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Brettler, MZ - How to Read the Bible (JPS, 2005)

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8/22/2019 Brettler, MZ - How to Read the Bible (JPS, 2005)

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How to Read

the Bible

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The publicat ion of this book was

made possible by a gift from

The Krancer and Twing famil ies

In loving memory of

Anne Oxle r Krance r

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How to Read

the Bible

Marc Zvi Bret t ler

576 6 · 200 5

T h e J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e t y

P h i l a d e l p h i a

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Copyright © 2005 by Marc Zvi Bret i ler

First edit ion. All rights reserved.

No par t o f th i s book may be reproduced or t ransmi t t ed in any form or by any means ,

e lec t ronic or mechanica l , i nc luding photocopy, record ing , or any informat ion s torage or

re t r ieval sys tem, except for br ief passages in connect ion wi th a cr i t ica l review, wi thout

permiss ion in wr i t ing f rom the publ i she r :

Th e Jew ish Pub l icat ion Socie ty

2100 Arch Street , 2nd f loor

Phi l ade lphia , PA 19103

C ompos i t i on by P a ge w or ks

Des ign by Pageworks

Manufactured in the Uni ted Sta tes of America

0 6 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publ icat ion Data

Brettler, Marc Zvi.

How to read the Bible / Marc Zvi Brett ler.— 1st ed.

p. cm.

Inc ludes b ib l iographica l re fe rences and index .

ISBN 10: 0-8276-0775-X

I S B N 13 : 978 - 0 - 8276- 0775- 0

1. Bible . O.T .— Cri t ic ism , inte rpr eta t io n, e tc . I. Tit le.

B S 1171 . 3 . B 74 2005

2 2 1 . 6 Ί — d c 2 2

2 0 0 5 0 0 9 4 4 0

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To Ezra , w h o has tau gh t m e so m u c h ov er the la st s ix te en y ea rs

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C o n t e n t s

Preface ix 

Ab b r e v i a t i o n s x i i i 

1 . Re ad i ng as a Je w an d as a Sch o la r 1 

2 . W h at I s the Bib le , An yw ay? 7 

3 . T he Art of R ea din g the Bible 13 

4. A Brief H is to ry of Israel 19 

5 . W i t h Sc isso rs an d Pas te : T he So urc es o f Ge nes i s 29

6 . Cr e a t i o n v s . C r e a t i o n i s m : Ge n e s i s 1 - 3 a s M y th 3 7

7 . Th e An c e s to r s a s He r o e s 4 9 

8 . Bib lical Law: C od es an d Co l lec t ions 61

9 . I nce nse I s Of fens ive to Me: T he Cu l t in A nc i en t I s rae l 73

10. " In th e Fo r t i e t h Year . . . M ose s A dd re ss ed the Israe l i tes" : 

D e u t e r o n o m y 8 5 

1 1. " T h e W a l l s C a m e T u m b l i n g D o w n " : R e a d i n g J o s h u a 9 5

12. "M ay M y Lo rd Kin g Da vid Live For eve r" : Royal Ide olo gy

i n S a m u e l a n d J u d g e s 1 0 7

13 . "For I s rae l Tore Away f r om the H ou se o f Dav id" :

Re a d in g K in g s 1 1 7 

1 4 . Re v i s io n i st H i s to r y : Re a d in g Ch r o n ic l e s 1 2 9

1 5 . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o P r o p h e c y 1 3 7 

16 . "Let Jus t ice W el l U p l ike W ate r" : R ead ing A m os 149

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17 . "Th ey Sha l l Bea t Th e i r Sw or ds in to P low share s" :

Re ad i ng (F i r s t ) I sa iah 161 

1 8 . "I W i l l M a k e Th i s H o u s e l i k e S h i lo h " : Re a d in g J e r e m ia h 1 7 3

19 . "I Wi l l Be fo r T h em a M in i -T em ple" : Re ad in g Ezek ie l 185

2 0 . " C o m f o r t , O h C o m f o r t M y P e o p le " : Th e Ex i le a n d Be y o n d 1 9 9

21 . "Th ose Th a t S leep in the D u s t . . . W i l l Aw ake" :

Ze c h a r i a h , Ap o c a ly p t i c L i t e r a tu r e , a n d Da n ie l 2 0 9 

2 2 . P r a y e r o f M a n y He a r t s : Re a d in g P s a lm s 2 1 9

2 3 . " Ac q u i r e W is d o m " : Re a d in g P r o v e r b s a n d Ec c l e s i a st e s 2 3 12 4 . " Be in g Bu t Du s t a n d As h e s " : Re a d in g J o b 2 4 3

25 . "D r ink D eep o f Love!" : R ead ing So ng o f Son gs 25 7

26 . "W hy Are You So Kin d . . . W h e n I A m a Fore igner?" :Re a d in g Ru th v s . Es th e r 2 6 7

27 . T he C rea t io n o f the Bib le 2 7 3

A f t e r w o r d : R e a d i n g t h e B ib le a s a C o m m i t t e d J e w 2 7 9

N o t e s 2 8 5 

S o u r c e s C i t e d 3 3 9 

I n d e x o f S u b je c t s 3 6 1 

In de x o f Bib l ica l Passages an d O th er Re fe ren ces 37 2 

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Preface

Se v e r a l y e a r s a g o , I m e n t i o n e d t o a n a c q u a i n t a n c e t h a t I w a s w r i t i n g a b o o k

c a l l e d How to Read the Bible. H e s a i d : " W h a t ' s s o h a r d a b o u t r e a d i n g t h e

H e b r e w B ib l e? Y o u r e a d i t t o p t o b o t t o m , le f t t o r i g h t . " W e h a d a g o o d l a u g h a f t e r

1 p o i n t e d o u t t h a t ( 1 ) H e b r e w i s r e a d f r o m r i g h t t o l e f t , a n d ( 2 ) m y b o o k w a s

a b o u t r e a d i n g t h e B i bl e , n o t r e a d i n g H e b r e w . A s I t h e n e x p l a i n e d , t h i s b o o k i s

a b o u t t h e s p e c i a l " r u l e s " f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t e x t s f r o m a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e .

I n d e e d , t h i s b o o k i s t h e p r o d u c t o f m a n y y e a r s o f t h o u g h t a n d w r i t i n g . It i s a

r e s p o n s e t o t h e f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t m o s t p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e w h o r e a d t h e B i b l e . T o u s e

th e w o r d s of a b ib l i c a l c h a r a c t e r , D a n i e l , t h e B ib le i s a " s e a l e d b o o k "— i t a r o s e i n

a c u l t u r e w h o s e v a l u e s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s w e r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r s .

T h u s , t h e B ib l e t o d a y is e i t h e r a v o i d e d a s t o o s t r a n g e , o r e l se m i s r e a d — t a k e n a s if

it h a d b e e n w r i t t e n y e s t e r d a y o r t o d ay .

I n m y t w o d e c a d e s o f t e a c h i n g c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y i n t e n y e a r s o f

t e a c h i n g a d u l t s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e B ib le t h r o u g h t h e B o s t o n - a r e a M e ' a h

P r o g r a m , I h a v e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t o v e r c o m i n g t h e s e o b s t a c l e s i s n o e a s y c h a l l e n g e .

L o o k i n g f o r a r t ic l e s t o g i ve to t h e s e i n t e l l ig e n t a d u l t s w h o l a c k b a c k g r o u n d i n b i b -

l i c al s t u d i e s , m y c o l l e a g u e s a n d I h a v e f e lt f r u s t r a t e d . M o s t e s s a y s o n t h e B ib l e b y

s c h o l a r s a r e t o o t e c h n i c a l . O t h e r b o o k s , w r i t t e n f o r t h e l a y p e r s o n , a r e w r o n g o r

s i m p l i s t i c , o r t h e y t a k e a r e l i g i o u s ( t y p i c a ll y C h r i s t i a n ) p e r s p e c t i v e r a t h e r t h a n a n

h i s t o r i c a l o n e .

T h i s b o o k a t t e m p t s t o fi ll t h e g a p , t o o f f e r a J e w i s h l y s e n s i t i v e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o

h o w to r e a d b ib l i c a l t e x t s i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . M y h o p e is t h a t t h e B ib l e

m i g h t ag a i n b e c o m e a n o p e n b o o k f o r t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y a n d o t h e r

c o m m u n i t i e s .

T o k e e p t h i s b o o k a c c e s s i b l e , I h a v e a d d e d a s f e w e n d n o t e s a s p o s s i b l e a n d

l i m i t e d re f e r e n c e s t o w o r k s f o u n d i n E n g l i s h . ( S u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t u n f o r t u n a t e l y

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h i d e s t h e fa c t t h a t th i s b o o k i s b a s e d o n a m u c h w i d e r b o d y of k n o w l e d g e , m u c h

o f w h i c h i s v e r y t e c h n i c a l . )

It i s m y p l e a s u r e to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m a n y p e o p l e w h o h a v e h e l p e d m e a l o n g

t h e w a y . D r . E l l e n F r a n k e l , C E O a n d E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f o f T h e J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n

S o c ie t y, h a s s u p p o r t e d t h e i d e a of t h i s b o o k e v e r s i n c e I s u g g e s t e d i t t o h e r m o r e

t h a n f i v e y e a r s a g o . S h e h a s s e r v e d a s a n e x c e l l e n t a n d p a t i e n t e d i t o r . C a r o l

H u p p i n g , J P S P u b l i s h i n g D i r e c t o r a n d C O O , h a s d o n e w h a t s h e d o e s b e s t : m a k -

i n g a b o o k ' s a u t h o r a n d a ll i ts e d i t o r s l o o k g o o d . J a n e t L i s s, P r o d u c t i o n E d i t o r a t

t h e J P S , m o v e d t h e b o o k a l o n g w i t h g re a t c a r e . E m i l y L a w p r o o f r e a d t h e b o o k

m e t i c u l o u s l y a n d R o b i n N o r m a n , p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r of t h e J e w i s h P u b l i c a t io nS o ci et y, e n s u r e d t h a t t h e t y p e s e t t i n g , d e s i g n , a n d c o v e r p r o d u c t i o n w e n t

s m o o t h l y . R a b b i D a v i d E . S . S t e i n , a s s i s t e d b y R a b b i D a v i d M e v o r a c h S e i d e n b e r g ,

s e r v e d as d e v e l o p m e n t a l e d i t o r a n d al so c o p y e d i t e d t h e m a n u s c r i p t ; t o g e t h e r,

t h e y c o r r e c t e d m a n y f a c t u a l e r r o r s a n d h e l p e d m e c l a r if y w h a t I w a s t r y i n g t o sa y,

m a k i n g th i s b o o k m u c h m o r e r e ad a b l e . T w o u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s at B r a n d e i s

U n i v e r s i t y , L e o r a K o l l e r - F o x a n d J a c o b M e r l i n , d o u b l e - c h e c k e d a l l t h e b i b l i c a l ci -

t a t i o n s i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d o f f e r e d h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s . D o n a l d K r a u s , B ib le

E d i t o r o f O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , s u p e r v i s e d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t w o B i b l e s t h a t I

h e l p e d t o e d i t , t h e t h i r d e d i t i o n o f t h e New Oxford Annotated Bible a n d The Jewish

Study Bible; i n t h e p r o c e s s , h e t a u g h t m e m u c h a b o u t w r i t i n g fo r a n i n t e l l i g e n t l a y

a u d i e n c e . C r e d i t a l s o g o e s t o m y s t u d e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e a t B r a n d e i s a n d M e ' a h ,

w h o h a v e c o n s t a n t l y c h a l l e n g e d m e to e x p r e s s d i ff i c u l t a n d f o r e i g n c o n c e p t s i n a

c l e a r a n d c o n c i s e f a s h i o n . T h e y h a v e e m b o d i e d t h e t r u i s m t h a t s t u d e n t s a r e a p r o -

f e ss o r' s b e s t te a c h e r . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e T h e o d o r e a n d J a n e N o r m a n F u n d a t B r a n d e i s

U n i v e r s i t y h a s h e l p e d t o d e f r a y t h e c o s t o f p r e p a r i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t ; I a m g r a t e -

f u l f o r t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e m a n y o t h e r w a y s t h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y c o n -

t i n u e s t o s u p p o r t m y w o r k . F i n a l l y I w o u l d l i ke t o t h a n k t h e a c a d e m i c

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of t h e N e a r E a s t e r n a n d J u d a i c S t u d i e s D e p a r t m e n t a t B r a n d e i s ,

A n n e L a w r e n c e a n d P a t ri c ia L u c e n t e , w h o o f f e re d h e l p a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t a t v a r -

i o u s s t a g e s o f t h i s p r o j e c t .

M y t e a c h e r N a h u m M . S a r n a , ל י ד w h o b r o a d e n e d t h e b i b l i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s o f

T h e J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i et y , w a s n o t a b l e to r e v i e w a d r a f t o f t h i s b o o k , b u t t h e

m a n y t h i n g s t h a t h e t a u g h t m e a r e r e f l e c t e d o n e v e r y p a g e . H e s e r v e s a s a m o d e l

t e a c h e r a n d s c h o l a r f o r m e , b o t h i n t h e w a y h e h a s p e r f o r m e d e a c h of t h o s e t a s k s

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a n d i n t h e w a y h e h a s s e e n t h e m a s i n t e r t w i n e d .

W h e n I q u o t e t h e B i b le , I m o s t l y f o l l o w t h e N e w J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e ty

( N J P S ) t r a n s l a t i o n . ( I t s t r a n s l a t o r s c o m p l e t e d t h e i r w o r k i n s t a g e s — T o rah i n

1 9 6 2 , Prophets i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d Writings i n 1 9 8 2 — r e v i s i n g it i n 1 9 8 5 . T h e J e w i s h

P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e ty f u r t h e r r e v i s e d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1 9 9 9 . ) T h i s t r a n s l a t i o n , p u b -

l i s h e d u n d e r t h e t i t l e Tanakh ( a m e d ie v a l H e b r e w t e r m f o r B ib l e ) , i s t h e b e s t i d -

i o m a t i c t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e. I t r e f l e c t s v e r y d e e p l e a r n i n g . W h e r e 1

d e p a r t f r o m t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n a n d o f f e r a r e n d e r i n g of m y o w n , t h i s i s n o t e d i n

th e t e x t .

L a st a n d n o t l e a s t, I m u s t m e n t i o n m y f am i ly . M y m o th e r w a s m y f i rs t H e b r e w

te a c h e r . M y f a th e r w a s m y f ir s t t e a c h e r of J e w i s h S tu d i e s a n d c o n t i n u e s t o t a k e a na c ti v e i n t e r e st i n m y w o r k , p r o o f r e a d i n g m u c h o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t . M y w i f e ,

M o n ic a , m y d a u g h t e r , T a ly a , a n d m y s o n , E z r a , h a v e a ll b e e n s u p p o r t i v e o f m y c a -

r e er . T h e y h a v e o f f e r e d a w o n d e r f u l e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h I c a n c o n t i n u e t o l e a r n ,

t e a c h , a n d w r i t e . It i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t I d e d i c a t e t h i s b o o k t o E z r a , n a m e d a f t e r

t h e g r e a t s a g e w h o w a s "a s c r i b e e x p e r t i n t h e T o r a h of M o s e s " ( E z r a 7 :6 ; t r a n s i ,

a d a p t e d ) , a n d w h o m r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n v i e w e d a s a s e c o n d M o s e s .

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Abbrev ia t ions

AB A nc ho r B ible

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. E d . D . N . F r e e d m a n . 6 v o l s . G a r d e n C i t y : N Y:

D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 2 .

