Borderless Higher Education: Challenges Ahead

Dr. Hans de WitDean Windesheim Honours College,

VU University Amsterdam/Windesheim University of Applied Science, Zwolle, the Netherlands

Editor of the Journal of Studies in International Education (Sage/ASIE)

Kuala Lumpur, December 3-5, 2007

Internationalisation of Higher Education

Traditional Meanings: Diversity of Related Terms to Internationalisation of Higher Education

1. 1. Curriculum related:Curriculum related:

International studies, global studiesInternational studies, global studies, , multicultural multicultural education,education, i intercultural ntercultural eeducation, peace education, ducation, peace education, etc.etc.

2. 2. Mobility related:Mobility related:

Study abroad, education abroad, academic mobility, Study abroad, education abroad, academic mobility, etc.etc.

Most frequently used synonym:International Education

Emerging factors/rationalesEmerging factors/rationales• Standards, Status and profileStandards, Status and profile

• RankingRanking

• Strategic alliancesStrategic alliances

• Regionalisation (Bologna Process)Regionalisation (Bologna Process)

• National Security (9/11)National Security (9/11)

• Other Political and Ideological influencesOther Political and Ideological influences

• Higher education increasingly more an actor than re-actor Higher education increasingly more an actor than re-actor to globalisation, trade in educational services: to globalisation, trade in educational services:

• Revenue GenerationRevenue Generation

• Skilled MigrationSkilled Migration

New: cross border delivery New: cross border delivery of education relatedof education related

Borderless education Borderless education Education across borders or cross-border Education across borders or cross-border

educationeducationGlobal educationGlobal educationOffshore educationOffshore educationInternational trade of educational International trade of educational

servicesservices

Also refered to as Transnational Also refered to as Transnational Education Education

Borderless Higher Borderless Higher EducationEducation

• Athough it is not a new phenomenon, it is its rapidly Athough it is not a new phenomenon, it is its rapidly increasinging scale since the 1990’s that makes it a relevant increasinging scale since the 1990’s that makes it a relevant phenomenon phenomenon

• The privatisation and deregulation of higher education has The privatisation and deregulation of higher education has stimulated traditional public and private higher educaiton get stimulated traditional public and private higher educaiton get involvedinvolved

• New private ‘for profit’ providers have entered the marketNew private ‘for profit’ providers have entered the market

• GATS (1995), including trade in educational services, became a GATS (1995), including trade in educational services, became a highly debated response to this increasing phenomenonhighly debated response to this increasing phenomenon

• International trade in education services accounts for app. 3% of International trade in education services accounts for app. 3% of global services exports, primarily through student mobilityglobal services exports, primarily through student mobility

• Trade is already more important than aid in higher educationTrade is already more important than aid in higher education

Globalisation and its link Globalisation and its link to Higher Educationto Higher Education (1)(1)

Increasing Unmet Demand for Increasing Unmet Demand for Higher EducationHigher Education

• Demographic TrendsDemographic Trends• Degree and Diploma ProgrammesDegree and Diploma Programmes• Lifelong LearningLifelong Learning

Globalisation and its link Globalisation and its link to Higher Education to Higher Education (2)(2)

Growth in Numbers and Types of Growth in Numbers and Types of new Providersnew Providers

• Corporate UniversitiesCorporate Universities• For-profit privaFor-profit privatte institutionse institutions• Media CompaniesMedia Companies• Education BrokersEducation Brokers

Globalisation and its link Globalisation and its link to Higher Education to Higher Education (3)(3)

Innovative Delivery MethodsInnovative Delivery Methods

• Distance and e-learningDistance and e-learning• FranchisesFranchises• Satellite CampusesSatellite Campuses• Twinning / Joint Degree Twinning / Joint Degree

programmesprogrammes

We seeWe see• ““A shift in paradigms of internationalisation from A shift in paradigms of internationalisation from

cooperation to competition” (Van der Wende, cooperation to competition” (Van der Wende, 2001)2001)

• But this does But this does not not imply that:imply that:

All institutions of higher education play the All institutions of higher education play the same active same active competitive role, and that competitive role, and that

