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Page 1: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during
Page 2: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

Bread in Palestine1.3 grams of sa l t for 100 grams of f lour

fort i f ied with 10 e lementsH i s t o ry o f B r e a d i n d i f f e r e n t c u lt u r e s a c r o s s c e n t u r i e s

i l pane in Palestina1,3 grammi d i sa le per 100 grammi d i

far ina fort i f icata con 10 e lement i

l a s t o r i a d e l Pa n e r a c c o n tata n e l l e d i v e r s e c u lt u r e

at t r av e r s o i s e c o l i

Page 3: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

PROFUGO

Hanno incatenato la sua boccae legato le sue mani alla pietra dei morti.

Hanno detto: “Assassino!”,Gli hanno tolto il cibo, le vesti, le bandiere

E lo hanno gettato nella cella dei morti.Hanno detto: “Ladro!”,

Lo hanno rifiutato in tutti i porti,Hanno portato via il suo piccolo amore,

Poi hanno detto: “Profugo!”.Tu che hai piedi e mani insanguinati,

La notte è effimera,Né gli anelli delle catene sono indistruttibili,

Perché i chicchi della mia spiga che va seccandoRiempiranno la valle di grano.

Mahmud Darwish

ON MAN

They gagged his mouthBound his hands to the rock of the dead

And said, “Murderer!”They took his food, clothes, and banners

Cast him into the condemned cellAnd said: “Thief!”

They drove him away from every portTook away his young sweetheart

Then said: “Refugee!” You who has bloodied feet and hands

Night is short-livedNeither do the rings of the chains last forever,

And seeds from a withered earWith wheat shall fill the valley.

Mahmoud Darwish

Page 4: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

Premessa

Dal frumento

Al pane

Nella storia e nella fede

Le ricette

14

18

20

48

54

INDICE

Introduction

From wheat

To bread

In history and in faith

The recipes

14

18

20

48

54

TAbLE OF CONTENT

Page 5: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

Ramallah, November 20th 2016

The Palestinian Ministry of Health, jointly

with the Palestinian Standard Institute (PSI),

adopted flour fortification in 2006, with

supplementation of ten micronutrients as

iron, folic acid, niacin, Vit A , C, D, B1, B6,

b12, and zinc, in order to control different

types of choronic diseases, such as ane-

mia and malnutrition.

Ten years after, in 2016, the regulation

of the content of salt in bread has been

adopted. The Ministry of Health together

with PSI introduced the reference of 1.3

grams of salt per 100 grams of flour in

bread preparation. This action was taken

to reduce morbidity and mortality related

to chronic diseases, in particular cardiovas-

cular diseases and cancer, which are the

two leading causes of death in Palestine,

accounting for 40-50% of the mortality.

The implementation of this regulation on

salt reduction is monitored by the Envi-

ronmental Health Inspectors of the Pales-

tinian Ministry of Health, jointly with the

Inspectors of Consumers’ Protection of the

Ministry of National Economy, in order to

ensure:

Ramallah, 20 novembre 2016

Il Ministero della Salute Palestinese, con

il Palestinian Standard Institute (PSI), ha

adottato la regolamentazione sulla for-

tificazione della farina nel 2006 con

l’obiettivo di controllare diverse malattie

croniche, quali anemia e malnutrizione, ag-

giungendo nella farina micronutrienti quali

ferro, acido folico, niacina, Vitamina A, C,

D, B1, B6, B12 e zinco.

Dieci anni dopo, nel 2016, è la volta della

quantità di sale nel pane: il Ministero della

Salute, con il PSI, ha introdotto il valore

riferimento di 1,3 grammi di sale per 100

grammi di farina con l’obiettivo di ridurre la

morbilità e la mortalità causate da malattie

croniche non trasmissibili, quali le malattie

cardio-vascolari e tumori, che sono le due

principali cause di mortalità, essendo re-

sponsabili del 40%-50% dei decessi in Pal-

estina.

Tali attività sorvegliate dagli Ispettori di

Sanità Ambientale del Ministero della Sa-

lute e dagli Ispettori per la Protezione dei

Consumatori del Ministero dell’Economia

assicurano:

Page 6: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

1. Reduction of morbidity due to chronic

diseases;

2. Reduction of mortality due to chronic

diseases;

3. Reduction of hospitalization related to

chronic diseases;

4. Increase of the life expectancy as a

long term result;

5. Reduction of health expenditure;

6. Improvement of health indicators.

I would like to thank the Italian Agency for

Development Cooperation for its support

to the Palestinian Ministry of Health.

Jawad Awwad Minister of Health Palestinian Ministry of Health

1. Riduzione della morbilità da malattie

croniche;

2. Riduzione della mortalità da malattie

croniche;

3. Riduzione dell’ospedalizzazione a

causa delle malattie croniche;

4. Aumento della speranza di vita;

5. Diminuzione della spesa sanitaria;

6. Miglioramento degli indicatori sani-

tari.

Vorrei ringraziare l’Agenzia Italiana per la

Cooperazione allo Sviluppo per l’impor-

tante supporto fornito al Ministero della

Salute Palestinese.

Jawad Awwad Ministro della SaluteMinistero della Salute Palestinese

Page 7: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

Jerusalem, November 15th 2016

This book covers the story of bread from its nutritional and cultural aspects, as a source of life and a symbol of abundance, in different periods and for different re-ligions. From the first traceable produc-tion, almost 10 thousand years ago, to the Pharaonic times. From more than twenty types of bread mentioned by Plinius the Elder in ancient Rome (Juvenal described in “Panem et circenses – bread and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during the Renaissance – the introduction of leavening at the court of the Medicis – up to modern times.

One statistic among many: in Palestine the pro capita monthly consumption of bread and cereals amounts to 10 kg, equal to 16% of the average monthly expenditure of families on food. In Italy this percentage does not exceed 2.9% .

The sanitary situation of the Palestinian population is characterized by an ad-vanced phase of demographic and epide-miological transition, with an increase in life expectancy, decrease in the infant and maternal mortality rates. There is however a progressive increase in non-infectious chronic diseases (cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, tumours and respiratory prob-lems). The high level of coverage of vac-cination programmes and services provid-ed during pregnancy and childbirth have contributed to keeping infectious diseases

Gerusalemme, 15 novembre 2016

Questo libro ripercorre la storia del pane nei suoi aspetti nutrizionali, culturali, come fonte di vita e simbolo di abbondanza, in differenti epoche e religioni. Dalla prima produzione rintracciabile, circa 10 mila anni fa, fino all’Egitto dei Faraoni. Dalle oltre venti tipologie di pane di cui narra Plinio il Vecchio nell’antica Roma (Giovenale de-scriveva in “panem et circenses” il segreto del consenso popolare) al Medioevo. Dalla grande rivoluzione della panificazione in epoca rinascimentale – l’introduzione alla corte dei Medici del lievito di birra – fino ai giorni nostri.

Un dato su tutti: in Palestina il consumo mensile pro-capite di pane e cereali assom-ma a 10 kg, pari al 16% della spesa media mensile delle famiglie in cibo. In Italia non supera il 2.9%.

La situazione sanitaria della popolazione palestinese è caratterizzata da un’avanzata fase di transizione demografica ed epide-miologica con crescita dell’aspettativa di vita, diminuzione della mortalità infantile e materna. Vi e’ pero’ un aumento progressi-vo delle malattie croniche non trasmissibili (malattie cardiovascolari, diabete, tumori e malattie respiratorie). L’elevata copertura dei programmi vaccinali e dei servizi di as-sistenza alla gravidanza ed al parto hanno consentito un buon controllo delle malat-tie infettive e delle complicanze perinatali.

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and perinatal complications under control. Chronic, non-infectious diseases, on the other hand, account for more than 70% of the mortality rate, notwithstanding the young age of the population (40% of the population is under 15 years of age).

This tendency is associated to the unfa-vourable combination of behavioural risk factors (smoking, physical inactivity) and the high level of poverty, unemployment, and psychosocial stress. An unhealthy diet is among the major causes. Hence, priority must be given to the promotion of health and to primary and secondary prevention, on the individual and community levels, with particular attention given to nutrition. This requires the strengthening of primary health care services and their re-orientation according to the family medicine model, to guarantee the continuity of assistance, the integration of preventive and clinical ser-vices, sanitary education, and auto-cure. This is a model that the Palestinian Ministry of Health is promoting on the basis of the National Health Strategy 2017-2022.

For many years now, Italy has been the leader in cooperation projects in the health sector in Palestine. It is an all-out effort that involves important resources and a wide range of actions. Among these, an impor-tant place is reserved for correct nutrition, beginning with bread.

Fabio SokolowiczConsul General of Italy in Jerusalem

Le malattie croniche non trasmissibili sono pero’ responsabili di più del 70% della mortalità, pur a fronte di una popolazione molto giovane (il 40% ha meno di 15 anni).

Si tratta di una tendenza associata alla sfa-vorevole combinazione di fattori di rischio comportamentali (fumo, inattività fisica) con elevato livello di povertà, disoccu-pazione e stress psicosociale. Tra le mag-giori cause vi e’ una dieta insalubre. Di qui, la priorita’ da attribuire alla promozione della salute e alla prevenzione primaria e secondaria a livello individuale e di comu-nità, con un’attenzione speciale per la nu-trizione. Questi interventi richiedono il po-tenziamento dei servizi di cure primarie ed il loro riorientamento secondo il modello di medicina famiglia, per favorire la conti-nuità assistenziale, l’integrazione dei servi-zi preventivi e clinici, l’educazione sanitaria e l’autocura. Un modello che il Ministero della Salute Palestinese sta promuoven-do, anche sulla base della National Health Strategy 2017-2022. L’Italia, ormai da anni, e’ protagonista nella cooperazione nel settore sanitario. Si tratta di uno sforzo a tutto campo, che coinvolge importanti risorse ed un ampio ventaglio di azioni. Tra di esse, un posto centrale e’ riservato alla corretta nutrizione. A cominciare dal pane. Fabio SokolowiczConsole Generale d’Italia a Gerusalemme

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Bethlehem, November 20th 2016

As in other low-middle income countries of the Middle-East Region, Palestine is cross-ing a demographic, epidemiologic, social and nutrition transition. The burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is increasing with cardiovascular dis-eases, cancer, diabetes and chronic respira-tory diseases ranking among the top causes of death. The spreading of behavioral risk factors of NCDs, such as smoking, physical inactivity and unhealthy nutrition is boost-ed by societal changes, corporate practices and stressful daily life conditions linked to poverty, unemployment and military occu-pation.

For many years, the Italian Cooperation has fulfilled a prominent role in the health sec-tor, being also the Lead Donor under the division of labor by EU Member States. Italian Cooperation supports the efforts of the Ministry of Health to control the spread of NCDs in many areas: prevention of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, wom-en’s health with reference to early diagno-sis of breast cancer, community health and psychosocial rehabilitation, mainstreaming of disability, training and communication in public health, and development of infra-structure for primary health care.In particular, the Italian Cooperation sup-ports the Ministry of Health in its effort to reduce dietary salt consumption in Pales-tine. It is worth noting that bread is an im-portant part of our diet and a good source of nutrients and fiber – but, because we

Betlemme, 20 novembre 2016

La Palestina - come altri paesi a reddito medio-basso della regione mediorientale – attraversa una fase di transizione de-mografica, epidemiologica, sociale e nu-trizionale. Le malattie croniche non trasmissibili, quali le malattie cardiovascolari, i tumori, il dia-bete e le malattie respiratorie, sono tra le principali cause di mortalità in Palestina; inoltre, gli stili di vita poco salubri, carat-terizzati da fumo, inattività fisica, e cattiva alimentazione, in aggiunta a condizioni di stress dovute a disoccupazione, povertà e occupazione militare, ne favoriscono l’au-mento.

Per molti anni, la Cooperazione Italiana ha svolto un ruolo importante nel settore sanitario e dal 2013 l’Italia è Lead Donor Europeo, supportando il Ministero della Salute Palestinese nel controllo delle malattie croniche non trasmissibili in diversi campi: prevenzione dei fattori di rischio per le malattie cardiovascolari; salute della donna con particolare atten-zione alla diagnosi precoce del tumore della mammella; riabilitazione psicosociale e terapia comunitaria, integrazione della disabilità, attività di sanità pubblica, e svi-luppo di infrastrutture per cure primarie. In particolare, la Cooperazione Italiana ha sostenuto il Ministero della Salute nelle politiche di riduzione di sale nel pane, pro-dotto alimentare essenziale e ricco di fibre per la nostra dieta ma anche largamente usato, per cui il sale contenuto nel pane,

Page 10: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

eat it frequently, it is also the single big-gest contributor of salt. High salt diets re-sult in high blood pressure, leading to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke as well as cancer. Palestine has a long experience in the reg-ulation in the nutrition sector: the fortifica-tion of wheat flour with 10 elements dating 2006. In December 2015, the Palestinian Standard Institute (PSI) approved - as pro-posed by the Ministry of Health with the technical assistance of the Italian Cooper-ation - a resolution (2015/37) for healthy nutrition setting the reference value for salt content in flour at 1.3 grams of salt per 100 grams of flour. The instructions focus on the gradual reduction of salt in bread and bakery products of 15% in the next 3 years in order to adjust consumers’ palates to ac-cept less salty products. The environmental health inspectors from Ministry of Health and consumers’ protection inspectors from the Ministry of National Economy - together with the food producers’ association - are in charge to monitor the compliance to the enforced regulation.

So far, Palestine is one of the first Arab countries that established a mandatory program for salt reduction and we thank the Italian Cooperation for its contribution in improving health services including nutrition in Palestine.

Assad Ramlawi Deputy Minister of HealthPalestinian Ministry of Health

se é a concentrazioni superiori a quelle con-sigliate, può aumentare il rischio di patolo-gie quali ipertensione, malattie cardiovasco-lari e tumori.

La Palestina ha una lunga esperienza nel processo di regolamentazione del settore alimentare: per esempio, la fortificazione della farina con dieci micronutrienti risale al 2006. Nel dicembre 2015, il Palestinian Standard Institute (PSI) ha approvato – come suggerito dal Ministero della Salute con l’as-sistenza tecnica della Cooperazione Italiana - la risoluzione 215/37 che regola la quantità di sale nel pane a 1,3 grammi per 100 gram-mi di farina, con una progressiva riduzione del 15% nel pane e nei prodotti da forno nei prossimi 3 anni in modo da dare la pos-sibilità ai consumatori di adeguare il gusto al pane con un contenuto inferiore di sale.Gli ispettori sanitari del Ministero della Salute e gli ispettori per la protezione dei consumatori del Ministero dell’Economia - in collaborazione con l’associazione dei produttori palestinesi - hanno il compito di monitorare l’applicazione della legge.

La Palestina è diventato così uno dei primi paesi arabi ad aver introdotto un program-ma di diminuzione del consumo di sale e ringrazio la Cooperazione Italiana per il suo supporto volto al miglioramento del sistema sanitario Palestinese, ivi incluso il settore alimentare.

Assad Ramlawi Vice Ministro della SaluteMinistero della Salute Palestinese

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Jerusalem, November 15th 2016

For decades, the Italian Cooperation has played a significant role among donors in the health sector and has contributed to the development of the public health system in Palestine. Throughout the years, support has been provided to the development of the hospital network, primary care services and the Central Laboratory of Public Health through the realiza-tion of different initiatives, such as POSIT and CRONO, aimed at strength-ening primary and secondary pre-vention services of chronic noncom-municable diseases as well as their diagnosis and treatment. A large part of chronic disease is potentially pre-ventable, at individual and population levels, by addressing behavioural risk factors, such as smoking, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity.

On the basis of the experiences of these projects – in synergy with the Palestinian Ministry of Health and the Palestinian Standard Institute (PSI), a government entity which is concerned with standards and whose resolutions have value of law – the regulation of salt in bread was adopted in line with the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO). Its recom-mendations single out the reduction of salt as one of the most effective pub-lic health interventions to reduce the burden of chronic noncommunicable

Gerusalemme, 15 novembre 2016

La Cooperazione Italiana svolge da de-cenni un ruolo di rilievo tra i donatori del settore sanitario e ha contribuito a sviluppare il sistema sanitario pubbli-co in Palestina. Negli anni, è stato for-nito sostegno allo sviluppo della rete ospedaliera e dei servizi di cure pri-marie, e all’istituzione del Laboratorio Centrale di Sanità Pubblica, attraverso la realizzazione di diverse iniziative, quali POSIT e CRONO, volte al raf-forzamento dei servizi di prevenzione primaria e secondaria delle malattie croniche non trasmissibili nonché alla loro diagnosi e cura. Una larga quota di malattie croniche è potenzialmente prevenibile agendo, a livello individuale e di popolazione, sui fattori di rischio comportamentali, quali il fumo, la die-ta insalubre e l’inattività fisica.

È da queste esperienze progettuali - in sinergia con il Ministero della Salute Palestinese e il Palestinian Standard Institute (PSI), ente governativo che si occupa di standard e i cui provve-dimenti hanno valore di legge - che nasce l’idea di introdurre in Palestina la regolamentazione del sale nel pane in linea con le raccomandazioni dell’Or-ganizzazione Mondiale della Sanità (OMS) che individuano la riduzione del sale come uno degli interventi di sanità pubblica più efficaci per ridurre il carico delle malattie croniche non

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diseases (above all cardiovascular diseases) which are the major global killers: 36 million people die every year from chronic illnesses which is 63% of global mortality.In the study “Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases” con-ducted in 2003 under the responsibil-ity of the WHO, experts recommend-ed reducing the average consumption of salt to 5 grams per person per day (in Palestine it is estimated at 7 grams per capita per day).

