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Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 9, Number 1, January
1971, pp. 67-78 (Article)
DOI: 10.1353/hph.2008.1536
For additional information about this article
Access provided by Universidad Complutense de Madrid (2 Sep 2015 13:21 GMT)
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hph/summary/v009/9.1brennan.html
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N O T E S A N D D I S C U S S IO N S 67
V i r o N o b i l i s s i m o a c c e l e b e r r i m o D . D . R e n a t o d e s C a r t e s
S a l u t e m a D o m i n o
N o b i l i s s i m e V i r ,
L i t t e r a e t u a e a d S e n a t u m A c a d e m i a e n o s t r a e e x a r a t a e X I I I . C a l . M a r t . E g m o n -
d a e , l e c t a e s u n t i n C u r i a V I I . C a l . A p r i l . t m a c u r e A p o g r a p h o l i t e r a r u m t u m
t u a r u m a d I l l u s t r i s s i m u m D o m i n u m l e g a t u m , t u r n i p s i u s e x c e U e n t i s s i m i D . l e g a t i
a d i l l u s t r e s h u j u s P r o v i n c i a e o r d i n e s .
Re b u s a u t e m o m n i b u s , s e s s i o n i b u s a l i q u o t b e n e e x p e n s i s s e n t e n t i a e s t l a t a ,
c u j u s u t e t t e s t i m o n i i i n e a m e m o r a t i g e m i n i a p o g r a p h o h i s i n c l u s u m v i d e s ,
a c q u i e s c e s u t i s p e r a m u s , e t a m p l i s s i m i s e n a t u s A c a d e m i c i c u r a r e a c f i d e m u l t r o
a g n o sc e s . Q u o d s u p e r e s t D e u m O p t . M a x . s u p p li c es r o g a m u s , u t l a b o r i b u s e t
s t u d i i s n o s t r i s u t r i m q u e c l e m e n t e r b e n e d i c a t .
G r o e n i n g a e X V I . C al . M a y 1 6 4 5 . N o b i l . D .
A d d i c t i s s i m u s
M a t t h i a s P a s o r P h i l o s o p h i a e p r o f e s s o r e t
p . t . Academih a sec re t i s .
I u s s u s e n a t u s
N o u s n e c r o y o n s p a s tr o p n o u s h a s a r d e r e n p r 6 s u m a n t q u e l a l e tt r e la t in e d e
D e s c a r t e s ~t M a t t h i a s P a s o r , d u 2 6 m a i 1 64 5 , m e n t i o r m 6 e p a r J . O r c i b a l e t
G . M i l h a u d , e s t l a r6 p o n s e ~ l a l e tt r e o f f ic i el le c i - d e ss u s , q u i a c c o m p a g n a i t l e s
A c t a d u S 6 n a t d e l ' u n i v e r s it 6 d e G r o n i n g u e e t 6 t a it s i g n 6 e d e s o n s e c r d t a i r e P a s o r .
N o t o n s q u e c e m ~ m e 2 6 m a i 1 64 5, n o u s d i t A . B a i ll e t, D e s c a r t e s r & r i v i t a u
s i e u r T o b i e d ' A n d r 6 p o u r l e r e m e r c i e r e n s o n p a r t i c u l i e r d e s e s b o n s o f fi ce s e t p o u r
l e p r i e r d e p r e s e n t e r en s o n n o m s e s t r 6 s - h u m b l e s a c t i o n s d e g r a c e s a u x j u g e s . 10
P A U L D m O N
V i l l i e r s - s u r - M o r i n F r a n c e
W H I T E H E A D O N P L A T O ' S C O S M O L O G Y
I n th e F a l l o f 1 9 34 P r o f e s s o r A l f r e d N o r t h W h i t e h e a d o f f e r e d a c o u rs e a t H a r v a r d
c a l l e d
C o s m o l o g i e s A n c i e n t a n d M o d e r n
a t i t l e s u g g e s t e d i n t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h
o f P a r t I I o f h is b o o k , A d v e n t u r e s o [ Id e a s. W h e n h e b e g a n t h e s e l e c t u r e s W h i t e -
h e a d w a s 73 y e a r s o l d . H e h a d b e e n r a t h e r s e r i o u s l y i ll th e p r e v i o u s S p r i n g a n d
d i d n o t c o m e t o c la s s u n t i l th e t h i r d w e e k o f t h e t e r m , t h e o p e n i n g l e c t u r e s o f t h e
c o u r s e h a v i n g b e e n g i v e n b y h i s a s s i s ta n t , D r . K a i s e r . W h e n h e f i n al l y a p p e a r e d i n
t h e l e c t u r e r o o m i n E m e r s o n H a l l , W h i t e h e a d s e e m e d fr a i l, e v e n a li tt le o l d e r t h a n
h i s y e a r s. H i s h i g h c o l l a r o f c l e r ic a l s t y le ( t h a t y e a r h e f a v o r e d a c r a v a t o f r i c h
b l u e ) a n d h i s g e n t le w a y o f s p e a k i n g c o n v e y e d t h e a i r o f a b e n e v o l e n t v i c a r . D e s p i t e
10 A. Baillet, La Vie de Monsieur Descartes Paris 1691, t . II , p. 256.
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68 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
his recent illness and delayed start, Whitehead taught the course with confidence
and good humor; so far as I recall, he did not miss a class after taking over the
desk where William James and Santayana had sat as his predecessors. There were
about 40 Or 50 Harvard men in Philosophy 12b, most of them graduate students.
On Saturday mornings, three or four Radcliffe girls might come to visit. White-
head disapproved of this practice, not, I suppose, for anti-feminist reasons, but
because the girls were not duly registered members of the course.
I took down Whitehead's lectures verbatim in a kind of amateur speed-writing
I had developed in my first year of graduate study. It was not unsuited to the old
metaphysician's leisurely pace. His classroom delivery was quite unlike that of
those formal lectures from which he constructed his well-known philosophical
books. Whitehead dispensed his wisdom to us in the form of intelligent and
amiable chats. He talked slowly, pausing occasionally to gaze out the window.
A diagram on the board would take up a little time---("I do not understand why
they should devise chalk the lecturer cannot see "). There were moments too for
stories like that of the tipsy Cambridge don trying to unlock his door with a
matchbox, muttering "Damn the nature of things " To his summaries of particular
philosophical doctrines, Whitehead would append "That's Epicurus " or "That's
Hume " or, in the case of Russell, "That' s Bertie " I have omitted from my
transcription of his commentary on Plato a number of passionate little interjections
like "Readthe
Symposium "
or "For God's sake, be clear-headedI'"
Philosophical writings recommended by Whitehead as relevant to his course
included Plato's Timaeus, especially 28-63, and A. E. Taylor's commentary on
that work; Lucretius's
De Rerum Natura,
and Cyril Bailey's
Greek Atomists and
Epicurus.
Whitehead also recommended Santayana's
Some Turns o] Thought in
Modern Philosophy
(particularly the essay on Locke) and Lawrence Henderson's
Order oJ Nature.
Of his own books, Whitehead suggested that we read
Science
and the Modern WorM, first turning to chapter V ("The Romantic Reaction");
Process and Reality,
especially part II, chapter 2, section 3, Part III and Part V;
Adventures oj Ideas,
particularly chapters VIII and XI. Very much on White-
bead's mind were the two lectures he had recently given at the University of
Chicago under the title "Nature and Life," now included in the book
Modes oJ
Thought.