It always happens at the cost of the more It always happens at the cost of the more common common approach to approach to international international cooperation and exchangecooperation and exchange

Types of Cross-Border Education Types of Cross-Border Education ActivitiesActivities

• 1.People1.People

Students/TraineesStudents/Trainees Student MobilityStudent Mobility

Professors/TrainersProfessors/Trainers Academic/Trainer MobilityAcademic/Trainer Mobility

• 2. Programmes2. Programmes

Educational ProgrammesEducational Programmes Academic PartnershipsAcademic Partnerships

• 3. Institutions/Providers3. Institutions/Providers

Foreign CampusesForeign CampusesForeign InvestmentsForeign Investments

(Knight, 2003, OECD)(Knight, 2003, OECD)

Modes of supply Modes of supply Source: OECDSource: OECD

Trade Trade Mode of Mode of supplysupply

DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample Non-Non-trade trade termterm

Mode 1Mode 1 Service crosses Service crosses the borderthe border

Distance educationDistance education Programme Programme mobilitymobility

Mode 2Mode 2 Consumption Consumption abroadabroad

Students study Students study abroadabroad

People People (student) (student) mobilitymobility

Mode 3Mode 3 EstablishmentEstablishment Branch campuses, Branch campuses, training companies training companies (language, (language, executive)executive)

Institution Institution mobilitymobility

Mode 4Mode 4 Temporary Temporary movement of movement of natural personsnatural persons

Academic Academic teaches abroadteaches abroad

People People (academic) (academic) mobilitymobility

Four Approaches to cross-border post-Four Approaches to cross-border post-secondary education, OECD, 2004, 232secondary education, OECD, 2004, 232

Import StrategiesImport Strategies Export Export StrategiesStrategies

Strong Strong

Economic Economic

RationalesRationales

Weaker Weaker

Economic Economic

RationalesRationales

Capacity BuildingCapacity BuildingRationalesRationalesSame as Mutual Understanding plus:Same as Mutual Understanding plus:

- Meeting Demand for Higher Education- Meeting Demand for Higher Education

- Enhancing the Country’s Human Capital- Enhancing the Country’s Human Capital-Building a better Higher Education Building a better Higher Education System thanks to spill-overs coming from System thanks to spill-overs coming from Partnerhsips with Foreign InstitutionsPartnerhsips with Foreign Institutions

Revenue GenerationRevenue GenerationRationalesRationalesSame as Skilled Migration plus:Same as Skilled Migration plus:

- Developing Higher Education as an - Developing Higher Education as an Expert IndustryExpert Industry

- Using Cross-border Education to - Using Cross-border Education to Finance the Domestic Higher Education Finance the Domestic Higher Education

Sector and Change its GovernanceSector and Change its Governance

Skilled MigrationSkilled MigrationRationalesRationalesSame as Mutual Understanding plusSame as Mutual Understanding plus

- Attracting Highly Skilled People to - Attracting Highly Skilled People to build or maintain the receiving country’s build or maintain the receiving country’s Knowledge EconomyKnowledge Economy

- Enhancing the Competitiveness of one’s - Enhancing the Competitiveness of one’s Higher Education SectorHigher Education Sector

Mutual Understanding IMutual Understanding IRationalesRationales-Academic - CulturalAcademic - Cultural-Geostrategic - Political Geostrategic - Political -Social - EconomicSocial - Economic

Mutual Understanding Mutual Understanding IIIIRationalesRationales-Academic - CulturalAcademic - Cultural

- Geostrategic - Political- Geostrategic - Political-Social - EconomicSocial - Economic

Crossborder supplyCrossborder supply

• Crossborder supply means the Crossborder supply means the provision of a service where the provision of a service where the service crosses the border but does service crosses the border but does not require the physical movement of not require the physical movement of the consumer. the consumer.

• Examples in higher education are: Examples in higher education are: distance education, E-learning and distance education, E-learning and virtual universities. virtual universities.

