquonaturalrdquo elicitation techniques with grammaticality judgmentsVia elicitation of judgments we can examine sentence types that might not be produced in spontaneous or controlledspeech situations

428


A J Toribio

was maintained These differential and at once convergent findings speak to the need for multiplemeasures in the study of codeswitching and to the reliability of the measures and the datareported herein

5Significance of the findings

Having established the reliability of the elicited data we now turn to determine how thesefindings can be accommodated within generative syntactic theory and end by presenting direc-tions for further research in bilingual language processing

51The formalization of the attested coherence and co-occurrence constraints

As noted in Section 1 recent studies have explored codeswitching within syntactic-theoret-ical frameworks (Chomsky 1981 1986 1993 1995) These investigations have sought anexplanatory adequacy that was lacking in earlier more descriptive formulations by exploitinguniversal principles and relations that are hypothesized to characterize monolingual compe-tence (cf Muysken 1995) This line of inquiry into language contact was initiated byWoolford (1983) According to Woolford though the lexicons of the two component gram-mars of the bilingual remain separate thereby precluding word-internal switching (19a) incodeswitched speech each grammar contributes part of the sentences that is both lexiconshave access to terminal nodes in syntactic constructions that are common to both languages(19b ndash d) In contrast whenever a phrase structure rule unique to one language is used toexpand a node the terminal positions must be filled from the lexicon of that languagepredicting the ill-formedness of examples such as those in (20) where the phrase structuresof English and Spanish differ25

(19) a I am readiendo(Yo) estoy leyinglsquoI am read ingrsquo

b I put the forks en las mesas (McClure 1977 cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoI put the forks on the tablesrsquo

c Todos los mexicanos were riled up (Pfaff 1979 cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoAll of the Mexicanswere riled uprsquo

25 Woolfordrsquos model represents an early generative reformulation of two constraints previously proposed in the litera-ture Poplackrsquos (1980) ldquoFree Morpheme Constraintrdquo and ldquoEquivalence Constraintrdquo The Free Morpheme Constraint accountsfor the nonoccurrence of word-internal switching and the Equivalence Constraint predicts that codeswitching will bepermitted where the grammars of Spanish and English coincide but not where they diverge Lipski (1978) and Pfaff(1979) likewise conclude that surface structures common to both languages are favored sites for switching

(i) Free Morpheme Constraint

A switch may occur at any point of the discourse at which it is possible to make a surface constituent cut and stillretain a free morpheme

(ii) Equivalence Constraint

Codes will tend to be switched at points where the surface structures of the languages map onto each other

429



d El hombre who saw the accident es cubano (Gingragraves 1974 cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoThe manwho saw the accident is Cubanrsquo

(20) a El man viejo estaacute enojado (Gingragraves 1974 cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoThe oldman is angryrsquo

b El hombre old estaacute enojado (Gingragraves 1974 cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoThe oldman is angryrsquo

c Yo lo bought (Quintero cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoI boughtitrsquo

d Yo it compreacute (Quintero cited in Woolford 1983)lsquoI bought itrsquo

While Woolfordrsquos model goes a long way towards accounting for codeswitching dataelicited in our study mdash no participant produced forms of the type represented in (19a) or(20)mdash a closer examination reveals that it is insufficiently restrictive allowing the grammarto overgenerate For example as has been observed in the research literature (and corrobo-rated in their omission in the texts reproduced here) switching is disallowed between auxiliariesand main verbs although the grammars of English and Spanish share the same phrase struc-ture rules in the switched components Still such counterexamples notwithstanding werecognize the importance of Woolfordrsquos contribution in introducing codeswitching data intolinguistic theorizing (cf also Woolford 1984)

