Body System Binder

8/9/2019 Body System Binder

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Integumentary System

The integumentary system serves to protect the body from the outside world. It regulatesbody temperature, protects against disease, and retains and disposes of bodily fluids. The skin is

composed of the epidermal, dermal, andsubcutaneous layers. Hair and nails are also parts of the

integumentary system.The epidermis, outer layer of skin, is composed ofepithelialcells, most dead. These cells

are constantly subject to scraping and wearing away, and are constantly replenished by cells

from the lower layers. The protein of these cells is called keratin, and it is that protein that isresponsible for the texture of skin. The color of human skin is determined by the presence of

melanin in the lower layers of the epidermis. Levels of melanin, which absorbs UV radiation, is

determined by heredity and the amount of exposure to UV rays. The dermis, the inner layer of

skin, is composed of living cells, as well as sensory neurons, which sense things such as

temperature and pressure; blood vessels, which nourish living epithelial cells and regulatetemperature; muscle fibers; hair follicles; and glands, which produce sweat and oil. Thesubcutaneous layer is composed of fat cells that act as insulators and energy reserves. Nails andhair are also composed of keratin; nails protect the ends of fingers and toes and hair protects and

insulates the body. The color of hair is also decided by the presence of melanin.


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Integumentary System

Disease: PsoriasisPsoriasis is a relatively common chronic, non-contagious skin disorder in which skin

cells multiply up to ten times as fast as usual. This causes there to be a higher volume of dead

cells on the surface, which then builds up as red plaque, with white scale. It typically occurs with

on knees, elbows, and scalp, as well as the torso, palms, and soles of feet. The lesions can beitchy and crack and bleed. The condition is difficult to treat, and has cycles of flare-ups and

remissions over time. There is no cure.


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Skeletal System

The skeletal system is made up of 206 bones. Each bone has a unique shape and size,specialized to their function in the body. Bones provide a framework against which the muscles

can pull, give structure to the body, and protect internal organs. Bones also store minerals

valuable in the metabolic process, and produce red blood cells in the marrow.Bones make up less than twenty percent of our body mass. They are covered by a tough

membrane calledperiosteum, a network of blood vessels and nerves. Compactbone lies

underneath, supporting the bone under stress; it is composed ofHaversiancanals, cylinders ofmineral crystals and protein fibers wrapped in osteocytes (living bone cells).Bone marrow is the

interior layer of bone, which is either red or yellow. If red, it produces red blood cells and some

white blood cells. Yellow marrow is mostly fat, an energy reserve.

Bones develop from cartilage, a tough flexible connective tissue. The skeleton is entirely

cartilage until the third month of fetal development, at which point osteocytes form, releasingminerals that turn the cartilage to bone, a process known as ossification. Almost all fetal cartilage

is replaced by bone, with the exception of the nose, outer ear, and in between bones.Cartilage is present at joints, where the bones come together. Connective tissues called

ligaments are also present, holding the bones in place. Ligaments are elastic; they stretch under

pressure and allow mobility of a joint. Tendons, on the other hand, are not elastic. Tendons holdbones to muscles, and are made of collagen, like ligaments. Also present at joints under

tremendous stress, such as the knee, issynovial fluid, which protects bone from damage by

friction.The human skeleton is composed of two parts, the axialand appendicularskeletons. The

axial skeleton is composed of the bones of the skull, ribs, spine, and sternum. It consists of 80

bones. The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the arms and legs, the scapula,clavicle, and pelvis. The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones.


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Skeletal System Disease:

BursitisBursitis is the inflammation of a synovial fluid sack, bursae, in the body. When bursitis

occurs, movement in the inflamed region is very painful. Making the disease worse is thefact that the movement of tendons and muscles over the inflamed bursae worsen the problem

by creating a cycle. Bursitis is usually caused by repetitive movements and excessive

pressure. It can lead to other inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Traumatic

injury is another cause of bursitis. It is treated with rest, ice, anti-inflammatory drugs, andpain medication in non-infected cases. Surgery is used for removal in extreme cases, and

bursae will grow back in a few weeks without the inflamed growth.


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Muscle System

Muscles make up one-third of our body weight. They make the body move, andtherefore push food and blood through the body. Without muscles, the body could not function.