Late in the course, Whitehead passed from his reflections on Plato, Epicurus,
Descartes, and Hume, to his own cosmological speculations. "I am now at the
beginning of the construction of a metaphysics," he said in his twenty-second lec-
ture. "There won't be much time to do it now at the end." But he had time enough
to present something of his "Sociology of Nature," illustrating by chalk diagrams
such typical Whiteheadian entities as "occasions of experience." With squiggles
to indicate prehensive tentacles incorporating into unities of experience all data
taken as relevant, these atomic diagrams looked like sketches for a Monadology of
the Future; and indeed Whitehead told us that he wanted "to produce a metaphysics
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N O T E S A N D D I S C U S SI O N S 6 9
w h i c h h a s s o m e o f t h e c h a r a ct e r is t ic s o f E p i c u r u s a n d s o m e o f L e i b n i z . A t t h is
p o i n t h i s i d i o m w a s c l o s e t o t h a t o f h i s N a t u r e a n d L i f e l e c tu r e s , p a r t i c u l a r ly
t h e s ec c m d w h e r e m i n d g e ts s o t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d w i t h b o d y , f e e li n g w i t h f a c t.
W h i t e h e a d c l o s e d h i s c o u r s e b y r e a d i n g f r o m Process and Reality s o m e p a s s a g e s
o n G o d t h a t b r o u g h t u s b a c k t o t h e A r t i f i c e r o f th e Timaeus w h o p e r s u a d e s , b u t
c a n n o t c o m p e l .
T h e d i s c o u rs e o n P l a t o n i c c o s m o l o g y b e l o w is t a k e n f r o m t h e f i rs t fi v e l e c tu r e s
W h i t e h e a d g a v e i n P h i l o s o p h y 1 2b . H e w a s f a s c i n a t e d b y P l a t o ' s l a t e r d i a lo g u e s
a n d h e l d u p t o u s t h e i d e a l o f a n e w Timaeus, a c o s m o l o g i c a l a d v e n t u r e w h i c h
w o u l d u n i t e m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h e G o o d . H e w a n t e d t o a c h i e v e i n h i s o w n p h i l o s -
o p h y s o m e t h i n g h e t h o u g h t P la t o h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d in h i s - - t o s e p a ra t e o u t o f t h e
w e l t e r o f e x i s te n c e a d e fi n i te n u m b e r o f u l t i m a t e c o s m o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s . O f h i s
l a r g e b o o k s , W h i t e h e a d w a s c l o s e s t t h a t y e a r t o t h e Adventures of Ideas of 1933 ,
i n P a r t 11 o f w h i c h ( C o s m o l o g i c a l ) , h e d is c u ss e s P l a t o ' s s e v e n m a i n n o t i o n s - -
t h e F o r m s , t h e p h y s i c a l e le m e n t s , t h e S o u l , E r o s , h a r m o n y , m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a ti o n s ,
a n d t h e R e c e p t a c l e . I t h a r d l y n e e d s p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e P l a t o n i c f a c t o r s W h i t e -
h e a d d e a l s w i t h i n t h e s e l e c t u r e s a r e a l l ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f E r o s , w h o s e
c l a s s i c a l l o c u s i s t h e Symposium f o u n d i n t h e f a b l e o f t h e w o r l d ' s c r e a t i o n
o f f e re d t o T i m a e u s b y S o c r a te s . G o d ( o r h i s h e l p e r , th e D e m i u r g e ) c o n s t r u c ts t h e
u n i v e r s e i n a f a s h i o n r e m o t e l y a n a l o g o u s t o t h e t e c h n i q u e o f a n a r t i s t , i n s p i r e d
a n d b e n e v o l e n t , g a z i n g a t a fa i r m o d e l ( t h e F o r m s ) a n d w o r k i n g o u t o f a m y s t e r -
i o u s m a t r i x ( t h e R e c e p t a c l e ) w h i c h i s a t o n c e m a t t e r , s p a c e , a n d m o t i o n . W h i t e -
h e a d h a s s a i d t h a t a l l p h i l o s o p h y a f t e r P l a t o c o n s i s t e d o f f o o t n o t e s t o h i m . C e r -
t a i n l y t h e G o d o f h is o w n m e t a p h y s i c a l w r i t in g s i s r a t h e r l ik e t h e P l a t o n i c
D e m i u r g e ; h is E t e r n a l O b j e c t s , d e f ic i e n t t h o u g h t h e y m a y b e i n a c t u a l i t y a r e
P l a t o ' s F o r m s s o m e w h a t A r i st o t e li a n i z ed . T h e W h i t e h e a d i a n p r i n c i p le o f I n t e r -
c o n n e c t e d n e s s h as s o m e l in k t o t h e P l a t o n i c R e c e p t a c l e , a l t h o u g h i t is p e r h a p s
m o r e p r o x i m a t e l y d e r iv e d f r o m t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y A b s o l u t e I d e a l i s m t h a t f i l te r e d
i n t o W h i t e h e a d ' s m e t a p h y s i c s v i a B r a d l e y . P l a t o ' s E r o s , t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e u n i v e r s e
t h a t o s c i l l a t e s b e t w e e n t h e d i v i n e a n d t h e m o r t a l , b e c o m e s i n W h i t e h e a d ' s c o s -
m o l o g y t h e e s s e n t ia l C r e a t i v i t y i n h e r e n t i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h in g s .
T o P l a t o - - - a t l e a s t , t o t h e c o m p o s e r o f t h e e a r l y a n d m i d d l e d i a l o g u e s - - t h e
p a r a d i g m o f re a l it y is th e u n c h a n g i n g w o r l d o f F o r m s . B u t W h i t e h e a d w a s a
l o y a l s o n o f h is c e n t u r y a n d t o h i m r e a l i t y is P r o c e s s f i r s t a n d l a st . I n t h e s e l e c t u r e s ,
a s we l l a s i n Science and the Modern World, h e c l a i m e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f t h i n g s
t o b e a n a l l -p e r v a s i v e f a c t i n h e r e n t i n t h e v e r y c h a r a c t e r o f w h a t i s r e a l. S o h e w a s
d e l i g h t e d t o p o i n t o u t t o u s t h a t i n t h e Sophist P l a t o s e e m e d a t l a s t t o r e a l i z e t h e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f a s t a t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f b e i n g , o f f e r i n g h i s r e a d e r s i n s t e a d a q u i t e
l i te r a ll y d y n a m i c c o n c e p t o f th e re a l . C e n t r a l t o W h i t e h e a d ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n P l a t o
i s a n a p p e a l t o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s a s s e r t i o n i n t h e
Sophist
t h a t B e i n g i s P o w e r
( 8 6 v c q x t g ) , t h a t w e c a n n o t a l l o w t h e r e a l t o b e c o n c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f e v e r l a s t i n g
a n d m e a n i n g l e s s f i x it y . I f W h i t e h e a d h a d e v e r h e a r d o f t h e s u g g e s t io n t h a t t h i s
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7 0 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y
f a m o u s p a s s a g e m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y b e a S t o ic in t e r p o l a t io n , h e m a d e n o m e n t i o n
o f i t i n c l a s s .
I n e d i t i n g h i s d i s c o u r s e o n P l a t o ' s c o s m o l o g y w h i c h f o l l o w s , I h a v e s u p p l i e d
f o o t n o t e s t o i d e n t i f y th e P l a t o n i c t e x t s W h i t e h e a d r e f e r s t o , a s w e l l a s a f e w c r o s s -
r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s Adventures of Ideas.