European Lead Donor in the Pales-tinian health sector and member of the World Action on Salt and Health (WASH), Italy - through a timely ac-tion of the Italian Cooperation in Palestine and applying the experi-ence developed in Great britain, one of the first countries in the world to intervene in this area - has support-ed the approach adopted by the Pal-estinian Ministry of Health, based on the gradual reduction of salt in bread with the goal of making acceptable salt reduction in bread to the con-sumer taste. A study carried out in August 2015 among bakers of all dis-tricts of the West bank estimated the average amount of salt added to flour during bread-making to be 1.3 grams of salt per 100 grams of flour. This value became the reference to which bakers must comply after the approv-al of PSI resolution 2015/37 (Decem-ber 8th 2015).

trasmissibili (soprattutto cardiovasco-lari) che sono i maggiori killer a livello globale: 36 milioni di persone muoiono ogni anno per malattie croniche, che corrispondono al 63% della mortalità mondiale. Nello studio “Diet, nutri-t ion and the prevention of chronic diseases” condotto nel 2003 su in-car ico del l ’OMS, gl i espert i hanno raccomandato di r idurre i l consumo medio da parte del la popolaz ione a 5 grammi pro capite al giorno ( in Palest ina è st imato a 7 grammi pro capite al giorno). Lead Donor Europeo nel settore salute in Palestina e membro della World Ac-tion on Salt and Health (WASH), l’Italia - attraverso una puntuale azione della Cooperazione Italiana in Palestina e sulla scorta dell’esperienza maturata in Gran Bretagna, uno dei primi Paesi al mondo a intervenire in questo campo - ha supportato l’approccio adottato dal Ministero della Salute Palestinese, basato sulla riduzione graduale di sale nel pane al fine di renderla accettabile al gusto dei consumatori. Un’indagine svolta nell’agosto 2015 tra i panifica-tori di tutti i distretti della Cisgiorda-nia ha stimato il valore medio di sale aggiunto alla farina durante la panifi-cazione a 1,3 grammi di sale per 100 grammi di farina. Tale valore è divenu-to il riferimento a cui panificatori de-vono adeguarsi dopo l’approvazione della risoluzione 2015/37 (8 dicembre 2015) da parte del PSI.

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Il provvedimento implica il monitorag-gio dell’adesione da parte dei panifi-catori e sarà seguito da ulteriori dec-rementi del valore indice nei prossimi anni. La Palestina è diventato così uno dei primi paesi mediorientali ad aver introdotto un programma di diminuz-ione del consumo di sale, passo sig-n i f i ca t i vo verso la r iduz ione de i fattor i di r ischio nel la prevenzione delle malattie croniche non trasmis-s ib i l i .

E ora è la volta dello zucchero e dei grassi animali….

The measure entails monitoring of the bakers’ compliance and will be fol-lowed by further reductions of the con-tent of salt in bread in the following years. Thus, Palestine has become one of the first middle-east countries to introduce a programme to reduce the consumption of salt, a significant step toward the reduction of risk factors in the prevention of chronic noncommu-nicable diseases.

And now sugar and animal fats are next . . . .

Vincenzo Racalbuto Rappresentante dell’Agenzia Italiana per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo Sede di Gerusalemme dal 2012 al 2016Representat ive of the Ital ian Agency for Development Cooperation Jerusalem Office from 2012 to 2016

Enrico Materia Esperto di Salute Pubblica presso l’Agenzia Italiana per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo Sede di Gerusalemme dal 2013 al 2016Public Health Expert at the Italian Agency for Development CooperationJerusalem Office from 2013 to 2016

Cristina Natoli Attuale Rappresentante dell’Agenzia Italiana per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo Sede di GerusalemmeCurrent Representative of the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation Jerusalem Office

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Nota: questa introduzione porta tre firme - Vincenzo Racalbuto, Enrico Materia e Cristina Natoli – perché fortemente voluta dal Rappresentante della Sede AICS di Gerusalemme V. Racalbuto e dall’esperto di Salute Pubblica E. Materia i quali hanno creduto e investito nelle iniziative volte alla prevenzione delle malattie croniche non trasmissibili durante i loro quattro di lavoro in Palestina. Lasciano l’eredità a Cristina Natoli, nuovo Rappresentante della Sede AICS di Gerusa lemme, augurando le buon lavoro .

Note: This introduction has three signatures - Vincenzo Racalbuto, Enrico Materia and Cristina Natoli as strongly desired by the Representative of AICS Jerusalem Office V. Racalbuto and the Public Health expert E. Ma-teria both of whom believed in and invested in the initiatives direct-ed towards prevention of chronic noncommunicable diseases during their four years of work in Palestine. They leave the legacy to the new Repre-sentative of AICS Jerusalem Office, Cristina Natoli, wishing her success.

Si ringraziano Alfonso Anania, Sandro Accorsi, esperti di Salute Pubblica, Laura Rossi, Ricercatore Centro di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la Nutrizione e Francesca Nardi per aver dedicato il loro impegno alla realizzazione di questa pubblicazione.

We would like to express our gratitude to Alfonso Anania, Sandro Accorsi, Public Health experts, Laura Rossi, Ph.D. Centre for Research on Food and Nutrition and Francesca Nardi who worked hard for the realization for this publication.

Fotografie di Francesca Nardi

Pictures from Francesca Nardi

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14

Alimento-icona della dieta mediterranea, il pane è un cibo antichissimo, simbolo di vita, che ha nutrito l’uomo fin dai primordi, l’alimento base che riassume tutti gli altri, assurto a misura dei valori della quotidianità:

“guadagnarsi il pane” signifi-ca guadagnars i da v ivere;

Iconic food of the Mediter-ranean diet, bread is an an-cient source of nourishment. The symbol of life that has nurtured man since the be-ginning, the staple food that sums up all the others, it has become a measure of the val-ues of everyday life:

“one’s bread and butter” means one’s livelihood;

IntroductionPremessa

01

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15

“to break bread with some-one” is to have a meal with someone;

the “breadwinner” is the per-son who earns money to sup-port a family and “bread” and “dough” are informal terms for money.

Bread is the quintessential food in Middle Eastern cul-ture.

In the Palestinian Territories the monthly per capita con-sumption of bread and cereals amounts to 10 kg, 16% of the average monthly family food expenditure (Palestinian Cen-tral bureau of Statistics, 2011) while in Italy it is not more than 2.9%. In Palestine bread also consti-tutes the principal source of introduction of salt, at 7 grams per person per day, 50% more than the 5 grams the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends to not exceed.

The WHO says reduction of salt in the diet is the most efficient public health inter-vention to reduce the risk of contracting chronic noncom-

“perdere il pane” è sinonimo di restare senza lavoro;

“buono come il pane”, preso come modello di qualità.

Il pane è l’alimento per ec-cellenza nella cultura del Medio Oriente.

Nei Territori Palestinesi i l consumo mensile procapite di pane e cereali assomma a 10 kg, pari al il 16 % della spesa media mensile delle famiglie in cibo (Palestinian Central bureau of Statistics 2011), mentre in Italia non supera il 2.9%.In Palestina il pane rappre-senta anche la principale fonte di introito di sale, che è stato valutato in 7 gram-mi al giorno procapite, i l 50% in più dei 5 grammi chel’Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità (OMS) racco-manda di non superare. Sem-pre l’OMS indica la riduzione del sale nella dieta come l’intervento di sanità pubbli-ca più efficiente per ridurre il

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rischio di contrarre malattie croniche non trasmissibili, in particolare cardio-vascolari, che sono i maggiori killer a livello globale.Nell’ambito del programma “POSIT”, promosso dal la Cooperazione Ital iana nel settore delle cure primarie e delle malattie croniche, un’indagine svolta nell’agos-to 2015 tra i forni di tutti i distretti della Cisgiordania ha identificato il valore me-dio del sale utilizzato nella panificazione in 1,3 grammi ogni 100 grammi di farina.

Questi sono i valori massimi, trasformati in grammi di sale per 100 grammi di pane, in-dicati nella nuova regolam-entazione sul contenuto di sale nel pane pubblicata il 7 giugno 2016 a firma con-giunta dal Ministero della Salute palestinese (MoH) e il Palestinian Standard Insti-tute (PSI), l’ente governativo che si occupa di standard e i cui provvedimenti hanno va-lore di legge.

“Limite massimo per alcuni ingredienti nella produzione di alcuni alimenti: sale da tavola (cloruro di sodio) nel

municable diseases in particu-lare cardio vascular which are the biggest global killers.

In the context of the “POSIT” programme, promoted by the Italian Cooperation in the sec-tor of primary care and chronic disease, a study done in Au-gust 2015 among the bakers of all districts of the West bank identified the average amount of salt used in bread making as 1.3 grams for every 100 grams of flour.

These are the maximum num-bers, transformed in grams of salt per 100 grams of bread, indicated in the new rules for the content of salt in bread as published June 7th 2016 by the Palestinian Ministry of Health (MoH) and the Palestin-ian Standard Institute (PSI), the governing body concerned with standards and whose de-cisions have legal value.

“Maximum limits for some ingredients in the produc-tion of some food: table salt (sodium chloride) in bread in

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pane in tutte le sue forme: 1.04 grammi per 100 gram-mi di pane”.

Il provvedimento, punto di riferimento cui i panettieri devono adeguarsi, implica il monitoraggio del rispetto dei limiti imposti e sarà se-guito da ulteriori decrementi del valore indice nei prossi-mi anni.

La Palestina è così i l pri-mo paese medior ienta le a aver introdotto un pro-gramma d i d iminuz ione del consumo di sale, passo significativo verso la riduz-ione dei fattori di rischio ne l la prevenz ione de l le malattie non trasmissibil i .

E in Italia?Secondo l’ INRAN (Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la Nutrizione), il consumo di sale è tra i più alti in Europa: circa 10-12 grammi al giorno, più del doppio dei 5 grammi racco-mandati dall’OMS, e il con-tenuto medio di sale per 100 gr di pane è di 1,7 grammi, mentre in Inghilterra è di solo 1,1 grammi.

all its forms: 1.04 grams for 100 grams of bread”.

The decision, a point of ref-erence to which bakers must adapt, entails monitoring of compliance and will be fol-lowed by further reductions in the reference number in the following years.

Palestine is thus the firstMiddle Eastern country to have introduced a pro-gramme to reduce salt con-sumption, a significant step towards the reduction of risk factors in the prevention of noncommunicable diseases.

And in Italy?According to the INRAN (Na-tional Institute for Food and Nutrition Research), the con-sumption of salt is among the highest in Europe: about 10-12 grams per day, more than double the 5 grams rec-ommended by the WHO, and the average content of salt per 100 grams of bread is 1.7 grams, while in England it is only 1.1 grams.

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Il grano o frumento (Triticum) è un cereale di antica coltu-ra, tra le prime piante ad es-sere coltivate. Il centro della sua domesticazione è stato identificato sui monti Kara-cadag, nel centro geometrico dell’ampia area che dai rilie-vi iraniani e dalle montagne dell’Anatolia raggiunge la costa della Palestina, com-prendendo la valle del Tigri

The wheat grain (Triticum) is an ancient cultivated cere-al, among the first plants to be cultivated. The center of its domestication has been identified on the Karacadag mountains, in the geographic center of the wide area which from the Iranian elevations and the mountains of Anato-lia arrives at the Palestinian coast, including the Tigris and

From wheatDal frumento

02

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Euphrates valleys: the Fertile Crescent, an area that could be considered the cradle of modern grasses.

The earliest known selectors of wheat that we know of were the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine, where agricul-tural tools have been found for reaping going back to the Stone Age, from 8,000 to 3,000 b.C. From there the election occurred in Egypt where barley was already be-ing produced.

The cult ivation of wheat pushed the first human soci-eties to form complex organ-ization, induced the first cul-tivators to realize networks of canals to extend their farming and build cities defended by walls to protect the harvest, and organize armies to de-fend the irrigated territory from nomads in addition to procuring slaves to extend the canals to new areas. The economic value of wheat was such that in babylon of the III millennium b.C. it was usas a unit of measure and of money.

In these terms, wheat re-quired humans to organize civil society.

e dell’Eufrate: la Mezzaluna fertile, area che può essere considerata la culla delle graminacee attuali.

I più antichi selezionatori del frumento di cui si abbia noti-zia furono gli abitanti di Siria e Palestina, dove sono stati rinvenuti attrezzi agricoli per la mietitura risalenti al neolitico, dall’8.000 al 3.000 a.C., e da qui passò poi in Egitto dove già si produceva l’orzo.

La coltura del f rumento ha spinto le prime società umane a forme di organiz-zazione complesse, indotto i primi coltivatori a realizzare reti di canali per estendere la coltura, edificare città difese da mura per tutelare il rac-colto, e organizzare eserciti per difendere dai nomadi il territorio irrigato, oltre che per procurare gli schiavi per estendere i canali a nuove su-perfici.Il valore economico del gra-no era tale che nella babilo-nia del III millennio a.C. rap-presentava unità di misura di peso e di denaro. Il frumento ha costretto, in questi termini, l’uomo a or-ganizzare la società civile.

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I l frumento fu consumato all’inizio crudo, non ancora maturo e quindi morbido, di consistenza quasi lattiginosa. È probabile che i l primo pane consumato dall’uomo fosse una poltiglia di semi pestat i grossolanamente, cotta sopra una pietra ar-roventata dal sole o sulla ce-nere del focolare, e solo più

In the beginning wheat was consumed raw, not yet ma-ture and therefore soft, with an almost milky consistency.

It is likely that the first bread consumed by mankind was a mush of roughly crushed seeds, cooked over a stone made red hot from the sun or on the ashes of the hearth, and only later the mature

to breadAl pane

03

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seeds were preserved in holes dug in the ground after being roasted on the open flame or toasted in specially designed containers. Milling was a female activity, realized firstly by way of fric-tion between two flat stones, then with the use of rudimen-tary mortars or pestles.The flour made this way was kneaded with the feet in large washbasins, acidified and shaped in round loaves, and baked in the oven, done in three phases, resulted in a hard bread, perfect for long conservation and storage.

“Bread is already dry from the first day, from the sec-ond day it’s wrinkled, from the third day it is soggy, on the fourth day it has white crust, and on the fifth day has lost its col-our”. (Epic of Gilgamesh)

tardi i chicchi maturi furono conservati in buche scavate nel terreno dopo essere stati abbrustoliti sulla fiamma viva o tostati in appositi recipi-enti. La molitura era attività femminile, realizzata dappri-ma mediante la frizione tra due pietre piatte, poi con l’uso di rudimentali mortai a rullo o a pestello. La farina così ottenuta era impastata con i piedi in larghi baci-l i, acidificata e foggiata in pagnottelle rotonde; dalla cottura in forno, effettuata in tre fasi, risultava un pane duro, ottimo per la lunga conservazione e per l ’ im-magazzinamento.

“ I l pane del primo gior-no è già secco, quello del secondo giorno è raggrin-zito, quello del terzo gior-no è molliccio, quello del quarto giorno ha la crosta bianca, quello del quinto giorno ha perso colore”.(Epopea d i G i lgamesh )

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Le prime testimonianze di quest’att iv ità sono r i con -duc ib i l i a l l ’ an t i co Eg i t to attorno al 3.500 a.C., dove i l lavoro di fornaio era una vera e propria professione. ben presto all’orzo fu preferi-to il grano, perché consentiva una migliore panificazione, la quale assurse a dignità d’arte, al punto di produrre diverse qualità di pane di fa-rina bianca per le classi supe-riori, mentre l’orzo, la pelta (un tipo di cereale oggi es-tinto) e la durra (pianta simile al miglio, coltivata in Asia e in Africa) erano riservati alla panificazione per i più umili. Sempre in Egitto sono stati ritrovati, in alcune tombe lun-go il corso del Nilo, affreschi che ritraggono la coltivazione del grano, la raccolta, la mac-inazione, la miscelatura e la cottura al forno. In una tom-ba è stata ritrovata una forma di pane a focaccia p i a t t a d i c i r c a 3 . 5 0 0 a n n i f a .Sono numerose le pitture pari-etali che raffigurano la cottura del pane o la raccolta del grano, come quelle dell’aratura nella Tomba di Sennedjen, “servo del luogo della verità”, capo artigiano della necropoli te-

The first testimonials of this activity are ascribable to an-cient Egypt around 3,500 b.C. where the baker’s work was a real profession.

Very early wheat was pre-ferred to barley because it was easier to make into bread, which al lowed for skilled work to the point of producing different quali-ties of bread with white flour for the upper classes, while barley, pelta (a type of cere-al now extinct) and durra (a plant similar to millet, culti-vated in Asia and Africa) were reserved for breadmaking for the most humble. Again in Egypt, in some tombs along the course of the Nile, paint-ings which depict the cultiva-tion of wheat, harvest, grind-ing, kneading and baking in the oven have been found. In one tomb one form of focac-cia bread from about 3,500 years ago was found.There are numerous wal l paintings that show baking of bread or the harvest of grain, such as those of plow-ing in the Tomb of Senned-jen “servant of the place of truth”, head artisan of the

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bana durante i regni di Seti I e Ramesse II. La tomba, ri-trovata intatta nel 1886 nella Valle degli Artigiani, nei pres-si della Valle delle Regine, è decorata con scene che lo raffigurano insieme alla mo-glie Lynerferti mentre adora-no divinità legate al culto funerario. Altre scene illus-trano momenti rituali come il processo di imbalsamazione del defunto ad opera del dio Anubi, ma la raffigurazione più notevole è quella che rappresenta i campi di Laru nell ’aldi là benedetto dove l ’uomo morto e la moglie seminano, mietono e arano.