There are three types of muscle tissue.

A musclefiberis a single, multinucleated cell. Muscle fibers consist of threadlikestructures called myofibrils; myofibrils are made of protein filaments myosin and actin, which

overlap to form the striations seen in muscle tissue. These filaments are anchored at theZline;

from one Z line to the next is called asarcomere. Sarcomeres are units of contraction; filamentsshorten the length of the sarcomere through the attachment of myosin heads to points of actin

filaments; this contraction in all sarcomeres in a muscle causes coordinated contraction. The

force of the contraction is controlled by the number of fibers stimulated.Skeletal muscle controls mobile parts of the body, and this tissue is composed of muscle

fibers. Dense groups of skeletal muscle fibers are calledfascicles. Fascicles bound byconnective tissue form skeletal muscles, for which movement is voluntary. Smooth muscles wall

the stomach, intestines, and other internal organs. These cells are spindle-shaped, singlenucleates that form sheets of tissue without striations, and connective tissue does not form

tendons in these muscles. These muscles contract involuntarily. Cardiac muscles wall the heart;

this muscle is striated, yet each cell has one nucleus. Specialized muscle cells send electricsignals through muscle tissue, causing a rhythmic heartbeat.


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Muscle System Disease:

Muscular DystrophyMuscular dystrophy is a condition in which the voluntary (skeletal) muscles degenerate

with time. It is caused by an absence of dystrophin, a protein that helps keep muscle cells intact.

Other symptoms accompany the progressive weakening of muscle, among these: calf pain,

limited range of movement, loss of bladder control, and scoliosis. . Muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetically transmitted disease, so it usually affects boys It is presents itself around 2-6

years of age, and there is no cure. Survival rarely outstrips 30 years of age. Physical inactivity

worsens the disease, so physical therapy and orthopedic instruments, such as leg braces, are often

used to prolong life. Depending on the type of the disorder, life can last through middle age with

only mild disability, or death can occur even in infancy.


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Circulatory System

The circulatory system serves to transport cells through the body. This is done throughthe movement of two fluids, blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood vessels make up the

circulatory system.

The main organ of this system is the heart. This muscular organ is slightly larger than afist. It is positioned between the thoracic cavity and the sternum, and between the two lungs.

The pericardium, a tough saclike membrane, surrounds the heart. The septum divides the heart

into two sides, each with an upper chamber, an atrium, and a lower chamber, a ventricle. Theatriums and ventricles are separated by atrioventricular valves. On the right side, this valve is

called the tricuspid valve. On the left, it is the bicuspid, or mitral valve. When the blood leaves

the ventricles, it flows through semilunar valves. On the right this is the pulmonary valve; on the

left it is the aortic valve.

The blood flows into the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava, into the rightatrium. It then flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle

it flows through the right semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery. It then circulates throughthe lungs, picking up oxygen. It then enters the pulmonary vein and flows into the left atrium.

From the left atrium it flows into the left ventricle, through the mitral valve. Once in the left

ventricle it flows through the left semilunar valve into the aorta.The blood vessels are a vast network which keeps the blood flowing in one direction

through our bodies. The large, muscular vessels which carry blood away from the heart are

called arteries, which have three layers to pressurize blood flow away from the heart. This forceblood exerts on the walls of vessels is blood pressure. There are two types of blood pressure,

systolic and diastolic. Systolic pressure is the pressure that occurs when ventricles contracts,

usually 120 mm of Hg for males and 110 mm of Hg for females. Diastolic pressure occurs whenblood pressure is high enough to keep t he arteries open even though the ventricles are relaxed;this usually runs 80 mm of Hg for males and 70 mm of Hg for females. The main artery, the

aorta, splits into smaller arteries, which then spread into smaller vessels known as arterioles.

These arterioles then branch into capillaries, though the walls of which the exchange of nutrientsand wastes occur. Blood flows from the capillaries into larger vessels called venules, and these

venules flow into still larger vessels known as veins, large vessel that bring blood back to the

heart. All veins lead to either the superior vena cava, which drains the head and upper body parts,or inferior vena cava, which carries all blood from the lower body. Veins are also formed of

three layers, and contain valves so that blood does not flow backward, as it is under less pressure

than in the arteries.