J O S E P H G E R A R D B ~ t ~
Barnard College
Columbia University
C y r i l B a i le y ' s b o o k o n t h e G r e e k a t o m i s t s i s a m a s t e r p i e c e o f m o d e r n c r i t ic a l
l e a r n i n g . 1 T h e o r d i n a r y s c h o l a r i s in s u c h a b l u e f u n k f o r f e a r o f b e i n g u n h i s t o r i c a l
t h a t h e r e d u c e s P l a t o t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e r e s t o f t h e A t h e n i a n s . T h e l e a r n i n g o f c r i t ic a l
s c h o l a r s h i p is s o m e t h i n g y o u c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t , a n d c r i t ic a l s c h o l a r s a r e m u c h f e w e r
t h a n l e a r n e d m e n . C y r i l B a i le y re a l l y d e a l s w i t h L u c r e t i u s, w i t h w h a t h e t h o u g h t ; h e
c o r r e l a t e s h i m w i t h t h e t h o u g h t o f m o d e r n t im e s . L u c r e t iu s a n d E p i c u r u s m a k e r a t h e r
a n e a s y s u b je c t , b e c a u s e t h e y b e l o n g t o t h e c l e a r h e a d e d s e t . z T h e t h e o r y o f E p i c u r u s
i s t h a t t h e u n i v er s e is a n u n c o m m o n l y c o m p l e x s o r t o f t h in g , s o t h a t i t i s o n l y a c l e a r -
h e a d e d p e r s o n w h o w i l l b e a d e q u a t e t o d e a l w i t h a l l t h a t v a r i e t y o f e x p e r i en c e . O n
t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e p e o p l e o f s u ff i ci e nt l y g r e a t m e t a p h y s i c a l i n s i g h t w h o b e c o m e
m e t a p h y s i c a l l y i n a d e q u a t e b e c a u s e t h e y g e t a l l m u d d l e d . P l a t o i s e s s e n t i a ll y t h e m a n
w h o i s s e e k i n g a d e q u a c y [ e ve n if it b e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f c l a r i t y ] ) I f y o u c o m e t o P l a t o
f o r t h e f i rs t t i m e , y o u r f i r st i m p r e s s i o n is : w h a t a m u d d l e t h e m a n ' s i n B u t w h a t a n
a s t o u n d i n g n u m b e r o f u n b o r n s c ie n t if ic i d e a s th e m a n p u t s ou t O n e ' s fi rs t i m p r e s s i o n
o f t h e Timaeus i s t h a t i t i s b o t h m u d d l e d a n d s i ll y . B u t w h e n y o u l o o k i n t o t h e p r i n -
c i p l e s P l a t o i s t ry i n g t o e x p re s s , y o u f i n d h e p u t s u p a v e r y d e e p m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d
c o s m o l o g i c a l s u g g e s t i o n .
L o o k , f o r e x a m p l e , a t P l a t o ' s d o c t r i n e o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s , o f t h e s o li d s; 4 a s a
m a t t e r o f fa c t , w h a t a n a s t o u n d i n g a n t i c i p a t i o n o f m o d e r n p h y s i c s. W e h a v e g o n e
f r o m 4 0 u p t o 9 2 e l e m e n t s , a n d t h e n k n o c k e d t h e m t o p i e c e s , a s t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a r e
o n l y c o m b i n a t i o n s . T h e f ir e, a i r , e a r t h , w a t e r t h e o r y i s th e f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f m o d e r n
p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e . W h a t f a n t a s t i c s t u f f i t i s, I m e a n P l a t o ' s b r i n g i n g i n t h e d o c t r i n e o f
t h e s o li d s I n P l a t o ' s t i m e , t h e y w e r e j u s t p u t ti n g f o r w a r d m a t h e m a t i c s , e s p e c i a ll y t h a t
o f i r r a t i o n a l n u m b e r s . T h a t w a s a n e w d i s c o v e r y a n d n e a r l y k n o c k e d o v e r r el i gi o n .
P l a t o ' s w a s t h e f ir s t d i v i n a t i o n t h a t t h e s e n e w s c i e n c e s , w h i c h h a d u p t o t h e n o n l y b e e n
Cy r i l Ba i l ey , The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, Oxford , 1928 .
2 W h i t eh ead d iv id ed p h i lo so p h e r s i n to two c l a sse s , m u d d le - h ead e d an d c l ea r - h ea d ed ,
wi th P l a to an d h im se l f i n t h e f i rs t c a t eg o r y , Ar i s to t l e , E p icu r u s , an d Hu m e in t h e seco n d .
L a te r i n t h e se l e c tu r e s , W h i t eh ead say , " T h e r e i s a d an g e r i n c l a r i t y , t h e d an g e r o f o v e r lo o k in g
th e su b t l e t i e s o f t r u th . "
s W o r d s an d p h r a se s i n b r ack e t s su p p l i ed .
9 Timaeus
32b, 53c-57c.
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N O T E S A N D D I S C U S S I O N S 71
s p o r a d i c a l l y a n d p r a g m a t i c a l l y st u d ie d , h a d s u d d e n l y b e e n g i v e n a t r e m e n d o u s p u s h
f o r w a r d . T h i s is th e k e y to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e
- - t h e f a n t a s t i c th e o r y o f p r o p o r t i o n s , t h e v i b r a t i o n o f t h e s t ri n g s a n d t h e l a w s o f
h a r m o n i c s . A r e t h e r e a n y s p e c ia l s h a p e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s ? O n l y t e n y e a r s a g o , s o m e o n e
d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e re a r e b u t f iv e r e g u l a r s o l i d s. M a t h e m a t i c s h a s j u s t c a u g h t u p t o t h e
q u e s ti o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s h a p e a n d m e a s u r e m e n t . T w o h u n d r e d y e a r s a f te r t h e
Timaeus
A r c h i m e d e s g a v e t h e s c i en c e s a s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e o f m e n s u r a t i o n .
T h e r e w a s t h e m y s t i c a l e l e m e n t i n th e s e sh a p e s , y o u k n o w . T h e c i r c le w a s t h e m o s t
s a c r e d f o r m . T a k e a n a l l - w i s e G o d , a n d h e a l w a y s t h i n k s r i g h t ly . T h e s t a r s t h i n k t o
m o v e i n t h e m o s t p e r f e c t w a y p o s s i b le ; h e n c e t h e y m o v e i n c i r c le s . T h a t i s P l a t o s
p r o o f t h a t t h e s t a r s a r e g o d s . T h e u n i v e r s e m o v e s i n a c i r c l e, b e c a u s e i t i s t h e m o s t
b e a u t i f u l w a y i n w h i c h t o m o v e . s
T h i n k o f t h e s u g g e s ti o n t h a t t h e s h a p e s d i s c o v e r e d in m a t h e m a t i c s a r e g o i n g t o b e
e x e m p l i f ie d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n iv e r s e . T h i s q u e s t i o n w a s u p a b l i n d a l le y . A f t e r
A r c h i m e d e s , s c ie n c e ( n o t m a t h e m a t i c s ) w e n t t o s le e p p r e t t y m u c h . T h e n e x t g r e a t j u m p
w a s i n t h e f if t e en t h c e n t u r y w h e n K e p l e r d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e p l a n e t s m o v e i n e l l i p ti c a l
o r b i t s. B u t if th e m a t h e m a t i c i a n s h a d b e e n s t u d y i n g f o r 2 00 0 y e a r s w i t h o u t a n y t h i n g
b u t m y s t i c a l h o p e s , K e p l e r w o u l d n e v e r h a v e s p o t t e d t h e m o t i o n o f t h e p l a n e ts .
Y o u h a v e t h a t c r u d e a n c i e n t n o t i o n o f f ir e, e a r t h , a i r a n d w a t e r , a n d t h e s t a rs g o i n g
a r o u n d i n ci rc l es . M y s t i c a l , y e s, b u t i t c o n t a i n e d a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y g o o d n o t i o n o f t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w o r l d . E v e n K e p l e r s d i s c o v e r y w a s n o t a s t r u e a s h e t h o u g h t i t w a s .