AnBib Analec ta b ib l i ca

ANE T Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Ed. J . B. Pr i tch ard .

P r ince ton , NJ : P r ince ton Univ . P res s , 1954 .

A n O r A n a l e c t a O r i e n t a l i

A O A T A l t e r O r i e n t u n d A l t es T e s t a m e n t

Β Α Biblical Archaeologist

BAR Biblical Archaeolog ist Reader

BAS OR Bulletin of the Am erican Schools of Oriental Research

B.c .E . Befo re the C o m m o n Era

Bib Biblica

BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library of Ma nchester

BJS Brown Judaic Studies

BZAW Beihef t zu r Ze i t s ch r i f t f ü r d i e a l t t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W is s e n s c h a f t

CAD The Assynan Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

Ch icago : Univ . o f Ch icago , 195 6 .

C B N T C o n ie c t a n e a b ib l ic a : N e w T e s t a m e n t S e ri es

CB OT Co niec tane a b ib l ic a : O ld Tes tam ent Se r ie s

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterlyc h a p . c h a p t e r

c .E . C o m m o n E ra

C O S The Context of Scripture. Ed. W i l l i am W Ha l lo . Le iden : Br il l, 1 9 9 7 -2 0 0 2 .

D D D Dictionary of Deities and Dem ons in the Bible. Ed. K. van de r Too rn e t a l.

Le iden: Br i l l , 1995.

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DJD Discove r ies in the Ju da ea n Deser t

D t r H T h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c H i s t o r y (= D e u t e r o n o m y - 2 K i ng s )

EJ Encylcopedia Judaica

F O T L F o r m s o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t L i t e r a t u r e

HALOT Koehler , L. et al . The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament.

Trans . M. E . J . R ichardson . 4 vo l s . Le iden : Br i l l , 1994-99 .

HAR Hebrew Annual Review

HD R Ha rva rd Dis se r ta t ions in Re l ig ion

H S M H a r v a r d S e m i ti c M o n o g r a p h s

HTR Harvard Theological Review

HUC A Hebrew Union College Annual

I C C I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r i ti c al C o m m e n t a r y

IEJ Israel Exploration Journal

INT Interpretation

JPS Jew ish Pub l ica t io n Soc ie ty

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JR Journal of Religion

JSB The Jewish Study Bible. Ed. Adele Ber l in and Marc Zvi Bret t ler . New York:

Oxford Univ . P res s , 2004 .

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

J S O T S u p J o u r n a l f o r t h e S t u d y o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : S u p p l e m e n t S e ri e s

N C B C N e w C e n t u r y B ib le C o m m e n t a r y

NRSV N ew Rev ised S tan dar d Vers ion

OB T O ve r tu res to B ib li cal Th eo lo gy

O T L O l d T e s t a m e n t L i b r a ryO TS Oudtestamentlische Studien

RB Revue biblique

SBL Socie ty of Bibl ical Li te ra tu re

SBLDS Socie ty of Bibl ical Li te ra tur e Dis ser ta t ion Ser ies

SBLMS Socie ty of Bibl ical Li te ra tur e M on o gr ap h Ser ies

SBT Stu die s in Bibl ical Th eo log y

ScrHier Scripta hierosolymitana

SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

TAPS Tran sac t ion s o f the Am er ic an Ph i l osop h ica l Soc ie ty

VT Vetus Testamentum

V T S V e tu s T e s t a m e n t u m S u p p l e m e n t s

ν . ,νν . verse , verse s

YNER Yale Ne ar Eas te rn Resea rches

ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

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How to Read

the Bible

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R ead ing as a Je w an d as a Sc holar

If " read ing" i s the ac t of m ak in g sens e o f a t ex t , th en e ach o f us re ads d i f fe ren t ly .

Fu r th e r , we each have a d i f f e ren t co nc ep t io n o f w ha t the Bib le i s. N o t su r -

p r i s ing ly , then , we each in te rp re t b ib l ica l t ex ts in our own way . Of the many

ap pr oa ch es , w e can desc r ib e as a "m et ho d" on ly tho se tha t a re rigorous an d

s y s t e m a t i c .

Th is book p resen ts a me thod o f read ing the Bib le . I t i s o f ten ca l led " the

h i s to r i c a l - c r i ti c a l a p p r o a c h . " By h ig h l ig h t in g t h i s m e t h o d , I d o n o t me a n th a t it

i s t h e o n ly wa y to r e a d t h e B ib le . I n d e e d , ma n y J e w s h a v e v i e we d w i th s u s p i c io n

th i s wa y of r e a d in g , r e j e c t i n g it i n f a v o r o f o th e r m e th o d s . Yet I c o m m e n d th i s

a p p r o a c h to r e a d e r s b e c a u s e I h a v e f o u n d it i l l u m in a t in g . W h e n th e B ibl e i s

v i e we d in t h e l i g h t o f t h i s me th o d , we s e e t h e t e x t a s me a n in g f u l , e n g a g in g , a n d

m u l t i f a c e t e d .

Classical Interpretation

For much o f the pos tb ib l ica l pe r iod , readers o f the Bib le have a l l t ended to fo l -l o w th e s a me me th o d . Th e y h a v e s e e n t h e B ib l e a s a c r y p t i c y e t p e r f e c t b o o k , o f

f u n d a m e n t a l re l e v a n ce to i ts c o m m u n i t y o f i n t e r p r e t e r s . T h e y h a v e a s s u m e d t h a t

m u c h o f the Bib le , if no t a ll o f i t , cam e ( to so m e ex ten t ) f ro m God . He nc e the

Bib le i s a p r iv i leg ed tex t tha t sh ou ld b e in te rp re ted us in g spec ia l ru les . Tha t i s ,

it s h o u ld n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d l i k e r e g u la r , n o n b ib l i c a l t e x t s . 1

Th i s m e t h o d d e v e lo p e d d u r in g t h e l a t e b ib l i c a l p e r io d . As we s h a ll se e i n a

la te r chap te r , one passage in the Book o f Dan ie l exp la ins an ea r l ie r p rophecy o f

J e r e mia h , wh ic h t u r n e d o n t h e p h r a s e " s e v e n ty y e a r s . " Da n ie l i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s

p h r a s e t o me a n " s e v e n ty we e k s o f y e a r s , " o r 4 9 0 y e a r s . No r ma l ly , wh e n a n a n -

c i e n t J e w p r o m is e d t o r e t u r n a b o r r o w e d o x i n s e v e n ty d a y s , it m e a n t j u s t t h a t —

s e v e n ty d a y s . Ye t Da n ie l c o u ld u n d e r s t a n d J e r e mia h ' s " s e v e n ty " d i f f e r e n t ly b e -

cau se the Bo ok o f Je re m ia h i s a b ib l ica l t ex t , r e f lec t in g spec ia l , d iv in e lan gua ge .

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C o n s i d e r , to o , t h e a n c i e n t J u d e a n D e s e r t c o m m u n i t y of Q u m r a n , w h i c h

t h r i v e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s — f r o m t h e s e c o n d p r e - C h r i s t i a n t o th e

f ir s t p o s t - C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r i e s . T h e i r l i b r a r y — t h e p a r t t h a t i s e x t a n t — i s w h a t w e

now ca l l "The Dead Sea Sc ro l l s . " L ike the au tho r o f Dan ie l , t hey be l i eved in

i n t e rp re t i n g b i b l ic a l b o o k s i n a s p e c i a l w ay . T h u s t h e y k e p t a r i c h i n t e rp re t i v e l it -

e r a t u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e ir P e s h e r H a b a k k u k , a t y p e o f c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e

p r o p h e t i c b o o k of H a b a k k u k , h e l d t h a t t h e i r c o m m u n i t y ' s le a d e r u n d e r s t o o d t h e

t r u e m e a n i n g o f t h e b o o k b e t t e r t h a n t h e p r o p h e t h im s e l f ! T h e P e s h e r i n t e r p r e t -

e d t h e t e x t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n t e rp re t e r ' s o w n p e r i o d , m o re t h a n h a l f a m i l l e n -

n i u m a f te r H a b a k k u k l i v e d .2

C l a s si c al r a b b i n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a ls o s h a r e d t h e s e w o r k i n g a s s u m p t i o n s .

Ev en fo r t he Torah ' s l ega l t ex t s , it o f t e n su bv er t e d th e p l a in sens e of w o rd s fo r

t h e s a k e of " h a r m o n i z a t i o n . " T h a t is , w h e n t e x t s ( f r o m d i v e r g e n t p l a c e s a n d

t i m e s ) a p p e a r e d t o c o n t r a d i c t e a c h o t h e r , i t " r e c o n c i l e d " t h e m s o t h a t t h e y w o u l d

a g re e . F o r e x a m p l e , a s l a v e l a w i n E x o d u s 2 1 : 6 s u g g e s t s th a t in c e r t a i n c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s a H e b re w s l a v e s e rv e s t h e m a s t e r " i n p e rp e t u i t y " ( l e -o lam ) . T h i s c o n t r a -

d i e t s L e v i t i c u s 2 5 : 4 0 , w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t m a s t e r s m u s t r e l e a s e a ll s u c h s l a v e s o n

t h e j u b i l e e y e a r ( e v e ry f i f t i e t h y e a r ) . H o w e v e r , a c c o rd i n g t o t h e b a s i c a s s u m p -

t i o n s , G o d ' s w o r d m u s t b e i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t . T h e r e f o r e t h e r a b b i s i n s i s t e d

t h a t t h e t e rm " i n p e rp e t u i t y " i n E x o d u s m e a n s " p ra c t i c a l l y (b u t n o t l i t e r a l l y ) f o r -

e v e r " — t h a t is , u n t i l t h e j u b i l e e y e a r . 3 T h i s ty p e o f i n t e rp re t a t i o n i s s t r a n g e t o t h e

r e a d e r u n u s e d t o c l a ss i ca l J e w i s h ( a n d t o a l ar g e e x t e n t C h r i s t i a n ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

B u t i t i s n a t u r a l if w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e B i bl e a s a u n i f o r m , p e r f e c t , d i v i n e w o r k ,

w h i c h m a y e m p l o y la n g u a g e in a c r y p t i c f a s h i o n .

T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t e v e r y t r a d i t i o n a l , p r e m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r of t h e B i b le

t o o k e v e ry w o rd o f t h e t e x t a c c o rd i n g t o a l l o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s . Y e t t h e f e we x c e p t i o n s p r o v e t h e r u l e . F o r e x a m p l e , R a b b i A b r a h a m i b n E z r a ( 1 0 8 9 - 1 1 6 4 )

s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e o n e o t h e r t h a n M o s e s w r o t e a s m a l l n u m b e r of v e r s e s i n

t h e T o r a h . Yet e v e n a s t h a t c o m m e n t a t o r m a d e s u r e t o i n f o r m h i s r e a d e r s o f

t h a t u n o r t h o d o x vi ew , h e w a s c a r e f u l t o c o n d e m n i t .4 L i k e w i s e , R a b b i S a m u e l

b e n M e i r ( a ls o k n o w n as " R a s h b a m " ; 1 0 8 0 - 1 1 7 4 ) a l lo w e d t h a t b i b li c a l l a n -

g u a g e is n o t c r y p t i c ; r a t h e r , i ts w o r d s m e a n w h a t t h e y n o r m a l l y i m p l y , e v e n if

t h i s c o n t r a d i c t s r a b b i n i c t r a d i t io n . T h u s , h e a l o n e a m o n g th e e x t a n t m e d i e v a l

J e w i s h e x e g e t e s d i d n o t f i n d it n e c e s s a r y t o " r e c o n c i l e " E x o d u s 2 1 : 6 w i t h

L e v i t i c u s 2 5 : 4 0 ( s e e a b o v e ) . H o w e v e r , t h i s o p i n i o n s u r v i v e s i n o n l y a s i n g l e

m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t , a n d it h a s n o t a p p e a r e d i n m o s t p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s . T h i s

s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s a p p r o a c h s t o o d a t , o r e v e n b e y o n d , t h e f r i n g e o f a c c e p t a b l e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

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O n l y i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w i t h t h e r is e o f E u r o p e a n r a t i o n a l i s m , d i d

s c h o l a r s b e g i n to q u e s t i o n t h e u n i q u e , d i v i n e n a t u r e of t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t . H o b b e s

( i n E n g l a n d ) a n d S p i n o z a ( i n H o l l a n d ) l e d t h e w a y . C o n s i d e r t h e l a t t e r ' s m a g n i f -

i c e n t Theological-Political Tractate,5 w i t h i t s c h a p t e r c a l l e d s i m p l y " O f t h e

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e . " I t r e p l a c e s t h e e a r l i e r a s s u m p t i o n s w i t h a s i n g l e

p r e m i s e t h a t a l l o w s t h e B ib l e t o b e s e e n i n a n e w m a n n e r : "I h o l d t h a t t h e

m e t h o d o f i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r i p t u r e is n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e m e t h o d o f i n t e r p r e t i n g

n a t u r e , a n d i s i n fa c t i n c o m p l e t e a c c o r d w i t h i t . "6 I n a s i n g l e s e n t e n c e , S p i n o z a

" d e p r i v i l e g e s " t h e B i b l e . H e r e n o u n c e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k f o r b i b l i c a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : T h e B i b le i s n o t c r y p t i c . I t n o l o n g e r n e e d s to b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a

s e a m l e s s w h o l e . It i s i m p e r f e c t . In p l a c e s it m a y b e of h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t o n l y n ol o n g e r r e l e v a n t t o c o n t e m p o r a r y b e l i e v e r s . I n m o s t s e n s e s , it i s a b o o k l i k e a n y

o t h e r .

The Historical-Critical Method

It w o u l d t a k e t w o m o r e c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e n e w w o r k i n g a s s u m p t i o n s g a i n e d

a c c e p t a n c e a m o n g E u r o p e ' s r a t i o n a l i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e . B u t o n c e t h i s h a p p e n e d ,

t h e h i s t o ri c a l -c r i ti c a l m e t h o d t o o k h o l d . ׳

W h a t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r it i c a l m e t h o d ? " H i s t o r i c a l " r e f e r s t o t h e v i e w t h a t t h e

m a i n c o n t e x t f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h e p l a c e a n d t i m e i n w h i c h t h e te x t w a s c o m -

p o s e d . " C ri ti c a l" s i m p l y m e a n s r e a d i n g t h e t e x t i n d e p e n d e n t l y of r e l ig i o u s n o r m s

o r i n t e r p r e t i v e t r a d i t i o n s — a s o p p o s e d t o a c c e p t i n g t h e m u n c r i ti c a l ly . 8 ( I n t h i s

c o n t e x t , i t d o e s not i m p l y a j u d g m e n t a l o r f a u l t f i n d i n g a p p r o a c h , w h i c h is a n o t h -

e r m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d " c r i t i c a l . " ) A m a i n c o m p o n e n t o f t h i s a p p r o a c h i s s o u r c ec r i t i c i s m , a l s o c a l l e d " H i g h e r C r i t i c i s m " ( w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t f r o m t h e e f f o r t t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e d t e x t , k n o w n a s " L o w e r

C r i t i c i s m " ) . I t s e e k s t o i d e n t i f y a n d i s o l a t e t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s of t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t

a s i t h a s c o m e d o w n t o u s .