Blood itself is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.Plasma is the liquid in blood, and cells receive their nourishment from substances carried in

plasma. Plasma also carries hormones, wastes, and various proteins. Red blood cells,erythrocytes, transport oxygen, synthesize iron-containing cells called hemoglobin, and do notcontain nuclei. White blood cells, leukocytes, defend the body against disease, and are formed in

the red marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen. There are specialized leukocytes, such as phagocytes

that engulf invading organisms and antibodies which destroy substances that can cause disease.Platelets are essential to the formation of blood clots.


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Circulatory System

Disease: MyocardialInfarction

Myocardial infarction, more commonly known as a heart attack, is the interruption ofblood flow to the heart, which causes some heart cells to die. The most common cause if

blockage of a coronary artery, due to the buildup of lipids along the walls of the arteries. The

following restriction of blood supply causes a lack of oxygen, which causes the cells to die,

infarction, in the heart, myocardium. Symptoms include chest pain, shortness of breath,

coughing, vomiting, palpitations, and fatigue. To diagnose, chest x-rays, electrocardiograms, andblood tests assess damage to the heart tissue. Small cases are treated with oxygen and aspirin. In

patients with emergency situations or multiple blockages, bypass surgery is performed.Myocardial infarction is the leading cause of death for both men and women worldwide. Risk

factors include tobacco smoking, old age, high blood pressure, obesity, excessive alcohol

consumption, and chronic high stress levels.


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Respiratory System

The respiratory system transports gases to and from the circulatory system. Externalrespiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and blood; internal respiration is the

exchange between the blood and cells of the body. This system carries oxygen for use aerobic

respiration, and eliminates carbon dioxide produced in that process.The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. They are covered by the pleura,

located in the thoracic cavity, bounded by the diaphragm, a thin layer of muscle. External

respiration begins in the mouth and nose, where air passes into the nasal cavity, where it isprepared for use by the body. It then moves to the pharynx, which contains passageways for

food and air; the epiglottis keeps food from traveling down the air passage, the trachea. At the

top of the trachea is the larynx, which produces sound when air is forced passed two ligaments

that stretch across the larynx, is the voice box. The trachea branches into two bronchi, each of

which leads to a lung. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into bronchioles, which end inclusters called alveoli. Capillaries surround each alveoli, exchanging gases.

Inspiration occurs when air is taken into the lungs; your chest expands as your diaphragmpushes down on the abdomen; this increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, reducing pressure

inside and allowing air in. During expiration, the reverse occurs. As the diaphragm and rib

muscles relax, the lungs deflate, increasing pressure, forcing air out until pressure is equal insidethe cavity and out.


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Respiration System

Disease: PneumoniaPneumonia is an inflammatory condition in the lung. It is characterized by the

inflammation of the alveoli, and the presence of fluid in the lungs. Pneumonia can result from a

variety of causes, including infection withbacteria, viruses, fungi, orparasites and chemical or

physical injury to the lungs. Typical symptoms associated with pneumonia include cough,chestpain, fever, and difficulty in breathing. Diagnosis includes x-ray tests, symptom display, and

blood tests. CT scans can be used to differentiate between pneumonia and other diseases.

Bacterial pneumonia is treated with antibiotics. Corticosteroids are commonly used in aspiration

pneumonia; there are no known effective treatments for viral pneumonias. Pneumonia can be

prevented by vaccination and smoking cessation. Pneumonia usually lasts two to four weeks.
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Immune System

The immune system fights off invading pathogens and prevents the growth and spread ofcancers. It consists of white blood cells, lymph, and the organs pertaining to these fluids. Skin

and mucous membranes also are a part of this system. Mucous membranes are the epithelial

tissues that protect interior surfaces of the body; mucus is a sticky fluid that traps pathogens.Skin acts as a tough shield against pathogens sweat destroys the cell walls of bacteria.

Bone marrow manufactures millions of new white blood cells each day; some remain

there to specialize while others travel to the thymus to mature. Lymph nodes are located throughthe body along lymph vessels and contain large numbers of white blood cells; they filter

pathogens and expose them to white blood cells. The spleen filters pathogens from the blood.