Y o u r b e s t d i s c o v e r i e s a r e n e v e r s o g o o d a s y o u h o p e t h e y a re . H i s w a s g o o d e n o u g h
t o s u g g e s t t h e l a w o f g r a v i t a t i o n .
I w a n t y o u t o re a l i z e h o w a m a n l i k e P l a t o c o m b i n e s t h e d e e p e s t w i s d o m w i t h t h e
m o s t f u t il e a p p l i c a t i o n . E v e r y g o o d i d e a is b r o u g h t i n a s a s w e e p i n g n o t i o n , a n d i t s
l i m i t a t i o n s h a v e t o b e f o u n d o u t. O f c o u r s e , h e s m u d d l e - h e a d e d . T h e d i f f e re n c e b e -
t w e e n L u c r e t i u s d o c t r i n e o f t h e s o u l, f o r e x a m p l e , a n d P l a t o s , i s th i s : L u c r e t i u s
d o c t r i n e i s c l e ar , b u t i t c a n n o t p o s s i b l y b e t r u e .
I I
T h e
Tirnaeus
e x p r e s s e s t h e e x t r e m e i n f i n i t u d e o f t h e u n i v e r s e . B y t a k i n g o n e s e l e c -
t i o n o f t h e d i a lo g u e , y o u c a n g e t o n e a p p r o a c h ; b y t a k i n g a d i f fe r e n t o n e , y o u c a n g e t
a n o t h e r . T h e u n i v e r s e is so c o m p l e x , i t i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r t h e r e i s m o r e t h a n o n e
w a y o f lo o k i n g a t i t o r n o t. P l a t o s a y s i n h is
Epistles
t h a t h e h a s n o t a c h i e v e d a
c o m p l e t e s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f h is i d e a s . 6 I s t h e r e a t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y p h i l o s o p h y ? T h e r e
i s n o o n e t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r y s y s te m , b u t m a n y d i v e r g e n t a n d o b v i o u s l y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s
o f v i e w .
I f y o u t a k e t h e l a t e r P l a t o n i c d i a l o g u e s , y o u w i l l f i nd a r e a l d i f fe r e n c e f r o m t h e
g r e a t p o p u l a r o n e s l i k e
Republic
a n d
Phaedrus.
I n t h e l a t e r d i a l o g u e s , P l a t o i s e x p e ri -
m e n t i n g w i t h a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f i d e a s . T h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i s a t i t s w e a k e s t i n i t s
a p p r o a c h t o t h e se d i a l o g u e s . F o r t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c - m e c h a n i s t i c v i e w o f t h e w o r l d w a s
5 Tim.
34a, b .
6 Epistle V1L
341c. See
Adventures o/Ideas
(New York , 1933) , p . 188 .
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7 2 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y
t h e n t r i u m p h a n t = s o t r i u m p h a n t t h a t i t b e c a m e t h e o n l y c o m m o n - s e n s e p o i n t o f v ie w .
M o s t o f th e ni n e te e n t h c e n t u ry c o m m e n t a t o r s o n P l a t o d i d n o t k n o w m u c h p h y si cs
o r m a t h e m a t i c s . T h i s l e d t o t w o d i f f e r e n t v i ew s o f t h e s o u l, a n d i t w a s a t h o r o u g h -
g o i n g d u a l i sm . F i r s t , t h e s o u l is b u n k ; o n l y t h e y d i d n o t s a y " t h e s o u l i s b u n k ," b u t
" t h e s o u l i s a n e p i p h e n o m e n o n . " T h i s w a s f ir s t c o u s i n t o t h e v i e w o f E p i c u r u s , w h o
h e l d t h a t t h e s o u l w a s s i m p l y f in e r a t o m s . T h e g o d s e n j o y e d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e
h y p e r -
m u n d i a
b u t t h e y r e a l l y d i d n o t i n f l u e n c e th e o t h e r a t o m s , e s p e c i a ll y th o s e o f t h e
s o u l. T h e s e c o n d v i e w i s t h a t N a t u r e i s th e w a y i n w h i c h t h e s o u l i n t e r p r e t s it s p u r e l y
s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i en c e . T h i s i s I d e a l i s m . A l l t h e se c l a s s i c a l c r i t ic a l s c h o l a r s ( a n d t h e y
h a d a s o m e w h a t f e e b l e g r a s p o f t hi n g s ) t o o k t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y v i e w a s c o m m o n -
s e n se . N o w y o u c a n s e e h o w s i ll y t h is i s . W h e n y o u h a v e a s u p r e m e g e n i u s , t h e l a st
t h i n g y o u s h o u l d e x p e c t f r o m h i m i s c o m m o n s e ns e . P l a t o i s o f te n n e a r t h e n i n e te e n t h
c e n t u r y v i e w , b u t h e n e v e r q u i t e a d o p t s a n y o n e o f i ts p o i n ts .
B u t t h e r e a re m a n y v i e w s o f P l a t o b e s i d e s t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n e . T h e r e i s
A r i s t o t l e ' s v i e w o f h i m , t h e R o m a n t i c l i t e r a r y i d e a o f P l a t o , a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n v ie w .
P l a t o w a s a t t h e b a s i s o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . A u g u s t i n e t h o u g h t h e w a s v e r y n e a r ly
a s a i n t . B u t P l a t o ' s d o c t r i n e [ i n t h e
T i m a e u s ]
w a s n e a r e r t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e
G n o s t i c s a n d t h e o t h e r f o r m s o f d e t e s t a b l e h e r e s ie s t h a n i t w a s t o t h e o r t h o d o x
C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . 7
W h a t a r e P l a t o 's f u n d a m e n t a l n o t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e u n i ve r se ? W e f in d in w h a t -
e v e r
is
t h a t t h e r e i s n o
B e c o m i n g .
B a c k o f t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g
w h i c h d o e s n o t c h a n g e . T h e r e i s t h a t w h i c h b e c o m e s a n d p e r i s h es . T h e r e i s
Pa ssa g e .
T h e n t h e r e i s t h e s o r t o f b e i n g w h i c h r e a l l y
is.
T h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e u n c h a n g i n g w o r l d
o f F o r m s b e l o n g s m o r e t o t h e e a r l i e r d i a l o g u e s . P r o b a b l y t h e T i m a e u s w a s w r i t t e n
w h e n P l a t o w a s w e l l o v e r s e v e n ty . B u t h e h o l d s o n t o t h e E t e r n a l , a d i m e n s i o n o f b e i n g
a c c e s s i b l e t o th e o p e r a t i o n o f M i n d . T h e r e i s t h e E t e r n a l , a n d t h e r e i s t h a t w h i c h
b e c o m e s a n d p e r i s h e s . P l a t o l i k e d y a c h t i n g , t h e s p o r t o f t h e a r i s t o c r a t . Y a c h t i n g - - t h e
t u r n a n d t h e fl as h w h e r e e v e r y t h i n g i s b e c o m i n g a n d n o t h i n g r e a l l y i s A r i s t o t l e w a s
t h e s o n o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l m a n , a n d h a d n o s u c h a m u s e m e n t s . T h i s s h o w s h o w f u n d a -
m e n t a l n o t i o n s a r e r e f le c t e d i n a m a n ' s h a b i t o f l if e , a n d v i c e v e r s a. T h e f o r m a t i o n
o f s y s te m s is t h e c r i t i q u e o f f u n d a m e n t a l n o t i on s . T a k e m e l o d y . M e l o d y i s a l w a y s
b e c o m i n g
a n d n e v e r
is
a s a w h o l e . T h e w o r l d , t o P l a t o , i s in a s t a t e o f m e l o d y ; i t i s
a l w a y s b e c o m i n g - - a s a n i m i t a t i o n o f t h e r e a l m e l o d y .