T h e n e w m e t h o d c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e l a te n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n -

t u r i e s , d e v e l o p i n g i n t o a s c h o o l of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n o f

t h i s s c h o o l w a s t h e G e r m a n s c h o l a r J u l i u s W e l l h a u s e n , b a s e d o n h i s m a g i s t e r i a l

w o r k o f 1 8 7 8 ( t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h a s Prolegomen a to the History of Ancient

Israel)9 I n d e e d , it w a s m a i n l y in G e r m a n y t h a t t h e h i s to r i c a l- c r it i c a l m o v e m e n t

t o o k r o o t , s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h e t h e o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t s of P r o t e s t a n t u n i v e r s i t i e s . F o r

d o c t r i n a l r e a s o n s , C a t h o l i c s c h o l a r s h a r d l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s

u n t i l a f t e r t h e V a t ic a n II p r o n o u n c e m e n t s i n 1 9 6 5 .

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T h e R e a c t i o n A m o n g J e w s

T h e J e w i s h w o r l d , t o o , l a rg e l y r e m a i n e d a l o o f . W h i l e a f e w J e w i s h c o n t e m p o -

r a r ie s o f W e l l h a u s e n f a v o r e d h i s a p p r o a c h , o t h e r s w r o t e p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t h i m ,

t r y i n g t o u n d e r m i n e h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e x t s h i s t o r y . 1 0 T h e s e s c h o l a r s c o n -

t i n u e d t o a d v o c a t e t h e r a b b i n i c m o d e o f r e a d i n g , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t w h a t

W e l l h a u s e n a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s s a w a s t e x t u a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a re r e a ll y n o t c o n -

t r a d i c t i o n s a t a l l .

T h e m o s t n o t a b l e a t t a c k o n t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e c a m e f r o m a

r e n o w n e d s c h o l a r o f r a b b i n i c s , S o l o m o n S c h e c h t e r . A t a 1 9 0 3 b a n q u e t , h e

o f f e re d a n a d d r e s s t i tl e d " H i g h e r - C r i t i c i s m — H i g h e r A n t i - S e m i t i s m . " 1 1 H e e q u a t -e d W e l l h a u s e n ' s a p p r o a c h w i t h " p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d i m p e r i a l a n t i - S e m i t i s m , " c a ll -

i n g it a n " i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r s e c u t i o n " o f J u d a i s m . 1 2 S c h e c h t e r s e s s ay h a d a n

i m m e n s e i m p a c t o n t h e J e w i s h a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e B i bl e. I ts i n f l u e n c e s e e m s t o

e x p l a i n w h y u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n m a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l J e w i s h b i b li c a l

s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n l es s e n g a g e d i n h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l s t u d y t h a n t h e i r n o n - J e w i s h

c o u n t e r p a r t s .

S c h e c h t e r a c t u a l l y o f f e r e d a f a ir c r i t i q u e o f H i g h e r C r i t i c i s m a s it w a s p r a c -

t i c e d i n G e r m a n y i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . L i k e

n e a r l y a l l C h r i s t i a n s o f t h e t i m e , i t s p r o p o n e n t s b e l i e v e d i n t h e m o r a l s u p e r i o r i -

t y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t o J u d a i s m , a n d t h e y u s e d t h e i r s c h o l a r l y w o r k s to i l l u s t r a t e

t h i s . W e l l h a u s e n , f o r e x a m p l e , l i k e n e d J u d a i s m i n l a te a n t i q u i t y t o a d e a d t r e e .

H e a p p l i e d t h a t i m a g e v i g o r o u s l y , d e s c r i b i n g t h e l a t e b i b l i c a l b o o k o f C h r o n i c l e s

t h u s : " L i ke i vy i t o v e r s p r e a d s t h e d e a d t r u n k w i t h e x t r a n e o u s li fe , b l e n d i n g o l d

a n d n e w i n a s t r a n g e c o m b i n a t i o n . . . . [ I] η t h e p r o c e s s it is t w i s t e d a n d p e r -

v e r t e d . "1 3

A s p a i n f u l a s s u c h s e n t i m e n t s a r e f o r J e w s , t h e y n e i t h e r d i m i n i s h t h eb r i l l i a n c e o f m u c h o f h i s Prolegomena, n o r n e g a t e t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f i t s b a s i c

m e t h o d o l o g y .

B e y o n d th e E a r l y B i a s e s

S c h e c h t e r h a d w a r n e d t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d "i s s e e k i n g t o d e st r o y ,

d e n y i n g a ll o u r c l a i m s t o t h e p a s t , a n d l e a v i n g u s w i t h o u t h o p e f o r t h e f u t u r e . " 1 4

I n f a ct , h o w e v e r , th e m e t h o d i ts el f is r e l ig i o u s ly n e u t r a l — n e i t h e r d i s c r e d i t i n g

J u d a i s m n o r p r o m o t i n g C h r is t ia n i t y . I n d e e d , b y t h e fi n a l d e c a d e s of t h e t w e n t i -

e t h c e n t u r y , m a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o l a r s , i n c l u d i n g J e w s , h a d a d o p t e d t h e h i s t o r -

i c a l- c r it ic a l m e t h o d w i t h o u t a t t a c k i n g t h e H e b r e w B i b le o r J u d a i s m . T h e s e w o r k s

i l l u s t r a t e t h a t h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d s a r e n o t b y d e f i n i t i o n a n t i - S e m i t i c . 1 5

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I w o u l d g o e v e n f u r t h e r . I i n s i s t n o t o n l y t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l - cr i t i c a l m e t h o d

i s n e u t r a l , b u t a l s o t h a t it c a n b e r e l i g io u s ly c o n s t r u c t i v e — e v e n f o r J e w s . T h e l a s t

t w o d e c a d e s h a v e s e e n a r e m a r k a b l e r e s u r g e n c e i n i n t e r e s t i n e t h n i c a n d r e li -

g i o u s r o o t s a m o n g m a n y A m e r i c a n s , i n c l u d i n g A m e r i c a n J e w s . P u b l i s h e r s h a v e

p r o d u c e d a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d n u m b e r o f b o o k s o n J e w i s h t e x ts , s u c h a s B a r ry

H o l t z ' s Back to the Sources.16

S e r i o u s a d u l t J e w i s h e d u c a t i o n c l a s se s h a v e r e a c h e d

n e w l e v e l s o f s u c c e s s . M a n y J e w s a r e g o in g b a c k t o t h e B ib l e i n a s e r i o u s , m o r e

a c a d e m i c w a y , l o o k i n g f o r w h a t t h e B i bl e o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t . T h e y a r e e x p l o r i n g

h o w i t s e a r l i e r m e a n in g m a y b e a r o n r e l i g io u s li fe a s w e m ig h t n o w l iv e i t. T h e y

d o n o t w i s h t o s l a v i s h l y f o l l o w t h e n o r m s of t h e J e w i s h p a s t , b u t n e i t h e r d o t h e y

w i s h t o i g n o r e t h e m . S u c h n o r m s m u s t f ir st b e u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e t h e y c a ni n f o r m c o n t e m p o r a r y b e l i ef s a n d p r a c t i ce s .

About This Book

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s b o o k i s t o s h o w th e v a lu e o f r e a d in g t h e B ib l e i n a h i s t o r i c a l -

c r i t i c a l m a n n e r . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e g r e a t l y e n r i c h e s t h e t e x t , a n d a l l o w s u s t o

r e c o v e r a v i b r a n t c i v il i z a t io n o v e r t w o m i l l e n n i a o l d . U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e B i b le in

i t s o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a ll o w s u s t o u n d e r s t a n d o u r s e l v e s . F o r t h e n w e c a n s e e w h e r e

o u r s e c u l a r c i v i l i z a t i o n a c c o r d s w i t h a n c i e n t I s r a e l i t e p e r s p e c t i v e s , a n d w h e r e i t

h a s d i v e r g e d f r o m t h e m . It a l s o a l l o w s u s to s e e w h e r e J u d a i s m h a s ( o r h a s n o t )

d e v e l o p e d b e y o n d b i b l i c a l r e l i g i o n . F i n a l l y , t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d l e t s u s

a p p r e c i a t e t h e B i b le a s a n i n t e r e s t i n g t e x t t h a t s p e a k s i n m u l t i p l e v o i c e s o n p r o -

f o u n d i s s u e s . O n l y w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d c a n t h e s e d i f -

f e r e n t v o i c e s b e f u ll y h e a r d a n d a p p r e c i a t e d .

I n p r e s e n t i n g m y c a s e , m y f i r s t t a s k i s t o e x p l a in t h i s b o o k ' s t i t l e , How to

Read the Bible. T h u s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r d e f i n e s w h a t 1 m e a n b y " t h e B i b l e, "

a n d t h e n t h e t h i r d c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s w h a t I m e a n b y " r e a d i n g . " B y e x p l o r i n g t h e

a c t o f r e a d in g , it a t t e m p t s t o s h o w th a t r e a d i n g i n i t s f u l l e s t s e n s e is f a r f r o m s im -

p i e . T h e s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s e a c h f o c u s o n a s p e c i f i c b i b l i c a l t e x t o r g e n r e ,

h i g h l i g h t i n g h o w m o d e r n b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p m a k e s s e n s e o f t h a t t e x t o r g e n r e .

I n a n a f t e r w o r d , I d i s c u s s h o w t h e h i s t o ri c a l -c r i ti c a l m e t h o d c a n h e l p c o n t e m -

p o r a r y J e w s r e l a te t o t h e B ib l e a s a r e l i g io u s t e x t in a m o r e m e a n in g f u l w a y .

A l l t o ld , t h i s b o o k i s a Jewishly sensitive introduction to the historical-critical

method. R e m a r k a b l y , it i s t h e f i rs t s u c h a t t e m p t .1 7

How to Read the Bible d i f f e r s f r o m t h e m a n y s o - c al l ed i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o t h e

B i b l e .1 8

M o s t s u c h w o r k s s u r v e y e a c h b o o k of t h e B ib l e, n o t i n g t h e c r i ti c a l p r o b -

l e m s p r e s e n t e d b y e a c h , p o s i t i n g w h e n e a c h w a s w r i t t e n , a n d n o t i n g h o w m o d -

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e m h i s t o r i c a l - c r it i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s e a c h . Ty p ic al ly , t h e y f o c u s o n i s o -

l a t i n g a n d r e m o v i n g w h a t i s s e c o n d a r y i n e a c h t e x t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y " r o o t o u t "

w h a t e v e r a p p e a r s i n t h e b o o k o f t h e p r o p h e t A m o s t h a t h e h i m s e l f d i d n o t w r i t e .

T h e s e w o r k s a r e o f t e n r e f e r e n c e b o o k s , r a t h e r t h a n t r u e i n t r o d u c t i o n s .

I n c o n t r a s t , How to Read the Bible d o e s n o t a t t e m p t t o c o v e r e v e r y b i b l i c a l

b o o k . I n s t e a d , it s u r v e y s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b i b l i c a l t e x t s f r o m d i f f e r e n t g e n r e s , t o

i l l u s t r a t e h o w m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p h a s t a u g h t u s t o " r e a d " t h e s e t e x t s . I t s i n t e n d -

e d a u d i e n c e i n c l u d e s t h e c u r i o u s a d u l t w h o w a n t s t o r e a d t h r o u g h s e c t i o n s o f

t h e B i bl e a n d a p p r e c i a t e t h e m w i t h i n a m o d e r n f r a m e w o r k , a n d t h e c o l le g e s t u -

d e n t i n a n i n t r o d u c t o r y B i b l e c o u r s e . It c o n v e y s t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s of t h i s

u n f a m i l i a r m e t h o d o l o g y .1 9

S u c h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n w i l l e n a b l e t h e r e a d e r t o u n d e r -s t a n d m o r e t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s , e n c y c l o p e d i a s , a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s o n th e B i bl e.

M o s t s i g n i fi c a n tl y , i t w i l l p r o m p t y o u t o a p p r o a c h b i b l i c a l t e x t s w i t h n e w k i n d s

o f q u e s t i o n s , a n d t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e m i n a n e w w a y .

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2

What Is the Bible, Anyway?

Th e B ib le c a n b e a n i n t i m i d a t i n g b o o k . I ts s iz e a l o n e is o v e r w h e l m i n g — 1 5 7 4

p a g e s i n t h e H e b r e w e d i t i o n t h a t is s t a n d a r d a m o n g B i bl e s c h o l a r s (BibliaHebraica Stuttgartensia), 1 6 2 4 p a g e s i n T h e J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e ty ' s t r a n s l a -

t i o n ( s ee b e l o w ) , 2 0 2 3 p a g e s in t h e JPS Hebrew-English Tanakh, a n d 2 1 8 1 p a g e s

in The Jewish Study Bible ( i n c l u d i n g n o t e s a n d e s s a y s ). A s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t o f t h e

b i b l i c al te x t i s p o e t r y , w h i c h is d a u n t i n g t o m a n y , a n d c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t m a k e

f o r q u i c k r e a d i n g .

F o r s u c h a b o o k , a n o r i e n t a t i o n w o u l d s u r e l y b e h e l p f u l . T h i s c h a p t e r c o v -

e r s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s : b a s i c t e r m i n o l o g y f o r t h e B i bl e, i t s b a s i c s t r u c t u r e , a n d

w h y s u c h t h in g s m a t t e r . I t a l s o d e f i n e s w h a t I m e a n b y " t h e B ib l e " f o r t h e p u r -

p o s e s o f t h i s b o o k .

Basic Terminology

T h e N a m e i n E n g l i s h

T h e w o r d " B i b l e " d e r i v e s f r o m t h e G r e e k biblia, m e a n i n g " b o o k s . "1

By i ts very

n a m e , " t h e B ib l e " r e f e r s t o " th e c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s " — th a t i s , t h e o n e t h a t i s

d e e m e d t o b e a u t h o r i t a t i v e o r c a n o n i c a l .

D i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e d i f f e r e n t B i b le s. F o r C h r i s t i a n s , t h e B i bl e i n -

e l u d e s t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t ; f o r J e w s it d o e s n o t . T o d i s t i n g u i s h it f r o m t h e

C h r i s t i a n s ' B ib le , p e o p l e h a v e s u g g e s t e d a v a r i e ty o f n a m e s f o r t h e J e w s ' B ib l e

( b e s id e s s im p l y " t h e B ib l e " ). C h r i s t i a n s t y p i c a l l y c a l l i t t h e O ld T e s t a m e n t , w h e r e

" t e s t a m e n t " is a n o ld w a y of r e f e r r i n g t o a c o n t r a c t ( " c o v e n a n t " ) . T h i s n a m e i s

b a s e d o n a p r o p h e c y i n J e r e m i a h t h a t st a t es : " S ee , a t i m e is c o m i n g — d e c l a r e s t h e

L O R D — w h e n I w i l l m a k e a new covenant w i th t h e H o u s e of I s r a e l a n d t h e H o u s e

o f J u d a h . I t w i l l n o t b e l i k e t h e c o v e n a n t I m a d e w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s , w h e n I t o o k

t h e m b y t h e h a n d t o l e a d t h e m o u t o f t h e l a n d of E g y p t , a c o v e n a n t w h i c h t h e y

b r o k e , t h o u g h I e s p o u s e d t h e m — d e c l a r e s t h e LORD" ( 3 1 : 3 1 - 3 2 ) . E a rl y C h r i s t i a n

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t r a d i t i o n u n d e r s t o o d t h i s p a s s a g e to r e f e r t o a n e w c o v e n a n t , c e n t e r e d a r o u n d

J e s u s , w h i c h r e p l a c e s t h e o l d M o s a i c o n e . 2 T h i s l e d t o t h e t e r m s " N e w T e s t a -

m e n t " a n d " O l d T e s t a m e n t " — i n w h i c h " o ld " c o n n o t e s o b s o l e s c e n c e . 3

J e w s , h o w e v e r , v i e w t h e o r i g i n a l c o v e n a n t a s s ti ll o p e r a t i v e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n ,

J e w s h a v e t e n d e d t o r e j e c t t h e t e r m " O l d T e s t a m e n t . " M a n y s i m p l y c a l l t h i s b o d y

o f l i t e r a t u r e " t h e B i b l e. " F o r r e l i g i o u s J e w s , t h i s n a m e i s b y d e f i n i t i o n a p p r o p r i -

a t e : t h e s e a r e " t h e b o o k s " t h a t a re a u t h o r i t a t i v e f o r t h i s g r o u p .