White blood cells of the immune system are known as lymphocytes, which are either B cells

(stay in bone marrow) or T cells (travel to thymus).

Immunity is resistance to a specific pathogen. Immunity is acquired by survival ofinfection by a pathogen. Another method of acquiring immunity is through vaccination; vaccines

contain modified forms of pathogens that can no longer cause disease. They contain antigens tostimulate an immune response, therefore creating memory cells, should the disease ever present

itself in a viable form.


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Immune System Disease:

AllergiesInappropriate response to an otherwise harmless antigen is an allergy. Antigens

are any substance the immune system recognizes as a potential pathogen and that trigger

responses. Antigens that can trigger these reactions include, but are not limited to, pollen, dust

mites, various foods, and animal dander. These reactions are characterized by watery eyes,wheezing, and sneezing. Drugs called antihistamines counteract the effects of these inappropriate

reactions. For most, allergies are simply irritating, but they can be fatal.


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Excretory System

The kidneys are the main organ of the excretory system. The excretory system not onlyexcretes waster but also maintains homeostasis through regulation of water and solids in blood.

The main waste products are carbon dioxide and nitrogenous compounds; lungs excrete the

carbon dioxide and kidneys eliminate the nitrogenous waste.Kidneys have three main parts; the cortex (outermost part), medulla (inner two-thirds),

and renal pelvis (center). Blood enters through a renal artery and leaves through the renal vein.

The most common waste is urea, a nitrogenous product made by the liver. The substancesremoved the kidneys- urea, water, minerals- form urine. Urine is made in nephrons, the

functional units of the kidneys. Each nephron has a cup-shaped structure, a Bowmans capsule,

which encloses a bed of capillaries. The capillary bed, a glomerulus, receives blood to filter

through the renal tubule, a long tube with permeable walls. The renal tubule consists of the

proximal convoluted tube, the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tube. The large surfacearea provides for exchange of materials. Blood is forced out of the glomerulus into the

Bowmans capsule during filtration, which forces water, urea, glucose, vitamins, and saltsthrough thin walls of the glomerulus into the Bowmans capsule. These materials selectively

flow back into the renal tubule, in a process called reabsorption. Secretion is the passing of

substances from the blood into the filtrate.Urine from the collecting ducts flows though the renal pelvis into a narrow tube called a

ureter, which lead from each kidney to the urinary bladder, a muscular sac that stores the urine.

Muscule contractions force urine out of the body by means of the urethra. At least 500 mL ofurine must be eliminated each day to maintain homeostasis.

Lungs carry out detoxification, altering harmful substances to make them n on-poisonous.

They are also responsible for excretion of substances such as onion, garlic, and other strongspices. Also, some salt is lost through perspiration.


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Excretory System Disease:

Wegener'sGranulomatosis

Wegeners granulomatosis is a form of vasculitis (blood vessel injury) that results indamage to the kidneys and lungs. It is caused by an autoimmune attack to an antibody known as

ANCAs in small and medium sized vessels. Diagnosis can be delayed due to variability of

symptoms. These symptoms include rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (severe injury to the

kidney's glomeruli), swelling on the elbows, pain or swelling of the joints (often misdiagnosed as

RA), pulmonary nodules, chronic renal failure, hearing loss, and nose pain. Histopathologicalexaminations are required, and differential diagnosis is extensive. The two required symptoms

for diagnosis are granulomatosis (a roughly spherical mass of white blood cells that form whenthe immune system attempts to wall off substances that it perceives as foreign but is unable to

eliminate) in the respiratory tract and vasculitis of the small- to medium- vessels. Steroid

treatment is often used, as are corticosteroids.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomerulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeruli


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Digestive System

The digestive system is responsible for breaking down the food we consume intomolecules form which our necessary nutrients can be derived. This process occurs in the

gastrointestinal tract, which begins at the mouth and winds it way through the body, ending at the

anus. There are also some organs along this tract that aid in digestion, and are therefore part ofthe digestive system, but are not a part of the tract, such as the liver.