G o d i s th e a r t i s a n o f t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e n t h e r e a r e t h e v a r i o u s s o u ls . 8 H e r e P l a t o
d e c i d e d l y c o n n e c t s t h e U n c h a n g i n g a n d t h e w o r l d o f B e c o m i n g b y G o d a n d t h e s o ul s.
T h e f u n c t i o n o f G o d i s t o c o n t e m p l a t e a n d g a z e u p o n t h e b e a u t y o f t h e e t e r n a l I d e a s.
B u t t h i s r e s o lv e s in t o a n a c t i v i t y w h i c h i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d . G o d i s e v e r t h e
s a m e , y e t t h e r e is a m o t i o n , a n a c t i v i t y i n G o d . G o d i s i n m o t i o n a s t h e s o u l i s t h e p r i n -
c i p l e o f a c t i v i t y . P l a t o s a y s t h e S o u l i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s e l f - m o t i o n . 9 H e s a y s p r e c i o u s
l i t tl e a b o u t G o d .
D o e s i t b e l o n g t o th e e s s e n c e o f G o d t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e F o r m s ? D o u b t l e s s t h e y
b e l o n g t o g e t h e r, G o d a n d t h e I d e a s , t o f o r m t h e s p i r i t o f t h e w h o l e d i a l o g u e . In t h e
r See
Adventures o / Ideas
p. 166.
8 Tim.
34b-37c.
Tim. 37b.
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NOT ES AND DISCUSSIONS 73
Tirnaeus, God is the Artisan, the Mak er, the Fas hion er, the Demiurgos . 10 But God
did not bring forth the world from nothing. It is a mistake to tie Plato up with the
first chapter of Genesis, for there, God created the word from nothing. Plato's God
brought the world out of a welter of confusion.
III
There are certain things in Nature , says Plato, th at are not i nfluenced by time, for
example, numbers, blueness; these are the eternal Forms. There is a tendency in
Plato's early dialogues to look upon the static beauty of the eternal Forms. The dis-
covery of the importance of mathematical proportion [plays its part here]--how the
beauty of the Parthenon depends on its proportions, or the melody on the length of
the string.
The Greeks prided themselves on their humanity. They condemned inhuman prac-
tices as un-Greek, although they were not without them themselves. The Greeks saw
the workmen impressing the beauty of the Forms while building the Parthenon. They
saw the Mixed--the beauty of the Aegean and the olive groves, and the horrible
catastrophes of the world. 11 The Greeks were the first people who looked upo n social
life as a thing of beauty.
You have the world with its Passingness, its sense of transition. Then you have its
Activity, more than passingness, action in changin g environm ent. You have Power
(~rvctpt~), that whi ch directs activity, the Soul. The n you hav e the Beauty of the
world--you feel the artist impressing the Forms. If you knock out Soul, there is no
directive agency. It is the Soul which, en terta inin g its experience in the F orms, im-
presses its activity on the body of the world. The notion of Activity is a somewhat
later not ion in Plato. There is a very interesting discussion of it in the Sophist. There
is an entirely wrong tradition amo ng the commentat ors that Plato is trying to bring
out one definite system. In his later years, he had an entirely different notion; he was
considering those im porta nt and fun damen tal notions without which the universe
could not be understood, but these were n ot stated in sufficiently fund amen tal terms.
Now in this dialectical verbalization, you can easily find contradiction. But he does
not aban don his earlier notions because of the contrad iction involved. What he means
is that you must seek a more fun dam ent al mode of expression, a more fitting verbaliza-
tion. Consider that passage in the
Sophist
abou t Power: Being is an energy arising
from a power .. .. Anyth ing affected by anything, however slight, has existence .. .
I ventu re to state that Being is Power. 12 Power bel ongs to the being and essence of
everything. Mind and life belong to complete B ein g-- not Abso lute Being la (Plato
ao Tim., 28-34.
la In the Philebus, Plato distinguishes between the ontological principle of the Limit
(n~ptt~) and that of the Unl imited (rn~tpov), roughly corresponding to the cosmological
factors of the Forms and the Receptacle of the Timaeus. The Mixed (lalK~6V) is a compound
of the two principles, and the mode of being we find in the mortal world. See
Philebus
26,
27. J. G. B.
~2 Sophist,
247e. See
Adventures of Ideas,
p. 153.
~a Whitehead is here referring to Jowett's translation of x~ naweL~q 6wt
Sophist,
248e).
See
Adventures of Ideas,
p. 203.
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7 4 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y
n e v e r r e a d H e g e l ) , b u t c o m p l e t e B e in g . H e t h e n s h o w s t h a t y o u c a n n o t s a y t h a t
e v e r y t h i n g
m o v e s , t h a t e v e r y t h i n g is a c t iv e . T h e F o r m s a r e a c t i v e i n t h e i r r e la t i o n s h ip s ,
Y o u m u s t n o t o v e r s t a t e th e a c t i v it y o f e v e r y t h in g , a n d y o u m u s t n o t u n d e r s t a t e i t . N o t -
B e i n g i s n o t N o t h i n g ; i t i s O t h e r - t h a n - B e i n g , a f o r m o f B e i n g. 14
T h e F o r m s i n t h e m s e l v e s h a v e a n e t e r n a l i t y a n d a s t a t ic q u a li t y . B u t t h e i r r e l a ti o n
t o S o u l h a s a r e l a t i o n t o t h e w o r m o f B e c o m i n g . I t i s t h e S u p r e m e A r t i s t , w i t h h is
g a z e o n t he F o r m s , w h o b r i n g s o r d e r o u t o f t h e i r r a t i o n a l . A p a r t f r o m G o d , t h e r e
w o u l d b e n o o r d e r l in e s s . P l a t o s a y s n e i t h e r G o d n o r t h e W o r l d a r e a n t e c e d e n t t o
o n e a n o t h e r . Y o u c a n n o t a b s t r a c t G o d f r o m t h e w o r l d , f o r y o u w i l l h a v e l e f t o n l y
f r o z e n F o r m s ; a n d y o u c a n n o t a b s t r ac t t h e w o r l d f r o m G o d , f o r y o u w i l l h a v e l ef t
o n l y c o n f u s i o n . T h e e t e r n a l i t y o f t h e F o r m s g i v e s y o u t h e I d e a ls , th e P a t t e r n s , w h i c h
h a v e p a s s e d i n t o t h e w o r l d b y w a y o f t h e S o u l . T h e S o u l i s c o n t r o l l e d b y U n d e r -
s t a n d i n g , w h i c h i s w i t h i n S o u l . P l a t o s a y s i n t h e T i r n a e u s t h a t G o d p u t i n t e l l i g e n c e
i n S o u l a n d S o u l i n B o d y , f o r t h is w a s t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l w a y t o c r e a t e a w o r l d . 15
W h e n h e t a l k s o f " B o d y , " P l a t o i s t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e t u r b u l e n c e o f t h e w o r ld .
T h e B o d y i s t h e a b o r i g i n a l n o t i o n o f B e i n g. T h e o r d e r i n t h e w o r M , w h e r e t h e r e i s a
m i n i m u m o f S o u l , i s b y t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l F o r m s . B o d y , h e s a y s , is v i s i b le a n d t a ng i b le .