A c a d e m i c s c h o l a r s , m e a n w h i l e , g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r n o t to t a k e s i d e s i n t h e

d e b a t e a s t o w h i c h c o v e n a n t w i t h G o d i s i n f o r c e . T h e r e f o r e , i n s c h o l a r l y c i r c l e s ,

t h e m o r e n e u t r a l t e r m s " H e b r e w B i b l e " o r " J e w i s h S c r i p t u r e ( s ) " h a v e g a i n e d c u r -

r e n cy . A d m i t t e d l y t h e fi r st n a m e i s s l i g h t l y i m p r e c i s e , b e c a u s e s o m e p a s s a g e s oft h e B ib le a r e n o t i n H e b r e w b u t r a t h e r i n A r a m a i c , a r e l a t e d S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e . 4

O t h e r J e w i s h N a m e s : A H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w

I n e x t a n t t e x t s c o m p o s e d d u r i n g t h e b i b l ic a l p e r i o d i t s e l f — w h i c h l a s te d m o r e

t h a n a t h o u s a n d y e a r s — n o t e r m a t a ll a p p e a r s f o r t h i s s e t o f b o o k s . T h e B i b le

w a s t h e n s t il l i n f o r m a t i o n a s a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o l l e c t i o n . I t r e c e i v e d it s t i tl e o n l y

a f t e r it c a m e i n t o b e i n g — s i g n a l i n g t h e s t a r t o f t h e p o s t b i b l i c a l p e r i o d .

I n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y C.E., J o s e p h u s ( t h e g r e a t J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n w h o w r o t e i n

G r e e k ) k n e w o f t h e B i b l e . 5 He ca l l ed i t ta hiera grammata ( " T h e H o l y W r i t i n g s " ) . 6

He a l so ca l l ed i t grammasi ( " t h a t w h i c h i s w r i t t e n " ) — o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d a s " S c r i p -

t u r e " 7 b u t b e t t e r r e n d e r e d u n c a p i t a l i z e d , a s " s c r i p t u r e . "

I n c l a s si c a l r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , t h e t w o m o s t c o m m o n t e r m s f o r t h e B i b l e

w e r e mikra ( א ר ק מ , l it e r a ll y " t h a t w h i c h i s r e a d o r r e c i t e d a l o u d " ) a n d kitvei ha-kodesh ( ש ד ק ה י ב ת כ ," t h e h o l y w r i t i n g s " ) . 8 S o m e t i m e s , t h e r a b b i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e

Bib le as torah, nevi'im, u-khtuvim ( ם י ב ו ת כ ו • י א י ב נ ה ר ו ת , " t h e T o r a h , t h e

P r o p h e t s , a n d t h e W r i t i n g s " ) . 9

I n t h e M i d d l e A g e s , p e r h a p s in t h e l a te fi r st m i l l e n n i u m c.E., s c r i b e s s h o r t -

e n e d Torah, Nevi'im, u-Khtuvim i n t o t h e a c r o n y m ך ״ נ ת , w h i c h i s p r o n o u n c e d

Tanakh. J e w s t o d a y st il l c o m m o n l y u s e t h a t n a m e f o r t h e i r B i b le . A s t h e t it le of

T h e J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y' s 1 9 8 5 o n e - v o l u m e t r a n s l a t i o n , t h e T a n a k h

m a k e s a p o i n t t h a t o t h e r n a m e s ( " t h e B i b le , " " H o l y S c r i p t u r e s , " o r e v e n " H e b r e w

B i b l e " ) d o n o t . N a m e l y , i t u n d e r s c o r e s t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t o r s r e n d e r e d d i r e c t l y f r o m

t h e H e b r e w ( n o t f r o m a n a n c i e n t G r e e k v e r s i o n , l ik e s o m e C h r i s t i a n s t r a n s l a -

t i o n s ) an d d r e w u p o n J e w i s h i n t e rp r e t i v e t r a d i t i o n . 1 0

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M a k i n g a n i ss u e o u t of w h a t t o c a ll t h e s e t e x t s m i g h t s e e m p e d a n t i c , b u t i t

i s n o t . A s w e s h a l l s e e , t h e "H e b r e w B ib l e" a n d t h e "O ld T e s t a m e n t " d i f f e r i n

m o r e t h a n n a m e on ly . T h e y c o m p r i s e d i f f e r e n t n u m b e r s of b o o k s , w h i c h t h e y

p l a c e i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r . ( T h e o r d e r i n g m a t t e r s b e c a u s e it a l t e r s t h e c o n t e x t i n

w h i c h w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e t ex t; a b o o k s m e a n i n g c an s h i ft d e p e n d i n g u p o n

w h i c h b o o k s w e r e a d b e f o r e a n d a f t e r i t. ) M o r e s i g n i f ic a n t ly , t h e t e r m " H e b r e w

B i b le " s u g g e s t s a c o r p u s t h a t is s e l f - s t a n d i n g , w h e r e a s t h e " O l d T e s t a m e n t " d o e s

n o t . T h e m e a n i n g of m a n y p a s s a g e s i n t h e " O l d T e s t a m e n t " c h a n g e s w h e n o n e

v i e w s t h e m a s p a r t o f a l a r g e r w h o l e t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t .1 1

Name and Structure

A s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e n a m e Tanakh r e f l e c t s a t h r e e - p a r t ( " t r i p a r t i t e " ) o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f t h e B ib le ; f o r J e w s , t h i s is t h e s t a n d a r d d iv i s i o n o f t h e B ib l e . T h e n a m e o f e a c h

o f i ts p a r t s , h o w e v e r , w a r r a n t s s o m e e x p l a n a t i o n . T h e n a m e o f t h e f ir st p a r t , a s

w e h a v e s a id , i s Torah. C h r i s t i a n s h a v e o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d t h e t e r m a s " L aw , " b u t

t h i s i s t o o r e s t r ic t i v e ; it m i s r e p r e s e n t s t h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s , w h i c h f e a t u r e s

n o n l e g a l e l e m e n t s s u c h a s n a r r a t i v e a n d p o e tr y . ( It a l s o m i s r e p r e s e n t s J u d a i s m ,

w h ic h i s f a r m o r e t h a n a " r e l i g io n o f l a w ." ) R a th e r , Torah i s a b r o a d t e r m th a t

m e a n s " I n s t r u c t i o n . "

T h e n a m e of t h e s e c o n d p a r t , Nevi'im, m e a n s " P r o p h e t s . " H o w e v e r , m a n y o f

i t s b o o k s a re n o t a c t u a l l y p r o p h e t i c w o r k s . I ts f ir st p o r t i o n , o f t e n c a l l ed t h e

" F o r m e r P r o p h e t s , " c o n s i s t s i n s t e a d o f n a r r a t i v e t e x t s . T h e y c o n t i n u e t h e s t o r y

b e g u n in t h e T o r a h . A l t h o u g h p r o p h e t s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e s e n a r r a t i v e

b o o k s , t h e y d w e l l o n f ar m o r e t h a n p r o p h e c i e s .

The name of the f ina l pa r t o f the Bib le , Kethuvim ( s o m e t i m e s t r a n s c r i b e d as

Ketuvim ), m e a n s "W r i t in gs . " Of co ur se the r e s t o f th e Bib le a l so co ns i s t s o f "w r i t -

i n g s . " W h a t t h e r e f o r e j u s t i f i e s g iv in g t h e l a st s e t o f b o o k s s u c h a g e n e r i c n a m e ?

A s w e s h a l l s e e i n c h a p t e r 2 7 , t h e a n s w e r i s a m a t t e r o f h i s t o r y . I n t h i s c a s e ,

Kethuvim h a s c o m e to s e r v e a s a c a t c h a l l t e r m . I t i s a m i s c e l l a n y . I t c o n t a i n s s u c h

d i v e r s e w o r k s a s P s a l m s ( p r a y e r s ) , C h r o n i c l e s ( h i s t o r y ) , D a n i e l ( p r o p h e c y ) , a n d

S o n g o f S o n g s ( e r o t i c p o e t r y ) .

T h e c h a r t s h o w n o n p a g e 1 0 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e ty p i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t of t h eb o o k s i n H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s a n d p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s of t h e B i bl e ( T a n a k h ) .

1 2It

a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s h o w t h e r e a r e t w e n t y - f o u r b o o k s o f t h e B i b l e a c c o r d i n g t o J e w i s h

t r a d i t i o n .

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Torah Nevi'im Kethuvim

G e n e s i s J o s h u a1 3

P s a l m s

E x o d u s J u d g e s P r o v e r b s1 5

L e v i t i c u s S a m u e l1 4

J o b

N u m b e r s K i n g s S o n g o f S o n g s1 6

D e u t e r o n o m y I s a i a h1 7

R u t h

J e r e m i a h L a m e n t a t i o n s

E z e k i e l E c c l e s i a s t e s

T h e T w e lv e M i n o r P r o p h e t s1 8 E s t h e r

D a n i e l

E z r a - N e h e m i a h

C h r o n i c l e s1 9

A l t e r n a t i v e A r r a n g e m e n t s

O n l y i n J e w i s h B i b l e s w i l l y o u f i n d t h e b o o k s g r o u p e d i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s . T h i s

t r i p a r t i t e s t r u c t u r e is f o u n d i n a ll H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e B ib l e. A ll c o n t e m -p o r a r y J e w i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s f o l l o w i t s o u t l i n e .

I n a n t i q u i t y , h o w e v e r , t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t w a s n o t t h e o n l y o n e t h a t J e w s

e m p l o y e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e J e w s w h o r e n d e r e d t h e B ib le i n t o G r e e k ( p r o d u c i n g

t h e t r a n s l a t i o n k n o w n a s t h e S e p t u a g i n t m o r e t h a n 2 1 0 0 y e a r s a g o )2 0

d i v i d e d i t

i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s : T o r a h ; H i s t o r i c a l B o o k s ; W i s d o m a n d P o e t i c B o o k s ; a n d

P r o p h e t i c B o o k s .2 1

T h i s o r d e r i s q u i t e l o g i c a l — i t b e g i n s w i t h T o r a h , t h e m o s t

b a s i c t e x t , f o l l o w e d b y b o o k s a b o u t t h e p a s t ( H i s t o r i c a l B o o k s ) , th e p r e s e n t

( W i s d o m a n d P o e t i c B o o k s ) , a n d t h e f u t u r e ( P r o p h e t i c B o o k s ) . T h i s o r d e r i n g

s c h e m e m o s t li k e l y o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e l a n d o f I s ra e l b e f o r e b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d t o

t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y of A l e x a n d r i a , E g y p t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

H e b r e w t e x t s o f t h e b i b l i c a l b o o k s t h e m s e l v e s .

The Christians5

Old Testament

T h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s c a m e to a d o p t t h e o r d e r o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t f o r t w o m a i n

r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e y s p o k e G r e e k ( r a t h e r t h a n H e b r e w ) , so i t w a s n a t u r a l f o r

t h e m t o r e l y o n t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n a n d a d o p t t h e G r e e k o r d e r . S e c o n d , t h a t

o r d e r — u n l i k e s o m e o t h e r s — e n d e d w i t h t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s . I n t h e C h r i s t i a n

c a n o n ( O l d T e s t a m e n t + N e w T e s t a m e n t ) , t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t j u x t a p o s e d t h e

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P r o p h e t s ( w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n p r e d i c t t h e a r r i v a l o f J e s u s a s

m e s s i a h ) w i t h t h e G o s p e l s ( w h i c h d e s c r i b e t h a t a r r i v a l , f u l f i l l i n g t h e p r e d i c -

t i o n ) . T h u s , w h i l e t h e C h r i s t i a n s ' B i b l e u s e d a n o r d e r o f O l d T e s t a m e n t b o o k s

th a t p r e d a t e s t h e r i se o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , i t d i d s o b e c a u s e t h a t o r d e r s e r v e d C h r i s -

t i a n p u r p o s e s w e l l.

T h e s c o p e o f m a n y C h r i s t i a n s ' O ld T e s t a m e n t is l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e J e w s '

B i b le . T h e f o r m e r i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y th e b o o k s l is t e d a b o v e b u t a l so t h e A p o c r y -

p h a ( w h i c h is G r e e k f o r " h i d d e n " ) . T h e s e a r e v a r i o u s J e w i s h H e l l e n i s t ic w r i t i n g s

t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c , O r t h o d o x , C o p t i c , a n d o t h e r C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h e s h a v e h e l d t o

b e a u th o r i t a t i v e a n d s a c r e d , b u t o f l e s s e r s t a t u s t h a n t h e o th e r b o o k s o f t h e B ib l e

( t h a t is , t h e y a re " d e u t e r o c a n o n i c a l " ) . T h e s e i n c l u d e b o o k s li k e 1 M a c c a b e e s ( ah i s t o r ic a l t e x t ) a n d S i ra c h ( w h i c h g o e s b y m a n y n a m e s — B e n S i r a c h , W i s d o m o f

B e n S i r a c h , S i ra , B e n S i r a , e t c . ; a w i s d o m t e x t s im i l a r t o P r o v e r b s ) . C a th o l i c

B i b l e s o f t e n p r i n t t h e s e b o o k s in a s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n c a ll e d A p o c r y p h a , e v e n

t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y p a r t of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c a n o n .

T h e P r o t e s t a n t C h u r c h l a t e r r e j e c t e d t h e A p o c r y p h a a s c a n o n i c a l . R e g a r d l e s s

o f h o w w e v i e w t h e A p o c r y p h a , if w e s e t t h e m a s i d e f o r t h e m o m e n t w e g e t t h e

f o l l o w i n g f o u r - p a r t B i b le :

Torah Historical Wisdom and Poetic Prophetic

G e n e s i s J o s h u a J o b I s a i a h

E x o d u s J u d g e s P s a l m s J e r e m i a h

L e v i t i c u s R u t h2 2

P r o v e r b s L a m e n t a t i o n s

N u m b e r s 1 S a m u e l2 3

E c c l e s i a s t e s E z e k i e l

D e u t e r o n o m y 2 S a m u e l S o n g o f S o l o m o n D a n i e l

1 K i n g s T h e T w e l v e M i n o r

2 K i n g s

1 C h r o n i c l e s

2 C h r o n i c l e s

E z r a

N e h e m i a h

E s t h e r

P r o p h e t s2 4

T h i s i s t h e a r r a n g e m e n t f o u n d i n n o n - J e w i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s r a n g i n g f r o m t h e

K i n g J a m e s ( 1 6 1 1 ) t o t h e N e w R e v i se d S t a n d a r d V e r s io n ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n d b e y o n d .

I ts r e f l e c t s n o t o n l y c e r t a i n a n c i e n t G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s b u t a l s o t h e i n f l u e n t i a l

t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B ib l e i n t o L a t in b y t h e ea r l y C h u r c h f a t h e r J e r o m e ( 3 4 0 -

4 2 0 C . E . ) .