There are many organs in the digestive system; the mouth is where the food enters the

body. Mechanical digestion, the grinding of the food by the teeth and tongue, occurs here,although chemical digestion also takes place, through the saliva. The salivary glands, both those

lining the mouth and the three major glands around the mouth, produce saliva, a mixture of

water, mucus, and salivary amylase, which breaks some starches down into disaccharide maltose

while still in the mouth. Once thoroughly chewed, the food enters the esophagus to travel to the

stomach; it must first pass past the epiglottis, a flap which covers the opening to the trachea, toprevent the entrance of food into the windpipe. Separating the esophagus and stomach is the

cardiac sphincter, which controls the flow of food into the stomach.The stomach is a bag of smooth muscle that kneads in upon itself to churn food, and is

lined with gastric pits, which release secretions (mucus, digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid)

into the stomach. The stomachs chemical digestion is carried out by gastric fluid, mainly pepsin,a low pH enzyme that splits proteins into peptides. Mucus secreted protects the organ from the

hydrochloric acid, and prevents pepsin from digesting the walls proteins. Food in the stomach is

turned into chyme, a paste like substance containing various nutrients. The pyloric sphincter thenallows chyme into the small intestine. The small intestine is composed of the duodenum,

jejunum, and ileum. The small intestines combine chyme with secretions from the liver and

pancreas to break peptides into amino acids and disaccharides into monosaccharides. The villi,small projections in the small intestines, are lined with capillaries which pick up these nutrientsand carry them around the body. The large intestine, or colon, is made up of four parts, the

ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. The large intestine

absorb the minerals and vitamins produced by the bacteria that live there, and slowly pass theremaining wastes towards the rectum, solidifying them along the way, creating feces.

The liver secrets bile, a fluid that is crucial to the digestion of fats, breaking them into

small droplets. This bile travels to the gallbladder, where it is stored and concentrated untilchyme is present in the small intestine. The pancreas secretes pancreatic fluid, which helps break

down nutrients in chyme in the small intestines. Pancreatic fluid changes the pH of chyme from

an acid to a base, and many of the fluids enzymes are then activated by the higher pH.


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Digestive System

Disorder: Cholelithiasis(Gallstones)

Gallstones form when something in the bile hardens, which usually occurs after eating. A

gallstone's size can vary and may be as small as a sand grain or as large as a golf ball. Gallstones

contain between 30% and 70% of cholesterol. In most cases the other majority constituent iscalcium salts such as calcium carbonate, palmitate phosphate, and/or bilirubinate. Researchers

believe that gallstones may be caused by a combination of factors, including inherited bodychemistry,body weight, gallbladder motility (movement), and perhaps diet; cholesterol

gallstones develop when bile contains too much cholesterol and not enough bile salts; increasedlevels of the hormone estrogen may increase cholesterol levels in bile and also decrease

gallbladder movement, resulting in gallstone formation.

Signs of a gallstone attack may include nausea, vomiting, or pain in the abdomen, back,or just under the right arm. Gallstones are most common among older adults, women, overweight

people, Native Americans and Mexican Americans. The most common treatment is removal of

the gallbladder. Cholesterol gallstones can sometimes be dissolved by oral ursodeoxycholic acid,but it may be required that the patient takes this medication for up to two years. Fortunately, the

gallbladder is an organ that you can live without, however, as many as 20% of patients develop

chronic diarrhea post-surgery.
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Nervous System

The nervous system controls mental and physical activity, and much of homeostasis. Thenervous system is composed of neurons, specialized cells that transmit information throughout

the body. Nerve cells have threadlike projections that allow them to quickly transmit

information, called axons. Axons bundled together form a nerve.The brain is responsible for overseeing daily operations of the human body. The largest

portion of the brain is the cerebrum, which coordinates muscle activity. It is composed of two

cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by the corpus callosum, a heavy band of axons. Thefour lobes of the cerebrum are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The outer layer

of the cerebral hemispheres is the cerebral cortex, is important to sensory processing and motor

responses and is highly folded. Beneath the fold of the cerebral cortex lies the white matter,

which is composed of the axons of the cortical neurons. Below the cerebellum the brainstem

links the spinal chord and the cerebrum. The upper part of the brain stem, the thalamus, directsmost incoming sensory signals to the proper cortex. The stem then narrows, and in that narrowed

stem lay the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; the midbrain is a center for visual andauditory information; the pons is a relay center for the neurons of the cerebral hemispheres and

the cerebellum; the medulla oblongata serves as a relay center and control. The cerebellum

coordinates muscle action, particularly the timing of contractions. The brain is protected by threelayers collectively known as the meninges, the dura mater, arachnoid layer, and pia mater, from

outside in.