Also working within the generative model Di Sciullo et al (1986) posit that code-switching is restricted by the Government Constraint drawing on this X-bar-theoreticalhierarchical relation in disallowing codeswitching between particular elements in bilingualspeech (cf also DrsquoIntrono 1996)26 On this structural account elements that stand in agovernment relation (the governor and governee) must share the same language index thatis the government relation entails language coindexationFor example the constraint predictsthat verbs and prepositions and their complements will be in the same language But thisprediction is contrary to what is in evidence in Spanish-English codeswitching our partici-pants accepted such switches in the reading task (21 drawn from 5) and they produced suchswitches in the oral storytelling (22 drawn from 12) and written storytelling tasks (23 drawnfrom 18)27

26 The Government Constraint as stated in DiSciullo et al (1986)

a If Lq carrier has index q then Ymaxq

b In a maximal projection Ymax the Lq carrier is the lexical element which asymmetrically c-commands the other lexical elements or terminal phrase nodes dominated by Ymaxq

27 It merits pointing out that the systematic production of switching between prepositions and their complements inparticipantsrsquo writing samples confronts Joshirsquos (1985) Constraint on Closed Items with a formidable empirical chal-lenge this in addition to the theoretical argument leveled by Belazi et al (1994) who suggest that the openclosed-classdistinction an extragrammatical notion should not impinge on the process of codeswitching which is governed byproperly grammatical principles

430


A J Toribio

(21) a Al cumplir ella los veinte antildeos el rey invitoacute many neighboring princes to a partylsquoOn her 20th birthday the king invitedmany neighboring princes to a partyrsquo


(22) a Blancanieves despertoacute y los enanitos estaban very happylsquoSnow White awoke and the darfs werevery happyrsquo

b She wanted to see la belleza que teniacutea helliplsquoShe wanted to see the beauty that it had helliprsquo

(23) a La madre de Caperucita le da a jar of honeylsquoLittle Red Riding Hoodrsquos mother gave hera jar of honeyrsquo

b hellip siempre traiacutea a red cloth over her headlsquo hellip always worea red cloth over her headrsquo

c hellip para que le llevara food to her grandmotherlsquo hellip to takefood to her grandmotherrsquo

d hellip que su abuelita ocupaba some medicine for some sicknesslsquo hellip that her grandmother neededsome medicine for some sicknessrsquo

e El lobo platica con Little Red Riding Hood for a whilelsquoThe wolf chatted withLittle Red RidingHood for a whilersquo

f hellipgoes to la casa de la abuelita helliplsquo hellip goes to the grandmotherrsquos house helliprsquo

g hellip and sent her to take honey to su abuelalsquohellip and sent her to make to take honey to hergrandmotherrsquo

Therefore while Di Sciullo et al may be correct in proposing that codeswitching is constrainedby general principles that hold true of all natural languages the formulation of this config-urational constraint in terms of government is incorrect as it proves overly restrictive rulingout permissible switches

Continuing in this generativist vein in their investigation of codeswitching Belazi etal (1994) argue that the coherence and co-occurrence restrictions attested in Spanish-Englishcodeswitching may be captured by reference to the Functional Head Constraint28 In briefthe proposal holds that a functional element and its complement will be drawn from the samesubclass of lexical items precluding switching between functional elementsmdash such as modalsauxiliaries negation determiners and subordinating and coordinating conjunctionsmdash andtheir complements29 In the words of one informant ldquoAlgunas palabras dependen una de la

28 This constraint grounded in the system of categories of Chomsky (1986) and the relations proposed in Abney (1987)dictates that the semantic and syntactic features of a functional element must match the corresponding features of itscomplement the Functional Head Constraint merely extends the scope of f-selection to include language indexingThus like all other relevant features (eg finiteness and mood in subordinate clauses and number and gender inNoun Phrases) the [language] feature of a complement f-selected by a functional element must match the corre-sponding [language] feature of that functional head

29 The validity of the constraint has been supported with elicited imitation (Toribio et al 1993) and grammaticality judg-ment tasks (Toribio 2000b)