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I n a d d i t i o n , i n a s ma l l n u m b e r o f c a s e s , c h a p t e r s of b ib l i c a l b o o k s b e g in i n

s l igh t ly d i f fe ren t p lac es in Je w ish Bib les in con t ras t to Ch r i s t i an Bib les; th i s is ye t

a n o t h e r wa y in w h i c h t h e He b r e w Bibl e d i f f e r s f r o m th e O ld Te s t a m e n t . 2 5

My Definition of "the Bible"

Th is b oo k i s a Jew ish ly sens i t ive in t ro du c t io n to " the Bib le. " T h us in th i s bo ok I

a lwa y s u s e t h a t t e r m to me a n wh a t o th e r s c a l l " t h e He b r e w Bib l e . "

I d o no t m ea n to im ply tha t th i s de f in i t io n i s e i th e r the o r ig ina l o r the b es t

o n e . ( I n d e e d , t h e f ac t t h a t t h e c u r r e n t J e w i s h o r d e r d i f f e r s f r o m w h a t i s r e c o r d -e d in t h e Ba b y lo n i a n T a lm u d i s a g o o d r e m in d e r t h a t t h e o r d e r wa s n e v e r s e t i n

s t o n e . 2 6 ) M y u s e o f t h e J e w i s h a r r a n g e m e n t me r e ly a c k n o w le d g e s t h a t t h i s i s

w ha t Je w s cu r re n t l y use in w ha t they cal l the Bib le .

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3

The Art of Reading the Bible

R e a d i n g is a c o m p l ic a te d , m u l t i fa c e t ed p ro c es s. 1 1 a m no t r e f e r r i ng t o t he

t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t o f s o u n d i n g o u t w o r d s , w h a t is c a ll e d " d e c o d i n g " — t h i s i sr e l at i vel y s i m p l e , e s pe c i a ll y i n H e b r e w . N or a m I r e f e r r i ng t o r e s o l v i n g t he t ype s

o f a m bi gu i t i e s t ha t e x i s t i n a ny de a d , o r l i t e r a r y , l a ngua ge . T he s e a m bi gu i t i e s c a n

be qu i t e s i gn i f i c a n t i n t r a ns l a t i ng t he B i b l e . Fo r e xa m pl e , s hou l d t he f i r s t s e n -

t e nc e o f t he B i b l e be r e nde r e d " I n t he be g i nn i ng G od c r e a t e d he a ve n a nd e a r t h"

o r " I n t he be g i nn i ng o f G od ' s c r e a t i on o f he a ve n a nd e a r t h"? Shou l d t he r oo t

q-n-' ( א נ ק ) w he n de s c r i b i ng G od be t r a ns l a t e d " j e a l ous " o r " z e a l ous "? L a c k o f

punc t ua t i on i n t he e a r l i e s t b i b l i c a l t e x t s r a i s e s a dd i t i ona l r e a d i ng p r ob l e m s :

sh ou ld I r ead I sa iah 40 :3 a s "A voice r in gs ou t : , Make c lea r in the dese r t a road

for the LORD! ' " or a s "A voice r in gs ou t in the d ese r t ,Clea r a road for the L O R D ! " ' ?

A s t he o l og i c a l l y s i gn i f i c a n t a s t he s e i s s ue s m a y be f o r r e a d i ng o r t r a ns l a t i ng t he

H e br e w B i b l e , t he y pa l e i n c om pa r i s on t o t he r e a d i ng c ha l l e nge s c a us e d by t he

f a c t t ha t t he B i b l e w a s w r i t t e n i n a n a nc i e n t s oc i e t y t ha t ha d f unda m e n t a l l y d i f -

f e r e n t l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s f r o m o u r s .

E s pe c i a l l y if w e kn o w o n l y on e l a ngu a ge , a n d l ive m os t l y in one s oc i e t y o r

s oc i a l g r oup , w e m a y no t be a w a r e o f t he e x t e n t t o w h i c h c onve n t i on gu i de s s om u c h o f w h a t w e d o a n d h o w w e b e h a v e . C o n v e n t i o n s , h o w e v e r , b y d e f i n i t i o n

h a v e p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g s i n p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s . A n y o n e h i t c h h i k i n g i n I s r a e l

u s i n g t h e A m e r i c a n h i t c h h i k i n g s ig n , w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o b s c e n e g e s t u r e

t h e r e , w i l l q u i c k l y a p p r e c i a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n v e n t i o n .

C o n v e n t i o n s c o m b i n e w i t h t h e m e a n i n g of w o r d s to d e t e r m i n e h o w a te x t

s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d . W o r d s a l o n e d o n o t d e t e r m i n e m e a n i n g ; w e i n t e r p r e t

t he m ba s e d on t he c on t e x t t ha t t he y a r e i n , na m e l y t he i r ge n r e . T he s a m e w or ds

w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y if t he y a r e f ou nd i n a d i f f e r e n t ge n r e o r c on t e x t .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e w o r d s " s l o w c h i l d r e n " w i l l b e u n d e r s t o o d o n e w a y i f t h e y a r e

f ound a s pa r t o f a r e po r t de a l i ng w i t h s pe c i a l e duc a t i on i n a s c hoo l d i s t r i c t , a nd

a n o t he r if t he y a r e f ou n d on a ye l low , t r i a ngu l a r s t r e e t s i gn . T he w o r d s a re t h e

s a m e ; t he i r c on t e x t , w h i c h de t e r m i ne s t he i r ge n r e ( s c hoo l r e po r t v s . s t r e e t s i gn ) ,

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w i l l a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r th e y a r e d e s c r i p t i v e o f c h i l d r e n w i t h b e l o w - a v e r a g e I Q s ,

o r a r e p r e s c r i p t i v e , t e l l in g t h e d r i v e r t o s l o w d o w n b e c a u s e a l a r g e n u m b e r o f

c h i l d r e n l iv e i n a n e i g h b o r h o o d . T h e p r o p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s a m e t w o

w o r d s d i f f e r s b a s e d o n t h e i r g e n r e .

Reading and the Biblical Text

T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s o f r e a d i n g t h e B i bl e . M y i n t e r e s t , h o w e v e r , is i n r e a d i n g t h e

B i b l e l i k e a n a n c i e n t I s r a e l i t e , 2 w h a t i s o f t e n c a l l e d r e a d i n g t h e B i b le f r o m a h i s -

t o r i c a l - c r it i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . A s n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 1 , " h i s t o r i c a l - c r it i c a l " is a n u n f o r -t u n a t e t e r m ; m u c h m o r e t h a n h i s t o r y is i n v o l v e d i n t h i s t y p e o f r e a d i n g , a n d t h e

t e r m " c r i ti c a l" i n c o r r e c t l y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e " c r it i c" i s i n t e r e s t e d i n s o m e h o w d i s -

m a n t l i n g t h e B i b le o r a n y f a i t h - b a s e d c o m m i t m e n t w i t h t h e B ib l e a t i t s c o r e . T h i s

i s n o t w h a t I a m a t t e m p t i n g h e r e . I n s t e a d , I a m a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e B i b le , l i k e a n y

a n c i e n t t e x t , h a s b e e n r e a d d i f f e r e n t l y i n d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s , b e c a u s e r e a d e r s r e a d

t h e B ib l e u s i n g t h e i r o w n c o n v e n t i o n s o r r u l e s . J a m e s K u g e l , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s

s h o w n h o w r e a d e r s i n t h e e a r l y p o s t b i b l i c a l p e r i o d u n d e r s t o o d t h e B i b l e ; t h e i r

r e a d i n g s a r e o f t e n v e r y s t r a n g e f r o m o u r p e r s p e c t i v e , b e c a u s e t h e s e i n t e r p r e t e r s

l i ve d t w o t h o u s a n d y e a r s a g o a n d w o r k e d w i t h i n a r e l i g io u s a n d c u l t u r a l s y s t e m

t h a t is s o d i f f e r e n t t h a n o u r s . 3

W h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r b i b l ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s r i g h t o r w r o n g i n a n a b s o l u t e

s e n s e i s u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o sa y, b e c a u s e t h e v a l i d i t y of a n y r e a d i n g d e p e n d s

o n it s t i m e p e r i o d a n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h a t p e r i o d . E v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s o n

w h a t r u l e s t h e r e a d e r u s e s w h e n r e a d i n g t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t.

The Rules of the Game

T h o s e w h o p la y t h e b o a r d g a m e M o n o p o l y ® m i g h t k n o w t h e o f fi c ia l r u l e s

( p r i n t e d o n t h e b o x ) , b u t t h e y m i g h t a l s o b e f a m i l i a r w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e s e t s o f

r u l e s . N o w h e r e d o t h e o ff i c ia l r u l e s s u g g e s t t h a t $ 5 0 0 m u s t b e a d d e d t o F r e e

P a r k i n g a f t e r a n y o n e l a n d s o n t h a t s p a c e a n d c o l l e c t s t h e m o n e y , n o r d o t h e r u l e s

d e a l w i t h t h e s p e c i a l c a s e s o f t h e p l a y e r w h o r o l l s d o u b l e o n e s o r d o u b l e s i x e s .

Y et a l m o s t a ll M o n o p o l y p l a y e r s h a v e conventions t h a t d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e s e s i t u -

a t i o n s s h o u l d b e h a n d e d . W h a t i s c r u c i a l i s t h a t b e f o r e t h e g a m e st a r t s , a ll p a r -

t i c i p a n t s a g r e e o n t h e r u l e s g o v e r n i n g t h a t p a r t i c u l a r g a m e ; o t h e r w i s e , c h a o s

e n s u e s .

S i m il ar ly , t h e w a y o f r e a d i n g s u g g e s t e d h e r e — w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s w h a t t h e

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B ib l e m e a n t w h e n i t w a s w r i t t e n — is n o t i n t e n d e d t o d i s p a r a g e o th e r " r u l e s " t h a t

m ig h t b e u s e d f o r r e a d in g t h e B ib le . 1 d o n o t m e a n t o a r g u e t h a t t h e s e m e t h o d s ,

w h e th e r b a s e d o n c e r t a in r e l i g io u s o r l i t e r a r y p r i n c ip l e s , a r e f u n d a m e n ta l l y

w r o n g . I n s t e a d , t h i s b o o k d e v e lo p s , e x p lo r e s , e x p l a in s , a n d j u s t i f i e s a d i f f e r e n t

se t o f ru le s . In the a f te r w or d , I wi l l a rg ue tha t th ese ru le s do w or k fo r r e l ig io us

u s e — a l t h o u g h f o r n o w t h i s m i g h t s e e m u n li k el y , o r e v e n i m p o s s i b l e .

Th e im p o r t a n c e of p r o p e r r u l e s o r g e n r e f o r u n d e r s t a n d in g t h e B ibl e i s m o s t

e a s il y i l l u s t r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w in g e x a m p le s . Th e y p r e s u m e , f o r i l l u st r a t iv e

p u r p o s e s o nly, t h e e x i s te n c e o f s o m e o n e f r o m a w h o l ly d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e w h o i s

p e r f e c t l y p r o f i c i e n t i n t h e En g l i s h l a n g u a g e , h a v in g m a s t e r e d t h e g r a m m a r o f

Eng l i sh and an Eng l i sh d ic t iona ry . Th is ind iv idua l ( l e t me ca l l he r Mar ta ) wou ldb e c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e m o d e r n s c h o l a r w h o h a s c o m p l e t e m a s t e r y of b i b li c a l w o r d

u s e a n d g r a m m a r ( w h ic h i n c id e n t a l l y is im p o s s ib l e ) . Ma r t a w i ll i l l u st r a t e t h r e e

s i t u a t i o n s t h a t i n d i c a t e h o w m a s t e r y o f l e x i c o n ( w o r d u s e ) a n d g r a m m a r a lo n e

a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r r e a d in g i n t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e s e n s e .

Le t's im ag i ne tha t Mar ta a r r ive s a t m y ho us e a s I am rea d in g som e poe t ry . I

h a p p e n t o t u r n t o a p o e m c a l l e d " Su b w a y ," t r a n s l a t e d f r o m J a p a n e s e . It b e g in s :

"Every da y I s te p in to a co f f in / w i th s t ra ng e rs . " 4 Reading even th is f i rs t l ine , I

s i g h i n p l e a s u r e — a f t e r a ll , I g r e w u p i n N e w Y o r k , a n d t r a v e l e d o n m a n y t r a in s

d u r in g r u s h h o u r , u n a b l e t o b r e a th e , f e e l i n g l ik e I w a s b u r i e d a li v e w i th s t r a n g e r s

f o r a n h o u r . M a r t a , h o w e v e r , h a s n o c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , f o r a t

l eas t tw o reas ons . She ha s ne ve r exp e r i en ce d the subw ay s . Jus t as s ign i f ican t ly ,

s h e h a s n e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d p o e t r y , a n d t h in k s t h a t t h e s e i n i t i a l e i g h t w o r d s a b o u t

e n t e r i n g c o f f i n s w i th s t r a n g e r s d e s c r i b e e i t h e r a s t r a n g e r i t u a l o r a k in k y p r a c -

t i c e . Th o u g h s h e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e w o r d s , b y r e a d in g t h e m l i t e r a l l y , s h e m i s u n -

d e r s t a n d s t h e i r m e a n i n g i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t .

O n ly a f t e r Ma r t a l e a r n s a b o u t s u b w a y s , a n d m o r e im p o r t a n t l y , a b o u t g e n r e

c o n v e n t i o n s — f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t l i t e r a tu r e p r e s e n t e d i n s h o r t l i n e s i s p o e t r y , t h a t

p o e t r y u s e s m e t a p h o r s , a n d t h a t m e t a p h o r s s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n a p a r t i c u -

l a r w a y — w i l l s h e u n d e r s t a n d t h o s e e ig h t w o r d s . R e a d in g t h a t l i n e o f p o e t r y

th u s e x t e n d s f a r b e y o n d a p h o n e t i c p r o c e s s , o r e v e n l o o k in g u p e a c h w o r d i n a

d i c t i o n a r y .

A n o th e r s c e n a r io , f r o m l a t er i n t h e d ay . M a r t a i s l o o k in g o v e r m y s h o u ld e r

as I so r t the day ' s ma i l . I so r t in to tw o p i le s ; on e wi th no t ic es ( typ ica l ly in red )s u c h a s " U r g e n t : O p e n I m m e d ia t e ly , " t h e o th e r l a c k in g s u c h n o t i c e s . B u t t h e n I

t r a s h e v e r y th in g f r o m th e " U r g e n t : O p e n I m m e d ia t e ly " p i l e . Ma r t a i s b e w i ld e r e d .

S h e k n o w s h o w t o r e a d , b u t n o t h i n g i n h e r t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e p r e p a r a t i o n

t a u g h t h e r a b o u t g e n r e s o f m a i l . H a d s h e l e a r n e d t h a t t h e w o r d s " U r g e n t : O p e n

I m m e d ia t e ly " ( c o m b in e d w i th o th e r m a r k e r s s u c h a s t h i r d c la s s p o s t a g e ) ty p i f y

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a g e n r e t h a t w e c a ll " j u n k m a i l , " t h e n s h e w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d . B u t t h i s l e s s o n ,

w h i c h h a s t o d o w i t h social a s p e c t s o f r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g a n d h o w w e a s r e a d -

e r s p i c k u p o n c l u e s ( w h a t b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s c a l l " f o r m - c r i t i c a l m a r k e r s " ) , i s t y p -

i ca l ly o n l y l e a r n e d t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o ci a l g r o u p .

F o r t h e f in a l e x a m p l e , i m a g i n e t h a t M a r t a w a t c h e s a s I r e a d t h e Sunday

Boston Globe. S h e c l e a rl y o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e n e w s p a p e r i s c o m p r i s e d o f v a r i o u s

s e c t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t l a y o u t s , b u t d o e s n ' t k n o w t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e d i f f e r -

e n c e s . S p e c if i ca l ly , s h e d o e s n ' t k n o w t h a t D o o n e s b u r y , p r i n t e d o n t h e f ir s t p a g e

o f t h e c o m i c s , m u s t b e r e a d d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n t h e f i rs t p a g e o f t h e fi r s t s e c t i o n .