The spinal chord is a column of nerve tissue that starts in the medulla oblongata and runsdown the vertabrae column, sheathed in white matter with a grey matter interior. The nerves of

the spinal chord have a dorsal root and a ventral root; the dorsal roots contain neurons that carry

signals to the central nervous system from the sensory receptors.The nervous system is composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Thecentral system is composed of the brain and spinal chord; the peripheral, the neurons that are not

included in the brain or spinal chord. The spinal chord passes messages from the brain to the

body and from the body to the brain. Peripheral neurons that collect information and send it tothe central system are called afferent neurons; efferent neurons transmit information away from

the central system.

Sensory receptors are neurons that are specialized to detect a stimulus. Sensory divisionof the peripheral system is composed of sensory nerves and the interneurons that connect them to

the central nervous system. Spinal and cranial nerves enable the flow of sensory information to

the central nervous system.

Motor neurons connect and carry information to muscles and glands. The motor divisionallows the body to react in response to information relayed by the sensory division. The motor

division is composed of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous

system controls the movement of skeletal muscles, both voluntary and reflexive. Reflexes areinvoluntary, often protective, movements. When a sensory receptor is tapped sharply, or

otherwise activated, an impulse is sent to the spinal chord, which activates a motor neuron,

causing the muscle to contract, and also activates an interneuron than calms the correspondingmuscle, which makes the body move in response to the stimuli. This is a spinal reflex; it involves


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only the spinal chord and neurons, not the brain. The autonomic nervous system controls the

smooth muscles of blood vessels and organs, through the sympathetic and parasympathetic

divisions. The sympathetic division shunts blood from one part of the body to another, activatedby physical or emotional stress. The parasympathetic division controls the internal environment

under normal conditions, conserves energy.


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Nervous System Disease:

Huntingtons DiseaseHuntingtons disease is an autosomally-inherited, dominant disorder. It is a progressive

neurodegenerative genetic disorder, which affects muscle coordination and some cognitive

functions in which the patient begins to exhibit symptoms in the third to fourth decade of life.

The mutation of the Huntingtin gene codes for a different form of the protein, whose presenceresults in gradual damage to specific areas of the brain. The exact way this happens is not fully

understood. It begins to reveal itself through a tendency to fidget which over months and years

develops into jerky, movements.. Genetic testing can be performed at any stage ofdevelopment,

even before the onset of symptoms. Huntingtons disease usually progresses over a 10 to 25 year

period. As the disease progresses it leads to dementia and usually death from incurrent infection.Although the disorder itself is not fatal, complications such aspneumonia, heart disease, and

physical injury from falls reduce life expectancy to around twenty years after symptoms begin.There is no current cure or effective treatment for Huntingtons disease, but as Huntingtons

disease has been conclusively linked to a single gene, gene silencing is potentially possible and

researchers have shown that when the influence of mHTT is reduced, symptoms improve.Experiments have yielded some positive results using this technique in animal models and

preliminary human clinical trials. As the disease progresses and a person's ability to tend to their

own needs reduces, carefully managed multidisciplinary caregivingbecomes increasinglynecessary. Weight loss and eating difficulties due to dysphagia and other muscle discoordination

are common, making nutrition management increasingly important as the disease advances

Huntingtons disease is much more common in people of Western European descent than inthose from Asia or Africa.
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Sensory OrgansThe sense organs- eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin- receive stimulus and convert those

stimuli to electrical messages that are sent to the brain. These signals are sent to the appropriatecortexes of the cerebellum for processing.