All’Egitto, dove il popolo si nutriva di pane condito con papavero o sesamo, si deve la scoperta di un fenomeno misterioso, dall’origine forse soprannaturale: la lievitazione, per mettere in tavola pagnotte gonfie e appetitose, fragranti e profumate.

Per ottenere il “magico” ri-sultato gli Egizi aggiungeva-no all’amalgama di chicchi macinati ed acqua un pezzet-to di pasta avanzata il giorno prima, dal sapore un poco acidulo, che, racconta Erodo-

tebana necropol is dur ing the reign of Seti I and Ram-ses II. The tomb, found in-tact in 1886 in the Valley of the Artisans, in the vicinity of the Valley of the Queens, is decorated with scenes that show him together with his wife Lyneferti while they wor-ship gods connected to fu-neral worship. Other scenes illustrate ritual moments like the process of embalming the dead as work of the god Anubi, but the most notewor-thy representation shows the fields of Laru in the blessed afterlife where the dead man and his wife seed, reap and plough.In Egypt, where the people fed themselves with bread seasoned with poppy or ses-ame, we see the discovery of a mysterious phenomenon, from a possibly supernatu-ral origin: leavening, which made raised and appetizing loaves which were fragrant and perfumed. To obtain a “magic” re-sult the Egyptians added something to the mixture of ground grains and water. It was a little piece of pasta left over from the previous day, with a sl ightly acidic

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to (V sec. a.C.), “per questo veniva gelosamente custodi-ta - come fosse cosa sacra - in ogni casa egizia”.

Gli Egizi non conoscevano ancora la biochimica, e quindi non si resero conto che con la lievitazione, oltre a migliora-re le qualità organolettiche del pane, lo arricchivano di un prezioso contenuto di vi-tamine del gruppo B!Le macine vere e proprie, dotate di palmenti mos-si da schiavi o da animali, compaiono sempre in Egit-to attorno all’XI secolo a.C., quando erano già entrati nell’uso l’aratro a chiodo di legno per agevolare la semi-na, il setaccio per la cernita della farina e il forno per la cottura del pane.

ll primo forno a legna della storia era, in realtà, un ar-chetipo molto primitivo, di

taste, and Herodotus (V cen-tury b.C.) relates: ”for this was jealously guarded – as if it were a sacred thing – in every Egyptian house” . The Egyptians did not yet know b iochemis t ry, and therefore they did not realize that leavening, in addition to improving the organoleptic quality of the bread, enriched it with a precious content of b vitamins!Proper grinders fitted with millstones moved by slaves or animals appeared in Egypt around the XI century b.C. At this time the wooden plow to assist sowing, the sieve for sorting of the flour and the oven to bake bread were al-ready in use.

The first wood burning oven in history was, in reality, a very primitive archetype, made

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forma conica e realizzato con mattoni d’argilla; il cono era suddiviso in due da una lastra di pietra: nella par-te inferiore si accendeva il fuoco e nella parte superi-ore si posizionava il cibo da cuocere.Dagli egiziani le tecniche di preparazione e cottura del pane furono trasferite ai Greci.Secondo la mitologia gre-ca, Demetra in persona, la grande dea della terra feconda e delle colture, in-segnò agli uomini la fab-bricazione del pane, ma il nome greco del pane, “ar-tos”, che può essere messo in relazione con l’“ard” in persiano e l’ “art” in iraniano, ne tradiscono l’origine dal vicino oriente.

Già Omero nel libro IX nell’ Odissea parla di pane:“Qui un uomo aveva tana, un mostro,Che greggi pasceva, solo, in disparte,E con gli altri non si mischi-ava,Ma solo viveva, aveva animo ingiusto.Era un mostro gigante; e non somigl iavaA un uomo mangiator di pane, ma a picco selvosoD’eccelsi monti, che appare isolato dagli altri”.

in a conical shape with clay bricks. The cone was divided in two by a stone plate: in the lower part the fire was lit and in the upper part the food to be cooked was placed.

From the Egyptians the tech-niques of preparation and baking bread were trans-ferred to the Greeks.According to Greek my -thology, Demeter, the great goddess of the fertile earth and farming, taught humans breadmaking in person, but the Greek name for bread, “artos” which can be com-pared with “ard” in Persian and “art” in Iranian betray its origin from the near East.

Homer spoke of bread in book IX of the Odyssey:“Here was a man’s den, a m o n s t e r, That tending flocks, alone, a loof, With the others did not mix,But lived alone, he had an unjust mood It was a giant monster; and didn’t resemble

On the lofty mountains, appears isolated from the others”.

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E ancora nel libro XX:“Farina d’orzo e farina di fru-mento sono il midollo degli uomini”.

Scavando la Troia Omerica, Heinrich Schliemann trovò pietre da mortaio per fare farine e luoghi di cottura. I fornai greci inventarono la volta a cupola che ricopre il forno e furono i primi a lavorare il pane di notte, in modo che la gente al matti-no lo trovasse cotto, fresco e croccante.Di forni se ne parla alla fine del VII secolo a.C. ed il seco-lo seguente fanno la loro comparsa i l panettiere di professione e la sua bottega.

Il pane doveva però essere qualcosa di speciale, da ser-vire solo nei giorni di festa, e senza paura di essere taccia-to di blasfemia, Erodoto può t ranqui l lamente affermare che pane e acqua a suffi-cienza possono fare un uomo “beato alla pari di Zeus”.I Greci introdussero nuove spezie e nuovi aromi, arrivando a crearne, secondo l’informa-tissimo Ateneo di Naucrati, dec ine di varietà diverse, ed è di epoca alessandrina

And again in book XX:“Barley and wheat flour are the core of mankind”.

Excavating in Homerian Troy, Heinrich Schliemann found stones from mortars to make flour and baking places. Greek bakers invented the domed vault that covers the oven and were the first to work with bread at night, so in the morning people could have it baked, fresh and cr ispy.Ovens are talked about at the end of the VII century B.C. and the following cen-tury professional bakers and bakeries appear.

but bread had to be some-thing special, served only during holidays, and with-out fear of being accused of blasphemy Herodotus could easi ly aff irm that enough bread and water can make a man “as blessed as Zeus”.The Greeks introduced new spices and flavors, and ac-cording to the well-informed Athenaeus of Naucrat is , managed to create tens of different varieties. In the Al-exandrian epoch there was a

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i l f iorire di una letteratura sul pane e sui dolci: Iatrocle, Arpocrazione, Archestrato, Trifone di Alessandria, per ci-tare i più noti, sono i Pellegri-no Artusi dell’antichità.Il più diffuso era la “maza”, una galletta di farina d’orzo, consumata dai meno abbien-ti, che riservavano ai giorni di festa il pane di farina di fru-mento, più pregiato.Quello venduto nell ’Agorà di Atene, detto “agoraios”, era il più rinomato dell’At-tica, mentre per Ippocrate i l migliore era l’”obelites”, cotto allo spiedo, mentre la caratteristica forma a fungo distingueva il “boletos”. Pani speciali erano preparati per varie ricorrenze: i l “game-lio”, impastato con miele e sesamo, era consumato nel banchetto nuziale, e la “koli-va” di semi e frutta secca, im-pastati con miele, era imman-cabile nei funerali.Successivamente, nel II seco-lo a.C., a seguito della con-quista dell’Ellade, la profes-sione dei fornai, prediletta dai liberti greci, compare an-che a Roma. La tradizione latina attribuisce a Cerere la scoperta del fru-mento e narra come Pan sia

flowering of literature about bread and sweets: Iatrocle, Arpocrazione, Archestrato, Trifone of Alexandria, to cite the most well-known, are the Pellegrino Artusis of antiquity.The most common was the “maza” , a cracker of bar-ley flour, eaten by the less wealthy, who saved the more valued wheat flour bread for ho l idays .That sold in the Agora of Athens, cal led “agoraios” , was the most famous for At-tica, while for Hippocrates the best was the “obelites”, baked on a skewer, and the characteristic mushroom form distinguished the “boletos”. Special breads were prepared for various celebrations: the “gamelio” mixed with honey and sesame was consumed at wedding banquets, and the “koliva” with dried fruit seeds mixed with honey was essen-tial at funerals.Successively, in the II century B.C., following the conquest of Greece, the profession of baker, favored by Greek liber-ties, appears also in Rome.

Latin tradition attributes to Ceres the discovery of wheat and narrates how Pan was the

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stato il primo a cuocerlo. Un dio ed una dea si pongono dunque alle origini di un cibo che è essenziale per la vita. E sarebbe proprio i l nume maschile ad avergli dato il suo nome: pane da Pan, an-che se è più probabile che il “panis” dei nostri antenati Romani si debba riconnettere al verbo pasco: nutrire, man-tenere, alimentare.

I Romani impiegarono le loro conoscenze di architettura per migliorare ulteriormente il forno e adattarono la parte interna alla forma di un arco al di sopra della quale si for-mava un vuoto con la parete esterna e questa funzionava come isolante termico.Il forno a legna divenne così importante nella civiltà roma-na che in onore alla dea For-nace, che proteggeva il pane, venivano organizzate le feste Fornicalia.

first to bake it as bread. A god and goddess thus estab-lished the origins of a food which is essential for l ife. And it would be in fact the masculine god to have giv-en us his name: “pane” from Pan, even if it is more likely that “panis” from our Roman ancestors should be connect-ed to the verb pasco: nour-ish, maintain, feed.

The Romans employed their knowledge of architecture to further improve the oven and adapted the internal part in an arched shape above which an opening was formed with the external part. This functioned as a heat in-sulator. The wood oven became so important in Roman civiliza-tion that in honor of the god-dess Fornace, who protected bread, the Fornicalia feasts were organized.

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A Roma, nei pressi della Por-ta Maggiore, è possibile ve-dere ancora oggi un monu-mento che venne eretto alla gloria dei fornai. Si tratta di una specie di torre formata da tre grandi vasi in cui si lasciava il pane a lievitare. I vasi sono disposti impila-ti verticalmente e orizzon-talmente, gli uni sugli altri, il tutto è sormontato da un affresco che rappresenta le varie operazioni che subisce il chicco di grano fino a che diventa pane. La macinatura del grano era assicurata dal lavoro di un asino, che giran-do faceva muovere delle pe-santi lastre di pietra conica.Ai piedi del monumento si trova scritto il nome di Mar-cus Vergilius Eurysaces, for-naio e fornitore ufficiale di pane.Sempre i Romani sostituirono la macina in pietra azionata da schiavi o animali con il mulino che sfruttava la forza dell’acqua, come testimonia Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, con-siderato il più famoso t e -o r i c o d e l l ’ a rc h i t e t t u r a d i tu t t i i tempi , e a l les t i rono ne l 168 a .C . i p r im i fo r n i pubblici in città e diedero inizio all’era artigianale del pane, utilizzando farine bianche e più raffinate.

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In Rome’s Porta Maggiore it is possible to still see to-day a monument which was erected to the glory of the bakers. It is composed of a kind of tower formed by three large vases in which bread was left to rise. The vases are arranged one in-side the other vertically and horizontally, and above is a fresco which represents the various processes done on a grain of wheat until it be-comes bread. The milling of wheat was enabled by work of a donkey, which, by turn-ing in circles, made the coni-cal heavy flat stone move.At the foot of the monument the name of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces, baker and official provider of bread, can be found.

The Romans substituted the millstones moved by slaves or animals with the mill that exploited the force of water, as attested to by Marcus Vit-ruvius Pollio, considered the most famous architecture theoretician of all time. He relates that the first public ovens in the city were set up in 168 B.C. and gave birth to the artisanal era of bread, utilising more refined white flours.

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Prima della diffusione del pane vero e proprio a Roma si consumavano delle focac-ce non lievitate e la polta, un’insipida polenta a base di farro, di cereali, accom-pagnata da alcuni legumi e molto raramente da qualche pezzetto di pesce o carne; scr ive Seneca:“Pulte, non pane, vixisse longo tempore Romanos manifestum”, ov-vero,“Di polta e non di pane vissero per lungo tempo i Romani”. Plinio il vecchio ci informa che che solo a par-tire dal 171 a.C. la produzione lasciò l’ambito familiare per passare a una manifattura in forni, per opera di artigiani specializzati, e ci lascia un lungo elenco di diverse tipol-ogie di pane.

Panis streptipcius - composto da un impasto leggero di fa-rina, acqua, latte, olio, strutto e pepe - veniva cotto rapida-mente a sfoglie sottili, forse un antenato dell’odierna pizza.

Panis candidus - confezionato con farina bianca finissima e consumato dai ricchi.

Panis secundarius - bianco ma ottenuto con una miscela di farine.

before the diffusion of bread in Rome, unleavened focaccia and polta, an insipid polenta based on spelt and cereals, was accompanied by some legumes and very rarely by a little piece of fish or meat. Seneca writes, “Pulte, non pane, vixisse longo tempo-re Romanos manifestum” , or, “The Romans lived for a long time on polta and not bread” . Pliny the Elder informs us that only starting from 171 b.C. did the production leave the family environment to be-come made in ovens through the work of specialized ar-tisans, and he leaves us a long list of different kinds of bread.

Panis streptipcius - made of a light dough of flour, water, milk, oil, lard, and pepper, and cooked quickly in thin layers, perhaps a precursor to modern pizza.

Panis candidus - prepared with very fine white flour and eaten by the rich.

Panis secundarius - white bread made with a mix of f l o u r s .

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Panis rusticus - s c u r o e r i s e r v a t o a l l a p l e b e .

Artologalum - sfoglia di pane - serviva da antipasto.

Panis adipatus - condito con pezzi di lardo e pancetta.

Panis testicius - antenato del-la piada romagnola - era pre-parato e consumato dai le-gionari negli accampamenti.

Panis si l igineus - ottenuto con farina di grano tenero di qualità superiore e di for-ma circolare; in superficie, prima della cottura, veniva-no tracciati dei solchi che lo dividevano in otto parti, in modo da essere spezzato, come all’epoca si usava, con le mani dai commensali.

Panis autopyrus - ottenuto con farina integrale non setac-ciata.

Panis cibarius - da l la forma a l l unga ta , s cu ro e poco c o s t o s o , p r o d o t t o c o n far ine d i orzo e farro setac-c iate .

Panis parthicus - spugnoso, assorbiva una quantità mag-giore di acqua.

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Panis rusticus - dark and re-served for the common people.

Artologalum - a thin layer of bread which served as a start-er.

Panis adipatus - seasoned with pieces of lard and bacon.

Panis testicius - predecessor of the thin flatbread of Romagna, prepared and consumed by the legionaires in their encampments.

Panis sil igineus - obtained with superior quality f lour from circular soft grains; be-fore cooking, the surface was traced with grooves which divided it into eight parts, to be broken with the hands of diners, as was the custom of the time.

Panis autopyrus - made with non-sifted wheat flour.

Panis cibarius - e longated, dark and cheap, made with s i f t e d b a r l e y a n d s p e l t f l o u r.

Panis parthicus - spongy bread which absorbed a greater quantity of water.

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Panis picenum - cotto in una pentola di coccio - che veniva rotta davanti ai commensali.

Panis militaris - specie di gal-letta che poteva conservarsi a lungo, riservato ai soldati; nel III secolo d.C. se ne pro-ducevano due tipi: il mundus, distribuito alle truppe nelle caserme, e il castrensis, usato negli accampamenti durante le campagne militari.

Panis nauticus - sempre una specie di galletta riservata ai marinai: era a forma di anel-lo, s’infilava in un bastone e facilmente trasportabile.

Panis di Alessandria - cotto sugli spiedi.

Panis bucellatus - sorta di pane biscottato.

Panis ostearus - fatto apposi-tamente per accompagnare le ostriche.

Panis adipatus - molto ricco, era condito con il lardo.

Panis furfureus - preparato con la crusca e destinato ai cani .

Panis picenum - cooked in a terracotta pot which was bro-ken in front of the diners.

Panis mil itaris - a kind of cracker which could be con-served over a long period, reserved for the soldiers; in the III century AD two types were produced: mundus dis-tributed to the troops in the barracks, and castrensis used in the encampments during military campaigns.

Panis nauticus - another kind of cracker reserved for sail-ors, in the shape of a ring and easily transported by being placed on a stick.

Panis of Alessandria - baked on skewers.

Panis bucellatus - a kind of sweet crunchy bread.

Panis ostearus - s p e c i f i c a l -l y m a d e t o g o w i t h o y s -t e r s .

Panis adipatus - a very rich bread seasoned with lard.

Panis furfureus - prepared with bran and intended for d o g s .

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Panis artolaganus - prepara-to con un impasto che in-cludeva ortaggi, pepe, can-diti, miele, vino e olio, era st imato come pane delle feste.

Giovena le ne l le Sat i re c i in t roduce ad uso pol i t ico del pane come st rumento adottato dagl i imperator i per mantenere il consenso dei sudditi e restare al potere:

“[... ] [populus] duas tantum res anxius optat panem et circenses”.“ [ . . . ] [ i l popolo] due sole cose ansiosamente deside-ra pane e i giochi circensi” (Giovenale, Sat i ra X) .

La pratica di distribuire gra-no gratuitamente o a prezzi inferiori a quelli di mercato (frumentationes) in tempi di carestia era però già iniziata ai tempi della Repubblica, regolata dal le lex f rumen-t a r i a .

Panis artolaganus - prepared with a dough that included vegetables, pepper, sweets, honey, wine and oi l , es-teemed as a bread for holi-days .

In the Satires, Juvenal intro-duces us to the political use of bread as an instrument adapted by the emperors to maintain consensus of their subjects and remain in power:

“[. . . ] [populus] duas tantum res anxius optat panem et c i rcenses”.“ [ . . . ] [ the people ] on ly anxiously desire two things – bread and circus games”( J u v e n a l , S a t i r e X ) .