V i s i b l e n e s s r e q u i r e s F i r e ( n o t a t a l l a b a d s h o t ) a n d t a n g i b l e n e s s r e q u i r e s r e s i s t a n c e ,
s o l i d i t y w h i c h i s E a r t h . H e a s s o c ia t e s F i r e w i t h L i g h t . W e s a y t h a t l i g h t is a f o r m o f
e l e c tr o - m a g n e t ic v ib r a t io n . I f y o u t o l d P l a t o o f N e w t o n ' s l a w o f M a s s a n d I n e rt i a, h e
w o u l d s a y , " Y e s , I a l w a y s t h o u g h t t h a t w a s a n i m p o r t a n t n o t i o n . " T h e n h e m a k e s a
s h o t a t m a t h e m a t i c s , a t p r o p o r t i o n . M a t h e m a t i c s , t h o u g h t P l a t o , c o u l d d e a l w i t h
M a t t e r . T h i s i s t r ue , b u t h e t h o u g h t i t w a s e a s i e r t h a n i t w a s . T w o t h o u s a n d y e a r s o f
d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l g e b r a h a d t o c o m e b e f o r e t h is w a s p o s s ib l e . T h e d e r i va t i v e s o u l s - -
t h e H e a v e n s - - a r e G o d ' s t r iu m p h , f o r h e r e h e m a n a g e d t o b a n is h co n f u si o n . T h e
s t a r s a r e a l w a y s d o i n g t h e s a m e t h i n g , f o r i t is t h e b e s t t h in g t o d o . B e c a m e o f t h a t
m o t i o n , y o u h a v e T i m e . H e r e y o u h a v e t h e s t a r s g i v i n g y o u a m o v i n g i m a g e o f
e t e r n i t y . 1~
I V
W h e n h e g e t s t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t i n t h e
T i m a e u s
P l a t o c o m e s t o t h e c o u r s e o f H i s -
t o r y , w h i c h h a s a n e l e m e n t o f
o p i n i o n
i n it . T h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e in t h is r o o m
i l lu s t r a t e s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s n o t h i s t o r y ; t h a t w h i c h i s n o t h i s t o r y e n t e r s i n t o t h e
u n i v e r s e b y a u n i v e r s a l s o u l. B u t w h e n y o u l o o k a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e u n i v e rs e , y o u
f i nd a n e l e m e n t t h a t i s s e e m i n g l y s o c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t i t is a l m o s t o u t
o f t h e w a y o f h i s t o r y . T h e h e a v e n s e x e m p l i f y p e r f e c t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , b y b e a u t y .
W h e n P l a t o d i s c o u r s e s o n t h e n a t u r e o f a c i r c le , o r a s o l i d , y o u h a v e h i s t o r y w h i c h h a s
b e c o m e m o r e t h a n h i s t o r y - - t h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d a n d t h e D e m i u r g e. T h e w h o l e
t h in g i s i n t e g ra t e d in m u c h t h e s a m e w a y - - a l t h o u g h m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y - - i n t h e m o d e r n
t h e o r y o f r e l a t iv i t y a n d t h e q u a n t u m t h e o r y . P l a t o l o o k s o n t h e u n i v e r s e a s th e c h o s e n
14 Soph . 258.
I s T i m . 30b.
1 T i m . 38b.
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NOT ES AND DISCUSSIONS 75
home of the gods, for there they are, exhibiting perfection and eternity. The beau ty of
the history of Ideas lifts you out of potentiality.
There is another question in Plato in regard to those eternal Forms.17 As a matter
of fact, he is essentially conceiving of the w orld as f l u x . When I contemplate that desk,
however, I am not impressed by the fact that everything is flux. The Forms seem to
touch the world and to disappear. This leads Plato to the doctrine of Imitation. The
heavens imitate everlastingness. The beauty of the Forms is that they are precise,
measurable; they are accurate. By the heavens we regulate our own time. When you
get away from the heavens to the flame you get away from this accuracy. The flame
is only such-like. is
Perception immediately runs from the imitati on perceived to the For m which
works with the mind--passage to the eternal form of fire, which the understanding
grasps. Hume says [something like this] when he talks of ideas as impressions of the
understanding. Plato is conceiving a flux of F orms; the very fact that your head
waggles, modifies it; hence you can never see the perfect Circle. The total result of
the impression is sensation. It is as if one Form gave a butterfly kiss to the universe,
and then flew off again. Since that time, mathematics has moved on a bit--consider
Leibniz and his completely independen t intro ducti on of a new no tion to mathematics,
that is, the
f l u x t h e
flux which can itself have a form. This is the astounding dis-
covery of differential calculus.
The Greeks cared for athletics and the beauty of it. The first thing you think
of when you deal with a horse is--has he a good action? It is curious that Plato did
not hit on the notion of the form of a flux as well as the flux of a form. When you
describe what is going oa in differential expressions, you do so in terms of the
/ o r m
o / t h e f l u x .
When you have an integral for this equation, then you have the
f l u x o [ t h e
[ o r r n .
But Plato did not know that, so he doesn't touch it. Because they had less detailed
knowledge than we, Plato and the ancients often went off into aesthetic mysticism.
But if Plato came to Harvard today, he would ask his way to the department of
mathematics; I haven't the slightest doubt of it.
The interest of the Soul to Plato is self-motion; thinking is essentially motion.
Plato has two points of view: the w onde rful intelligible, eternal changelessness of the
For ms is apparent ly devoid of mot ion. ~9 Th en he looks o n so ul as that which gives
motion to the eternal things and thereby makes them impor tant. 2~ The early Plato runs
away with the notion of eternal changelessness being the best. In the T i m a e u s he
makes use of the not ion of a form of a flux --t he stars with their eyes fixed on b eaut y
revolve in circles, because it is the mo st beaut iful thin g to do. 21 When Plato is
abstracting the Soul, the self-moving element, he gets the Receptacle i n the abstrac-
tion. The Receptacle minus Soul is disorderly motion.
Plato abstracts soul from body completely. He fails to note the essential im-
manence of soul and body, and the essential imm anen ce of b oth transition and eternity.
17 The function of the Forms or Models in the creation of the world is mentioned in
T i m a e u s
28, 29, 48e, 49a, 50d, 51d, 52a. J. G. B.
l a Tim. 49d.
l g Phaedo 78d, e.
~o Tim.
37a, b.
~x Tim. 39d; P h a ed r u s 245d, e.
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7 6 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y
T h e r e i s tr a n s i t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n ; a f l u x o f t h e f l u x. [ T h e r e i s] a l w a y s a f o r m i n a n y
f lu x , b u t e a c h f o r m i s a l w a y s q u a l i f y in g . Y e t P l a t o [ in h is d o c t r i n e o f S o u l ] i s p r e p a r i n g
t h e w a y f o r a l m o s t e v e ry v a r ie t y o f p h i l o s o p h e r w h o c a m e a f t e r h i m . B u t h e m a n a g e s
o n l y t o s h o w h o w i n t e n s e l y n a t u r a l i s t i s a n y p o i n t o f v i e w s i nc e . H e i s p r e p a r i n g
t h e w a y f o r t h e C a r t e s i a n d o c t r i n e o f s o u l s w h i c h o n l y t h i n k a n d n e e d n o t h i n g e l se
t o ex i st . B u t w h y d o o u r s o u l s m a n a g e t o r u n a b o u t w i t h o u r b o d i e s ?
