Brad Gilmour

I’d like to thank Mai Dang, Cheng Guoqiang, Amos Tin, Cam Short, Joan Langley, Peter Chen, Hugh Deng and Greg Giokas for their remarks. However, opinions expressed and any remaining errors and omissions are my own.

Rising Demand, Trade Prospects and the Rise of China's Horticultural Industry

China's Evolving Agri-Food Sector:Challenges for NAFTA Countries

Remarks on

a NAAMIC commissioned paper by Rozelle, Paggi, Sumner and Huang

Rising Demand, Trade Prospects and the Rise of China's Horticultural Industry

China's Evolving Agri-Food Sector:Challenges for NAFTA Countries

Remarks on

a NAAMIC commissioned paper by Rozelle, Paggi, Sumner and Huang

1. Review, Reiteration and Context of Some Major Observations Made by the Authors

2. Examination of Constraints, Bottlenecks, Supply Chain Challenges Identified

3. Summing Up: Things to Watch For

The locality for which the analysis applies is not representative of China in general. It could, however, be considered as a bellwether … which may be more useful in anticipating where China is headed.

Guangdong and provinces in the greater Pearl River Delta are arguably the most prosperous in China

Shanghai and environs is another prosperous cluster

Sources: China National Bureau of StatisticsLaurent, C (2002) The Consumber Market in China, Asian Demographics Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand,

and Personal Calculations

Beijing and the cluster of surrounding provinces and municipalities are among the more prosperous in China. Hence, findings will not be “representative” of overall circumstances, but they – perhaps – can be seen as bellwethers.

China’s leaders are learning where and when to facilitate, enable, and when to simply get out of the way. BUT the process has not been linear.

Ag Policies & InstitutionsAg Policies & Institutions

Ag Policies & InstitutionsAg Policies & Institutions

China has come a long way in its “transition”: planned to market responsive and largely incentive based; rural subsistence to urban market-based economy;

China is now a member of the WTO and will have an increasing influence in international regulatory and policy fora. Since their evolving policy direction was already pretty much in keeping with the nature of their prospective obligations as a WTO member, one of China’s motivations in joining the WTO was to secure disciplines on the behaviour of their trading partners and competitors.

The evolution of China’s economy and society will provide both opportunities and challenges … but NAFTA firms, sectors and officials have to equip themselves to better understand and take advantage of these opportunities, and respond to the challenges.

Until the early 1990s, China taxed agriculture.

In the mid-1990s, concerted efforts were made to increase agricultural production. Over time, it was found that getting incentives right was more effective than administrative fiat.

Up until the early 2000s, the main concern of agri-food policy appeared to be to ensure a high level of self-sufficiency. In recent years, however, raising incomes and the level of well-being of farmers and rural residents income levels have increased in importance.

In 2004-2006, agriculture and rural areas have become a focal point of the Government’s “No. 1 Document” (equivalent to Canada’s Throne Speech or the U.S State of the Union Address). For the first time in the history of the PRC agriculture is a net beneficiary of fiscal transfers, marking a significant change in approach

China has moved from placing burdens on agriculture to a modest subsidizer of agriculture. However, support levels remain ~ 1/3 of NAFTA levels and well below the OECD average.

Ag Policies & InstitutionsAg Policies & Institutions

The evolution of Chinese agri-food policies

China’s New Farm Subsidies Signify a Significant Changein the Leadership’s Thinking.

Ag Policies & InstitutionsAg Policies & Institutions

Since the 1990s, China has moved from placing burdens on agriculture to modestly subsidizing it. Support levels are well below NAFTA levels, however, and still further below support levels in the EU and other East Asian economies.

The confluence of more enabling domestic policies, more open foreign policies and infrastructure policies of benefit to rural areas and remote regions have allowed China’s farmers to specialized and move more toward industries where comparative advantage is manifested.

Ag Policies & InstitutionsAg Policies & Institutions

0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000

Ratio of Population to Arable Hectares

Australia

Canada

Argentina

United States of America

New Zealand

Ireland

France

Brazil

Thailand

European Union

India

Chile

Italy

China

Germany

United Kingdom

Malaysia

Indonesia

Philippines

Netherlands

Korea, South

J apan

While China’s arable land is not in abundance … While China’s arable land is not in abundance …

… … it is not in extreme shortage.it is not in extreme shortage.

How China deals with water issues will greatly influence what and how much it How China deals with water issues will greatly influence what and how much it produces and directly influence trade and investment opportunities. produces and directly influence trade and investment opportunities.