431



otra y si estaacuten divididas suena malrdquo lsquoSome words depend on each other and if they aredivided it sounds badrsquo (Toribio 2000b) Indeed the predictions of the Functional HeadConstraint are strongly supported by the findings here All of the bilingual participantsdemonstrated a distinct pattern of responses to the text in which the same language wasmaintained across a functional element and its complement versus the text in which this rela-tionship was compromised by a language switch Recall that ldquoThe Beggar Princerdquo incorporatedswitches at major category boundaries and between lexical elements and their complements(eg between subject and predicate between verb and object between noun and subordi-nate clause etc) whereas ldquoSnow White and the Seven Dwarfsrdquo included switches that arein violation of the constraint (eg between auxiliary and main verb between object pronounand main or auxiliary verb etc) The findings are strengthened by participantsrsquointrospectionon their judgments which reveal a sensitivity to the dependency relation of f-selectionFurthermore the distinction between functional and lexical categories which is implicatedin our bilingual participantsrsquo reading performance is also centrally implicated in theircodeswitched narrative productions30 As amply illustrated in the storytelling task speakersfailed to incorporate into their oral narratives codeswitching that would result in a violationof the relation of f-selection31 Thus for example there were attested no productions ofswitching between auxiliary and main verb and in those few instances in which their produc-tions led to utterances that would have violated the Functional Head Constraint various typesof disfluency for example lengthy pauses and self-repairs served to circumvent the poten-tially offending switch In contrast switching in those contexts predicted to bepermissiblemdash between lexical elements (eg nouns verbs prepositions) and their comple-ments between subject and predicate between adjunct modifiers and phrases modifiedmdash wassmooth in oral performance and commonplace in the written samples (consider the numerousand diverse examples of intrasentential codeswitching presented in (12) and (18) above)32

Therefore though not its principle aim these findings can be interpreted as presentingforceful evidence of the extent to which the grammatical co-occurrence restrictions attestedin Spanish-English codeswitching adhere to the Functional Head Constraint33

30 As elaborated by Belazi et al 1994 the Functional Head Constraint is held to underlie linguistic competence it is auniversal principle that is operative in monolingual and bilingual modes alike though it finds additional more visibleevidence in codeswitching

31 One reviewer points out that determiner-noun pairings could be analyzed as counterexamples to the Functional HeadConstraint As nouns are the most frequently borrowed category of words it proves difficult to determine whether suchpairings are representative of insertional or alternational codeswitching but consult Wentz and McClure (1976) andZentella (1981 1997) who suggest that such alternations are ungrammatical as codeswitches

32 There were however two ill-formed switches produced switching between an indirect object clitic pronoun and a complexverb (i) and switching after a coordinating conjunction (ii) This number of counterexamples is remarkable given theabundance of code-alternations attested in the study

(i) Una ardilla que lo escucho le fue a tell a hunter and he went to look for the wolf [sic]

A squirrel that heard him INDOBJCL went to tell hellip

(ii) El hombre lobo beat Caperucita to abuelitarsquos house and la asusto [sic]

The wolf manbeat Little Red Riding Hood tograndmotherrsquoshouse andscared her33 For corroborating findings form second language bilingual codeswitching consult Toribio (2000b)

432


A J Toribio

52Directions for further research

The findings of the present study also have implications for research in the cognate disciplineof psycholinguistics For instance the findings could serve to elucidate issues surroundingbilingual speech processing (cf De Bot 1992 De Bot amp Schreuder 1993 Green 1986Levelt 1989 Poulisse 1999 Poulisse amp Bongaerts 1994) In particular the attested co-occurrence requirements support recent models which take account of the facts of bilingualcodeswitching by reference to language indexation for example the models advanced byresearchers such as Poulisse and Bongaerts (1994) who argue that words must contain infor-mation that specifies the language to which they belong (cf Green 1986) and even modelssuch as that proposed by De Bot (1992) in which the language-independent lexicon allowsfor words of one language to form a subset (Paradis 1987) that can be separately activated(cf De Bot amp Schreuder 1993) (Note that such models are consistent with the syntactic-theoretical constructs previously discussed the Government Constraint and the FunctionalHead Constraint make reference to the labeling of lexical subclasses34 )