The practice of distributing grain at less than market pric-es (frumentationes) in times of famine, however had al-ready started at the time of the Republic, regulated by the lex frumentaria.

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Nell’Età Augustea (dal 31 a.C. al 14 d.C.) la pani f ica-z ione d iventa un serv i z io pubbl ico , ma con l ’a l len-tamento de l te s su to so -c i a l e c o n s e g u e n t e a l l a c a d u t a d e l l ’ I m p e ro R o -mano d ’Occ iden te ed i l sorgere de l feuda les imo, n e l M e d i o e v o l a q u e s -t ione cambia radicalmente e da l negoz io s i to r na a una pani f icaz ione pr ivata . Ogni s ignore poss iede un fo r no , ogn i cas te l lo un mulino e personale d e d i -c a t o a l l a l a v o r a z i o n e e c o t t u r a d e l p a n e .

Ne l Med ioevo i l pane divenne s imbolo del l ’a l i -mentazione umana, ma i l c a m b i a m e n t o r a d i c a l e non muta i cos tumi : con i l pane b ianco d i f rumen-t o s i c i b a n o , come sem-pre, i ricchi, ma a riempire lo stomaco dei poveri era il pane di segale, d’avena o di crusca, privo di sale, lievito e droghe, scuro e indigesto. Al pane chiaro erano attribuite anche qualità taumaturgiche, tanto che una storia narra di come Ghino di Tacco riuscì a guarire dal mal di stomaco, con fette di pane abbrustoli-

In the era of Augustus (from 31b.C to 14 A.C) breadmak-ing became a public service but with the loosening of the social fabric following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of feudalism, in the Middle Ages the situation radically changed from mak-ing bread in the shops to pri-vate breadmaking. Every lord had an oven, every castle a mill and staff dedi-cated to production and bak-ing of bread.

In the Middle Ages bread became a symbol of human nourishment, but the radical change did not silence the customs: the rich, as always, ate white wheat bread, but rye, oat or bran bread filled the stomachs of the poor without salt, yeast, or spice. It was dark and indigestible. Miracle working qual i t ies were attr ibuted to white bread so much so that one story tells how Ghino of Tac-co managed to heal one of the richest prelates of the time with slices of toasted bread. The Abbot of Cligni

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to, uno dei più ricchi prelati del tempo: l’Abate di Clignì, mandato in cura ai bagni di Siena da Papa bonifacio VIII. Nel ‘300 venivano inoltre realizzati dei panini bianchi detti “da bocca”, utilizzati al posto dei tovaglioli durante i banchetti.

Più si scendeva la scala sociale, più il pane imbruniva: pane di polenta, pane di crusca, pane di fave, pane di ghianda. Alla fine del pane restava solo il nome, in concreto si mangiava lo stesso cibo che mangiavano gli animali.

Si elaboravano così i pani da infornare: cotti s’immer-gevano nell’acqua bollente per poi riporli nel forno per l ’asciugatura.

Questo tipo di pane di lun-ga conservazione era anche il cibo portato dai pellegrini nella bisaccia.

had been sent to be cured to the baths of Siena by Pope boniface VIII. In addition, in the 1300s white sandwiches called “for the mouth” were created, and were used in place of napkins during banquets.

The lower the place on the social scale, the darker the bread: polenta bread, bran bread, fava bread, acorn bread. In the end, only the name bread remained, while concretely people ate the same thing as animals.

bread was made in this way: it was immersed in boiling water to then be put in the oven to dry.

This type of long-life bread was also the food carried by pilgrims in their saddlebags.

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Il pane, dunque, era anche elemento di d ist inz ione: c’era i l pane del Papa, i l pane del cavaliere, il pane del prete, il pane dello scudiero,...e, in fondo alla graduatoria c’era il pane del boia. Intorno a questo nasce la su-perstizione che il pane mes-so in tavola capovolto porti sfortuna, frutto di un misto di eventi storici, personag-gi realmente esistiti e storie popolari. All’inizio di tutto è il decreto con cui Carlo VII, nel XV secolo, stabilisce una tassa in natura a favore del carnefice di stato: costretti ad accettare, sebbene di ma-lavoglia, l’antipatico cliente, i fornai mettevano da parte per lui il pane peggio riusci-to e glielo consegnavano ca-povolto, in segno di disprez-zo, per sfregio e offesa.

bread, then, was also an el-ement of distinction: there was the bread of the Pope, the bread of the gentleman, the bread of the priest, the bread of the squire...and at the bottom of the scale there was the bread of the executioner. Around this was the superstition that bread put on the table upside down brings bad luck, result of a mix of historical events, real life characters and pop-ular stories. At the begin-ning of it all is the decree of Charles VII from the XV century, which established a tax in kind in favor of the state butchers. Since they were compelled to reluctant-ly accept, unhappy bakers reserved the worse bread for him and delivered it upside down, in a sign of contempt, to insult and offend him.

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The true big revolution in the area of breadmaking was in the Renaissance, with the introduction to the court of Maria de’ Medici of brewer’s yeast, a product of the com-plex production of natural yeasts and malt, which was the fundamental ingredient to produce beer. And thanks to this yeast and the always increasing consumption of bread by the well-off, bak-ers were induced to create new forms and also different types of bread: with oil, but-ter, olives, or aromatic herbs. And then also sweet loaves with raisins, chocolate, and anise were produced.

La vera grande rivoluzione nel campo della panificazione si ha nel Rinascimento, con l’introduzione alla corte di Maria dei Medici del l i e v i t o di birra, prodotto dalla com-plessa lavorazione di lieviti naturali e malto, appunto il principale ingrediente per produrre la birra. È grazie a questo lievito e al sempre più massiccio consumo di pane da parte delle classi agiate che i fornai sono in-dotti a creare nuove forme, ma anche t ipi diversi di pane: all’olio, al burro, alle olive, alle erbe aromatiche; e poi ancora pagnotte dolci, con le uvette, con il ciocco-lato, con l’anice.

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La lavorazione del pane rimane un processo manuale fino alla seconda metà del XVIII secolo, quando l’av-vento dell’industrializzazione avvia la panificazione verso la produzione di massa.

S i ass is te a l l ’ invenz ione delle macchine impastatri-ci, prima fra tutte quella del fornaio parigino Sal ignac nel 1760, all’adozione dei ci l indri meccanici per la molitura, e all’introduzione dei forni elettrici; non solo: il XIX secolo vede la com-mercializzazione dei l ieviti chimic i e nel XX secolo s i a r r i va a l l a se lez ione de i grani , favorendo la produt-tività della parte amidacea a discapito della qualità nu-tr iz ionale.

Ma la rivoluzione industri-ale non è risuscita a mutare il profondo significato s im -bolico intr inseco del pane: t ra carest ie e benessere, pegno di speranza e di pace e ragione di guerra e dis-perazione, ier i come oggi i l prez ioso a l imento com-pare o scompare dal le ta-vole, vera e propria cartina di tornasole della situazione eco-nomica di un popolo.

The production of bread re-mained a manual process until the second half of the XVIII century, when the ad-vent of indust r ia l i zat ion moved breadmaking towards mass production.

We see the invention of kneading machines, f i rs t of all that of Parisian bak-er Salignac in 1760, to the adoption of mechanical cyl-inders for milling, and the introduction of electric ov-ens. Also, the XIX century saw the commercialization of chemical yeast. In the XX century there was the selec-tion of grains, favoring the productivity of the starch component to the detriment of nutritional quality.

but the Industrial Revolution was not able to stifle the in-trinsic symbolic significance of bread: from famines and health, pledge of hope and peace and reasons for war and desperation, yesterday as today the precious food appears and disappears from tables, a true litmus test of the economic situation of the people.

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Il pane ha nutrito l’uomo fin dai primordi, e per questo, diventato il simbolo per ec-cellenza della vita, da tutti i popoli mediterranei dell’an-tichità è stato investito di significati religiosi e usato in una vasta tipologia di riti. Il popolo ci giurava sopra, le varie fedi lo hanno bene-detto. La radice semitica lhm (pane) significa essere d’ac-

bread has nourished humans since primordial times, and because of this, has become the quintessential symbol of life. All the ancient Mediterra-nean peoples attributed reli-gious meaning to it and used it in a vast variety of rites.People swore on it, and the various faiths have blessed it.The semitic root lhm (bread) means to be in agreement,

In history and faithNella storia e nella fede

04

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united; the shared dining hall creates communion among individuals and the meal be-comes a communal rite which mirrors the human social in-stinct. It is a social pact which we see expressed also in the name bethle’hem – beytlaHma, house of bread or harmony.

bread and cereals were of-fered to the Gods as they were considered the foods which guaranteed life, and for the same role of guarantor of life, manifest sign of faith in survival and rebirth, bread has remained at the center of the worship and rituals of the three Mediterranean mono-theistic religions.

“Pain d’égalité”, one com-mon bread for everyone, without more distinctions of social class, made with wheat, rye and bran flour, was a sym-bol of the French Revolution.It was consecrated by the bi-ble and Gospels, mentioned in the Koran and in the Islamic hadiths.In the Bible it appears strong-ly tied to the effort of work, following the sin of mankind: “You will eat bread with the sweat of your face”, and from

cordo, essere uniti; la mensa condivisa crea comunione fra individui e il pasto diventa il rito comunitario che rispec-chia l’istinto sociale dell’uo-mo. Un patto sociale che troviamo espresso anche nel nome betlemme - beytlaHma, casa del pane o casa dell’ar-monia.Si offrivano agli Dei pani e cereali poiché erano conside-rati gli alimenti garanti della vita, e per lo stesso ruolo di ga-rante della vita, segno mani-festo della fede nella soprav-vivenza e nella rinascita, il pane è rimasto al centro del culto e della ritualità nelle tre religioni monoteiste mediter-ranee.

Il “Pain d’égalité”, un pane uguale per tutti, senza più distinzioni di classi socia-li, fatto con farina di grano, segale e crusca, è stato un simbolo della Rivoluzione Francese. È stato consacrato dalla Bibbia e dai Vangeli, men-zionato nel Corano e negli ha-dith islamici.

Nella bibbia appare stretta-mente legato alla fatica del lavoro, in seguito al peccato dell’uomo: “Mangerai il pane col sudore del tuo volto”, e

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da quel momento abbon-danza o penuria di questo alimento saranno segno del-la benedizione o del castigo di Dio, un dono dall’alto, da chiedere con umiltà e da as-pettare con fiducia.Nell’Ebraismo scandisce le principali festività: il challah, il pane intrecciato con semini di papavero e sesamo, è per il giorno di shabbat, mentre il matzah è il tipico pane azzi-mo, preparato solo con ac-qua e farina e senza la minima traccia di lievito, per il ban-chetto di Pesach. “Eno lahma dhayè”, “Io sono il pane della vita” nel dialet-to aramaico siriaco. Il pane è al centro del culto cristiano, l’elemento che Gesù prende nelle mani durante l’ultima cena per esprimere simboli-camente la propria identità.

Il pane diventa nel Cristianesi-mo il protagonista del sacra-mento fondamentale della Co-

that moment abundance or scarcity of this food will be a sign of the benediction or punishment of God, a gift from on high, to ask with humility and to wait for with trust.In Judaism it pronounces the principle festivities: challah, the braided bread with pop-py and sesame seeds, is for the day of shabbat, while the matzah is the typical unleav-ened bread, prepared with only water and flour and with-out a minimal trace of yeast, for the banquet of Pesach.“Eno lahma dhayè”, “I am the bread of life” in the Syrian Aramaic dialect. bread is at the center of Christian wor-ship, the element that Jesus took in his hands during the last supper to symbolically express his true identity.

In Christianity, bread be-came the protagonist of the fundamental sacrament of

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munione, elemento essenziale per la stessa vita dei cristiani. Senza il pane non è possibile celebrare l’Eucarestia, non è possibile la vita della Chiesa. Non solo la sussistenza ma anche la stessa vita religio-sa non è più pensabile sen-za questo alimento: l’ostia benedetta che costituisce il momento centrale del rito della Messa.

Ugualmente rilevante è la simbologia in tutto il mondo arabo e nell’Islam. Anche per l’Islam, il pane, simbolo dell ’abbondanza, opera delle mani dell’uomo, è in realtà un dono di Dio agli uomini per la loro sus-sistenza, materiale e spirituale insieme.

E come per altre religioni, anche per il testo sacro della religione musulmana il seme, le spighe, il pane sono ter-

Communion, essential el-ement for the life of Chris-tians. Without bread it is not possible to celebrate the Eucharist, and the life of the Church is not possible. Without this food not only sustenance but also religious life itself is not thinkable: the holy host constitutes the central moment of the rite of Mass .

Equally relevant is the sym-bolism in the entire Arab world and in Islam.Also for Islam, bread, symbol of abundance, work of hu-man hands, is in reality a gift from God to humans for their material and spiritual suste-nance, together.

And as for other religions, for the sacred text of the Muslim religion, seeds, spikes, and bread are precious terms to

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mini preziosi per veicolare messaggi teologici e di prassi quotidiana. Alcuni versi del Corano citano il pane d’orzo come uno degli alimenti del Profeta, e anco-ra oggi permane l’usanza di mescolare la farina di grano a quella di orzo, miglio, sorgo e altri cereali.

L’attenzione che l’Islam r iser-va ne i conf ront i de l pane e m e rg e c o n f o r z a dalle pagine del Corano. La ses-ta Sura consegna un affresco sulla potenza creatrice di Dio, capace di schiudere il seme e il nocciolo (VI, 95); “Egli è Colui che fa scendere l’ac-qua dal cielo, con la quale facciamo nascere germogli di ogni sorta, da essi faccia-mo nascere vegetaz ione e da essa gran i in sp ighe. . .” (VI, 99). Il tema dell’elemosi-na, dell’attenzione verso gli altri viene resa servendosi del cereale: “Quelli che con i loro beni sono generosi per la causa di Allah sono come un seme da cui nascono sette spighe e in ogni spiga ci sono cento chicchi. Allah moltipli-ca il merito di chi vuole lui” (II, 261).

convey theological messages and daily customs.

Some verses of the Quran cite barley bread as one of the foods of the Prophet, and still today the custom of mix-ing wheat flour with that of barley, millet, sorghum and other cereals continues.

The attention that Islam re-serves regard ing bread emerges strongly from the pages of the Quran. The sixth Sura devotes a fresco to the creative power of God: “...capable of opening the seed and the kernel...He is the one who makes water fall from the sky, from which we give birth to sprouts of every kind, from them we give birth to vege-tation and from this grain in spikes...” (VI, 99). The theme of charity, of at-tention towards others is re-turned serving oneself of cere-als: “Those who are generous with their goods for the sake of God are like a seed from which seven spikes are born and in every spike there are 100 grains. God multiplies the merit of those who love him” (II, 261).

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ShrAkPreparazione

1kg di farina 001 cucchiaio di livieto di birra Olio d’olivaZuccheroSale q.b.

1. Mescolare la farina, i l lievito e l’acqua assieme fino ad ottenre un impas-

ShrAkPreparation

1kg flour 001 tablespoon brewer’s yeastOlive oilSugarSalt as needed

1. Mix the flour, yeast and water together until you have a soft dough. Add

The RecipesLe Ricette

05

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salt then olive oil and let rise until it doubles in s ize.

2. Make ten little balls of about 150 grams each and flatten them so each forms a circle of 30 cen-timeters. Place them on a clean table cloth and cover.

3. Warm a frying pan on the burner then start to cook the bread, first one side, then the other.

kMAj Or ArABIc BrEAdPreparation

1kg flour2 ½ cups of water1 egg½ cup oil1 tablespoon yeastSalt as needed

1. In a saucepan dissolve yeast in 150 ml of luke-warm water. Add one third of the flour and the salt. Energetical ly mix the ingredients, then add the remaining flour and water, continuing to mix .

to morbido; aggiungere il sale poi l’olio d’oliva e lasciare a lievitare finché il volume raddoppia.

2. Fare dieci piccolo pal-line di centocinquanta grammi l’una più o meno e schiacciarle fino ad ot-tenre un cerchietto di trenta centimetri, appog-giare i cerchietti su una tovaglia pulita e coprire.

3. Scaldare una padella sul fornello poi iniziate a cuocere il pane prima da una parte poi dall’altra.

kMAj O PAnE ArABO Preparazione

1kg di farina2 bicchieri e mezzo di acqua1 uovo1/2 bicchiere di olio1 cucchiaio di lievitoSale q.b.

1. In una ciotola, sciogliere il lievito in 150 ml di ac-qua tiepida, aggiungere un terzo di farina e il sale; amalgamare ener-gicamente gli ingredien-ti, quindi aggiungere la restante farina e l’acqua, continuando a sbattere.

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2. A questo punto trasferi-re l’impasto su un piano infarinato e continuare a mescolare fino a quando l’impasto non sarà elas-tico e del tutto privo di grumi.

3. Dividere l’impasto in pal-line e schiacciarle dando loro una forma tondeg-giante, con un diametro di circa 12 centimetri. Coprire con un canovac-cio e lasciare riposare per 30 minuti.

4. Nel frattempo preriscal-dare il forno a 250°C, las-ciando dentro una teglia. Quando il forno è caldo, disporre sulla teglia calda i dischi di pasta. Cuocere una decina di minuti, fino a quando i panini non sa-ranno dorati.

Il pane così ottenuto può es-sere condito con trito a base di carne così composto:

250 gr di trita di vitello3 o 4 spicchi di aglio3 peperoni4 pomodori rossi 1 cipolla CannellaMix spezie per carneSale q.b

2. At this point transfer the dough to a flat sur-face dusted with f lour and continue mixing un-til the dough is elastic and completely free of c l umps .

3. Divide the dough in lit-tle balls and press them into a curved shape, with a diameter of about 12 centimeters. Cover with a rag and let set for about 30 minutes.