Use to availability ratios are much higher and water deficits are Use to availability ratios are much higher and water deficits are chronic in particular areas, like the Hai, Huai and Huang river basins.chronic in particular areas, like the Hai, Huai and Huang river basins.

Water IssuesWater Issues

Source: Blank et al (2005) Rural Water Saving Technology in Northern China, WERA-101 Annual Meetings, University of Nevada, Reno

Water IssuesWater Issues

This shortfall is on of the main motivation behind China’s south to north water transfer project. This shortfall is on of the main motivation behind China’s south to north water transfer project.

North China Water Deficit Prospectus:North China Water Deficit Prospectus: No Policy Change, No Physical Relocation No Policy Change, No Physical Relocation

Sources: IAASA (1998), CCAP (2002) China Agronomic Model Sources: IAASA (1998), CCAP (2002) China Agronomic Model

With better infrastructure and governance, China has already started to produce fewer land extensive agri-food products and more labor intensive products, particularly fruits and vegetables. These trends are likely to continue for at least another decade.

Ag Policies & InstitutionsAg Policies & Institutions

Bottlenecks and ConstraintsBottlenecks and Constraints

Infrastructure and Perishability LinkagesInfrastructure and Perishability Linkages- China has become dominant supplier of relatively less perishable - China has become dominant supplier of relatively less perishable horticultural products (garlic, onions, shallots, carrots) horticultural products (garlic, onions, shallots, carrots)- Growth has also been rapid for transformed products where perishability - Growth has also been rapid for transformed products where perishability is less of concern (tomato paste, juice, deep frozen products) is less of concern (tomato paste, juice, deep frozen products)- To date, success on more sensitive chilled, vacuum-pack or fresh - To date, success on more sensitive chilled, vacuum-pack or fresh equivalents has not been as stark. equivalents has not been as stark.

Tenure Insecurity Linkages to Investment and Husbandry IssuesTenure Insecurity Linkages to Investment and Husbandry Issues- Contrasting experiences of perennials (orchards) versus annuals - Contrasting experiences of perennials (orchards) versus annuals indicative of investment decisions in the face of tenure insecurity indicative of investment decisions in the face of tenure insecurity

Finance and Credit IssuesFinance and Credit Issues- China’s farmers have been discriminated against within China’s - China’s farmers have been discriminated against within China’s formal credit system. Consequently, a reduction in this “credit formal credit system. Consequently, a reduction in this “credit bias” will help unleash their productive potential even further. bias” will help unleash their productive potential even further.

As Rozelle et al (2006) indicate, sectoral adjustment has occurred. As Rozelle et al (2006) indicate, sectoral adjustment has occurred. But it has been affected by on-going bottlenecks and constraints. But it has been affected by on-going bottlenecks and constraints.

瓶颈

Rising Demand, Trade Prospects and the Rise of China's Horticultural Industry

China's Evolving Agri-Food Sector:Challenges for NAFTA Countries

Remarks on

a NAAMIC commissioned paper by Rozelle, Paggi, Sumner and Huang

1. Review, Reiteration and Context of Some Major Observations Made by the Authors

2. Examination of Constraints, Bottlenecks, Supply Chain Challenges Identified

3. Summing Up: Things to Watch For

Agri-Rural Credit IssuesAgri-Rural Credit Issues

- The trend toward a greater commercial orientation will continue, with fewer - The trend toward a greater commercial orientation will continue, with fewer favors for state-linked commercial enterprises.favors for state-linked commercial enterprises.

- Farmers and rural entrepreneurs will have more equal access to credit and - Farmers and rural entrepreneurs will have more equal access to credit and financial services, provided they have credible business plans.financial services, provided they have credible business plans.

What can be expected from rural credit reforms?

- A greater portion of private savings will - A greater portion of private savings will be harnessed for both production and be harnessed for both production and consumption purposes. This will add to consumption purposes. This will add to the diversity of agricultural production the diversity of agricultural production and rural value-added activities. and rural value-added activities.

- Because of China’s own reforms, as - Because of China’s own reforms, as well as WTO obligations, trends in the well as WTO obligations, trends in the provision of rural financial services can provision of rural financial services can not be easily reversed.not be easily reversed.

农业贷款

Land Tenure IssuesLand Tenure Issues

- Existing system with uncertain tenure security means that farmers may be reluctant to make investments that are not easily transferable or that can not be recouped in a short period of time.