One specific line of research that follows more directly from our findings relates to slipsof the tongue as analyzed in Poulisse (1999) Basing her work on the well-founded assump-tion that such ldquoerrorsrdquo in native and second language speech are motivated by performancevariables (ie rather than problems with competence) Poulisse reasons that speakers shouldbe able to repair them This is observed in our elicitation tasks the ungrammatical codeswitchingsequences that gave rise to self-corrections demonstrated in the controlled reading task werenot evidenced in the oral narrative productions (and the ill-formed combinations elicited inthe reading task were not reproduced in the oral narrative or written narrative conditions)These data may additionally be understood as corroborating Poulissersquos assertion that someelements (eg function words and their complements) are commonly used and then storedin combination and retrieved as units However it merits pointing out that while such unitsmay be ldquoless prone to errorrdquo their inviolability cannot be accredited solely to practice andfrequency as Poulisse suggests Recall that even those bilinguals who do not normally engagein codeswitching as a social practice are nevertheless able to offer judgments on the well-formedness of specific combinations (cf Toribio 2000b)35 To be sure much insight intolanguage processing is to be gained from further experimental investigation of codeswitchedspeech production

34 As argued in Toribio (2000b) these considerations allow for a reformulation of the Functional Head Constraint as makingreference to the labeling of lexical subclasses a functional element and its complement will be activated from the samesubclass of lexical items This informal restatement may be further articulated in terms of abstract feature matchingbetween functional structure and the lexical items that raise into them (cf MacSwan 1997 Rubin amp Toribio 1995Toribio amp Rubin 1996) and may alternatively be understood in view of Grimshawrsquos (1991) notion of extended projec-tions mdashIP is an extended projection of VERB DP is an extended projection of NOUN etc mdash as consistent withMinimalist assumptions (Chomsky 1993 1995) Taking the ldquobottom-uprdquo Minimalist perspective a lexical categorycreates the ldquolanguage domainrdquo for the projection Still irrespective of the specific analysis advocated for regulatingintrasentential codeswitching it should be clear that differences between languages reduce to lexical properties andthus the patterns attested in bilingual productions must derive from the interaction between the two component lexi-cons (cf MacSwan 1997 Muysken 1995)

35 This disparity could well be due to differences in the populations under study Poulissersquos interest is in the languageproductions of foreign language learners (as compared with native speakers) while the present study concerns the linguisticbehavior of more fluent bilinguals

433



53Conclusion

To conclude the present work has established several methodologies that are valid and infor-mative in the study of the linguistic competence that underlies language alternations inSpanish-English bilingual speech The reliability of the reading recounting and writingtasks is affirmed as revealed by the uniform behaviors of the bilingual participants testedin addition the reliability of the data is confirmed by the recurrent patterns observed acrosstasks Finally the data were subjected to preliminary analysis confronting and advancingsyntactic theoretical proposals and pointing to directions for further research into bilinguallanguage processing

Received February 2000 revised October 2000 accepted January 2001

ReferencesABNEY S (1987) The English noun phrase in its sentential aspect Doctoral dissertation Massachusetts

Institute of Technology Cambridge MA

AGUIRRE A Jr (1977) Acceptability judgment of grammatical and ungrammatical forms of intra-sentential code alternation Doctoral dissertation Stanford University Stanford CA

AUER P (1998) Codeswitching in conversation New York Routledge

BELAZI H RUBIN E amp TORIBIO A J (1994) Codeswitching and X-Bar Theory The FunctionalHead Constraint Linguistic Inquiry 25 221ndash 237

BHATIA T amp RITCHIE W (1996) Bilingual language mixing universal grammar and secondlanguage acquisition In W Ritchie amp T Bhatia (Eds) The handbook of second language acqui-sition (pp627ndash 688) New York Academic Press

BIRDSONG D (1989) Metalinguistic performance and interlinguistic competence New York SpringerVerlag