Size and impactSize and impact

• Potential due to new technologiesPotential due to new technologies

• Limitations due to lack of access to these Limitations due to lack of access to these technologies and limitations in learning technologies and limitations in learning methodologiesmethodologies

• Potentials still primarily national (Open Universities) Potentials still primarily national (Open Universities) and in Continuing Education (University of Phoenix) and in Continuing Education (University of Phoenix)

• Still limited in scope, no reliable global data Still limited in scope, no reliable global data availableavailable

Presence of Natural Presence of Natural PersonsPersons

• Presence of natural persons means persons travelling to Presence of natural persons means persons travelling to another country on a temporary basis to provide service another country on a temporary basis to provide service

• Such as professors, teachers and researchers working abroad Such as professors, teachers and researchers working abroad in higher education. in higher education.

(Knight, 2006c, 63). (Knight, 2006c, 63).

Although happening quite frequently, exact numbers are not Although happening quite frequently, exact numbers are not known and impact neither. Will continue to be an important known and impact neither. Will continue to be an important factor, with different implications in North and South.factor, with different implications in North and South.

““USA is an overwhelming ‘brain gainer’ in relation to the rest of USA is an overwhelming ‘brain gainer’ in relation to the rest of the world, whereas most nations face a net loss of research the world, whereas most nations face a net loss of research personel to the USA.” And The USA at the doctoral and personel to the USA.” And The USA at the doctoral and postdoctoral stage has by far the most postitions worldwide. postdoctoral stage has by far the most postitions worldwide. (Marginson/Van der Wende, 2007, OECD)(Marginson/Van der Wende, 2007, OECD)

Commercial PresenceCommercial Presence

• Commercial presence means that the Commercial presence means that the service provider establishes or has service provider establishes or has presence of commercial facilities in presence of commercial facilities in another country in order to render another country in order to render service. service.

• Examples are local branch or satellite Examples are local branch or satellite campuses; twining partnerships, campuses; twining partnerships, articulation programmes, and franchise articulation programmes, and franchise arrangements. arrangements.

Size and Impact ISize and Impact I• Difficult to document the extent of institution and Difficult to document the extent of institution and

programme mobilityprogramme mobility

• Definitions and sources are not always the sameDefinitions and sources are not always the same

• Much information is still based on anecdotal evidenceMuch information is still based on anecdotal evidence

• There is still a lot of trial and error, see for instance recent There is still a lot of trial and error, see for instance recent Australian withdrawals, and not always is clear what is Australian withdrawals, and not always is clear what is closed and what is (still) in operational existence closed and what is (still) in operational existence

• Not all countries maintain an official list (China, India, Not all countries maintain an official list (China, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore and Thailand do) Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore and Thailand do)

(Naidoo, 2007)(Naidoo, 2007)

Size and Impact IISize and Impact II

• Asia-Pacific region, Middle East, Eastern Asia-Pacific region, Middle East, Eastern Europe and South America in that order Europe and South America in that order are facing strongest commerical presence are facing strongest commerical presence

• Australian, British and US institutions the Australian, British and US institutions the main ones operating them.main ones operating them.

• Wholly-owned branch campuses and joint Wholly-owned branch campuses and joint venture operations represent a very small venture operations represent a very small share.share.

Size and Impact IIISize and Impact III

• Examples of such wholly-owned and joint Examples of such wholly-owned and joint venture operations indicate potential:venture operations indicate potential:

• Laureate Education Inc.: 209.000 students Laureate Education Inc.: 209.000 students in 19 offshore operationsin 19 offshore operations

• Others: Apollo International (5 campuses), Others: Apollo International (5 campuses), DeVry Inc. (Canada and Carribean), and DeVry Inc. (Canada and Carribean), and Career Education corporation (France, UK, Career Education corporation (France, UK, Canada and UAE)Canada and UAE)

Size and Impact IVSize and Impact IV• Programme mobilityProgramme mobility is much larger and established is much larger and established

than institutional mobility: estimated 3.500-4.500 than institutional mobility: estimated 3.500-4.500 programmes.programmes.

• AustraliaAustralia is the most active exporter: 1569 is the most active exporter: 1569 programmes and 37 institutions involved (42.4 programmes and 37 institutions involved (42.4 programmes per institution), followed by the programmes per institution), followed by the U.K.U.K. (1002, 79, 12.7), the (1002, 79, 12.7), the USAUSA (333), (333), New ZealandNew Zealand (137, (137, 29) and 29) and CanadaCanada (81,16). (81,16).