- Recent statements by senior officials and influential policy advisors suggest that significant changes in tenure and ownership rules are likely within the next few years.

Changes to improve tenure security and reduce fears of appropriation is likely to positively affect households’ investment in agriculture. It will be to the particular benefit of crops and industries where long-term tenure security is important: orchard production; asparagus production.

What can be expected from land tenure reforms?

土地所有权

运输和食品加工问题 Transportation & Supply Chain Issues

As Rozelle and Paggi et al suggest, China’s comparative advantage does not lie in the production of land extensive crops. Rather, there is an emerging consensus that China’s comparative advantage probably likes in the production and further processing of vegetables, fruit, horticultural products, and select livestock, poultry and aquaculture products. However, It must be observed that – in addition to being labour-intensive – many of these products are perishable in nature.

Therefore, a prerequisite for China to fully exploit its comparative advantage Is to have in places the necessary institutions, infrastructure and human capital to deal with such products. Adequate transportation and handling systems, reliable electricity, cold storage, and quality-control services are all critical components of this. Consequently, higher value-added agri-food sectors will develop lock-step with developments in these “time sensitive” services and supporting infrastructure.

Sources: Gilmour and Cheng (2004) Personal Calculations, China National Bureau of Statistics, and

Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations.

China’s Urban and Rural Populations 2000-2050

农村向城市的移民农村向城市的移民

Reflection

China’s Household Registration system and other policies have kept more people in rural areas than would otherwise be the case.

These restrictions may have led many rural citizens to invest in the horticultural industry as a “2nd Best” solution. So, if migration rules become less stringent, the flow of resources to horticulture may be dampened.

Rural to Urban MigrationRural to Urban Migration

Water IssuesWater Issues

This massive set of engineering projects will augment North China water supplies This massive set of engineering projects will augment North China water supplies by 10 to 15 percent, or an estimated 38 to 43 billion cubic meters per year. by 10 to 15 percent, or an estimated 38 to 43 billion cubic meters per year.

China’s South to North Water Transfer ProjectChina’s South to North Water Transfer Projectwill divert water from Changjiang tributaries into the Huang-Huai-Hai river systemswill divert water from Changjiang tributaries into the Huang-Huai-Hai river systems

Source: China Ministry of Water ResourcesSource: China Ministry of Water Resources

Sources: 张金松 博士 (2005) 中国北方城市水管理研究项 : 供水部分研究 , 深圳市水务（集团）有限公司总工程师 ( 世界银行项目 ) and OECD (2004)

Agriculture Industry HouseholdsNetherlands 1.440 1.08 3.16

Austria 1.005 … 1.05

France 0.081 0.95 3.11

Greece 0.052 … 1.14

Spain 0.049 1.08 1.07

United States 0.046 0.60 1.25

United Kingdom 0.021 1.68 2.28

Australia 0.020 … 1.64

North China Plain 0.013 0.12 0.22

Wasting water? Wasting water?

Under-pricing water

Under-pricing water

Incentives?? Treated as

Abundant Resource

Incentives?? Treated as

Abundant Resource

Who Pays? In spite of shortages, water prices in North China are below those of many other nations.

Note: Some caution is needed in comparing these figures, because water for agricultural purchases is generally of lesser quality than for households. Further, volumetric infrastructural and conveyance costs may be lower.

Water IssuesWater Issues

Under-pricing water may have contributed to its Under-pricing water may have contributed to its over-exploitation, as users treat it as abundant.over-exploitation, as users treat it as abundant.

$ USD / m3

Water IssuesWater IssuesProduct Unit water equivalent in cubic meters

Cattle head 4000

sheep / goats head 500

beef kg 15

lamb meat kg 10

poultry meat kg 6

edible oil kg 2

deciduous fruit kg 1.5

cereals kg 1.5

citrus fruit kg 1

pulses & lentils kg 1

roots & tubers kg 1

Researchers at China’s Ministry of Water Resources, UNESCO and CGIAR Researchers at China’s Ministry of Water Resources, UNESCO and CGIAR found that net “virtual flows” (in product form) of water from North to South found that net “virtual flows” (in product form) of water from North to South are considerably more than the offsetting “real” flows that will occur when are considerably more than the offsetting “real” flows that will occur when South to North Water Transfer Project is finished. So, obviously, getting South to North Water Transfer Project is finished. So, obviously, getting incentives right must be part of any long-term solution. incentives right must be part of any long-term solution.