CHOMSKY N (1981) Lectures on government and binding Dordrecht Foris

CHOMSKY N (1986) Barriers Cambridge MA MIT Press

CHOMSKY N (1991) Some notes on economy of derivation and representation In R Friedin (Ed)Principles and parameters in comparative grammar (pp417ndash 454) Cambridge MA MIT Press

CHOMSKY N (1993) A Minimalist Program for linguistic theory In K Hale amp S J Keyser (Eds)The view from building 20 (pp1 ndash 52) Cambridge MA MIT Press

CHOMSKY N (1995) The Minimalist Program Cambridge MA MIT Press

De BOT K (1992) A bilingual production model Leveltrsquos speaking model adapted Applied Linguistics12 1ndash 24

De BOT K amp SCHREUDER R (1993) Word production and the bilingual lexicon In R Schreuderamp B Weltens (Eds) The bilingual lexicon (pp191ndash 214) Amsterdam John Benjamins

DrsquoINTRONO F (1996) Spanish-English codeswitching conditions on movement In J Jensen amp ARoca (Eds) Spanish in contact (pp187ndash 201) Somerville MA Cascadilla Press

Di SCIULLO A-M MUYSKEN P amp SINGH R (1986) Government and codemixing Journal ofLinguistics 22 1ndash 24

434


A J Toribio

GINGRAgraveS R (1974) Problems in the description of SpanishEnglish intrasentential codeswitchingIn G Bills (Ed) Southwest areal linguistics(pp167ndash174) San Diego CA University of CaliforniaInstitute for Cultural Pluralism

GREEN D (1986) Control activation and resource A framework and a model for the control of speechin bilinguals Brain and Language 27 210ndash 233

GRIMSHAW J (1991) Extended projectionsUnpublished manuscript Brandeis University

GROSJEAN F (1998) Studying bilinguals Methodological and conceptual issues BilingualismLanguage and Cognition 11 131ndash 149

GUMPERZ J (1971) Language in social groups Stanford CA Stanford University Press

GUMPERZ J (1976) The sociolinguistic significance of conversational codeswitchingWorking papersof the language behavior research laboratory46 Berkeley CA University of California

GUMPERZ J (1982) Discourse strategies Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

GUMPERZ J amp TORIBIO A J (1999) Codeswitching In F Keil amp R Wilson (Eds) The MIT ency-clopedia of the cognitive sciences (pp118ndash119) Cambridge MA MIT Press

JACOBSON R (1977) The social implications of intrasentential codeswitching The New Scholar6 227ndash256

JACOBSON R (1990) Codeswitching as a worldwide phenomenon New York Peter Lang

JAKOBSON R FANT G M amp HALLEacute M (1952) Preliminaries to speech analysis The distinctivefeatures and their correlates Cambridge MA The MIT Press

JOSHI A (1985) Processing of sentences with intrasentential codeswitching In D Dowty L Karttunenamp A Zwicky (Eds) Natural language parsing Psychological computational and theoreticalperspectives(pp290ndash 205) Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

KELLER G (1979) The literary stratagems available to the bilingual Chicano writer In F Jimeacutenez (Ed)The identification and analysis of Chicano literature(pp262ndash316) Ypsilanti MI Bilingual Press

LANCE D (1975) SpanishEnglish codeswitching In E Hernaacutendez-Chaacutevez A Cohen amp A Beltramo(Eds) El lenguaje de los Chicanos (pp138ndash 153) Arlington VA Center for Applied Linguistics

LEVELT W (1989) Speaking From intention to articulation Cambridge MA MIT Press

LIPSKI J (1978) Codeswitching and the problem of bilingual competence In M Paradis (Ed) Aspectsof bilingualism (pp250ndash264) Columbia SC Hornbeam Press

LIPSKI J (1985) Linguistic aspects of Spanish-English language switching Tempe AZ Arizona StateUniversity Center for Latin American Studies