• The largest importing places are The largest importing places are SingaporeSingapore (966), (966), Hong KongHong Kong (827) and (827) and MalaysiaMalaysia (490), with (490), with ChinaChina (410) and (410) and IndiaIndia (249) as emerging markets. (Naidoo, (249) as emerging markets. (Naidoo, 2007)2007)

Size and Impact VSize and Impact V

• For For AustraliaAustralia, enrollment in programme , enrollment in programme mobility accounts in 2006 for 30% of all mobility accounts in 2006 for 30% of all international students, compared to 18% international students, compared to 18% in 1996. forecast for 2025 is 47%. in 1996. forecast for 2025 is 47%.

• Primarily postgraduate (56%), in Primarily postgraduate (56%), in business administration and economics business administration and economics (51%), and a mean enrolment of 40 (51%), and a mean enrolment of 40 students of which 54% full-time students students of which 54% full-time students (Davis et all, 2000).(Davis et all, 2000).

Size and Impact VISize and Impact VI• For For CanadaCanada, a recent AUCC survey indicated that , a recent AUCC survey indicated that

Canadian institutions are engaged in 194 programmes Canadian institutions are engaged in 194 programmes and that in these 10,798 students involved. Of these, 58 and that in these 10,798 students involved. Of these, 58 were franchises, 37 twinning programmes, 34 distance were franchises, 37 twinning programmes, 34 distance education. education.

• As top motives for involvement in knowledge export were As top motives for involvement in knowledge export were mentioned: Enhanced Reputation as an international mentioned: Enhanced Reputation as an international institution; opportunities for international student institution; opportunities for international student recruitment; alternate source of income generation; and recruitment; alternate source of income generation; and new national/international partnerships. new national/international partnerships.

• As main barriers were mentioned: lack of financial As main barriers were mentioned: lack of financial support to offset the upfront costs; lack of faculty and support to offset the upfront costs; lack of faculty and professional staff; and lack of internal institutional professional staff; and lack of internal institutional support. (AUCC, 2007) support. (AUCC, 2007)

Size and Impact VIISize and Impact VII

• Emerging exporters are: Emerging exporters are: France, Germany, Italy, France, Germany, Italy, PortugalPortugal and and SpainSpain in Europe and in Europe and RussiaRussia in in former Soviet territories ; former Soviet territories ; Malaysia, Singapore, Malaysia, Singapore, ChinaChina and and IndiaIndia in Asia. in Asia.

• Emerging importers are Emerging importers are Mauritius, Qatar, UEAMauritius, Qatar, UEA andandVietnamVietnam..

• China, India, MalaysiaChina, India, Malaysia and and South AfricaSouth Africa are are examples of countries that have recently examples of countries that have recently introduced restrictions on institution and introduced restrictions on institution and programme mobility.programme mobility.

Consumption AbroadConsumption Abroad• Consumption abroad is the provision of the service Consumption abroad is the provision of the service

involving the movement of the consumer to the involving the movement of the consumer to the country of the supplier; country of the supplier;

• In higher education it means students going to In higher education it means students going to another country to study. another country to study.

• It is at present the most common of the four modes It is at present the most common of the four modes of supply.of supply.

• The other three are still marginal and in a phase of The other three are still marginal and in a phase of trial and error, although –as indicated – programme trial and error, although –as indicated – programme mobility is increasing rapidly.mobility is increasing rapidly.

Summary picture of Consumption Summary picture of Consumption Abroad: International Student Abroad: International Student

CirculationCirculation• If we look over the whole period of 1965-2005, what If we look over the whole period of 1965-2005, what

is most striking are the numbers. is most striking are the numbers. IndiaIndia alone sends alone sends in 2005 more students abroad than the total number in 2005 more students abroad than the total number was for 1950 (107.500), and the ten countries with was for 1950 (107.500), and the ten countries with the largest number of students abroad in 2005 the largest number of students abroad in 2005 equals the number of all international students of equals the number of all international students of 1985 (939.000). 1985 (939.000).