4. In the meantime, preheat the oven to 250º C, leav-ing a baking tray inside. When the oven is hot, place the dough disks on the hot tray. Cook for ten minutes, until they are golden brown.

The resulting bread can be seasoned with a meat based sauce made of:

250 gr of ground veal3 or 4 cloves of garlic3 peppers4 red tomatoes 1 onionCinnamonMix of meat spicesSalt as needed

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mix spezie per carneSale q.b.

Oppure dallo za’atar, una mistura di spezie tradizional-mente composta da timo, sesamo e sale, ma lo si può arricchire a gusto con orig-ano, cumino, semi di finoc-chio, santoreggia,maggiora-na, sommacco e issopo.

TABOOnPreparazione

1 kg farina20 grammi di lievito1/2 bicchiere di acqua1 cucchiaino di zuccheroSale q.b.

1. Dopo aver sciolto lievito in acqua tiepida, mes-colare tutti gli ingredi-enti fino ad ottenere un impasto molto morbido, che si lascerà lievitare per circa 40 minuti.

2. Una volta lievitato l’im-pasto viene diviso in pagnottine della dimen-sione e della consistenza di una pasta per pizza e con le mani infarinate viene steso rapidamente facendolo ruotare come fa solitamente un pizzaiolo.

mix of meat spicessalt as needed

Or with za’atar, a mix of spices traditionally made of thyme, sesame and salt, but the taste can also be en-riched with oregano, cumin, fennel seeds, satureja, mar-joram, sumac and hyssop.

TABOOnPreparation

1 kg flour20 grams yeast 1 ½ cups water1 teaspoon sugarSalt as needed

1. After dissolving the yeast in lukewarm water mix all the ingredients until the dough is very soft. Then let rise for about 40 min-utes.

2. Once the dough has r isen div ide i t into l i t -t le ro l l s the s i ze and c o n s i s t e n c y o f p i z -za dough. W i th f lou r dus ted hands s t re tch the dough rapidly, ro -tat ing i t as pizza mak -e r s usua l l y do .

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3. La cottura avviene su un letto di piccole pietre ar-roventate in un forno, che tradizionalmente è a legna.

PAnE AzzIMOPreparazione

400 grammi di farina 00200 ml di acqua5 grammi di sale

1. Impastare la farina con l’acqua e il sale per otte-nere un composto omoge-neo, liscio ed elastico.

2. Avvolgere l’impasto in un tovagliolo leggermente in-farinato: fate riposare per mezz’ora.

3. Dividere l’ impasto in 4 parti uguali e dare a ogni parte la forma di disco, da cuocere in padella antia-derente calda, un paio di minuti per lato.

3. bake it on a bed of little red hot stones in an oven, which i s t radi t ional ly wood burning.

4.

unLEAvEnEd BrEAdPreparation

400 grams of flour 00200 ml water5 grams salt

1. Mix the flour with the wa-ter to obtain a homoge-nous, smooth and elastic mixture.

2. Roll the dough in a lightly floured tablecloth. Let sit 30 minutes.

3. Divide the dough in 4 equal parts and shape them into disks. Cook in a hot non-stick pan for a couple minutes each side.

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IL LIBrO dEL PAnE - BIBLIOGrAFIAThE BOOk OF BrEAd - BIBLIOGrAPhYالخبـــز فـــي فلســـطين - مراجـــع

AA: Les pains des quatre saisons, Terre vivante, Paris 1995

Ariola V.: Pane salubre e salutare, Cooperativa tipografica italiana, Roma 1917

Associazione Idea vita (a cura di): Il pane nella storia dell’uomo, atti del Con-

vegno, Borgolavezzaro, 7 luglio 1996, Novara 1998

Baccarini G., Villani A., Fontanella R.: Prima del pane: come e perché il grano

diventa pane, Edagricole, Milano 2011

bevilacqua Calzolari S. e coll.: Il pane: la storia, la dieta, le ricette, Studio

d’arte La scaletta, Formello 1984

Deplano A.: Il pane: fior fiore dell’alimentazione dalle origini ad oggi, A. Mon-

dadori, Verona 1992

Diamond J.: Armi, acciaio e malattie, Einaudi, Torino 2006

Dupaigne B. E coll.: Le pain, Grafiche editoriali Ambrosiane, Milano 1990

El Sebaie S.: Aish: bread, life and afterlife in Egypt, Torino s.n.

Goodenough E. R.: Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period. Volume Five

and Six: Fish, Bread, and Wine New York Pantheon 1956.

Grabner-Haider A.: Prontuario della Bibbia, EDB, Bologna 2001

Ingram C., Shapter J.:Il pane fatto in casa, Rusconi, Sant’ Arcangelo di R o -

m a g n a 2 0 1 0

Liverani M.: Antico Oriente. Storia, società, economia, Laterza, bari 2011

Morganti Tempestini M.: Il pane : il re della tavola in tutto il mondo, Nardini,

Fiesole 1999

Pignatti E.: Profumo di pane, Calderini, Bologna 1988

Salani M.: A tavola con le religioni, EDB, Bologna 2000

Snyder H.: bread: a collection of popular papers on wheat, flour and bread,

Macmillan, New York 1930

Tanga M. I.: Il canto del pane : un viaggio tra rime e farine, Il leone verde,

Torino 2014

Zanzucchi Castelli, M.: Pane : universo di simboli e riti, Silva, Parma 2000

ArTIcOLI ArchEOLOGIcI SPEcIALISTIcISPEcIALIzEd ArchEOLOGIcAL ArTIcLESمقـــاالت اثريـــة اختصاصيـــة

Adamski B., Kołodziejczyk P.: Grain storing and bread making during formative

period and in the Old Kingdom times

Chłodnicki M.: Some remarks about late predynastic, early dynastic and Old

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Kingdom bread moulds

Decock Paul B.: The Breaking of Bread in Luke 24

Donbaz Veysel: Old Assyrian Terms for bread (akalu, kirrum)

Drower E. S.: The Sacramental bread (Pihtha) of the Mandaeans

Frankel R.: Devices for baking bread in talmudic literature

Gane R. E.: “bread of the Presence“ and Creator-in-Residence

Gosline S. L.: Form and Function of Egyptian Bread Moulds

Hendrickx S.: Milk, Beer and Bread Technology during the Early Dynastic Pe-

riod

Hilary W.: Pot-Baked Bread in Ancient Egypt

Hirschfeld Y.: The Importance of bread in the Diet of Monks in the Judean

Desert

Hudáková L.: Innovative power of Middle Kingdom tomb decoration as re-

flected in the scenes of grain processing, bread-making and brewing

Jacob H.E.: I seimila anni del pane. Storia sacra e storia profana, Garzanti,

Milano 1951

Jacquet-Gordon H. K.: A Tentative Typology of Egyptian Bread Moulds

Janssen J. J.: The Daily bread: A Contribution to the Study of the Ancient

Egyptian Diet

Katz S. H.: bread and beer: The Early Use of Cereals in the Human Diet

Leek F. F.: Further Studies Concerning Ancient Egyptian Bread

Leek F. F.: Teeth and Bread in Ancient Egypt

Mączyńska A.: Old Kingdom pottery at Tell el-Farkha

Meyers C.: From field crops to food

Mulder-Hymans N.: The Iron Age bread ovens in the kitchen of Khirbat al-Mu-

dayna, Jordan

O’Neill John C.: bread and Wine

Ossom-batsa G.: bread for the broken

Postgate N.: The bread of Aššur

Taufik C.: Superstition and Folklore about bread

Taylor J.: bread that is broken - and unbroken

Taylor J.: The Breaking of the Bread

Thiering B. E.: “Breaking of Bread“ and “Harvest“ in Marks Gospel

Vogt P. T.: “One bread Gathered from Many Pieces“ (Did. 9.4): The Career of

an Early Christian Allegory

Weiss Z.: “Set the showbread on the table before me always“ (Exodus 25:30)

Winnett A.R.: The Breaking of the Bread: Does it Symbolize the Passion?

Yeivin Z.: Our Daily bread

Zerafa, O. P.: Passover and unleavened bread

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يخلــط الدقيــق مــع المــاء والملــح للحصــول علــى عجيــن متجانــس، ناعــم ومــرن.. 1ــرك ليســتريح لمــدة نصــف . 2 ــق: يت ــن فــي منشــفة مغطــاة ببعــض الدقي يلــف العجي

ســاعة.4 أجــزاء متســاوية ويعطــى لــكل جــزء شــكل دائــري، يطهــى . 3 تقســم العجينــة إلــى

فــي مقــاة ســاخنة، يتــرك لبضــع دقائــق لــكل جانــب.

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فة قرخليــط مــن بهــارات اللحــة

ملــح )حســب الرغبــة(

الزعتــر مــن عــادة تتألــف التوابــل مــن مزيــج وهــو الزعتــر، مــع تتبيلــه يمكــن أو بــذور الكمــون، األوريغانــو، مــع الطعــم إثــراء يمكنــك وأيضــا والملــح، والسمســم

الزوفــا. الســماق، المردقــوش، الشــومر،

الـــطابونــر التحضي

1 كغــم دقيــق 20 غــم مــن الخميــرة

2/1 1 كأس مــن المــاء1 ملعقــة ســكر

ملــح )حســب الرغبــة(

يصبــح . 1 حتــى المكونــات جميــع تخلــط الدافــئ، المــاء فــي الخميــرة اذابــة بعــد دقيقــة. 40 لحوالــي لترتفــع وتتــرك جــدا، لينــة عجينــة المزيــج

مغطــاة . 2 وبأيــد البيتــزا عجيــن وتماســك بحجــم أرغفــة إلــى العجيــن وتقســم مــدور. ليصبــح بســرعة يمــد بالدقيــق

فــي . 3 وهــو فــرن، فــي الملتهــب الصغيــرة الحجــارة مــن ســرير علــى طهيــه يتــم الخشــب. نــار علــى فــرن العــادة

ماتــزا، خبــز فطيــر، أو الفطيــرــر التحضي

100 غــم دقيق 200 مــل مــن الماء

5 غــم ملح

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تعمــل عشــر كــرات صغيــرة، حوالــي مائــة وخمســين غرامــا كل منهــا، ثــم تضغــط . 2نظيــف شرشــف علــى ويوضــع ســم، 30 بقطــر دائــري قــرص علــى للحصــول

ويغطــى.تســخن المقــاة علــى الموقــد، ثــم تبــدأ عمليــة الخبــز مــن الجهتيــن.. 3

كمــاج او بيتــا او الخبــز العربــيــر التحضي

1 كغــم دقيــق 2/1 2 كأس مــن المــاء

1 بيضــة2/1 كأس مــن الزيــت

1 ملعقــة مــن الخميــرةملــح )حســب الرغبــة(

150 مــل مــن المــاء الدافــئ، تضــاف ثلــث كميــة . 1 تــذاب الخميــرة فــي وعــاء مــع والمــاء، المتبقــي الدقيــق يضــاف ثــم بقــوة، المزيــج يخلــط والملــح. الدقيــق

الــكل. ويخلــط

ــط . 2 ــق ويســتمر بالخل ــى ســطح مغطــى بالدقي ــن عل ــة، ينقــل العجي فــي هــذه المرحلحتــى يصبــح العجيــن مــرن وخالــي تمامــا مــن الكتــل.

12 ســم. . 3 حوالــي بقطــر علــى شــكل مســتدير وتــرق كــرات إلــى العجينــة تقســم ســاعة. نصــف لمــدة لتســتريح ونتركهــا قمــاش بقطعــة تغطــى

250 درجــة مئويــة، وتتــرك فــي داخلــه صينيــة. عندمــا يســخن . 4 يســخن الفــرن إلــى ــي ــز لحوال ــة الســاخنة. تخب ــى الصيني ــن المســتديرة عل الفــرن، توضــع أقــراص العجي

ــون. ــة الل ــح ذهبي ــى تصب ــق، حت عشــر دقائ

يمكــن تتبيــل الخبــز الــذي حصلنــا عليــه مــع اللحــم المفــروم علــى النحــو التالــي:

250 غــرام مــن لحــم العجــل المفــروم3 او 4 فصــوص مــن الثــوم

3 حبــات فلفــل حلــو4 حبــات بنــدورة

1 بصلــة

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الــوصــــفات

شـــــراكــر التحضي

دقيــق - 1 كغــم1 ملعقــة كبيــرة مــن الخميــرة

زيــت الزيتونسكر

ملــح )حســب الرغبــة(

متماســكة. . 1 عجينــة علــى تحصــل حتــى معــا والمــاء والخميــرة الطحيــن يمــزج حجمهــا. يتضاعــف حتــى لتخمــر وتتــرك الزيتــون وزيــت الملــح يضــاف

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الحبــوب. مــن والــذرة وغيرهــا والدخــن الشــعير مــع

يرجــع االهتمــام الــذي يعطيــه اإلســام للخبــز الــى القــرآن الكريــم. ففــي ســورة االنعــام “ 95(؛ )االنعــام، ــوى” والن الحــب فالــق ــه الل “إن الخالــق: اللــه لقــدرة صــورة نجــد فأخرجنــا منــه خضــرا نبــات كل شــيء بــه فأخرجنــا ــماء مــاء نــزل مــن الس أ ــذي وهــو الــاه لآلخريــن 99(. ويعــرض موضــوع الصدقــة واالنتب ــا متراكبا..”)االنعــام، ــه حب ــرج من نخنبتــت أ ــة حب كمثــل ــه الل ســبيل فــي أموالهــم ينفقــون ذيــن ال “مثــل الحبــوب: بمثــل ــه واســع عليــم” ــه يضاعــف لمــن يشــاء والل ــة والل ــة حب ســبع ســنابل فــي كل ســنبلة مائ

.)261 )البقــرة،

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واضــح مــن االيمــان فــي الحيــاة والبعــث فــي منطقــة البحــر األبيــض المتوســط.ــة ــز فــي الطبقــة االجتماعي ــع دون تميي ــز واحــد للجمي ــز “ pain d’égalité “، خب كان خب

ــورة الفرنســية. ــة، رمــز للث ــق القمــح والشــعير والنخال ــوع مــن دقي والمصن

كــرس فــي الكتــاب المقــدس واألناجيــل، وذكــر فــي القــرآن الكريــم واألحاديــث النبويــة الشــريفة.

خطيئــة بعــد والعمــل، بالجهــد وثيقــا ارتباطــا المقــدس الكتــاب فــي الخبــز يرتبــط االنســان: “ بعــرق جبينــك تــأكل خبــزك”، ومــن تلــك اللحظــة تــدل وفــرة أو نــدرة هــذا الغــذاء علــى نعمــة أو عقــاب اللــه، وهديــة مــن الســماء، يطلــب بتواضــع وينتظــر بثقــة.

بــذور مــع مجــدل خبــز الكبــرى: اليهوديــة األعيــاد فــي )challah ( الشــاله خبــز يظهــر )matzah الخشــخاش والسمســم، وهــو ليــوم الســبت )الشــابات(، فــي حيــن أن الماتــزا )هــو الفطيــر التقليــدي، المصنــوع مــن الدقيــق والمــاء فقــط، ودون أي أثــر للخميــرة،

وهــو لعيــد الفصــح.

ــز هــو ــة: الخب ــاة” باللهجــة الســريانية اآلرامي ــز الحي ــا هــو خب “Eno lahma dhayè”، “أنــه فــي العشــاء ــن يدي ــذي أخــذه يســوع المســيح بي ــة المســيحية، العنصــر ال محــور الديان

ــه. ــة هويت ــن رمزي ــر ع ــر للتعبي األخيأصبــح الخبــز فــي الديانــة المســيحية رمــز الســر األساســي فــي القربــان المقــدس، وهــو بالقربــان االحتفــال يمكــن ال الخبــز بــدون ذاتهــا. المســيحيين لحيــاة ضــروري عنصــر

تحيــا. ان للكنيســة يمكــن المقــدس، وال

للخبــز نفــس القــدر مــن األهميــة الرمزيــة فــي العالــم العربــي واإلســام.فــي هــو االنســان، بأيــدي والمصنــوع للوفــرة رمــز هــو الــذي الخبــز، اإلســام، فــي الواقــع هديــة مــن اللــه للنــاس لحياتهــم الماديــة والروحيــة. وكمــا فــي األديــان األخــرى، لنقــل ثمينــة مصطلحــات هــم والخبــز والســنابل البــذور ان الكريــم القــران يوضــح

اليوميــة. للحيــاة دينيــة رســائل

للنبــي الغذائيــة المــواد مــن كواحــد الشــعير خبــز الكريــم القــرآن آيــات بعــض تذكــر صلــى اللــه عليــه وســلم وحتــى اليــوم مــا تــزال العــادة موجــودة بخلــط دقيــق القمــح

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فــي التاريخ وفــي االيمان

كل واعطتــه للحيــاة، رمــز أصبــح الســبب ولهــذا البدايــة، منــذ البشــرية الخبــز غــذى واســتخدم الدينيــة المعانــي مــن الكثيــر القديمــة المتوســط األبيــض البحــر شــعوب

الطقــوس. مــن واســعة مجموعــة فــي بعــض الشــعوب أقســمت عليــه، وباركتــه األديــان المختلفــة.