The ear detects sound and maintains balance. The auditory canal connects the inner ear

with the tympanic membrane (eardrum); air passing through causes the membrane to vibrate.The Eustachian tube is an opening to the throat that equalizes pressure on both sides of the

tympanic membrane. Vibrations of the tympanic membrane are registered by the oval window,

which separates the middle and inner ears; the cochlea, a coiled tube consisting of three fluid-filled chambers; and the organ of Corti, which is the organ for hearing. Vibrations move hairs in

a fluid, different parts of which are stimulated by different pitches. Balance is maintained by the

three semicircular canals which are filled with fluid and lined with hair cells; the brain decodes

the degree and direction of the bend of the hair cells to determine the orientation of the head.

The eyes receive light and transmit signals to visual parts of the brain. The structures ofthe eye work together to focus light on the retina (the inner layer). The outer layer is a clear

protective sheath known as the cornea. Light passes through the cornea into the pupil, theopening to the interior; the pigmented iris surrounds the pupil. After the pupil, light passes

through the lens, a crystalline convex structure that bends the rays of incoming light to focus the

image onto the retina. Within the retina are rods that respond to dark light, and cones, which arestimulated by bright light and respond to different colors. The optic nerve carries visual

information from the retina to the thalamus.

Specialized chemoreceptors allow us to perceive taste and odor; taste buds sense tasteand are embedded between papillae (bumps) on the tongue. Olfactory receptors in the nasal

passage sense molecules that bind to specific olfactory receptors; signals from the receptors

travel to the amygdala, an area in the olfactory cortex.


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Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of the glands that produce the chemical messengers, orhormones, of the body. Endocrine glands are ductless glands located throughout the body that

secrete fluid into the bloodstream through the fluid in the body.

The pituitary gland is regulated by the hypothalamus, and these two organs are theprimary regulators of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary gland produces ACTH,

adrenocorticotropic hormone, controls cortisol production form the adrenal glands; thyroid

stimulating hormone, TSH, controls thyroid hormone production (T3 and T4) from the thyroidgland; luteinizing hormone control the gonads, ovaries or testes, to regulate sex hormone

production(estrogen/testosterone) and ovulation/spermatogenesis; prolactin, PRL, which

regulates breast milk production, and growth hormone, which regulates cell growth. The

posterior pituitary makes antidiuretic hormone, ADH, which regulates thirst and salt balance, and

oxytocin, which controls contractions in childbirth.The thyroid gland secrets thyroid hormone, which control the metabolism. It regulates

weight, energy level, heart rate, bowel habits, emotions, hair/skin metabolism and sleep. Thethyroid also secretes calcitonin, which is important for bone growth and health.

The parathyroid glands (four) secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium

metabolism as well.The adrenal glands make aldosterone, which controls blood pressure, salt, and potassium;

cortisol is critical for life and maintains normal blood pressure and weight, as well as regulating

carbohydratemetabolism; catecholamines provide the bodys fight or flight mechanism andalso regulate blood pressure and heart rate.

The pancreass endocrine functions are the secretion of insulin and glucagon which

maintain normal blood sugar and control carbohydrate metabolism.The gonads (ovaries and testes) are responsible for sex hormone production (estrogen/progesterone/ testosterone); they secrete eggs/ sperm to allow for reproduction. They are

important for secondary sex characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair

growth in males. Estrogen and testosterone regulate secondary sex characteristics, andprogesterone builds up the endometrial lining of the uterus to maintain a pregnancy.


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Endocrine System

Disease: HyperthyroidismHyperthyroidism is a condition in which the body has too much thyroid hormone.

Symptoms include weight loss, increased energy, heat intolerance, frequent bowel movements,

insomnia, infrequent periods, increased heart rate, anxiety, tremors, and increased sweating. The

condition is most commonly caused by Graves disease, a condition in which the body creates anantibody that stimulates the body to produce thyroid hormone. Other causes include an

overactive thyroid nodule or thyroiditis, an inflammation of the thyroid gland. Treatment options

include beta-blockers, drugs that control the symptoms of hyperthyroidism but not the hightened

levels themselves. Affected individuals can take medicine that affects the bodys ability to

produce thyroid, or receive radioactive iodine. The thyroid is the only organ in the body whichuses iodine, so the thyroid traps all the iodine, effectively killing the thyroid while leaving the

rest of the body unharmed. Surgery to remove the thyroid is also another viable option fortreatment.

Date post:	29-May-2018
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