• Secondly we see an increase in students from Secondly we see an increase in students from emerging countries, but relatively spoken mainly emerging countries, but relatively spoken mainly from from China, IndiaChina, India and and South KoreaSouth Korea. The Western . The Western European and North American countries stabilize European and North American countries stabilize their numbers and see a reduction in percentages, their numbers and see a reduction in percentages, and the other developing countries increase but in and the other developing countries increase but in variations and not with the big numbers as do the variations and not with the big numbers as do the other three. other three.

Summary picture of Summary picture of International Student International Student

Circulation 2Circulation 2• The top receiving countries remain to a large extent the same, The top receiving countries remain to a large extent the same,

only only Australia Australia has been able to come close to the top 4: has been able to come close to the top 4: U.S.A., United Kingdom, GermanyU.S.A., United Kingdom, Germany and and FranceFrance..

• If we look at the % of foreign students as part of total If we look at the % of foreign students as part of total enrolment and we do not include the students that move around enrolment and we do not include the students that move around within within EuropeEurope (46% of their mobility), (46% of their mobility), AustraliaAustralia has a far has a far higher number of international students (17.7% of the total higher number of international students (17.7% of the total student body) than the student body) than the U.S.A.U.S.A. (4.6%) and (4.6%) and EuropeEurope (3.2%). (3.2%).

• The The Arab StatesArab States which had a high position as receiving which had a high position as receiving countries in the sixties and seventies see their position go down countries in the sixties and seventies see their position go down after that and become more active in sending than receiving after that and become more active in sending than receiving students. Only very recently one can observe efforts by states students. Only very recently one can observe efforts by states as as Jordan, Dubai and QatarJordan, Dubai and Qatar to become higher education hubs to become higher education hubs in the region, but the effect of their investments still have to in the region, but the effect of their investments still have to become clear over the years. become clear over the years.

Summary picture of Summary picture of International Student International Student

Circulation 3Circulation 3• The efforts of other countries to increase the number of incoming The efforts of other countries to increase the number of incoming

students, such as students, such as China, Japan, MalaysiaChina, Japan, Malaysia and and SingaporeSingapore are already are already paying off, as is the new role that paying off, as is the new role that South AfricaSouth Africa plays as receiving plays as receiving country for Sub-Sahara Africa.country for Sub-Sahara Africa.

• Where North-North circulation is stabilizing, the South-North flows are Where North-North circulation is stabilizing, the South-North flows are

still on the rise and a second flow of South-South circulation is taking still on the rise and a second flow of South-South circulation is taking place, with the receiving countries being those who Cummings describes place, with the receiving countries being those who Cummings describes as late-development and the sending countries being early-development. as late-development and the sending countries being early-development.

• In this also a regionalisation of South-South circulation is taking place: In this also a regionalisation of South-South circulation is taking place: for instance for instance MalaysiaMalaysia concentrating on Southeast and West Asia as well concentrating on Southeast and West Asia as well as as ChinaChina and and SingaporeSingapore, and , and South AfricaSouth Africa on Sub-Saharan Africa. on Sub-Saharan Africa.

• For the top receiving countries, skilled migration is becoming an For the top receiving countries, skilled migration is becoming an increasingly more important rationale. Easier visa and work permit increasingly more important rationale. Easier visa and work permit regulations are becoming available.regulations are becoming available.

• At the same time, higher cost related tuition fees for At the same time, higher cost related tuition fees for non-national/regional students are introduced.non-national/regional students are introduced.

Three different Approaches Three different Approaches of national strategies for of national strategies for Cross-border education in Cross-border education in

AsiaAsia• Government-Regulated ApproachGovernment-Regulated Approach

Examples: Examples: China, MalaysiaChina, Malaysia and and KoreaKorea

• Market-Oriented ApproachMarket-Oriented Approach

Examples: Examples: AustraliaAustralia and and Hong KongHong Kong

• Transitional Approach from state-controled to Transitional Approach from state-controled to free-market approachfree-market approach

Examples: Examples: JapanJapan and and TaiwanTaiwan (Futao Huang, 2006,8) (Futao Huang, 2006,8)

Regulations regarding Regulations regarding foreign providersforeign providers

• Several countries have made new regulations, Example of Several countries have made new regulations, Example of ChinaChina