الجــذر فــي اللغــة الســامية “لـــ حـــ م” )خبــز( يعنــي االتفــاق واالتحــاد. المائــدة المشــتركة ــزة ــذي يعكــس الغري ــح الطقــس الطائفــي ال ــة تصب ــراد والوجب ــن األف ــق التواصــل بي تخلاالجتماعيــة لإلنســان. عهــدة اجتماعيــة نجدهــا أيضــا فــي اســم بيــت لحــم، بيــت الخبــز

ــزل االنســجام. أو منقدمــت الــى اآللهــة الخبــز والحبــوب ألنهــا اعتبــرت أغذيــة كافلــة للحيــاة، ولنفــس الــدور، كعامــة الثــاث التوحيديــة الديانــات فــي والطقــوس العبــادة مركــز فــي الخبــز بقــي

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زيــت مــع الخبــز مــن مختلفــة أنــواع وأيضــا جديــدة، أشــكال لخلــق الخبــازون تشــجع مــع حلــوة أرغفــة أخــرى مــرة ثــم العطريــة. واألعشــاب والزيتــون والزبــدة الزيتــون

اليانســون. مــع الشــوكوالته، مــع الزبيــب،

عشــر، الثامــن القــرن مــن الثانــي النصــف حتــى يدويــة عمليــة الخبــز صناعــة بقيــت آالت اخترعــت كبيــرة. بكميــات ينتــج الخبــز بــدأ حيــث التصنيــع، عصــر بدايــة عنــد 1760، واعتمــاد اســطوانات ــاز الباريســي ســالينياك فــي عــام ــد الخب العجــن، واولهــا عنأيضــا عشــر التاســع القــرن وشــهد الكهربائيــة. األفــران وإدخــال للطحــن، ميكانيكيــة الحبــوب، اختيــار عمليــة أتــت العشــرين القــرن وفــي الكيميائيــة الخميــرة تســويق

الغذائيــة. الجــودة حســاب علــى النشــوية للجــزء اإلنتــاج وزيــادة

المجاعــة فبيــن للخبــز: الرمــزي المعنــى تغييــر تســتطع لــم الصناعيــة الثــورة ولكــن بقــي ظهــور واختفــاء الحــرب واليــأس، والخيــر، وبيــن وعــد األمــل والســام ومنطــق

للشــعب. االقتصــادي للوضــع حقيقيــة كخارطــة المائــدات عــن الطعــام هــذا

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الخبــز صنــع أصبــح مياديــة( 14 الــى الميــاد قبــل 31 ( االغسطســي العصــر فــي ــة خدمــة عامــة، ولكــن مــع تراخــي النســيج االجتماعــي فــي أعقــاب ســقوط اإلمبراطوريجذريــا الحالــة تغيــرت الوســطى العصــور فــي اإلقطــاع وظهــور الغربيــة الرومانيــة وتحولــت مــن المتجــر إلــى المخبــز الخــاص. امتلــك كل ســيد مخبــز خــاص، وكل قلعــة

الخبــز. وخبــز لتجهيــز مخصصيــن وموظفيــن مطحنــة لديهــا كان

فــي العصــور الوســطى أصبــح الخبــز رمــزا للتغذيــة اإلنســانية، ولكــن التغييــر الجــذري ــاء، وبقــي ــز القمــح األبيــض، كمــا هــو الحــال دائمــا، لألغني ــر العــادات: بقــي خب ــم يغي لللفقــراء خبــز حبــوب الجــاودار، الشــوفان أو النخالــة وبــدون ملــح وخميــرة ومخــدرات، لدرجــة الفاتــح صفــات معجزيــة، للخبــز أيضــا نســبت الهضــم. اللــون وصعــب غامــق يــروي قصــة كيــف كان غينــو دي تاكــو قــادر علــى شــفاء آالم المعــدة عــن طريــق أن ــى أســاقفة الوقــت، رئيــس ــث أشــفى واحــدة مــن أغن ــز المحمــص، حي شــرائح مــن الخبــا بونيفــاس الثامــن. فــي ــة الباب ــى حمامــات ســيينا لرعاي ــا ال ــي، وأرســل بعده ــر كليني ديمــن بــدال اســتخدمت “للفــم”، ســميت بيضــاء ارغفــة أيضــا صنعــت 300 األعــوام

المناديــل فــي الوالئــم.

دقيــق عصيــدة مــن خبــز الخبــز: ســواد اغمــق االجتماعــي، الســلم فــي نزلنــا كلمــا فــي فقــط الخبــز بقــي النهايــة فــي البلــوط! خبــز الفــول، خبــز النخالــة، خبــز الــذرة، الحيوانــات. تأكلهــا التــي االطعمــة نفــس يأكلــون كانــوا الواقــع فــي ألنــه االســم، الخبــز، بحيــث كانــت تغمــس الخبــز، مهمــا كانــت طريقــة أنــواع تمــت معالجــة بعــض فــي مــاء مغلــي ثــم توضــع مــرة أخــرى فــي الفــرن لتجــف. كان هــذا النــوع مــن الخبــز

طويلــة. لفتــرة يحفــظ كان بحيــث للحجــاج يحضــر

خبــز الكاهــن، خبــز الفــارس، خبــز البابــا، خبــز هنــاك للتمييــز: عنصــر أيضــا الخبــز كان حامــل الــدروع، ...، فــي الجــزء الســفلي مــن القائمــة نجــد خبــز الجــاد.

ــة رأســا علــى عقــب يجلــب الحــظ ــز حيــث اذا وضــع علــى الطاول نشــأت خرافــة حــول الخبوشــخصيات شــعبية وقصــص تاريخيــة أحــداث مــن لمزيــج نتيجــة هــذا كان الســيئ. عشــر، الخامــس القــرن فــي الســابع كارلــو بمرســوم شــيء كل بــدأ ســابقا. وجــدت ارادتهــم، الــدول،: مضطريــن للقبــول االمــر رغــم بوضــع ضريبــة عينيــة لصالــح جــاد ــاره عامــة علــى ــه رأســا علــى عقــب باعتب ــز األســوأ وســلموه ل ــا الخب ــازون جانب ــرك الخب ت

واإلهانــة. االحتقــار

حدثــت الثــورة الحقيقيــة فــي مجــال الخبــز فــي عصــر النهضــة، مــع ادخــال خميــرة البيــرة مــن تصنيــع معقــد عمليــة عــن طريــق تنتــج والتــي ميديشــي، مارييــا دي بــاط الــى الخميــرة الطبيعيــة والشــعير، وهــي المكونــات الرئيســية فــي صناعــة البيــرة. وبســبب ــا، ــل الطبقــات العلي ــد مــن قب ــى نحــو متزاي ــز عل ــر للخب ــرة واالســتهاك الكبي هــذه الخمي

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panis di Alessandria يتــم طهيــه علــى أســياخ.

panis bucellatus كان نوعــا مــن الخبــز المقرمــش.

panis ostearus صنعــت خصيصــا لمرافقــة طبــق المحــار.

panis adipatus غنــي جــدا بدهــن الخنزيــر.

panis furfureus يعــد مــن النخالــة وهــو للــكاب.

والفواكــه والفلفــل الخضــار مــع المخلــوط العجيــن مــن يعــد panis artolaganusاالعيــاد. خبــز يعتبــر وكان والزيــت، والنبيــذ والعســل الجافــة

يبيــن لنــا جوفينــال فــي كتابــه ال“Satire“االســتخدام السياســي للخبــز كأداة مــن قبــل األباطــرة للحفــاظ علــى موافقــة رعاياهــم، والبقــاء فــي الســلطة:

” [...] [populus] duas tantum res anxius optatpanem et circenses“

“]...[ ]الشــعب[ شــيئين يريــد بفــارغ الصبــر)Satira X الخبــز والعــاب الســيرك” )جوفينــال،

frumen- )عــادة توزيــع القمــح مجانــا أو بأســعار أقــل مــن الســوق فــي أوقــات المجاعــة عــن منظمــة الرومانيــة، الجمهوريــة عصــر فــي طويــل وقــت منــذ بــدأت ،)tationes

.lex frumentaria طريــق قانــون

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Artologalum صفيحــة خبــز التــي كانــت بمثابــة فاتــح الشــهية.

panis adipatus مــع قطــع مــن دهــن ولحــم الخنزيــر المملــح.

فــي الفيالــق قبــل مــن واســتهلك اعــد الرومانيــا، البيادينــا جــد panis testicius. ت لمخيمــا ا

دائــري؛ الجــودة، شــكله العالــي القمــح دقيــق مــن عليــه يحصــل panis siligineusكانــت ليتــم كســره كمــا أجــزاء، وذلــك ثمانيــة إلــى الطبــخ الســطح قبــل ويتــم شــق

العــادة فــي ذلــك الوقــت علــى المائــدات.panis autopyrus المصنــوع مــن طحيــن القمــح الكامــل وغيــر المنخــل.

دقيــق مــن مصنــوع مكلــف، وغيــر غامــق مطــول، شــكل علــى panis cibariusمنخــل. الغيــر الشــعير

panis parthicus اســفنجي، يســتوعب كميــة أكبــر مــن المــاء.

panis picenum كان يطبــخ داخــل وعــاء مــن الفخــار والــذي يتــم كســره امــام رفقــاء المائــدة.

التــي يمكــن االحتفــاظ بهــا الرقاقــات المخصصــة للجنــود نــوع مــن panis militarismundus، ووزعــت لفتــرة طويلــة؛ فــي القــرن الثالــث الميــادي تــم انتاجهــا بنوعيــن: علــى الجنــود فــي الثكنــات، وcastrensis، وتســتهلك فــي المخيمــات خــال الحمــات.

علــى كانــت للبحــارة: مخصصــة ولكــن الرقاقــات مــن نــوع أيضــا panis nauticusالنقــل. عمليــة لتســهيل عصــي علــى توضــع لكــي عجــل شــكل

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بالطاحونــة الحيوانــات أو العبيــد قبــل مــن المدفــوع الرحــى حجــر الرومــان اســتبدل يعتبــر والــذي بوليــو، فيتروفيــوس ماركــوس يشــهد كمــا الميــاه، بقــوة تعمــل التــي الميــاد قبــل 168 عــام وفــي العصــور، كل فــي شــهرة األكثــر النظــري المهنــدس وذلــك للخبــز، الحرفــي للعصــر بدايــة وكانــت المدينــة فــي العامــة المخابــز أول اعــد

النقــي. األبيــض الطحيــن باســتخدام

ــا”، وهــي “بولت ــرة والـ ــر مخم ــر غي ــت تســتهلك فطائ ــز فــي رومــا كان ــل ان ينتشــر الخب قبعصيــدة عديمــة الطعــم مصنوعــة مــن الشــعير، والحبــوب، يرافقهــا بعــض البقوليــات Pulte, non pane,“ :ــب ســينيكا ــادرا جــدا بعــض قطــع مــن الســمك أو اللحــم. كت ونvixisse longo tempore Romanos manifestum”، بمــا معنــاه “عــاش الرومــان

ــز”. ــى الخب ــس عل ــا ولي ــى البولت ــة عل ــرة طويل لفت

صناعــة عمليــة غــادرت الميــاد قبــل 171 عــام منــذ فقــط أنــه األكبــر بلينــي أخبرنــا إلــى األفــران المتخصصــة، مــن خــال عمــل الحرفييــن البيــوت العائليــة لتنتقــل الخبــز

المختلفــة. الخبــز أنــواع مــن قائمــة طويلــة لنــا وتــرك المهــرة،

panis streptipcius مكــون مــن خليــط خفيــف مــن الدقيــق والمــاء والحليــب والزيــت ــزا ــواع البيت ــا أحدان ــة، ربم ــح رقيق ــز بســرعة فــي صفائ ــل، وكان يخب ــر والفلف ودهــن خنزي

اليــوم.

panis candidus مكــون مــن الطحيــن األبيــض الناعــم ويســتهلكه األغنيــاء.

panis secundarius أيضــا أبيــض ولكــن يتــم الحصــول عليــه مــع خليــط مــن أنــواع مختلفــة. دقيــق

panis rusticus اســود ومخصــص للشــعب.

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أيــام االعيــاد، ودون خــوف الخبــز ان يكــون شــيئا خاصــا، يقــدم فقــط فــي كان علــى ــز والمــاء تجعــل لإلنســان ــة مــن الخب ــة كافي ــرودوت ان كمي ــد هي مــن اتهامــه بالكفــر، اك

“بركــة مســاوية لزيــوس”.

األنــواع عشــرات لصنــع أنهــم وصلــوا لدرجــة جديــدة ونكهــات توابــل اإلغريــق أدخــل ــي العصــر االســكندري ــر ف ــس، وازده ــوس مــن ناوكراتي ــا للباحــث أثيناي ــة، وفق المختلفاركســتراتو، اربوكراتزيونــي، ياتروكلــي، أشــهرهم: مــن والحلويــات، الخبــز عــن األدب

ارتــوزي. بيليغرينــو تريفــون مــن اإلســكندرية، واألكثــر شــهرة هــو التــي الشــعير، مــن طحيــن واحــدة رقاقــة “مــازا”، الـــ هــو انتشــار األكثــر الخبــز وكان القمــح دقيــق مــن المصنــوع الثميــن بالخبــز احتفظــوا والذيــن الفقــراء، اســتهلكها

الــى أيــام االعيــاد.

“اغورايــوس”، األكثــر شــهرة فــي لــه يقــال الــذي أثينــا، أغــورا المبــاع فــي الخبــز كان فــي الســيخ، علــى المطهــي “اوبيليتــس” كان ألبقــراط األفضــل حيــن فــي أتيــكا، لمناســبات مختلفــة: خــاص خبــز إعــداد تــم الفطــر. بشــكل “بوليتــوس” الـ تميــز حيــن “كوليفــا” “غاميليــو”، يخلــط مــع العســل والسمســم ويســتهلك فــي االعــراس، والـ الـالجنــازات. فــي اجبــاري كان العســل، مــع والمخلــوط الجافــة، والفواكــه البــذور مــن

وفــي وقــت الحــق، فــي القــرن الثانــي قبــل الميــاد، بعدمــا غــزى الرومــان هيــاس، رومــا. اليونــان، فــي المفضلــة مــن قبــل الخبازيــن، ظهــرت مهنــة

ــان” أول ــروي كيــف كان “ب ــى ســيريس الكتشــاف القمــح وي ــي ال ــد الاتين ويعــزو التقليــاة. ــه للحي ــى عن ــام ال غن ــى أصــل طع ــة عل ــه وآله ــم نســب إل ــذا ت ــه. وبه ــام بطهي مــن ق“بــان”، بالاتينــي( مــن )خبــز “بانيــه” الــذي اعطــي للطعــام: الذكــر وكان بذلــك اســم األجــداد مــن )panis ( “بانيــس” هــو األصــل أن المرجــح مــن أنــه مــن الرغــم علــى

واســتبقاء”. “تغذيــة pasco الفعــل مــن الرومــان

الجــزء وعمــل الفــرن، لتحســين المعماريــة بالهندســة معرفتهــم الرومــان اســتخدم الداخلــي علــى شــكل قــوس بحيــث يتــم تشــكيل فــراغ مــع الجــدار الخارجــي وهــذا يعمــل بمثابــة عــازل للحــرارة. أصبــح فــرن الخشــب مهــم جــدا فــي الحضــارة الرومانيــة، وتكريمــا

.)Fornicalia لآللهــة فورناشــيه، التــي حمــت الخبــز، نظمــت أعيــاد فورنيكاليــا )نصــب رؤيــة يمكــن ،)Porta Maggiore ( ماجــوري بورتــا مــن بالقــرب رومــا، فــي تســتخدم كانــت كبيــرة أوانــي ثاثــة مــن مكــون بــرج وهــو الخبازيــن، لمجــد تــذكاري جداريــة رســمة الــكل ويعلــو وعمــودي، أفقــي بشــكل مرتبــة األوانــي الخبــز. لتخميــر

خبــز. تصبــح حتــى القمــح حبــة بــه تمــر التــي العمليــات مختلــف تمثــل

كبيــرة ألــواح بتحريــك يقــوم بدورانــه للحمــار، مخصصــة عمليــة الحبــوب طحــن كان ــد أســفل النصــب كتــب اســم ماركــوس فيرجيليــوس ــة الشــكل. عن مــن الحجــر، مخروطي

يوريســاكس، خبــاز ومــورد رســمي للخبــز.

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“لذلــك كانــت تحــرس )القــرن الخامــس قبــل الميــاد(، قليــا، كمــا يقــول هيــرودوت بغيــرة - كمــا لــو كانــت شــيئا مقدســا - فــي كل بيــت مصــري” . لــم يعــرف المصريــون تحســين إلــى باإلضافــة التخمــر، مــع أنــه يدركــوا لــم ولذلــك الحيويــة، الكيميــاء

ب. المجموعــة مــن بفيتامينــات إغنائــه يتــم للخبــز، الحســية الصفــات

أو بالعبيــد دفــع مــع برحــى المجهــزة تلــك مصــر، فــي البدائيــة المطاحــن ظهــرت ــراث ــال المح ــم إدخ ــا ت ــاد، عندم ــل المي ــادي عشــر قب ــرن الح ــي الق ــات، فــي حوال بالحيوانمــع مســمار خشــبي لتســهيل عمليــة البــذر والغربــال لفــرز الدقيــق والفــرن لخبــز الخبــز.مــن ومصنوعــة الشــكل مخروطــي جــدا، بدائــي التاريــخ فــي األول الخشــب فــرن كان الطــوب الطينــي؛ حيــث يتــم تقســيم المخــروط الــى جزئيــن بواســطة لــوح مــن الحجــر: فــي الجــزء الســفلي كانــت تشــعل النــار وفــي الجــزء العلــوي يوضــع الطعــام المــراد طهيــه.

انتقلــت أســاليب المصرييــن فــي إعــداد وخبــز الخبــز إلــى اإلغريــق.