Source: Ma Jing, Hockstra, A., Wang Hao, Chapagain, A. and Wang Dangxian (2005) Virtual versus real water transfers within China, Phil. Trans. Royal Society 361, pp. 835-842.

Recognizing that water is under-priced, Huang et al (2006) have done some unique work on water scarcity and incentives on the North China Plain.

Water IssuesWater Issues

Water tariffs must increase substantially to be effective.

Preliminary findings, and research elsewhere, suggests that crops and enterprises which can cover marginal costs will not suffer. Hence, the expansion of horticultural production is not likely to abate. Indeed, more rational water pricing may lead to less competition for the resource from other less lucrative enterprises.

The production of irrigated corn and wheat crops, however, will be affected.

Source: Huang, QQ, Rozelle, S, Wang, J, and J Huang (2006) Irrigation Water Pricing in China, China’s Evolving Agricultural Economy, WERA Workshop, Washington, D.C.,

小团体的合作和收购纪律的行为 小团体的合作和收购纪律的行为

Reflection

A practical application of Game Theory sheds light.

Selten (1973) found that “4 are Few & 6 are Many”.

Groups are self-disciplining without significant monitoring and policing costs when the number of people involved are less than 6. The finite number of collaborators in the buying and trading groups found by the authors may reflect:

(1) The balance between the need to work together to achieve economies in procurement and distribution on one hand, and,

(2) The need to minimize costs and effort required to monitor and discourage shirking, without need of complex contractual arrangements on the other.

Behaviour & Discipline in Small Trading GroupsBehaviour & Discipline in Small Trading Groups

Reflections

Consumers face quality uncertainty

Quality for “Search” goods can determined through simple inspection.

Quality for “Experience”goods must be sampled

before their quality or properties are known.**

In the absence of reliable inspection services, consumers must incur “search” costs to discriminate between heterogenous products.

Consumers’ “Search” costs can be reduced by: (a) becoming better informed themselves, and

(b) making repeat purchases from suppliers they have found to be trustworthy and reliable.

Quality Assurance, Search vs. Experience Gppds, Quality Assurance, Search vs. Experience Gppds, Building Reputation and TrustBuilding Reputation and Trust

Heilman, C, Bowman, D, and G Wright (2000) The Evolution of Preferences and Choice Behaviors of Consumers New to a Market, Journal of Market Research, May.

** Not all consumers are alike; some consumers may be more astute at judging quality through simple inspection while others may need to sample the goods.

Rising Demand, Trade Prospects and the Rise of China's Horticultural Industry

China's Evolving Agri-Food Sector:Challenges for NAFTA Countries

Remarks on

a NAAMIC commissioned paper by Rozelle, Paggi, Sumner and Huang

1. Review, Reiteration and Context of Some Major Observations Made by the Authors

2. Examination of Constraints, Bottlenecks, Supply Chain Challenges Identified

3. Summing Up: Things to Watch For

Summing Up: Things to Watch ForSumming Up: Things to Watch For

Credit Biases may have retarded adjustment into sectors like horticulture.

Ironically, greater foreign presence in the banking sector may well help break down biases against farmers and private entrepreneurs. So, a greater foreign presence in banking will help China’s farmers. China is to open its banking sector at the end of this year, under its WTO obligations.

Tenure Policy Biases may have retarded adjustment as well.

If progressive steps continue to be taken, horticultural production will likely expand considerably, particularly perennial crops if tenure insecurity issues are dealt with. Several leading officials have suggested that changes are likely within the next 5 years.

Migration Policies

Policies aimed at “Keeping Folks on the Farm” may have resulted in horticultural production as a second-best solution to raise income.

Summing Up: Things to Watch ForSumming Up: Things to Watch For

Transportation and Infrastructure- enable the development of a market economy and trade- determine the capacity for trade in perishables and non- China has already shown some strength in regional markets for vegetables, temperate fruit, poultry and pork … but longer term prospects depend on putting prerequisite infrastructure in place

Water and Its Management will be Critical

Water charges currently encourage waste, with both economic and environmental consequences. Higher charges are unlikely to significantly impair horticulture production but preliminary research suggest that wheat and corn production are likely to be adversely affected.

China’s farmers are poor, highly adaptable and extremely resilient.

China’s farmers and rural citizens have survived and, sometimes, even thrived in spite of historical discrimination against them. As China embraces more incentive-based approaches, farmers are likely to prove highly responsive.

The EndThe End

Thank You!Thank You!