T h o u g h b o t h s e c t i o n s c o n t a i n t h e s a m e w o r d s , e v e n t h e s a m e p e r s o n a l n a m e s ,

w e k n o w t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e y c o n v e y d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n o r h a v e d i f-f e r e n t g o a l s . T h e f ir s t p a g e m e a n s t o c o n v e y f a c t s ; t h e c o m i c s a r e i n t e n d e d t o

a m u s e . M a r t a , h o w e v e r , h a s n o d e v e l o p e d a w a r e n e s s o f c o n t e x t s a n d g e n r e s ,

h o w t h e y m i g h t i n f o r m w h a t s o m e t h i n g re a ll y m e a n s , o r h o w it s h o u l d b e r e a d ,

s o s h e l i k e ly w o u l d u s e D o o n e s b u r y a s a s o u r c e f o r n e w s i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t

s h e u s e s t h e f i r s t p a g e .

The Challenge of Reading like an Ancient Israelite

If M a r t a i s s m a r t , s h e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i g u r e t h e s e t h i n g s o u t . S h e w i l l l e a r n b a s e d

o n e x p e r i e n c e w h a t j u n k m a i l i s, h o w t o r e a d t h e c o m i c s , e v e n t h e n a t u r e o f

p o e t r y . ( I n d e e d , t h i s i s w h a t e a c h o f u s h a s l e a r n e d t o d o . ) It w i l l t a k e h e r a w h i l e .

Y e t i n l e a r n i n g t o r e a d ( i n t h i s b r o a d s e n s e ) , M a r t a w i l l h a v e a n a d v a n t a g e t h a t

w e B i b l e r e a d e r s n e v e r h a v e : s h e h a s w h a t l i n g u i s t s a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s c a l l

" i n f o r m a n t s " — r e a l , l iv e p e o p l e w h o c a n l e a d h e r d o w n t h e r i g h t t r a c k . W e h a v en o i n f o r m a n t s f r o m a n c i e n t I s r a e l , s o w e m u s t u s e o t h e r , l e s s r e l i a b l e c r i t e r i a t o

d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r w e a r e r e a d i n g t h e a n c i e n t t e x t s c o r r e c t l y . 5

W h e n it c o m e s to r e a d i n g t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t w i t h i n it s o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t , m o s t

p e o p l e a re h a r d l y b e t t e r t h a n M a r t a . T h o s e o f u s w h o h a v e s p e n t y e a r s r e a d i n g

b i b l i c a l a n d o t h e r a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n t e x t s , a n d t r y i n g t o fi g u r e o u t t h e i r c o n -

v e n t i o n s , e n g a g e i n a d i f fi c u l t a n d a l w a y s s o m e w h a t s p e c u l a t i v e v e n t u r e . T h e r e

i s n o c e r t a i n w a y of k n o w i n g t h a t w e h a v e t h e c o n v e n t i o n r i g h t , o t h e r t h a n t h e

f a c t t h a t it a l l o w s m a n y t e x t s t o m a k e s e n s e , w h i c h i s a p a r t l y s u b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i -

o n . T h a t b e g i n s t o e x p l a i n w h y t h i s t y p e o f r e a d i n g , w h i c h w e ca l l t h e h i s t o r i c a l -

c r i t ic a l m e t h o d , is s o c o m m o n i n t h e u n i v e r si t y , b u t s o r a r e o u t s i d e o f i t. T h e h i s -

t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d m a k e s t w o a s s u m p t i o n s : t h a t b i b l i c a l s o c i e t y i s d i s c o n -

t i n u o u s w i t h o u r s o c i e t y a n d t h a t t h e B i b l e s h o u l d b e r e a d a c c o r d i n g t o i t s o r i g -

i n a l s o c i a l c o n t e x t , n o t a n a c h r o n i s t i c a l l y . T h e B i b le m u s t i n s t e a d b e u n d e r s t o o d

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o n ly a f t e r i t s a n c i e n t c o n v e n t i o n s a n d g e n r e s a r e u n d e r s to o d , b u t b e c a u s e t h e r e

i s so much d i scon t inu i ty , th i s i s a mos t d i f f i cu l t t a sk .

N o t o n ly l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s a r e im p o r t a n t . Th e B ib l e i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a

pa r t i cu la r soc ie ty l iv ing a t a pa r t i cu la r t im e . Befo re we can beg i n ex p l o r ing the

i s s u e s of c o n v e n t i o n a n d g e n r e , i t i s im p o r t a n t t o o f f e r a s c h e m a t i c h i s t o r y o f

a n c i e n t I s r a e l , s o t h a t b ib l i c a l t e x t s , g e n r e s , a n d c o n v e n t i o n s m a y b e u n d e r s to o d

in th i s l igh t . Accord ing ly , h i s to ry i s the sub jec t o f ou r nex t chap te r .

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4A Brief History of Israel

Th i s b o o k a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e B ib l e a s it w a s u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e p e r i -

o d s i n w h i c h i ts b o o k s w e r e f i rs t w r i t t e n a n d r e a d , f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e

t w e l f t h c e n t u r y B .C.E. ( t h e S o n g o f D e b o r a h i n J u d g e s 5) t h r o u g h t h e s e c o n d c e n -

t u r y B. C. E . ( t h e B o o k o f D a n i e l ) .1

T h u s , w e n e e d t o k n o w s o m e b a s i c f a c t s a b o u t

h i s t o r y b e f o r e e x p l o r i n g b i b l i c a l t e x t s .2

B u t w e w o u ld r u n a s t r o n g r isk o f b e i n g m i s l e d if w e s im p l y o p e n e d a h i s -

t o r y b o o k a n d b e l i e v e d e v e r y t h i n g w e r e a d t h e r e . B e c a u s e o f r e l a ti v e l y r e c e n t

r e a s s e s s m e n t s i n t h e f i el d o f h i s t o r y , s o m e of t h e m o s t p o p u l a r a n d w e l l - k n o w n

h i s t o r i e s o f t h e b i b l i c a l e r a a r e n o w o b s o l e t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e m u s t f i r s t p a u s e

b r i e f ly t o a s se s s h i s t o r i a n s ' a s s u m p t i o n s a n d m e t h o d s , t a k i n g n o t e o f t h e i m p o r -

tance o f po in t o f v iew.

History as It Used to Be Told

W r i t i n g a h i s t o r y o f t h e b i b l i c a l e r a m a y s o u n d l i k e a s i m p l e v e n t u r e , a n d u n t i l

t h e l at t e r p a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , it w a s . M a n y b o o k s w i t h t h e w o r d sHistory of Israel in the i r t i t l e we re ava i lab le , and they a l l more o r l e s s to ld the

s a m e s t o r y .3

T h e s e w o r k s d i ff e r e d s o m e w h a t c o n c e r n i n g t h e e a r li e st h i s t o r y o f

I s ra e l. H o w e v e r , f r o m t h e p e r i o d of D a v i d o n w a r d t h e y w e r e q u i t e s i m i l a r —

t y p i c a l l y p a r a p h r a s i n g t h e b i b l i c a l s t or y , r e m o v i n g t h e l a n g u a g e of d i v i n e c a u s a l -

i ty t h a t i s f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e B i b le , a n d p u t t i n g t h e b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t w i t h i n

t h e c o n t e x t o f a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n t e x t s a n d c u l t u r e s . S t a r t i n g in t h e m i d 1 9 7 0 s ,

t h i s b e g a n to c h a n g e .

T w o m a i n s h i f t s h a p p e n e d t h a t d i s t u r b e d t h i s c o n s e n s u s . I n t h e fi r st p a r t of

t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a l ar g e n u m b e r of c u n e i f o r m t a b le t s w e r e u n e a r t h e d a n d

p u b l i s h e d . S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e s e t a b l e t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e f r o m t h e

p e r i p h e r y of M e s o p o t a m i a , d e s c r i p t i o n s of v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t s e e m e d t o

c o n f i r m d e t a i l s o f t h e b i b li c a l a c c o u n t . F o r e x a m p l e , E . A . S p e i s e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t

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a n i n s t i t u t i o n e x i s t e d a t N u z i , w h e r e a h u s b a n d c o u l d a d o p t h i s w i f e a s a s i st e r,

t h e r e b y e x p l a i n i n g t h e s o - c a l l e d w i f e - s i s t e r s t o r i e s i n G e n e s i s 1 2 , 2 0 , a n d 2 6 .

A c c o r d i n g t o S p e is e r' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , a w i f e c o u l d b e a d o p t e d a s a s i s t er as a

s p e c i a l s i g n o f a f f e c t i o n .4

S p e i s e r w a s n o t a l o n e ; W i l l i a m F o x w e l l A l b r i g h t , c o n -

s i d e r e d t h e d e a n of b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p a n d a r c h a e o l o g y , o u t l i n e d m a n y c o r r e l a -

t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e h i s t o r y t h a t t h e B i b le t el ls a n d w h a t w e m i g h t k n o w a b o u t t h i s

h i s t o r y f r o m e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s .5

I n g e n e r a l , t h e s c h o l a r l y c l im a t e , a t l e a s t i n

A m e r i c a , w a s t h a t t h e B ib l e i s t o b e t r u s t e d a s a h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e u n t i l d i s p r o v e n

b y a r e l i a b l e o u t s i d e s o u r c e .

Shifting the Burden of Proof

A s s c h o l a r s b e g a n t o m o r e c a r e f u l l y e v a l u a t e t h e e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , t h i s p i c t u r e

b e g a n t o s h a t t e r . T w o b o o k s p u b l i s h e d i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s r e f l e c t t h i s c h a n g e i n at t i -

t u d e : The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives, b y T h o m a s T h o m p s o n ,6

a n d

Abraham in History and Tradition, b y J o h n V a n S e t e r s .7

T h e s e w o r k s a n d o t h e r s

s h o w e d t h a t t h e m a n y a n a l o g i e s b r o u g h t b e t w e e n t h e s o - c a l l e d " P a t r i a r c h a l

P e r i o d " a n d t h e B r o n z e A g e o f t h e s e c o n d p r e - C h r i s t i a n m i l l e n n i u m w e r e s p e -

c i o u s . F o r e x a m p l e , s c h o l a r s r e a l i z e d t h a t S p e i s e r w a s i n c o r r e c t i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g

m a n y i n s t i t u t i o n s at N u z i , i n c l u d i n g t h e a d o p t i o n of a w i f e a s s i s t e r — t h i s w a s

b a s e d o n a m i s r e a d i n g o f c u n e i f o r m t e x t s t h a t w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e B i b l e.

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s b r o u g h t b y S p e i s e r , A l b r i g h t ,

a n d o t h e r s w e r e s p e c i o u s . T h a t is , j u s t b e c a u s e it h a s a s e c o n d - m i l l e n n i u m - B . c . E .

pa ra l le l do es no t p ro ve th a t a b ib l ic a l pa s sag e is e a r ly o r a c cu ra t e , e spec ia l ly if i t

a l so h a s a ( m o r e r e c e n t ) f ir st m i l l e n n i u m p a r a l l e l — a s m o s t o f t h e m d o . I n o t h e rw o r d s , a n u m b e r o f s c h o l a r s a r g u e d t h a t th e s e t e x t s a r e n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t i n g

t h e s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m , b u t ar e p r o j e c t i n g b a c k w a r d f i rs t m i l l e n n i u m r e a l it i e s —

a n d i n s o m e ca s e s , c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e s e r ea l i ti e s m a t c h t h e s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m a s

w e l l . F i n a l l y , t h e n e w s c h o l a r s b e g a n t o e m p h a s i z e t h e a n a c h r o n i s m s o f G e n e s i s .

E a r l ie r s c h o l a r s h a d s e e n t h e s e a n a c h r o n i s m s a s e x c e p t i o n s , a s a s m a l l n u m b e r o f

a d j u s t m e n t s t h a t c r e p t i n t o t h e te x t a s i t w a s t r a n s m i t t e d . N e w e r s c h o l a r s , h o w -

e v e r , s a w th e s e as a f u n d a m e n ta l p a r t of t h e t e x tu a l f a b r i c , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e t e x t

a s a w h o le w a s n o t r e l i a b ly r e f l e c t i n g a B r o n z e A g e m i l i e u .

T h e c o n t i n u e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a t i o n s a n d s u r v e y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e

a f t e r t h e 1 9 6 7 S ix - D a y W a r , a l s o b e g a n t o i n f l u e n c e t h e w a y t h e B ib le w a s s e e n

a s a h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t s o f t h e c e n tu r y , e x c a v a t i o n s w e r e t y p i c a l -

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l y s e e n a s c o n f i r m in g th e B ib le . W h e n th e e v id e n c e d id n o t m a t c h t h e b ib l i c a l

d e s c r ip t i o n o f a s i te , a s i n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r i c h o b y J o s h u a , s c h o la r s o f t e n

s a id t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t l a y e r ( wh ic h o n c e s h o we d th e d e s t r u c t i o n ) h a s b e e n e r o d -

ed away .8 W h e n e x c a v a t i o n s d i d n o t s h o w a l ev el w h e r e d e s t r u c t i o n h a d t a k e n

p lace because o f the b ib l ica l ly desc r ibed conques t o f a pa r t icu la r s i t e , scho la rs

would say tha t they dug a t the wrong s i te , and tha t the name o f a c i ty had

b e e n a p p l i e d t o tw o d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s i n a n c i e n t a n d mo d e r n t ime s . Ho we v e r , a s

t h e n u m b e r o f e x c a v a t i o n s i n c r e a s e d , a n d t h e e v i d e n c e w a s s u p p l e m e n t e d b y

l a r g e s u r v e y o p e r a t i o n s , i t b e c a me c l e a r t h a t t h e a r c h a e o lo g i c a l r e c o r d c o n t r a -

d i e t e d t h e s to r y of J o s h u a ' s r a p id , c o m p le t e c o n q u e s t o f Ca n a a n . As a r e s u l t of

a rchaeo log y , the Book o f Jo sh ua c ou ld no lon ger be seen as an acc ura te sou rcefo r h i s to ry . 9

At th e e n d o f t h e twe n t i e th c e n tu r y , t h e d o u b t s t h a t h a d d e v e lo p e d o n t h e

b a s i s o f a r c h a e o lo g i c a l e x p lo r a t i o n o f t h e " P a t r i a r c h a l P e r io d " a n d th e c o n q u e s t

b e g a n to p e r v a d e c e r t a in g r o u p s o f s c h o la r s , w h o s u g g e s t e d t h a t s im i l a r d o u b t s

s h o u ld e x i st fo r m u c h o f t h e B ib le . A g r o u p of s c h o la r s c e n t e r e d i n C o p e n h a g e n ,

o f t e n d u b b e d " th e C o p e n h a g e n S c h o o l , " s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e B ib le h a s l i tt le v a lu e

as a h i s to r ica l sourc e , an d tha t anc ien t I s rae l i t e h i s to ry sho u l d be w r i t t en w i th -

o u t r e c o u r s e t o t h e B ib l e . F o r e x a mp le , t h e y q u e s t i o n e d th e v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f

Da v id . I c a ll t h i s a t t i t u d e " c r e e p in g s k e p t i c i s m , " wh e r e t h e d o u b t s r i g h t ly s h o w n

for us ing the Bib le a s a source fo r recons t ruc t ing the ea r l ie s t pe r iods have c rep t

in to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l a t e r p e r io d s a s we l l . 1 0

A l t h o u g h t h e C o p e n h a g e n S c h o o l m a d e b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s a w a r e o f m a n y o f

the theo lo g ica l b iase s tha t they he ld , they we n t to o far . Severa l sch o la rs hav e s ug-

g e s t e d t h a t t h i s s c h o o l r e p l a c e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s m o f p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n s ,

where the Bib le was seen as h i s to r ica l ly t rue un less ve ry s t rong ev idence sug-

g e s t e d o th e r w i s e , w i t h a " n e g a t iv e f u n d a m e n ta l i s m , " w h e r e t h e B ibl e m u s t b e

v i e w e d a s f a ls e u n l e s s v e r y s t r o n g e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s o th e r w i s e . Th e d e b a t e

a r o u n d th i s i s s u e h a s b e e n d iv i s iv e a n d o f t e n u g ly . 1 1 Giv e n th e imp o r t a n c e o f t h i s

i s sue to Je w ish id en t i ty and p a r t ic u la r ly to m o d e rn I s rae li iden t i ty , i t ha s o f ten

b e e n t i n g e d w i t h a c c u s a t i o n s a n d m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a n t i s e m i t i s m a n d a n t i -

Z i o n i s m . 1 2 Ob vious ly , he re i s no t the p lace to reso lve in de ta i l the a r gu m en t

a b o u t t h e u s e f u ln e s s of t h e B ib le a s a h i s to r i c a l s o u r c e . I w o u ld n o t e , h o w e v e r ,

t h a t t h e a r g u me n t s o f t h e mo r e e x t r e me s c h o la r s i n t h i s s c h o o l a r e g e n e r a l l y d i s -c o u n te d , a n d a r e a s o n a b le m i d d le p o s i t i o n w o u ld s u g g e s t th a t t h e B ibl e m a y b e

us ed , w i th s ign i f ica n t ca u t ion , a s a sou rce fo r anc ien t h i s to ry , ju s t l ike an y o the r

a n c i e n t d o c u m e n t .