P l a t o i s f o r t u n a t e l y n o t c o n s i s t e nt ; h e i s t h i n k i n g o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f a l l m o t i o n
w h i c h i s t h e R e c e p t a c l e . 22 I t is s o d i s o r d e r l y t h a t t h e r e i s n o i n f l u e n c e w h a t s o e v e r ; i t is
a c o m p l e t e l y p o s it i v is t i c u n i v e rs e . T h e n o t i o n o f t h e F o r m s e x i s t i n g o n l y f o r a m o m e n t
w i t h o u t q u a l i f y i n g th e e x p e r i e n c e o r s o u l s , o r w i t h o u t e n t e r i n g f o r a m o m e n t t h e " g o "
o f t h e u n i v e r s e , i s r i d i c u l o u s . I f y o u a b s t r a c t T i m e , y o u h a v e t h e f r o z e n F o r m s . I f y o u
a b s t r a c t O r d e r , y o u h a v e c o m p l e t e c o n f u s i o n . A n d t h e r e is n o c o m p l e t e d i s o r d e r . W h e n
y o u m a k e a c o m p l e t e a b s t r a c ti o n f r o m n u m b e r s , y o u h a v e n o m e a n i n g l e f t . H e b r in g s
i n a l s o t h e n o t i o n o f
Persu asion . 2a
S o u l p e r s u a d e s t h e m o t i o n t o r e c e i v e o r d e r i n s o f a r
a s i t i s p o s si b l e . T h i s s h o w s P l a t o ' s c a r e i n b e i n g a d e q u a t e . E v e r y f o r m o f f l u x i s
a l w a y s b r e a k i n g d o w n . B u t t h e u n i v e r s e e x h ib i t s o rd e r . H e t r ie s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h i s
a t t h e c o s t o f t h e v e r y d i ff i cu l t i d e a o f P e r s u a s i o n . H e p r e f e r s a n i d e a l i k e P e r s u a s io n ,
w h i c h i s d if f ic u l t, t o a s i m p l e o n e w h i c h i s n o t t r u e .
V
T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y a m o n g c o m m e n t a t o r s t o m a k e P l a t o a s y s t e m a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r .
B u t P l a t o t r ie d t o c a t c h e v e r y a s p e c t th e u n i v e r s e p r e s e n t e d ; h e w a s n o t a n x i o u s t o p u t
u p s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c o u l d n o t b e r e j ec t e d . H e k n e w t h e r e w e r e i n c o n s i st e n c i es in h i s
i d e a s. T h i s c o m e s o u t i n h i s n o t i o n o f t h e R e c e p t a c le . I t is c l e a r t h a t h e d o e s n o t k n o w
w h a t t o s a y a b o u t i t. H e s a y s it is " b a r e o f a l l f o r m s . " 24 T h e n h e s a y s i t is a w e l t e r
o f c o n f u s e d h a p p e n i n g s . 25 T h is n o t i o n i s v e r y c h a r a c t e ri s t i c o f w h a t i s q u it e i m p o r t a n t
i n p h i l o s o p h y . T h e r e i s a R e c e p t a c l e w h i c h b i n d s t o g e t h e r e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s ,
b u t i t d o e s n o t i m p o s e F o r m s ; i t h o l d s w i t h i n i t t h e s p h e r e o f t h e u n i v e rs e . W h e n h e
p a s s e s o n t o t h e n o t i o n o f t h e R e c e p t a c l e a s a n a b s t r a c t i o n f r o m S o u l s, t h en t h e r e
w i l l b e a s i m i l a r c o n f u s i o n . T h e R e c e p t a c l e d o e s n o t e x i s t b y i t se l f , b u t o n l y a s t h e l o c u s
o f h a p p e n i n g s . P l a t o is a p t t o l o o k o n a n y t h i n g t h a t h a s a n i n t e r n a l f o r m o f m o t i o n
i n i t a s S o u l . W i t h t h is i n m i n d , t h e R e c e p t a c l e o u g h t n o t t o h a v e m o t i o n ; i t 's v e r y
d i f fe r e n t f r o m S o u l . T h e r e i s t h a t o t h e r w a y ( h e ta l k s a b o u t i t i n t h e
Sophis t
o f
t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h i n g s ; a n y t h i n g y o u c a n s a y o f a t h i n g e x i s t s - - t h e v e r y d e f i n i t i o n o f
e x i s te n c e i s t o a c t o r b e a c t e d u p o n . 26 W h a t y o u c a n d o i s to s t o p t h i n k in g , c l o s e y o u r
m i n d e x c e p t to c e rt a i n a s p e c t s o f a n o b j e c t . G o o d B u t
c o m p l e t e
a b s t r a c t i o n i s i m -
p o s s i b le . T h e r e i s a u n i t y , a n e s s e n t ia l to g e t h e r n e s s i n t h e u n i v e r s e - - t h i s i s t h e n o t i o n
o f t h e R e c e p t a c l e . T h e i d e a o f t h e R e c e p t a c l e i s t h e o t h e r s i d e o f P l a t o ' s n o t i o n t h a t
2z Tim.,
49a-52d .
26 Tim.,
48a .
24 Tim., 50d, e.
25 Tim.,
52c.
26 Soph.,
248c.
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N O T E S A N D D I S C U S S I O N S 7 7
t h e m e a n i n g o f B e i n g i s s o m e t h i n g e i t h e r a c t i n g o r b e i n g a c t e d u p o n . E v e r y t h i n g t h a t
t h e r e is , i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g e ls e . P l a t o i s o b v i o u s l y k e e p i n g G o d o u t s i d e
o f th e n o t i o n o f t h e R e c e p t a c l e . H e m a k e s t h e s u g g e s t io n t h a t G o d m a d e t h e w o r l d ,
a n d t h e n l e t i t r u n o n i t s o w n . T h i s i s n o t f u n d a m e n t a l i n P l a t o , h o w e v e r ; b u t t h e
n o t i o n o f I m m a n e n c e i s r e a l l y P l a t o n i c . T h e n , w h e n y o u g e t t o th e n o t i o n o f c o m p l e t e
a b s t r a c t i o n , w h e n y o u r e a c h t h e n o t i o n o f t h e b a r e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e , y o u h a v e
t h e n o t i o n o f t h e R e c e p t a c l e .
W h e n P l a t o sa y s d i s o r d e r l y m o t i o n z7 h e m e a n s , p e rh a p s , m o t i o n a b s t r a c t e d
f r o m a n y p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r . T h e n h e b e g i n s t o th i n k o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r i n t h e
u n i v e r s e, a n d t h e r e h e f i nd s th e p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r t o b e t h a t w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e
p o s s i b i l i t i e s . H e c o n c e i v e s th e a p t i t u d e o f t h e se p o s s i b i l it i e s f o r c o n j u n c t i o n i n o r d e r l y
r e a l i z a ti o n . T h i s l a s t is v e r y u n P l a t o n i c . ( Y o u c a n n e v e r c o n c e i v e o f a c e r t a i n l i n e o f
t h o u g h t i n p h i l o s o p h y t h a t is i m p o s s i b l e t o g e t o u t o f , t o b r e a k a w a y f r o m . ) T h e
T i m a e u s s e e m s t o h a v e m o r e t h a n o n e p o i n t o f v i ew . T h e F o r m s p r e s e n t u s w i t h a n
u n c h a n g i n g w o r ld , a p e r f e c t w o r l d . P l a t o l o o k s o n t h e m a s G o d c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e
s t at ic p er f e c ti o n o f t h e F o r m s . T h e n G o d i n so m e w a y b r i n g s a b o u t a b a d i m i t a t io n o f
t h e m w h i c h i s o u r w o r l d . I t h i n k P l a t o h a s t w o d i f fe r e n t n o t i o n s h e r e , f o r i f G o d i s
p r o d u c i n g t h e t i m e f u l w o r l d o w i n g t o hi s m e n t a l a g i t a t i o n c o n s e q u e n t o n h i s o b s e r v i n g
t h e s t at i c w o r l d o f F o r m s , t h e n o t i o n o f t h e d i s o r d e r l y R e c e p t a c l e i s d e a d w r o n g .
P l a t o d e f in i t el y s a y s t h a t G o d f o u n d t h e R e c e p t a c l e , t h a t i t w a s t h e r e a t h a n d . 2 s
W h e n t h e th i n g i s w h i t t le d d ow n , y o u h a v e G o d , t h e R e c e p t a cl e , a n d t h e F o r m s
c o e x i s t i n g . T a k e w h i c h e v e r y o u l i k e , t h a t s e e m s u n P l a t o n i c ; t h e v e r y i d e a o f d i s -
o r d e r l y m o t i o n , e x i s ti n g i n i ts o w n r i g ht , s e e m s u n P l a t o n i c .