ــم ــة، بتعلي ــل الخصب ــة األراضــي والمحاصي ــر، آله ــام ديميت ــة، ق ــا لألســاطير اليوناني وفق“أرتــوس”، للخبــز، اليونانــي االســم ولكــن بنفســه، الخبــز صناعــة كيفيــة االنســان اللغــة الفارســية و“فــن” فــي باللغــة “ارض” يكــون ذات صلــة مــع أن والــذي يمكــن

القريــب. الشــرق الــى منطقــة الخبــز اإليرانيــة، يخــون أصــل

يتحــدث هوميــروس فــي الكتــاب التاســع مــن “أوديســة” عــن الخبــز:

“هنــا كان رجــل فــي وكــر، وحش، كان يرعــى القطعــان وحــده و بمعــزل،

وال يختلــط مــع االخريــن ،وفقــط يعيــش، كان قلبــه وحيــدا.

كان وحــش عمــاق. وال يبــدوكرجــل يــأكل الخبــز، ولكــن علــى قمــة مشــجرة

علــى الجبــال الســامية، التــي تبــدو معزولــة عــن البقيــة”.وأيضــا فــي الكتــاب العشــرين:

“دقيــق الشــعير ودقيــق القمــح همــا نخــاع الرجــال”.

وجــد هاينريــش شــليمان اثنــاء حفريــات فــي طــروادة الهومريــة، حجــارة الهــاون لصنــع الخبــز. الطحيــن وأماكــن

اختــرع الخبــازون اليونــان قبــة تغطــي الفــرن وكانــوا أول مــن عمــل الخبــز بالليــل، لكــي ــوز وطــازج ومقرمــش. ــاح مخب ــاس فــي الصب تجــده الن

القــرن وفــي الميــاد، قبــل الســابع القــرن نهايــة فــي االفــران عــن أحاديــث تتواجــد ومعملــه. الخبــاز مهنــة ظهــرت التالــي

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“يبــس خبــز اليــوم األول، وتلــف خبــز اليــوم الثانــي، وتبلــل خبــز اليــوم الثالــث، وابيضــت قشــرة خبــز اليــوم الرابــع، وذلــك مــن اليــوم الخامــس خســر لونــه” )ملحمــة جلجامــش(

قبــل 3500 عــام حوالــي القديمــة مصــر الــى ترجــع النشــاط هــذا علــى دالئــل أول حقيقيــة. مهنــة الخبــاز مهنــة كانــت حيــث الميــاد،

القمــح ، لكــن ســرعان مــا فضلــت فــي وقــت مبكــر جــدا، كان الشــعير يفضــل علــى فنيــة، صفــة اتخــذ الــذي أفضــل، لخبــز تســمح ألنهــا الشــعير، علــى القمــح حبــوب إلــى درجــة إنتــاج نوعيــات مختلفــة مــن الخبــز. قديمــا كان يســتخدم الدقيــق األبيــض ــا، فــي حيــن الشــعير، دريعــة )نــوع مــن الحبــوب اآلن انقرضــت( والــدورة للطبقــات العليــز للشــعب ــا( كانــت تتــرك لصناعــة الخب )نبــات مثــل الدخــن، المزروعــة فــي آســيا وأفريقيرســومات مصــر فــي النيــل نهــر طــول علــى المقابــر فــي وجــدت كذلــك البســيط. القبــور احــدى والخبــز. وفــي والخلــط والطحــن والحصــاد القمــح زراعــة جداريــة تصــور

3500 ســنة. وجــد رغيــف خبــز مســطح مــن حوالــي

حصــاد أو الخبــز خبــز عمليــة تصــور التــي الجداريــة الرســومات مــن العديــد هنــاك مــكان فــي “المطيــع ســن-نيجم، قبــر فــي الحراثــة تصــور التــي تلــك مثــل القمــح، األول ســيتي حكــم خــال الجنائزيــة طيبــة مدينــة فــي الحرفييــن رئيــس الحقيقــة”، الفنانيــن، وادي فــي 1886 ميــادي عــام فــي القبــر ســليما الثانــي. وجــد ورمســيس بالقــرب مــن وادي الملــكات، وهــو مزيــن بمشــاهد تصــوره مــع زوجتــه أي-نفرتــي بينمــا كانــا يعبــدان الهــة الطقــوس الجنائزيــة. وتظهــر مشــاهد أخــرى للطقــوس مثــل عمليــة تحنيــط الموتــى مــن قبــل اإللــه أنوبيــس، ولكــن التصويــر األبــرز هــو الــذي يمثــل حقــول الرو المباركــة فــي اآلخــرة حيــث المتوفــي وزوجتــه يقومــون بالــزرع والحصــد والحــرث.المنشــأ، وخارقــة غامضــة اعتبــرت ظاهــرة مصــر، الــى الخميــرة اكتشــاف يعــود الخبــز مــع رائحــة معطــرة، لعمــل ارغفــة منتفخــة ولذيــذة، ذات كانــوا يصنعــون حيــث

والسمســم. الخشــخاش

مزيــج علــى يضيفــوا ان المصرييــن علــى كان “الســحرية” النتيجــة علــى للحصــول اليــوم الســابق، ذات الطعــم الحامــض الحبــوب المطحونــة والمــاء قطعــة مــن عجيــن

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طــري كان وبالتالــي بعــد نضوجــه قبــل نيئــا القمــح اســتهاك كان البدايــة فــي حليبــي. وملمســه

ــذور مســحوقة ــز األول الــذي اســتهلكه االنســان كان هريــس مــن ب مــن المرجــح أن الخبرمــاد علــى أو الشــمس اشــعة تحــت ملتهــب حجــر علــى مطبوخــة خشــن، بشــكل الموقــد، وفــي وقــت الحــق فقــط أبقيــت الحبــوب الناضجــة فــي ثقــوب حفــرت فــي األرض بعــد أن شــويت علــى لهــب او حمصــت فــي حاويــات خاصــة. كان الطحــن نشــاط ــم ــن مســطحين، ث ــكاك حجري ــق احت ــه ألول مــرة عــن طري ــام ب ــم القي مناســب للنســاء، تــذي ــن ال ــم المدقــة. ويعجــن الطحي ــرق وث ــم اســطوانة ال ــي ومــن ث اســتخدم هــاون بدائــرة بواســطة القدميــن، ثــم يحمــض ويشــكل علــى ــه فــي أحــواض كبي يتــم الحصــول عليعلــى تجــرى التــي الفــرن، فــي الطهــي عمليــة طريــق وعــن مســتديرة؛ أرغفــة شــكل

ثــاث مراحــل، يحصــل علــى خبــز قاســي، مناســب للحفــظ لفتــره طويلــة.

إلــى الــخبــــز

03

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دفعــت زراعــة القمــح أوائــل المجتمعــات البشــرية إلــى تشــكيل جمعيــات مختلفــة مــن اجــل تشــكيل قنــوات لنشــر الثقافــة وبنــاء مــدن محصنــة بأســوار لحمايــة المحاصيــل، العبيــد لشــراء وكذلــك البــدو مــن المرويــة األراضــي عــن للدفــاع الجيــوش وتنظيــم

أراضــي جديــدة. القنــوات علــى لتوســيع

الــوزن وحــدة تمثــل أصبحــت انهــا درجــة الــى للقمــح االقتصاديــة القيمــة وبلغــت الثالثــة قبــل الميــاد. وقــد أجبــرت القمــح االنســان، بابــل فــي األلفيــة والمــال فــي

المدنــي. المجتمــع تنظيــم علــى الطريقــة، هــذه فــي

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التــي الحبــوب اول مــن االنســان وتعــد التــي عرفهــا الحبــوب مــن الحنطــة أو القمــح زراعهــا االنســان منــذ القــدم .

وســط فــي ،)Karacadag ( كاداغ قــراه جبــال فــي القمــح لتدجيــن مركــز اول حــدد إلــى تصــل والتــي األناضــول وجبــال اإليرانيــة المرتفعــات مــن الواســعة البقعــة ســواحل فلســطين، بمــا فــي ذلــك اوديــة دجلــة والفــرات: الهــال الخصيــب، منطقــة

الحديثــة. األعشــاب مهــد اعتبارهــا يمكــن

يعتبــر مزارعــو ســوريا و فلســطين مــن أقــدم مزارعــي القمــح الذيــن عــرف عنهــم فــي التاريــخ ، حيــث وجــدت عندهــم األدوات الزراعيــة للحصــاد تعــود الــى العصــر الحجــري 3000 قبــل الميــاد، ومــن هنــاك انتقلــت إلــى مصــر حيــث 8000 الــى الحديــث، مــن

كانــت تنتــج الشــعير كبديــل عــن القمــح.

ــح ــن الــقمـ مــ

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يعتبــر الخبــز فــي فلســطين المصــدر االساســي للحصــول علــى الملــح، والتــي تقــدرت 7 غرامــات للفــرد يوميــا، وهــو ضعــف الكميــة التــي يحتاجهــا الفــرد لليــوم قيمتــه بـــ

5 غرامــات كمــا اوصــت بــه منظمــة الصحــة العالميــة كحــد اقصــى . و هــو النظــام فــي الملــح اســتهاك مــن الحــد علــى العالميــة الصحــة منظمــة توصــي الغذائــي و هــي الوســيلة األكثــر فعاليــة للحــد مــن خطــر اإلصابــة باألمــراض المزمنــة والســرطان المزمــن التنفســي والجهــاز الدمويــة واألوعيــة )القلــب المعديــة غيــر

العالمــي. المســتوى علــى فتــكا األكثــر األمــراض تعتبــر التــي والســكري( كجــزء مــن برنامــج “POSIT”، الممــول مــن قبــل التعاونيــة اإليطاليــة فــي مجــال دعــم الصحــة وزارة قامــت المزمنــة، االمــراض ضمنهــا مــن االوليــة الصحيــة الرعايــة 2015 آب فــي أجريــت بدراســة الوطنــي االقتصــاد وزارة مــع بالتعــاون الفلســطينية علــى فحــص كميــة الملــح فــي الخبــز فــي كافــة مخابــز الضفــة الغربيــة حيــث وجــدت 100 غــرام 1.3 غــرام لــكل بـــ ان متوســط قيمــة الملــح المســتخدم فــي الخبــز تقــدر المنصــوص المســموح بهــا و الحــد االقصــى النســبة هــي مــن الطحيــن، وتعــد هــذه 7 حزيــران تــم نشــرها بتاريــخ التــي الدراســة نتائــج الجديــد حســب النظــام عليهــا فــي 2016 والمصــادق عليهــا مــن قبــل وزارة الصحــة الفلســطينية ومؤسســة المواصفــات ونقطــة للمواصفــات الوطنيــة المؤسســة هــي و ،)PSI ( الفلســطينية والمقاييــس االتصــال مــع البنيــة التحتيــة العالميــة للجــودة. إذ أنهــا تتيــح الوصــول إلــى المواصفــات ــة ــر قراراتهــا قانوني ــي تعتب ــد فــي فلســطين والت ــة وهــي المرجــع الوحي ــة والعالمي الوطني

ــال. فــي هــذا المج

“الحــد األقصــى لبعــض المكونــات فــي إنتــاج بعــض األطعمــة : ملــح الطعــام )كلوريــد 100 غــرام مــن الخبــز”. 1.04 غــرام لــكل الصوديــوم( فــي الخبــز فــي جميــع أشــكاله:

مــن للتأكــد دوريــة مراقبــة باتباعــه، المخابــز يلــزم الــذي ، القــرار هــذا علــى وينطــوي الســنوات خــال لنســبة تخفيضــات ســيتبعها التــي و حاليــا المقــررة بالنســبة التقيــد

. القادمــة القليلــة وبالتالــي فــإن فلســطين هــي أول دولــة فــي الشــرق األوســط التــي تعمــل علــى برنامــج لخفــض اســتهاك الملــح فــي الخبــز ، وهــي خطــوة هامــة نحــو الحــد مــن عوامــل الخطــر

للوقايــة مــن األمــراض المزمنــة غيــر المعديــة.

فــإن ،)INRAN ( والتغذيــة الغــذاء لبحــوث الوطنــي للمعهــد وفقــا إيطاليــا، وفــي بحوالــي يقــدر والــذي أوروبــا فــي المعــدالت أعلــى بيــن مــن هــو الملــح اســتهاك ــي أوصــت بهــا 5 غرامــات الت ــر مــن ضعــف الـــ ــوم الواحــد، أي أكث 12-10 غــرام فــي اليــرام 100 غ ــكل ــح ل ــح المل ــة، هــذا وان متوســط اســتهاك المل منظمــة الصحــة العالمي1.1 غــرام 1.7 غــرام، بينمــا فــي إنجلتــرا فتبلــغ نســبة اســتهاك الملــح مــن الخبــز هــو

فقــط.

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غــذاء وهــو المتوســط، األبيــض البحــر لحميــة الغــذاء رمــز و الحيــاة رمــز هــو الخبــز ــر مــن قديــم عرفــه اإلنســان منــذ البدايــة، هــو مــن المــواد الغذائيــة التــي تلخــص الكثي

اليوميــة: للقيــم مقياســا أصبــح والــذي ، الغذائيــة العناصــر

“كســب الخبــز” )باإليطالــي “guadagnarsi il pane”( يعنــي كســب العيــش؛“فقــد الخبــز” )باإليطالــي “perdere il pane”( هــو مــرادف لمــن يبقــى بــا عمــل؛

نموذجــا اتخــذت والتــي ،)”buono come il pane“ )باإليطالــي الخبــز” مثــل “لذيــذ للجــودة.

الخبــز هــو الطعــام بــكل معنــى الكلمــة فــي ثقافــة الشــرق األوســط.والحبــوب الخبــز مــن للفــرد الشــهري االســتهاك يصــل الفلســطينية األراضــي فــي علــى لألســرة الشــهري اإلنفــاق مــن متوســط 16٪ يعــادل مــا أي كغــم، 10 حوالــي فــي بينمــا ،)2011 الفلســطيني لإلحصــاء المركــزي الجهــاز )حســب الغذائيــة المــواد

.2.9٪ يتجــاوز ال إيطاليــا

01

مـــــة مـقــد

1

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يشــمل هــذا االجــراء رصــد االلتــزام مــن قبــل الخبازيــن وســيتبعه المزيــد مــن االنخفــاض ــة المقبلــة. ــة المقــررة خــال الســنوات القليل فــي الكمي

بالتالــي أصبحــت فلســطين أول دولــة فــي الشــرق األوســط التــي تدخــل برنامــج خفــض مــن للوقايــة الخطــر عوامــل مــن الحــد نحــو هامــة خطــوة وهــي الملــح، اســتهاك

المعديــة. غيــر المزمنــة األمــراض اآلن جــاء وقــت الســكر والدهــون الحيوانيــة ....

فينتشــنزو راكلبوتــو ســنة مــن القــدس فــي الواقعــة اإلنمائــي للتعــاون اإليطاليــة الوكالــة عــن ممثــل

2016 ســنة حتــى 2012إنريكــو ماتريــا

خبيــر فــي الصحــة العامــة الوكالــة اإليطاليــة للتعــاون اإلنمائــي الواقعــة فــي القــدس 2016 2013 حتــى ســنة مــن ســنة

ــي كريســتينا ناتولالممثــل الحالــي للوكالــة اإليطاليــة للتعــاون اإلنمائــي الواقعــة فــي القــدس 

ماحظــة: هــذه المقدمــة تجمــع ثاثــة تواقيــع - كريســتينا ناتولــي وفينتشــنزو راكالبوتــو وإنريكــو ماتيريــا - بتأييــد قــوي مــن مديــر مكتــب القــدس للوكالــة اإليطاليــة للتعــاون ماتيريــا الســيد العامــة الصحــة وخبيــر ،)2016 – 2012 ( راكالبوتــو الســيد اإلنمائــي، الذيــن آمنــوا واســتثمروا فــي المبــادرة للوقايــة مــن األمــراض المزمنــة غيــر المعديــة لكريســتينا الــدور يتركــون االن فلســطين. فــي العمــل مــن ســنوات اربعــة خــال

الجيــد. العمــل لهــا متمنيــن الجديــدة، المديــرة ناتولــي،

نشــكر الدكتــور ألفونســو أنانيــا و والدكتــور ســاندرو اكورســي خبــراء الصحــة العامــة و الورا روســي دكتــوراه – مركزالبحــوث فــي مجــال الغــذاء والتغذيــة و فرانشيســكا نــاردي

ــق هــذا المنشــور ــاذ التزامهــم فــي تحقي التخ

الصــور مــن فرانشيســكا نــاردي

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2016 15 نوفمبــر القــدس،

فــي المانحــة الجهــات بيــن بــارزا دورا عقــود عــدة منــذ اإليطالــي التعــاون يلعــب القطــاع الصحــي وســاهم فــي تطويــر النظــام الصحــي العــام فــي فلســطين. علــى مــر الرعايــة الصحيــة تــم تقديــم الدعــم لتطويــر شــبكة المستشــفيات، لخدمــات الســنين، مــن العديــد تنفيــذ خــال مــن العامــة للصحــة المركــزي المختبــر وإلنشــاء األوليــة، الوقايــة خدمــات تعزيــز الــى تهــدف والتــي CRONO و POSIT وهــي المبــادرات تشــخيصها الــى بالضافــة المعديــة غيــر المزمنــة األمــراض مــن والثانويــة األوليــة وعاجهــا. هنــاك احتمــال كبيــر للوقايــة مــن نســبة كبيــرة مــن األمــراض المزمنــة مــن خــال العمــل، علــى المســتوى الفــردي والشــعبي، علــى معالجــة األخطــار الســلوكية:

البدنــي. النشــاط وقلــة الصحيــة غيــر الغذائيــة والوجبــات التدخيــن،

الفلســطينية الصحــة وزارة مــع الجهــود تضافــر فــي - التجــارب هــذه مــن انطاقــا الحكوميــة الوكالــة وهــي ،)PSI ( الفلســطينية والمقاييــس المواصفــات ومؤسســة إدخــال فكــرة ولــدت - قانونيــة قــوة القراراتهــا والتــي المعاييــر مــع تتعامــل التــي )WHO ( العالميــة الصحــة منظمــة لتوصيــات وفقــا الخبــز فــي الملــح كميــة تنظيــم العامــة الصحيــة األمــور مــن واحــدا يعتبــر الملــح مــن التقليــل أن وجــدت والتــي القلــب واألوعيــة المزمنــة غيــر المعديــة )وخاصــة األكثــر فعاليــة للحــد مــن األمــراض 36 مليــون شــخص يموتــون الدمويــة(، والتــي هــي أكبــر قاتــل فــي جميــع أنحــاء العالــم: أوصــى العالــم. فــي الوفيــات مــن 63٪ تعــادل والتــي مزمنــة، أمــراض مــن ســنويا ” Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases“ الخبــراء فــي الدراســةالتــي أجريــت فــي عــام 2003 تحــت اشــراف منظمــة الصحــة العالميــة، للحــد مــن معــدل 7 غرامــات 5 غرامــات فــي اليــوم )يقــدر المعــدل فــي فلســطين بـــ اســتهاك الفــرد إلــى

يوميــا(. للفــرد

World Ac- كمانــح أوروبــي رئيســي فــي القطــاع الصحــي فــي فلســطين وعضــو فــيtion on Salt & Health )WASH(، دعمــت إيطاليــا - مــن خــال عمــل دقيــق مــن خــال المكتســبة فــي بريطانيــا، واحــدة مــن الخبــرة التعــاون اإليطالــي فــي فلســطين ومــن أوائــل الــدول التــي العالــم التــي اتخــذت إجــراءات فــي هــذا المجــال - النهــج الــذي تبنتــه الملــح كميــة مــن التدريجــي الخفــض إلــى يهــدف الــذي الفلســطينية، الصحــة وزارة فــي الخبــز حتــى ال يتغيــر الطعــم علــى المســتهلك. قــدرت دراســة اســتقصائية أجريــت أن متوســط الغربيــة الضفــة الخبازيــن مــن جميــع مناطــق بيــن 2015 فــي أغســطس 100 1.3 غــرام مــن الملــح لــكل كميــة الملــح التــي تضــاف إلــى الدقيــق عنــد الخبــز هــي غــرام مــن الطحيــن. أصبحــت هــذه القيمــة هــي المرجعيــة التــي يتعيــن علــى الخبازيــن 2015( لمؤسســة المواصفــات 8 ديســمبر ( 2015/37 التكيــف عليهــا بعــد قــرار رقــم

الفلســطينية. والمقاييــس

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ملوحــة. اقــل منتجــات

مــن المســتهلك حمايــة ومفتشــي الصحــة وزارة فــي البيئيــة الصحــة مفتشــي يعتبــر وزارة فــي العامــة للصحــة المركــزي المختبــر خــال مــن الوطنــي االقتصــاد وزارة الصحــة، هــم الجهــات المســوولة لرصــد ومراقبــة االمتثــال لهــذا القــرار، كمــا واكــدت

القــرار. لهــذا الكامــل دعمهــا الفلســطينية االغذيــة منتجــي جمعيــة

وحتــى االن تعتبــر فلســطين هــي واحــدة مــن اول الــدول العربيــة التــي وضعــت برنامــج للتعــاون الجزيــل الشــكر ونقــدم كمــا الطعــام، فــي الملــح كميــة مــن للحــد الزامــي فــي التغذيــة ذلــك فــي بمــا الصحيــة الخدمــات تحســين فــي لمســاهتمه االيطالــي

. فلســطين

اســعد رماويوكيــل وزيــر الصحة

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2016 20 نوفمبــر بيــت لحــم ،

الدخــل المتوســط والمنخفــض فــي منطقــة شــرق البلــدان ذات الحــال فــي كمــا هــو البحــر األبيــض المتوســط، فلســطين تمــر بمرحلــة انتقاليــة مــن الناحيــة الديموغرافيــة واالجتماعيــة والوبائيــة والتغذيــة. و إن عــبء األمــراض غيــر المعديــة فــي تزايــد مســتمر والســكري والســرطان الدماغيــة والســكتة الدمويــة واألوعيــة القلــب أمــراض مثــل قائمــة علــى األمــراض هــذه تصنــف حيــث المزمنــة، التنفســي الجهــاز واألمــراض وممارســات االجتماعيــة التغيــرات إن فلســطين. فــي للوفــاة المســببة األمــراض الشــركات التجاريــة وضغوطــات الحيــاة اليوميــة المرتبطــة بالفقــر والبطالــة واالحتــال المعديــة غيــر لألمــراض المســببة الخاطئــة الســلوكية العــادات انتشــار فــي ســاهمت

الصحيــة. غيــر والتغذيــة البدنــي والخمــول التدخيــن مثــل

حيــث الصحــي، القطــاع فــي بــارزا دورا اإليطالــي للتعــاون كان عديــدة، ولســنوات ــدول األعضــاء فــي االتحــاد ــل ال ــن تحــت تقســيم العمــل مــن قب ــرز المانحي ــر مــن أب يعتبالفلســطينية الصــة لــوزارة الدعــم بتوفيــر يقــوم اإليطالــي فالتعــاون األوروبــي، العديــد فــي المعديــة، غيــر األمــراض انتشــار مــن الحــد الــى تهــدف التــي وجهودهــا القلــب ألمــراض المســببة الخطيــرة العوامــل مــن :الوقايــة منهــا المجــاالت مــن واالوعيــة الدمويــة، صحــة المــرأة وخاصــة التوعيــة بأهميــة الكشــف المبكــر لســرطان الخاصــة االحتياجــات ذوي ودمــج النفســي، التأهيــل وإعــادة المجتمــع الثــدي، صحــة للرعايــة التحتيــة البنيــة وتطويــر العامــة الصحــة مجــال فــي التدريــب المجتمــع، فــي

األوليــة. الصحيــة

ــد مــن ــي تهــدف للح ــة الت ــود وزارة الصح ــي جه ــاون اإليطال ــم التع وبشــكل خــاص، يدعاســتهاك ملــح الطعــام فــي فلســطين. ومــن الجديــر بالذكــر أن الخبــز هــو جــزء مهــم بشــكل نأكلــه ألننــا ولكــن واألليــاف، للتغذيــة جيــد ومصــدر الغذائــي نظامنــا مــن التــي تحتــوي علــى نســبة منتظــم فإنــه يعــد أكبــر مصــدر للملــح. فالوجبــات الغذائيــة عاليــة مــن ملــح الطعــام تــؤدي الــى ارتفــاع ضغــط الــدم ممــا يــؤدي الــى زيــادة خطــر

الســرطان. وأيضــا الدماغيــة والســكتة القلــب بأمــراض اإلصابــة

التغذيــة، حيــث بشــكل القمــح فــي قطــاع اغنــاء دقيــق لدينــا خبــرة طويلــة فــي نحــن يعــد الــذي الفلســطيني المواصفــات معهــد ٢٠١٥صــادق الثانــي كانــون فــي خــاص، التغذيــة قــرار علــى الفلســطينية الوطنيــة للســلطة القطاعــات بيــن التنظيميــة الهيئــة الملــح ينــص علــى تحديــد قيمــة مرجعيــة لنســبة 2015/37( والــذي ( رقــم الصحيــة النحــو علــى الدقيــق مــن غــرام 100 لــكل الملــح مــن غــرام 1,3 وهــي الدقيــق فــي المقتــرح مــن قبــل وزارة الصحــة بمســاعدة تقنيــة مــن التعــاون االيطالــي. حيــث تركــز االخــرى المخابــز ومنتجــات الخبــز فــي للملــح التدريجــي التخفيــض علــى االرشــادات لقبــول المســتهلكين اذواق ضبــط اجــل مــن ســنوات ثــاث خــال 15% بنســبة

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2016 15 نوفمبــر القــدس،

ــات فــي مختلــف األزمــان، ليــس فقــط ــز لمختلــف الديان ــاول قصــة الخب ــاب يتن هــذا الكتفــي جوانبــه الغذائيــة، ولكــن أيضــا الثقافيــة، باعتبــاره مصــدرا للحيــاة ورمــز الوفــرة. منــذ الماضيــة العشــر االف ســنة الــذي اســتطعنا تتبعــه، أي منــذ مــا يقــارب انتاجــه بدايــة ــر فــي ــوس األكب ــز ذكرهــا بليني ــوع مــن الخب ــر مــن عشــرين ن ــة، أكث ــى العصــور الفرعوني ال Panem et “ وصــف جوفينــال )حيــث الوســطى العصــور حتــى القديمــة رومــا عصــر circenses” – الخبــز والســيرك هــم ســر رضــا الشــعوب(. ومنــذ الثــورة العظيمــة فــي صنــع الخبــز خــال عصــر النهضــة – حيــث تــم ادخــال عمليــة تخميــر الخبــز فــي قصــور

الحديثــة. العصــور عائلــة ميدســيس اإليطاليــة، حتــى تبيــن أحــد االحصائيــات أنــه فــي فلســطين تصــل كميــة االســتهاك الفــردي الشــهري ــاق الشــهري ــادل ٪16 مــن متوســط اإلنف ــا يع ــغ، أي م ــى 10 كل ــوب إل ــز والحب مــن الخب

لألســر علــى الغــذاء. وفــي إيطاليــا هــذه النســبة ال تتجــاوز 2.9٪.التحــول مــن متقدمــة بمرحلــة الفلســطينيين للســكان الصحــي الوضــع يتميــز الديمغرافــي والوبائــي مــع نمــو فــي متوســط العمــر المتوقــع، وانخفــاض فــي معــدل وفيــات األطفــال واألمهــات بعــد الــوالدة، واالرتفــاع المتواصــل فــي األمــراض المزمنــة ــة )أمــراض القلــب، الســكري، الســرطان وأمــراض الجهــاز التنفســي(. لذلــك، ــر المعدي غيمــن ناحيــة، ســمحت التغطيــة العاليــة لبرامــج التطعيــم وخدمــات التوعيــة والعنايــة خــال ــرة مــا ــة ومضاعفــات فت ــدة علــى األمــراض المعدي ــوالدة الســيطرة الجي ــرة الحمــل وال فتــة هــو ــر المعدي ــة غي ــة األخــرى، فــان مكافحــة األمــراض المزمن ــوالدة، مــن الناحي بعــد التحــدي صعــب للقطــاع الصحــي. فــي الواقــع، األمــراض المزمنــة غيــر المعديــة مســؤولة عــن أكثــر مــن ٪70 مــن العــدد اإلجمالــي للوفيــات بالرغــم مــن أن متوســط عمــر الســكان

%40 تحــت 15 عامــا(. ــر جــدا ) هــو صغي

ــج مــن عوامــل ــة فــي فلســطين مــع مزي ــي لألمــراض المزمن ــاع الوبائ ــط هــذا االرتف يرتبالصحــي( غيــر الغذائــي والنظــام البدنــي والخمــول التدخيــن )مثــل ســلبية ســلوكية الســيناريو، هــذا فــي النفســي. واإلجهــاد والبطالــة الفقــر مــن عاليــة مســتويات مــع ــة مــن األمــراض ــة والثانوي ــة األولي ــة والوقاي ــة الصحي ــز التوعي ــرة لتعزي ــة كبي ــاك أهمي هنالمزمنــة غيــر المعديــة علــى مســتوى الفــرد والمجتمــع. تتطلــب هــذه التعديــات تعزيــز خدمــات الرعايــة الصحيــة األوليــة وإعــادة توجيههــا وفقــا لنمــوذج طــب األســرة وذلــك الصحــي والتثقيــف والطبيــة الوقائيــة الخدمــات وتكامــل الرعايــة، اســتمرارية لتعزيــز والعــاج الذاتــي. ويعتبــر هــذا نموذجــا تقــوم وزارة الصحــة الفلســطينية بترويجــه بنــاءا

.“2017-2022 للصحــة الوطنيــة “االســتراتيجية علــى لســنوات عديــدة وحتــى اآلن، ايطاليــا تأخــذ دور القيــادة فــي مجــال مشــاريع التعــاون فــي القطــاع الصحــي فــي فلســطين. وهــو جهــد شــامل يتضمــن عــدد مــن المــوارد الهامــة للتغذيــة هامــا مكانــا حجــز تــم االجــراءات، هــذه بيــن ومــن اإلجــراءات. مــن والعديــد

الصحيحــة، بــدءا مــن الخبــز.

فابيــو ســوكولوفيشالقنصــل االيطالــي العــام فــي القــدس

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2006 بالشــراكة مــع مؤسســة المواصفــات تبنــت وزارة الصحــة الفلســطينية فــي عــام علــى الســيطرة اجــل مــن الدقيــق تدعيــم PSI( سياســة ( الفلســطينية المقاييــس و الــوزارة قامــت حيــث التغذيــة، وســوء المزمــن الــدم فقــر مــن مختلفــة انــواع عــدة بإضافــة عشــرة عناصــر غذائيــة الــى الدقيــق وهــي الحديــد وحمــض الفوليــك والنياســين

12، والزنــك. 6، بــي 1، بــي وكل مــن فيتاميــن أ، ج، د، بــي 2016، قامــت وزارة الصحــة الفلســطينية بالتعــاون مــع ــام 10 ســنوات وفــي ع وبعــد مؤسســة المواصفــات و المقاييــس الفلســطينية بتنــاول مســألة تقليــل نســبة الملــح 100 غــم مــن 1,3 غــم مــن الملــح لــكل فــي الخبــز، حيــث قامــت بتحديــد مرجــع مقــداره

ــن . ــع العجي ــة صن ــن فــي عملي الطحيــات باألمــراض ــات واالصاب ــم اتخــاذ هــذا االجــراء مــن أجــل تقليــص معــدل الوفي لقــد تــة ، ومــن أجــل الحــد ــة الماضي 80-70 % فــي الســنوات القليل المزمنــة والتــي تقــدر ب ــد أمــراض ــث تع ــة والســرطان، حي ــة الدموي ــب واألوعي ــة مــن أمــراض القل مــن اإلصاب40- بنســبة وذلــك فلســطين فــي للوفــاة الرئيســيان المســببان والســرطان القلــب

%50 مــن الوفيــات.البيئيــة صحــة مفتشــو الطحيــن فــي الملــح خفــض تبنــي عمليــة علــى ويشــرف وزارة مــن المســتهلك حمايــة مفتشــي مــع بالتعــاون الفلســطينية وزارةالصحــة فــي

الــى: يهــدف والــذي الوطنــي، االقتصــاد

الحــد مــن اإلصابــة باألمــراض المزمنــة. 1الحــد مــن الوفيــات بســبب األمــراض المزمنــة. 2تقليــص العــاج مــن األمــراض المزمنــة فــي المستشــفيات . 3زيــادة متوســط العمــر المتوقــع علــى المــدى الطويــل. 4تقليــص التنبــؤات بالمشــاكل الصحيــة واســتثمار المــال في تطوير الخدمــات الصحية. 5تحســين المؤشــرات الصحيــة. 6

دعمهــم علــى اإلنمائــي للتعــاون اإليطاليــة للوكالــة الشــكلر جزيــل نقــدم ان ونــود الفلســطينية. الصحــة لــوزارة الدائــم

جــواد عوادوزيــر الصحة

Page 94: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

مقدمة

من القمح

إلى الخبز

في التاريخ وفي االيمان

الوصفات

1

3

5

16

19

الــمحتــويــات

Page 95: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

الاجئ

وضعوا على فمه الساسلربطوا يديه بصخرة الموتى،

وقالوا: أنت قاتل،أخذوا طعامه، والمابس، والبيارق

ورموه في زنزانة الموتى،وقالوا: أنت سارق،

طردوه من كل المرافئأخذوا حبيبته الصغيرة،ثم قالوا: أنت الجئ!

يا دامي العينين، والكفين،إن الليل زائل،

ال غرفة التوقيف باقيةوال زرد الساسل!

وحبوب سنبلة تموتستمأل الوادي سنابل.

محمود درويش

Page 96: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

الــخبـز في فـلسـطيــن

1.3 غرام من الملح لكل 100 غرام من الدقيق مدعم ب 10 من العناصر الغذائية

Page 97: Bread in Palestine - AICS · in “Panem et circenses – b read and Circus-es” the secret of popular consensus) to the Middle Ages. From the great revolution in bread making during

Questa pubblicazione Il pane in Palestina – 1,3 grammi di sale per

100 grammi di farina fortificata con 10 elementi - La storia del pane

raccontata nelle diverse culture attraverso i secoli - è stata realizzata

con il contributo dell’Agenzia Italiana per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo

nell’ambito del progetto POSIT AID 10125

This publication Bread in Palestine - 1.3 grams of salt for 100 grams

of flour fortified with ten elements - History of bread in different cul-

tures across centuries of flour has been funded by the Italian Agency

for Development Cooperation within the project POSIT AID 10125

غــرام 100 لــكل الملــح مــن غــرام فـلسـطيــــن1.3 فــي الــخبـــز المنشــور هــذا صمــم اإليطاليــة الوكالــة الغذائيــة بمســاهمة مــن العناصــر 10 مــن الدقيــق مدعــم ب مــن

10125 رقــم تمويــل بســوزت اإلنمائــي ضمــن مشــروع للتعــاون

AICS- Agenzia Italiana per la Cooperazione allo SviluppoSede di GerusalemmeMujeer Eddin Street, 2Sheikh Jarrah- JerusalemTel: +972 )0( 2 532 74 47Fax: +972 )0( 2 532 29 04www.itcoop-jer.org

DESIGNED bY HAKAZA ADVERTISING | JANUARY 2017


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