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The Bible^ Limits as a Source for History

Two s ig n i f i c a n t p r o b l e ms w i th u s in g t h e B ib l e a s a h i s to r i c a l s o u r c e mu s t b ea c k n o w le d g e d . T h e f ir s t i s t h a t i t i s f u n d a m e n ta l l y a t h e o lo g i c a l d o c u m e n t .

T h o u g h i t c e r t a in ly r e la t e s m a n y h i s to r i c a l e v e n t s , it s a u th o r s we r e n o t p r im a r i -

ly in t e re s ted in the ac cur a te de p ic t io n o f the pas t . T he pas t i s a lm os t a lwa ys

r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h a t h e o lo g i c a l l e n s , a n d o f t e n t h r o u g h a p a r t i s a n p o l i t ic a l -

ideo log ica l l ens as we l l . Th ese lenses a re a fu nd am en ta l pa r t of b ib l ica l t ex ts . T hu s ,

i t i s no t su f f ic ien t to s im ply ta ke G od ou t of the p ic tu r e , and to rew r i te b ib l ica l

te s t s in te rms o f "normal" h i s to r ica l causa l i ty ra the r than d iv ine causa l i ty . 1 3

Th e Bib le is no t un iq ue in th i s re sp ec t— in fac t , it i s typ ica l of anc ien t Ne ar

Eas te rn h i s to r ica l w r i t in g as a w ho le . I t w ou ld ba re ly be an ove rs ta tem ent to po in t

ou t tha t a lmo s t al l these tex ts ce n te r on the d iv ine rea lm as m u c h as the h u m a n . 1 4

F o r e x a mp le , a c c o r d in g t o t h e M e s h a i n s c r ip t i o n , f r o m I s r a e l ' s M o a b i t e n e ig h b o r s

to the eas t , I s rae l was ab le to sub juga te Moab because "Kemosh [ the Moab i te h igh

god] was angry a t h i s l and . " 1 5 Yet , th i s has no t caused a l l h i s to r ians o f the anc ien t

Near Eas t to avo id every use o f such documents in wr i t ing anc ien t h i s to ry .

S o u r c e s mu s t b e u s e d w i th c a r e : mo d e r n h i s to r i a n s mu s t b e a wa r e o f t h e d e e p

b ia s e s of t h e a u th o r s of t h e s e s o u r c e s , a n d w h e n e v e r p o s s ib l e , v a r io u s s o u r c e s t h a t

re fe r to the same even t mus t be s tud ied toge the r , s ince they a re o f ten mutua l ly

e n l ig h t e n in g . Bu t t h e s e s o u r c e s s h o u ld n o t s imp ly b e d i s c a r d e d .

Th e s e c o n d p r o b l e m o f u s in g t h e B ibl e a s a s o u r c e c o n c e r n s t h e u n u s u a l ly

c o m p l e x t r a n s m is s io n o f t h e b ib l i c a l t e x t . M o s t s o u r c e s fo r a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t e r n

h i s to r y we r e u n e a r th e d i n t h e l a s t two c e n tu r i e s ; t h e y t y p i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t t a b l e t s

o r s t e l e s t h a t we r e wr i t t e n s o o n a f t e r t h e e v e n t s t h a t t h e y r e c o r d . Th e s e a n c i e n t

d o c u m e n t s w e r e u s u a l l y n o t r e c o p i e d e x t e n s i v e l y , 1 6 a n d we r e b u r i e d f o r tw o mi l -

l e n n i a o r m o r e b e f o r e b e i n g u n c o v e r e d . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e B ibl e w a s t r a n s m i t t e d o n

p a p y r u s a n d p a r c h m e n t i n a n t iq u i t y, a n d w a s c h a n g e d a s it w a s t r a n s m i t t e d , a t

leas t in i ts ear l ies t s tages . 1 7 I t is na ive to bel ieve that we may recover the Bible ' s

o r ig ina l t ex t (wha t scho la rs ca l l the "Ur tex t" ) , namely the tex t a s penned by i t s

o r ig in a l a u th o r s . Th e b ib l i c a l t e x t s f o u n d a t Qu mr a n a mo n g th e De a d S e a

S c r o l l s , a n d t h e e v id e n c e o f a n c i e n t B ib l e t r a n s l a t i o n s —e s p e c i a l l y t h e S e p tu a g in t

( the p re -Chr i s t ian t rans la t ion o f the Bib le in to Greek)—•sugges t tha t even in

a n t iq u i ty , m a n y d i f f e r e n t v e r s io n s of t h e s a me t e x t c i r c u l a t e d . Th e m u l t i p l e f o r m s

o f t e x t s i n t h e S e c o n d Te mp le p e r io d c o n f i r ms th a t we c a n n o t , f o r e x a mp le ,

assume tha t the tex t o f Kings as we now have i t i s the same as the tex t o f Kings

w h e n i t wa s o r ig in a l l y wr i t t e n .

Th i s is a s e r io u s p r o b l e m th a t i s n o t u n iq u e t o t h e He b r e w Bibl e. A lm o s t a ll

c l a ss i c al t e x t s s u f f e r f r o m th e s a m e i s s u e — w e h a v e r e la t i ve ly f e w p a p y r i t h a t

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h a v e s u r v iv e d f r o m a n t iq u i ty , a n d e v e n th e s e a r e n o t a u to g r a p h s b y t h e o r ig in a l

a u th o r s . M o s t a r e me d ie v a l ma n u s c r ip t s . Es p e c i a l l y i n C la s s i c a l S tu d i e s , t h e

me th o d s o f t e x tu a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e we l l d e v e lo p e d , a l l o win g s c h o la r s t o p i e c e

to g e th e r t h e b e s t t e x t p o s s ib l e u s in g t h e ma n y t e x t s a n d o th e r k in d s o f e v id e n c e

tha t a re ava i lab le to them. Th is d i sc ip l ine i s a s much an a r t a s a sc ience , ye t the re

i s a c o n s e n s u s t h a t i s h e lp f u l i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t e x ts . A l th o u g h s c h o la r s d o n o t

h a v e t h e o r ig in a l wo r k s b y a n a n c i e n t Gr e e k h i s to r i a n s u c h a s He r o d o tu s o r

Th u c y d id e s , t h e y r e c r e a t e Gr e e k h i s to r y v i a t h e t e x tu a l c r i t i c i s m o f ma n u s c r ip t s

th a t p o s t d a t e t h e a u th o r b y c e n t u r i e s . I n t h e s a m e c a r e f u l wa y , we ma y r e c o n -

s t ruc t h i s to ry us ing the Bib le .

T h o u g h I a m s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e o lo g i c a l a n d i d e o lo g i c a l b i a s e s , as we l l a si s s u e s o f t e x tu a l t r a n s mis s io n , d o n o t p r e s e n t i n s u p e r a b l e p r o b l e ms , t h e y a r e

n e v e r th e l e s s s e r io u s im p e d i m e n t s t o wr i t i n g a h i s to r y o f I s ra e l. Th i s m e a n s t h a t

a h i s to ry o f anc ien t I s rae l can never be wr i t t en wi th f ina l i ty . However , s ince h i s -

t o r ic a l b a c k g r o u n d is u s e f u l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a n y b i b li c a l t e x ts , I h a v e n o t

g iv e n u p o n t h i s v e n tu r e . W h a t f o l l o ws i s a b a s i c h i s to r y t h a t , t h o u g h t e n t a t i v e ,

w i l l p r o v id e t h e r e a d e r s w i th a n e s s e n t i a l p i c tu r e . 1 8

The Beginning of Israel

As n o te d a b o v e , s c h o la r s w r i t i n g at t h e e n d o f t h e twe n t i e th c e n tu r y c a s t d o u b t s

on the b ib l ica l accoun t o f the beg inn ing o f I s rae l . Th is was t rue no t on ly fo r wha t

h a d b e e n c a l l e d th e P a t r i a r c h a l P e r io d , b u t f o r t h e Co n q u e s t a n d t h e p e r io d o f

J u d g e s a s we l l . N o o u t s i d e c o n f i r m a t i o n e x i s ts f o r a n y a s p e c t o f t h e " P a t r i a r c h a l

P e r io d , " a n d t h u s , f r o m a h i s to r i c a l p e r s p e c t iv e , i t i s imp r o p e r t o s p e a k o f

A br ah am , Jac ob , o r Rach e l as rea l f igu res , o r a s ea r ly I s rae l i te s o r Jew s . In ad d i -t i o n , t h e r e is n o E g y p t i a n e v id e n c e f o r a n e x t e n d e d s o jo u r n of I s ra e l i n Eg y p t . 1 9

The fac t tha t the Bib le shows re la t ive ly l i t t l e in f luence f rom Egyp t a l so sugges t s

t h a t t h e b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t o f a n e x t e n d e d s o j o u r n t h e r e b y h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s

of I s rae l i t e s i s no t fac tu a l . F inal ly, a s no te d a bov e , the ac co un t o f the ex te ns iv e

c o n q u e s t b y a ll I s r ae l g iv e n i n J o s h u a d o e s n o t ma tc h t h e a r c h a e o lo g i c a l r e c o r d

a s w e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r s t a n d i t.

Though va r ious myths desc r ibe the o r ig in o f anc ien t I s rae l , none o f these may

b e t a k e n a t f a ce v a lu e b y t h e h i s to r i a n . T h e y r e p r e s e n t l a t e r s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g s

of the na tu re o f I s rae l , i t s cons t i tuen t g roups , i t r e la t ions to i t s ne ighbors , and i t s

c o n n e c t io n t o t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l a n d i t s Go d . 2 0 ( I s ra e l i s i n n o wa y u n iq u e h e r e —

mo s t my th s o f o r ig in s h a v e s im i l a r p u r p o s e s , a n d ma y n o t b e u s e d i n a s imp le -

min d e d wa y b y h i s to r i a n s . ) Th e r e f o r e , e s p e c i a l l y wh e n e x a min in g o r ig in s , i t i s

im p o r t a n t t o u s e e x t e r n a l r a th e r t h a n i n t e r n a l s o u r c e s a lo n e .

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Th e f i rs t e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e t o I s ra e l i s f o u n d o n a n Eg y p t i a n m o n u m e n ta l

s t o n e d a t i n g f r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e E g y p t i a n p h a r a o h M e r n e p t a h . T h i s d o c u m e n t ,

c a l l e d t h e M e r n e p ta h S t e l e b y mo d e r n s c h o la r s , r e c o r d s e v e n t s t h a t p r o b a b ly

t r a n s p i r e d i n 1 2 0 7 B.C.E . I n t h e m id d le o f a l is t r e c o r d in g t h e P h a r a o h ' s c a m p a i g n

aga ins t peo p le s in the a rea o f the M ed i te r ra ne an , it no te s : " Is rae l i s w as t ed ; i t s

s e e d i s n o t . " 2 1 Eg y p t i a n , l i k e s o me o th e r a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e s , u s e s s p e c i a l s i g n s

( c a l le d " d e t e r min a t iv e s " ) b e f o r e c e r t a in w o r d s t o i n d i c a t e wh a t c l a ss o f w o r d t h e y

b e lo n g to . ( Th i s i s h e lp f u l i n r e a d in g h i e r o g ly p h ic s o r c u n e i f o r m , w h ic h a r e n o t

wr i t t en a lphabe t ica l ly . ) The s ign be fo re " I s rae l" re fe r s to an e thn ic g roup . Thus ,

th i s insc r ip t ion sugges t s tha t a peop le ca l led I s rae l l ived a t the Eas te rn

M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t i n t h e v e r y l a t e t h i r t e e n th c e n tu r y B.C.E . Th e Eg y p t i a n c l a imto h a v e o b l i t e r a t e d t h i s p e o p l e is g e n e r a l l y s e e n as h y p e r b o l i c , w h ic h i s ty p i c a l

o f s u c h i n s c r ip t i o n s .

Two Perspectives on Historical Periods

Co n v e n t io n a l ly , s c h o la r s d iv id e h i s to r y i n to p e r io d s , b a s e d o n b o th i n t e r n a l a n d

ex te rna l fac to rs . In the case o f anc ien t I s rae l , they tend to use two types o f pe r i -

o d i z a t i o n : a n i n t e r n a l f r a me wo r k b a s e d o n I s r a e l ' s o wn p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e s , a n d a n

e x te r n a l f r a me wo r k b a s e d o n t h e r e g io n a l p o we r s i n to wh o s e o r b i t I s r a e l wa s

a b s o r b e d . G iv e n th a t e x t e r n a l f a c to r s o f t e n i n f lu e n c e i n t e r n a l f a c to r s , t h e s e t w o

a p p r o a c h e s at p o in t s r e in f o r c e e a c h o th e r .

Is r ae l ' s His tor y as Se e n fr om the Outs ide

Th e e a r l ie s t k n o w n e x t e r n a l d o c u m e n ta t i o n o f a n c i e n t Is r a el i n 1 2 0 7 B.C.E . c o i n -

c id e s w i th we a k n e s s i n t h e two ma jo r imp e r i a l p o we r s o f t h e t ime : Eg y p t a n d

M e s o p o t a m i a . T h o u g h t h e r e w e r e r e a s o n s i n t e r n a l t o b o t h e m p i r e s f o r t h e s e

d e v e lo p me n t s , t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e S e a P e o p le s ( i n c lu d in g t h e b ib l i c a l P h i l i s t i n e s ) ,

wh o wr e c k e d h a v o c o n t h e a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t e r n s e a c o a s t , we r e a l s o a f a c to r i n

we a k e n in g t h e s e s u p e r p o we r s , e s p e c i a l l y Eg y p t . O th e r c i t y - s t a t e s a r o u n d I s r a e l

ma y h a v e b e g u n to d e v e lo p a t t h i s t ime , t a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e p o we r v a c u u m

t h a t h a d d e v e l o p e d .