• Joint ventures must not be operated for profit as main objectiveJoint ventures must not be operated for profit as main objective• Tuition Fees may not be rasided without approvalTuition Fees may not be rasided without approval• Half of the Board of Directors of joint ventures must be ChineseHalf of the Board of Directors of joint ventures must be Chinese• Development plans must be approved by two-thirds or more of the Development plans must be approved by two-thirds or more of the

board membersboard members• The chief administrative officer responsible for hiring and firing The chief administrative officer responsible for hiring and firing

staff must be a Chinese nationalstaff must be a Chinese national• Joint venture must have a Chinese partnerJoint venture must have a Chinese partner• Foreign religious institutions cannot be partnersForeign religious institutions cannot be partners• The programmes must follow China’s educaitonal policy and be in The programmes must follow China’s educaitonal policy and be in

line with Chinese public morals and ehticsline with Chinese public morals and ehtics• Curriculum outline and list of teaching materials to be submitted to Curriculum outline and list of teaching materials to be submitted to

the ministry for approval the ministry for approval

Bashir, 2007Bashir, 2007

UNESCO/OECD Guidelines on UNESCO/OECD Guidelines on Quality Provision in Cross-border Quality Provision in Cross-border

Higher EducationHigher Education• Objectives of the guidelines endorsed by OECD and UNESCO:Objectives of the guidelines endorsed by OECD and UNESCO:

• ‘‘Students/learners protection’ from the risks of misinformation, low-Students/learners protection’ from the risks of misinformation, low-quality provision and qualifications of limited validity.quality provision and qualifications of limited validity.

• Qualifications should be readable and transparent in order to increase Qualifications should be readable and transparent in order to increase their international validity and portability. Reliable and user-friendly their international validity and portability. Reliable and user-friendly information sources should facilitate this.information sources should facilitate this.

• Recognition procedures should be transparent, coherent, fair and Recognition procedures should be transparent, coherent, fair and reliable and impose as little burden as possible to mobile professionals.reliable and impose as little burden as possible to mobile professionals.

• National quality assurance and accreditation agencies need to intensify National quality assurance and accreditation agencies need to intensify their international cooperation in order to increase mutual their international cooperation in order to increase mutual understanding.understanding.

• (OECD, 2004, 17) (www.oecd.org/edu/internationalisation/guidelines(OECD, 2004, 17) (www.oecd.org/edu/internationalisation/guidelines

Risks of increasing trade in higher Risks of increasing trade in higher education (in particular for education (in particular for

developing countries)developing countries)• Opposition is higher to institution and programme mobility Opposition is higher to institution and programme mobility

than to student mobility, even though the last one is more than to student mobility, even though the last one is more substantial and creates potentially more negative impacts substantial and creates potentially more negative impacts (such as brain drain)(such as brain drain)

• Loosing sovereignty over the education sectorLoosing sovereignty over the education sector

• Excessive concentration on ‘job-related training’Excessive concentration on ‘job-related training’

• Growing inequity in access to higher educationGrowing inequity in access to higher education

• Vulnerability to aggressive not-regulated (not in the home Vulnerability to aggressive not-regulated (not in the home nor in the host country), low quality foreign providersnor in the host country), low quality foreign providers

• Unequal access to higher education marketsUnequal access to higher education markets

(Bashir, 2007)(Bashir, 2007)

OpportunitiesOpportunities• Competition will increasingly be based on Competition will increasingly be based on

quality and price. This provides opportunities quality and price. This provides opportunities for intradeveloping trade, similar to what has for intradeveloping trade, similar to what has been described for student mobility. Examples been described for student mobility. Examples are Malaysia, Singapore, Dubai and Qatar.are Malaysia, Singapore, Dubai and Qatar.

• Low- and middle income countries with a Low- and middle income countries with a need to increase higher education, can look at need to increase higher education, can look at commercial presence as an option, also to commercial presence as an option, also to reduce study abroad and brain drain. reduce study abroad and brain drain. Regulation and quality control as maintaining Regulation and quality control as maintaining a minium of quality public funding and a minium of quality public funding and provision is required. provision is required.