MacSWAN J (1997) A Minimalist approach to intrasentential codeswitchingSpanish-Nahuatl bilingualismin Central Mexico Doctoral dissertation University of California Los Angeles

MAHOOTIAN S amp SANTORINI B (1996) Codeswitching and the complementadjunct distinc-tion Linguistic Inquiry 27 464ndash 479

McCLURE E (1977) Aspects of codeswitching in discourse of bilingual Mexican-American childrenIn M Saville-Troike (Ed) Linguistics and anthropology(pp93ndash115) Washington DC GeorgetownUniversity Press

McCLURE E (1981) Formal and functional aspects of the codeswitched discourse of bilingual chil-dren In R Duran (Ed) Latino language and communicative behavior(pp69 ndash94) Norwood NJAblex Publishing

MEISEL J (1989) Early differentiation of languages in bilingual children In K Hyltenstam amp LObler (Eds) Bilingualism across the lifespan Aspects of acquisition maturity and loss (pp13ndash40)Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

MEISEL J (1994) Codeswitching in young bilingual childrenThe acquisition of grammatical constraintsStudies in Second Language Acquisition 16 413ndash 439

435



MILROY L amp MUYSKEN P (1995) One speaker two languages Cambridge UK CambridgeUniversity Press

MONTES-ALCALAacute C (2000) Two languages one pen Sociopragmatic functions in written Spanish-English codeswitching Doctoral dissertation University of California Santa Barbara

MUYSKEN P (1995) Codeswitching and grammatical theory In L Milroy amp P Muysken (Eds) Onespeaker two languages (pp177ndash 198) Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

MYERS-SCOTTON C (1993) Social motivations of codeswitching Oxford Clarendon Press

NISHIMURA M (1997) JapaneseEnglish code-switchingSyntax and pragmatics New York Peter Lang

PENtildeALOSA F (1980) Chicano sociolinguisticsRowley MA Newbury House

PARADIS M (1987) The assessment of bilingual aphasia Hillsdale NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

PFAFF C (1976) Functional and syntactic constraints on syntactic variation in code-mixing In SSteever C Walker amp S Mufwene (Eds) Papers from the parasession on diachronic syntax (pp248ndash 259) Chicago Linguistics Society

PFAFF C (1979) Constraints on language mixing Intrasentential codeswitching and borrowing inSpanishEnglish Language 55 291ndash 318

POPLACK S (1980) Sometimes Irsquoll start a sentence in English Y TERMINO EN ESPANtildeOL Toward atypology of codeswitching In J Amastae amp L Eliacuteas-Olivares (Eds) Spanish in the United StatesSociolinguistic aspects (pp230ndash 263) Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

POPLACK S (1981) Syntactic structure and social function of codeswitching In R Duran (Ed)Latino language and communicative behavior (pp169ndash184) Norwood NJ Ablex Publishing

POPLACK S (1983) Bilingual competence Linguistic interference or grammatical integrity In L Eliacuteas-Olivares (Ed) Spanish in the US setting Beyond the Southwest (pp107ndash129) Rosslyn VANational Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education

POULISSE N (1999) Slips of the tongue Speech errors in first and second language productionAmsterdam Benjamins

POULISSE N amp BONGAERTS T (1994) First language use in second language production AppliedLinguistics 15 36ndash 57

RAKOWSKY A (1989) A study of intrasentential codeswitching in Spanish-English bilinguals andsecond language learners Doctoral dissertation Brown University Providence Rhode Island

ROMAINE S (1995) Bilingualism Cambridge MA Blackwell

RUBIN E amp TORIBIO A J (1995) Feature checking and the syntax of language contact In J AmastaeG Goodall M Montalbetti amp M Phinney (Eds) Contemporary research in Romance linguistics(pp177ndash185) Amsterdam Benjamins

SCHUumlTZE C (1996) The empirical base of linguisticsGrammaticality judgments and linguistic method-ology Chicago Chicago University Press