I f y o u t a k e t h a t n o t i o n i n th e S o p h i s t t h a t e v e r y t h i n g ( w h e n y o u u n d e r s t a n d i t s
n a t u r e ) i s e s s e n t i a l ly c o n n e c t e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g a n d e v e r y t h i n g e ls e , 29 t h e n P l a t o ' s
h a n d l i n g i n t h e T i m a e u s i s a d m i r a b l e , a l t h o u g h u n f o r t u n a t e i n p h r a s e o l o g y . H e d o e s
n o t s a y w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n i f G o d c a n g o o n w i t h o u t c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e F o r m s .
B y th e F o r m s , G o d i s i m p r e s s i n g h i m s e l f o n t h e w o r l d . B u t t h e n t h e r e i s a n o t h e r
n o t i o n - - t h e E r o s . 3 ~ T h i s i s a n o t h e r o n e o f t h o s e v a g u e i d e a s , l i k e th e R e c e p t a c l e ,
w h i c h a s s u m e s s i g n if i c a n ce a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t s t a g e o f a b s t r a c t i o n y o u t a k e i t i n .
T h e E r o s i s th a t a s p e c t o f t h e w o r l d b y w h i c h i t i s a l w a y s p r e s s i n g o n t o f r e s h c r e a t i o n .
T h e w o r l d i s a m u l t i p l i c i ty o f a c t u a l it i e s , e a c h m u l t i p l i c i t y w i t h i t s u r g e o f t h e r e a l i z a -
t io n o f c e r t ai n e n d s . E v e r y a c t u a l i ty i s p r e s s in g o n t o w a r d - - c r e a t i o n - - t h e e s s e nt ia l
c r e a t i v i ty i n th i s w o r l d o f P a s s a g e . T h i s i s a n o t i o n o f c o n f u s i o n . S o y o u t a k e t h e E r o s
i n it s f u l l m e a n i n g , i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g G o d , t h e E r o s a s s e e n i n th e n a t u r e o f G o d , a n
u r g e t o w a r d p e r f e c t i o n , t o w a r d s o r d e r . 31
I n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e c o s m o l o g i c a l n o t i o n s , y o u m u s t b e c a r e f u l o f w h a t s t a g e o f
a b s t r a c t i o n y o u f i n d y o u r s e l f i n , a n d w h a t y o u a r e a b s t r a c t i n g . W h e r e P l a t o d e a l s
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h E r o s i s i n t h e
S y m p o s i u m .
H e g o e s t h r o u g h e v e r y k i n d o f l o v e - - -m e n
b e c o m i n g d ru n k , a n d m e n b e c o m i n g s o b e r , m e n a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e , w i s e a n d s i l l y,
2~ Tim.
52c.
2s Tim . 3On.
29 Soph . 259a .
z o S y m p o s i u m 201-212.
8 1 Her e W h i t eh ead i s p r e sen t in g th e P l a to n ic E r o s i n t e r m s o f h i s o wn co sm o lo g y . See
A d v e n t u r e s o f I d e a s pp. 230, 357.
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7 8 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y
a s l e e p a n d a w a k e - - u n t i l y o u c o n s i d e r th e n o t i o n t o t h e e n d . O u r p h y s i c a l i m p u l s e s a r e
e n t w i n e d w i t h o u r n a t u r e ; t h e s e x i m p u l s e s a r e t h e b a s i c s i d e o f o u r l o w e r n a t u r e .
F r e u d h a s m a d e t h is i n t o a p s y c h o l o g y . P l a t o m a k e s E r o s i n t o a l l t y p e s, f i n a ll y i n t o t h e
t y p e b y w h i c h y o u g e t t h e o r d e r o f t h e u n i v e rs e , t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e I d e a l .
H o w h a s e v e r y t h i n g b e e n r e a li z e d ? I s t he u n i v e r s e o n l y g o in g a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d ?
H a s t h is p a r t i c u l a r l e c t u re , t h e se e x a c t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b e e n r e p e a t e d f r o m a l l i n fi n it y ?
T h i s i s to m y m i n d a n i m p o s s i b l e vi e w . W h a t e v e r w e a r e , I s u g g e s t t h a t w e a r e r a t h e r
a u n i q u e l o t . T h i s c o m e s d o w n t o t h e v e r y q u e s t io n o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s , t h e p r o b l e m
o f U n i v e r s a l s . C o n s i d e r m a t h e m a t i c s . T a k e o n e m i l l i o n m u l t i p l i e d t o t h e p o w e r o f o n e
m i l l i o n ; t a k e t h e p r i m e n u m b e r i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e th i s r e s u l ti n g n u m b e r a n d t h e
p r i m e n u m b e r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r i t, m u l t i p l y th e s e t w o t o g e th e r , t h e n r a i s e t h e r e s u l t
t o t h e p o w e r o f o n e m i l l i o n . I v e n t u re t o s a y t h a t n o o n e e v e r t h o u g h t o f t h i s b e f o r e - -
y e t I d o n ' t c r e a t e t h e n u m b e r . I f I d o n ' t c r e a t e it , i f e v e r y t h i n g m u s t b e i n r e l a t i on
t o e v e r y t h in g e ls e , I d o n ' t s e e h o w y o u c a n r e a c h o u t a n d p u l l in s o m e t h i n g o u t o f
r e l a t i o n w i t h th e u n i v e r s e , l ik e th e n u m b e r w e j u s t t h o u g h t o f .
T h e b a s i c u r g e i n th e u n i v e rs e , t h a t c o n c e p t u a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t o f a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s - -
t h i s , w i t h t h e e m o t i o n a l d r i v e t o w a r d s r e a l i z a t i o n , i s t h e b a s i c a b o r i g i n a l f a c t o f t h e
u n i v e r s e. I t i s h a n d i n g o u t a m e t a p h y s i c a l c o m p l i m e n t t o G o d t o s a y t h a t h e c a n
o n l y l o o k o n b e a u t i f u l F o r m s . P e o p l e l i k e t o t h i n k o f o n e d i v i n e e v e n t t o w a r d s w h i c h
t h e w o r l d m o v e s , t h a t i s , t h a t t h e r e i s o n e p e r f e c t r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e t h i n g . T h i s
i s o n t h e f a c e o f i t im p o s s i b l e . I n t h e w o r l d , i f y o u a r e t h i s y o u c a n ' t b e t h a t . A n d
i n t h i s a n d t h a t I d i s c e r n c e r t a i n i d e a l s o f c h a r a c t e r . A l l r e a l i z a t i o n i s f in i te , a n d
t h e w o r l d i s f in i t el y r e a l is i n g th e p o s s i b i l i t y w h i c h i t b e c o m e s G o d ' s n a t u r e t o c o n -
t e m p l a t e . T h e r e i s th i s fi n i te r e a l i s a t i o n , n o t j u s t o n e I d e a l ; t h e r e i s t h e b e a u t y o f t h e
w o r l d , t h e F o r m o f it s p a s s a g e , t ra n s i t i o n f r o m I d e a l t o I d e a l . C o m p a t i b l e i d e a ls m a y
b e r e a l iz e d , b u t n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s a n d i n c o m p a t i b l e i d e al s , a 2 T h e r e i s n o o n e f in a l
i d e a l .
s ~ S ee P r o ces s a n d R ea l i t y (New Yo rk , 1929) , p . 517 ; A d v e n t u r e s o ] I d e as pp. 356-357.