TIMM L A (1975) Spanish-English codeswitching El porque and how-not-to Romance Philology28 473ndash 482

TORIBIO A J (2000a) Spanglish Bite your tongue Spanish-English codeswitching among US LatinosIn R Flores (Ed) Reflexiones 1999 (pp115ndash 147) Austin TX Center for Mexican AmericanStudies

TORIBIO A J (2000b) On the emergence of codeswitching competence Forthcoming in BilingualismLanguage and Cognition

TORIBIO A J (2000c) Constraints on operator movement in English-Spanish codeswitchingGenerativeperspectives from Government-Binding to Minimalism Under review for J MacSwan (Ed)Grammatical theory and bilingual codeswitching Cambridge MA MIT Press

436


A J Toribio

TORIBIO A J (2000d) Codeswitching and minority language attrition Forthcoming in R Leow andC Sanz (Eds) L1 and L2 acquisition of Spanish Washington DC Georgetown University Press

TORIBIO A J (2000e) Once upon a time en un lugar muy lejanohellip Spanish-English codeswitchingpatterns across narratives Forthcoming in A Roca (Ed) Spanish in the United States Linguisticissues and challenges Somerville MA Cascadilla Press

TORIBIO A J (2000f) Verb raising and verbal morphology in Spanish language attritionPaper presentedthe 25th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development Boston MA

TORIBIO A J amp RUBIN E (1996) Codeswitching in generative grammar In J Jensen amp A Roca(Eds) Spanish in contact (pp203ndash226) Somerville MA Cascadilla Press

TORIBIO A J ROEBUCK R LANTOLF J amp PERRONE A (1993) Syntactic constraints on code-switching Evidence of abstract knowledge in second language acquisitionUnpublished manuscriptCornell University

TORRES L (1997) Puerto Rican discourse A sociolinguistic study of a New York suburb Mahwah NJLawrence Erlbaum Associates

VALDEacuteS G (1976) Social interaction and codeswitching patterns In G D Keller R V Teschner ampS Viera (Eds) Bilingualism in the bicentennial and beyond (pp52ndash 85) Jamaica NY BilingualPress

WENTZ J amp McCLURE E (1976) Aspects of the syntax of the codeswitched discourse of bilingualchildren In F Ingemann (Ed) 1975 Mid-America Linguistics Conference papers (pp351ndash 370)Lawrence KS University of Kansas Washington DC Educational Resources Information Center

WHITE L (1996) Universal Grammar and second language acquisition Current trends and new direc-tions In W Ritchie amp T Bhatia (Eds) The handbook of second language acquisition(pp85ndash 120)New York Academic Press

WOOLFORD E (1983) Bilingual codeswitching and syntactic theory Linguistic Inquiry 14 520ndash536

WOOLFORD E (1984) On the application of wh-movement and inversion in codeswitching sentencesRevue Queacutebeacutecoise de Linguistique 14 77 ndash86

ZABALETA F (2000) Aspectos morfosintaacutecticos del espantildeol como lengua materna de universitarioscalifornianosSpanish-English codeswitching patterns across narratives Forthcoming in A Roca(Ed) Spanish in the United States Linguistic issues and challenge Somerville MA CascadillaPress

ZENTELLA A C (1981) Hablamos los dos We speak both Growing up bilingual in el barrio Doctoraldissertation University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia

ZENTELLA A C (1997) Growing up bilingual Malden MA Blackwell Publishers

404


A J Toribio

2Preliminary overview

As a convenient point of departure the discussion commences with a cursory overview ofthe language contact phenomenon of interest and subsequently turns to survey the method-ologies that subserve recent investigations into codeswitching In so doing the ensuingparagraphs make explicit the rationale and methodology for the investigation that is thekernel of the work

21Codeswitching as rule-governed bilingual behavior

Codeswitching refers to the ability on the part of bilinguals to alternate between their linguisticcodes in the same conversational event1 With respect to its linguistic form codeswitchingin intraturn utterances may be intersentential or intrasentential as exemplified in the Spanish-English sentences in (1a-b) respectively (For ease of exposition the Spanish-language formsin codeswitched examples are rendered in italics Slashes indicate language switches in thetranslations)

(1)a Eacuterase una vez una linda princesita blanca como la nieve Her stepmother the queenhad a magic mirror on the wall

lsquoOnce upon a time there was a beautiful princess as white as the snowHer stepmotherthe queen had a magic mirror on the wallrsquo

b Por la noche los siete enanitos found her on the ground seemingly deadlsquoAt night the seven dwards found her on the ground seemingly deadrsquo

The status of intrasentential codeswitching had been much disputed in the early liter-ature Some linguists viewed it as indicative of imperfect language acquisition extremecross-linguistic interference or language erosion (but cf Toribio 2000d 2000f) and numerousothers despaired of finding any constraints on what Lance (1975) called a ldquowilly-nillyrdquocombination of language forms However subsequent studies have revealed that code-switching is rule-governed and systematic (cf Aguirre 1977 Gingragraves 1974 Pfaff 1979Timm 1975) demonstrating grammatical regularities that reflect the operation of under-lying syntactic restrictions (cf Lipski 1985 McClure 1981 Poplack 1980 Zentella 1981)For example Spanish-English bilingual speakers will agree that the sentences in (2) repre-sent possible codeswitches whereas those in (3) do not although they may be unable toarticulate exactly what accounts for this differential judgment2

(2)a Al cumplir ella los veinte antildeos el rey invitoacute many neighboring princes to a partylsquoOn her 20th birthday the king invitedmany neighboring princes to a partyrsquo

1 The term ldquocodeswitchingrdquo was first employed to refer to the coexistence of more than one structural system in thespeech of one individual by Jakobson Fant and Halleacute (1952) who use ldquocoderdquo in the abstract information theoreticalsense In later writings ldquocoderdquo has come to be synonymous with ldquolanguagerdquo or ldquospeech varietyrdquo For a brief overviewof codeswitching consult Gumperz and Toribio (1999) see also the highly instructive chapters in Romaine (1995) andthe edited anthologies of Jacobson (1990) Milroy and Muysken (1995) and Auer (1998) for in-depth cross-discipli-nary studies

2 In the notation common to generative linguistic research an asterisk designates an infelicitous sentence

405

















406


A J Toribio





407









408


A J Toribio


(4) Tasks

a Reading Task


b Recounting Task


c Writing Task




409




4Results


41Reading task






410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















405

















406


A J Toribio





407









408


A J Toribio


(4) Tasks

a Reading Task


b Recounting Task


c Writing Task




409




4Results


41Reading task






410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















406


A J Toribio





407









408


A J Toribio


(4) Tasks

a Reading Task


b Recounting Task


c Writing Task




409




4Results


41Reading task






410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















407









408


A J Toribio


(4) Tasks

a Reading Task


b Recounting Task


c Writing Task




409




4Results


41Reading task






410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















408


A J Toribio


(4) Tasks

a Reading Task


b Recounting Task


c Writing Task




409




4Results


41Reading task






410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















409




4Results


41Reading task






410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















410


A J Toribio








411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















411















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















412


A J Toribio














413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















413



















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















414


A J Toribio









42Recounting task





415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















415







416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















416


A J Toribio






















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















417




b tag-switches

















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















418


A J Toribio























419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















419





a Disfluency






b Repair








420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















420


A J Toribio








421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















421



43Writing task






422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















422


A J Toribio

















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















423




















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















424


A J Toribio






















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















425
























426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















426


A J Toribio






















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















427










428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















428


A J Toribio














429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















429














430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















430


A J Toribio
















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















431












432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















432


A J Toribio






433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















433



53Conclusion



















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















434


A J Toribio
























435

























436


A J Toribio















Date post:	09-Feb-2022
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	4 times
Download:	0 times

Bladder Management - Jewish Hospital & St. Mary's HealthCare

Documents