Th e e a r ly h i s to r y o f I s r a e l a l s o c o in c id e s w i th a ma jo r p o we r s h i f t f r o m

Eg y p t t o M e s o p o t a m ia . By th e e n d o f t h e twe l f t h c e n tu r y , Eg y p t c e a s e d c o n t r o l -

l i n g s e c t i o n s of As i a, t h o u g h in t h e f o l l o win g c e n tu r i e s it w o u ld o c c a s io n a l ly

in v a d e I s r a e l a n d t h e s u r r o u n d in g a r e a s .

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Th e f a te o f I s ra e l ( i n t h e n o r th ) a n d J u d a h ( i n t h e s o u th ) w o u ld c h a n g e w i th

t h e r is e o f t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n p o w e r s . M e s o p o t a m i a o f t e n h a d t w o c o m p e t i n g

e mp i r e s : Ba b y lo n to t h e s o u th , a n d As s y r i a t o t h e n o r th . Ne i th e r wa s p a r t i c u l a r -

ly p o w e r f u l f r o m t h e t h i r t e e n t h t h r o u g h t h e e a rl y n i n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h i s c h a n g e d

w i th th e r ise o f the As syr ian dyna s ty , ca l led the C a lah k in gs a f te r the ne w cap i -

t al t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e s e i n c l u d e S h a l m a n e s e r III ( 8 5 8 - 8 2 4 ) , w h o c a m p a i g n e d

a g a in s t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i t y - s ta t e s , a n d wh o d e f e a t e d a c o a l i t i o n i n w h i c h

Ah a b , t h e k in g o f No r th e r n I s r a e l , p l a y e d a l e a d in g r o l e . Th u s I s r a e l b e c a me a

vassal s ta te of Assyr ia .

Th i s r e l a t i o n s h ip me a n t s o me lo s s o f p o l i t i c a l a u to n o my , a n d a n o b l ig a t i o n

to pay a s izab le t r ibu te to Assyr ia , w h i ch rea sse r ted i t s c la im s du r i n g the re ignso f t h e k in g s c a l l e d t h e S a r g o n id e s ( 7 4 4 - 6 1 2 ) . Th i s d y n a s ty wa s b e g u n b y t h e

p o we r f u l T ig l a th - P i l e s e r I I I ( 7 4 4 - 7 2 7 ) , c a l l e d P u l i n t h e B ib l e . No r th e r n I s r a e l

r e b e l l e d a g a in s t t h e As s y r i a n s , a n d b e tw e e n 7 2 2 a n d 7 2 0 , S a m a r i a , t h e n o r th e r n

c a p i t a l , wa s d e s t r o y e d . I n d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s , t h i s i s a s c r ib e d t o e i t h e r S h a lm a n e s e r

V o r Sa rgon I I . The Assyr ians were de fea ted by the Baby lon ians in 612 , and the

las t r e m na n t s of the Assy r ian a rm y los t the i r f ina l ba t t l e in 6 09 .

Th u s , b y 6 1 2 , Ba b y lo n h a d a s s u m e d th e p o w e r f o r m e r ly h e l d b y As s y r ia .

Th e ri s e o f Ba b y lo n i a n p o w e r h a d b e g u n a d e c a d e e a r li e r, w i th t h e Ba b y lo n i a n

k i n g N a b o p o l a s s a r ( 6 2 5 - 6 1 5 ) . T h e k i n g d o m of J u d a h re b e l l e d a g a i n s t t h e

Ba by lo n ians ; fo l l ow ing ea r l ie r po licy , i t w as g iven severa l cha nc es to fa ll in t o l ine

a f t e r i t r e b e l l e d . I n 5 9 7 , a g r o u p o f J u d e a n s , i n c lu d in g t h e k in g , wa s e x i l e d t o

Ba b y lo n , wh i l e a f t e r a s e c o n d r e b e l l i o n i n 5 8 6 , t h e Te m p le in J e r u s a l e m wa s

d e s t r o y e d , a n d mo r e J u d e a n s we r e e x i l e d t o Ba b y lo n .

Th o u g h th e Ba b y lo n i a n s t o o k o v e r t h e As s y r i a n e mp i r e , t h e i r b e h a v io r wa s

n o t t h e s a me . Th e Ba b y lo n i a n s s e e m to h a v e b e e n l e s s c r u e l i n wa r —a t l e a s t t h e i r

r o y a l i n s c r ip t i o n s b r a g l e s s a b o u t b lo o d y e x p lo i t s . M o r e s ig n i f i c a n t ly , t h e y

a l lo we d e x i l e d p e o p le s t o l i v e t o g e th e r i n t h e i r o wn c o mmu n i t i e s i n Ba b y lo n ,

f o r m i n g e t h n i c n e i g h b o r h o o d s i n w h i c h e a rl ie r r e l ig i o u s a n d c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s

c o u l d a n d d i d f l o u r i s h . 2 2 I n c o n t r a s t , t h e A s s y r i a n s h a d m a d e f o r c e d p o p u l a t i o n

t r a n s f e r s , m ix in g t o g e th e r d e f e a t e d p e o p le s f r o m v a r io u s p l a c e s s o t h a t t h e i r e th -

n i e i d e n t i t i e s w o u ld d i s a p p e a r , l e a v in g o n ly a n i d e n t i t y a s As s y r i a n s . T h i s

e x p la in s w h y n o r th e r n I sr a el h a d s o o n d i s a p p e a r e d a f t e r i ts d e s t r u c t i o n i n

7 2 2 - 7 2 0 , w h e r e a s t h e J u d e a n s s u r v i v e d a s a n e t h n i c a n d r e li g i o u s g r o u p .In 53 9 the Ba by lo n ian E m pir e fel l to the Pers ians . The f ina l Ba by lo n ian k in g ,

N a b o n i d u s , i n s t i t u t e d c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m s t h a t a l i e n a t e d t h e p o w e r f u l

p r i e s t s o f M a r d u k th e Ba b y lo n i a n h ig h g o d ; t h e s e p r i e s t s v i e we d th e P e r s i a n

k in g , Cy r u s , a s t h e i r s a v io r a n d a l l o we d h im to c o n q u e r Ba b y lo n . Th e y e x p e c t -

e d t h e c o n q u e r in g k in g t o a l l o w th e p r o p e r wo r s h ip t o b e r e s to r e d ; f o l l o win g th e

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t y p ic a l t o l e r a n c e s h o w n b y c o n q u e r o r s to t h e i r v a s sa l s, t h i s i n d e e d h a p p e n e d .

Th e P e r s i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a t r a p y (a P e r s i a n a d m in i s t r a t i v e u n i t ) c a l le d Y e h u d

in t h e a r e a o f J u d e a , a n d a l l o we d th e J u d e a n s t o r e t u r n t h e r e i n 5 3 8 .

The Pers ian con t ro l o f the land o f I s rae l ended in 332 B.C.E . wi th t h e c o n -

q u e s t o f I s ra e l b y A l e x a n d e r t h e Gr e a t . T h o u g h Gr e e k c u l tu r e h a d b e e n im p o r -

tan t ea r l ie r , a more s ign i f ican t type o f He l len iza t ion began a t th i s t ime . I t typ i -

c a l ly wa s n o t f o r c e d , b u t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e d e s i r e s o f p a r t i c u l a r p e o p le a n d s o c i a l

c l a s s es t o a d o p t t h e p r e s t i g io u s a n d a t t ra c t i v e c u s t o m s o f t h e G r e e k s — m u c h l i k e

th e i r a n c e s to r s a d o p te d As s y r i a n , Ba b y lo n i a n , a n d P e r s i a n c u s to ms . Th e v a s t

e m p i r e of A le x a n d e r f el l a p a r t u p o n h i s d e a th , a n d wa s d iv i d e d a m o n g h i s g e n -

e r a ls . Is r a e l h a d t h e g re a t m i s f o r tu n e of f a l li n g o n t h e b o r d e r b e tw e e n th eP to l e m ie s , w h o r u l e d f r o m Eg y p t , a n d t h e S e l e u c id s , w h o r u l e d f r o m S yr ia ; it

w as f i r s t u n d e r the ru le of the P to lem ies , the n of the Se leuc id s . W i t h the e xce p-

t i o n of A n t i o c h u s IV ( 1 7 5 - 1 6 4 ) , t h e s e k in g s we r e g e n e r a l l y t o l e r a n t of J u d a i s m

a n d J e w i s h p r a c ti c e s . T h e r e a s o n s w h y A n t i o c h u s IV p r o m u l g a t e d c e r t a i n

d e c r e e s a g a in s t t h e p r a c t i c e of J u d a i s m in 1 6 7 , a n d c o n v e r t e d t h e J e r u s a l e m t e m -

p ie i n to a Te m p le f o r Ze u s , a r e o b s c u r e . Th e s e d e c r e e s we r e r e v e r s e d i n 1 6 4 b y

th e s u c c e s s f u l M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t . G r e e k c o n t r o l of t h e l a n d o f I s r ae l e n d e d in 6 3

B . C . E . , w i t h t h e R o m a n c o n q u e s t . T h e R o m a n s w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y d e s t r o y t h e

S e c o n d Te m p le i n 7 0 C .E ., f o l l o w in g a J e w i s h r e v o l t , b u t t h i s b r i n g s u s b e y o n d

th e b ib l i c a l p e r io d .

Th u s , i n t e r ms o f e x t e r n a l i n f lu e n c e s o n I s r a e l , t h e b ib l i c a l p e r io d c a n t h u s

b e d iv i d e d i n to t h e f o l l o w in g p e r io d s : t h e p r e - As s y r i a n p e r io d , t h e As s y r i a n p e r i -

o d ( m i d - n i n t h c e n t u r y - 6 1 2 ) , t h e B a b y l o n i a n p e r i o d ( 6 1 2 - 5 3 9 ) , t h e P e r s i a n

p e r i o d ( 5 3 9 - 3 3 2 ) , a n d t h e G r e e k p e r i o d ( 3 3 2 - 6 3 ) . T h i s p e r i o d i z a t i o n is n o t

t r iv ia l , s inc e the po l i t i ca l fa te o f I s rae l w o u l d o f ten be de te rm in ed by the po l i t i -c a l p r a c t i c e s of t h e p o w e r f u l k i n g d o m u n d e r w h o s e o r b i t t h e y fe l l, a n d I s r ae l

w o u ld o f t e n b e i n f lu e n c e d b y t h e r e li g io u s p r a c t i c e s o f t h e i r o v e r lo r d s .

Is r ae l ' s His tor y as Se e n fr om the Ins ide

Th e in t e r n a l p e r io d i z a t i o n i s s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t . G iv e n th a t we k n o w th a t a

m o n a r c h y d e v e lo p e d in a n c i e n t I sr a e l , i t i s c u s to m a r y t o r e f e r t o t h e p e r io d t h a t

p r e c e d e d t h e m o n a r c h y a s t h e p r e m o n a r c h i c p e r i o d . G i v e n m a j o r p r o b l e m s i n

th e u s e o f b o th J o s h u a a n d J u d g e s a s h i s to r i c a l s o u r c e s , it i s w i s e n o t t o f u r th e r

d iv id e t h i s p e r io d i n to t h e p e r io d o f t h e c o n q u e s t a n d t h e p e r io d o f t h e j u d g e s .

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( H o w e v e r , i t i s l i k e ly t h a t t h e m o n a r c h y d i d d e v e l o p f r o m s o m e s o r t o f j u d g e o r

c h i e f t a i n s t r u c t u r e . ) T h e p e r i o d of t h e e a r l y m o n a r c h y i s o b s c u r e b e c a u s e i t i s n o t

a t t e s t e d i n n o n - I s r a e l i t e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s s o u r c e s . T h e i n i t i a l k i n g s ( S a u l , b u t

e s p e c i a l l y D a v i d a n d h i s s o n S o l o m o n ) , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e B i b l e , r u l e d o v e r a u n i t -

e d I sr ae l . T h i s p e r i o d , w h i c h c o v e r s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 0 - 9 2 2 , i s c a l le d t h e u n i t -

e d m o n a r c h y . A f t e r t h i s p e r i o d , t h e t e n u o u s u n i o n o f t h e a r e a n o r t h o f J e r u s a l e m ,

w h i c h I w i l l c a l l N o r t h e r n I s r a e l , w i t h t h e a r e a t o t h e s o u t h , c a l l e d J u d a h , d i s -

s o l v e d . T h e D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y c o n t i n u e d in J u d a h , w h i l e i n t h e n o r t h v a r i o u s

o t h e r d y n a s t i e s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s . F r o m 9 2 2 u n t i l i ts d e m i s e i n 7 2 2 - 7 2 0

( s ee a b o v e ) , t h e n o r t h e r n k i n g d o m w a s t y p i c al l y t h e l a rg e r a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l

o n e . T h i s p e r i o d f r o m 9 2 2 t o 7 2 2 , w h e n c o m p e t i n g d y n a s t i e s r u l e d o v e r J u d a ha n d N o r t h e r n Is r a e l, i s c a l l e d t h e d i v i d e d m o n a r c h y .

A f t e r 7 2 0 , s o m e k i n g s f r o m J u d a h w e r e a b l e t o e x p a n d n o r t h w a r d , c a p t u r i n g

s o m e of t h e la n d t h a t h a d b e l o n g e d t o t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m . A s n o t e d a b o v e ,

i n 5 9 7 a n d t h e n i n 5 8 6 , f o l l o w i n g r e b e l l i o n s a g a i n s t B a b y l o n , s o m e J u d e a n s w e r e

e x i l e d t o B a b y l o n ; i n 5 8 6 , t h e B a b y l o n i a n a r m y d e s t r o y e d t h e ( F i r s t ) T e m p l e i n

J e r u s a l e m , t h e c a p i t a l o f J u d e a . T h u s , t h e y e a r s b e t w e e n 5 9 7 a n d 5 8 6 u s h e r i n t h e

e x i l i c p e r i o d .

T h e e x i l e d i d n o t la s t l o n g . I n 5 3 8 , t h e y e a r f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n q u e s t o f

B a b y l o n , C y r u s a l l o w e d t h e J u d e a n s to r e t u r n h o m e t o I sr a el , t h e n c a l le d t h e

P e r s i a n p r o v i n c e of Y e h u d — a n e v e n t o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o i n m o d e r n t i m e s a s

shivat tziyyon ( ץ ו י צ ת ב י ש , " t h e r e t u r n t o Z i o n " ) . T h u s , t h e e x i li c p e r i o d b e g a n

b e t w e e n 5 9 7 a n d 5 8 6 ( d e p e n d i n g o n w h o w a s e x i le d w h e n ) , a n d e n d e d i n 5 3 8 ,

w i t h C y r u s ' p r o c l a m a t i o n . T h e p e r i o d a f t e r 5 3 8 i s t h u s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e p o s t -

e x i l i c p e r i o d .

T h o u g h t h e e x i l i c p e r i o d w a s s h o r t , i t w a s c r u c i a l . I t r e p r e s e n t e d a c r i s i s f o ra l l t h e m a j o r I s r a e l i t e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t h a d d e v e l o p e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e m o n a r c h y ,

w h i c h n o l o n g e r h a d a l a n d t o r u l e , a n d t h e p r i e s t h o o d , w h i c h n o l o n g e r h a d a

t e m p l e a t w h i c h t o o f fi c ia t e . P r o p h e c y , t o o , m a y h a v e f u n d a m e n t a l l y c h a n g e d , a s

s o m e p e o p l e w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r G o d w o u l d c o n t i n u e to s p e a k to h i s p e o p l e ,

I s r a e l , o u t s i d e o f t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l . T h u s , v a r i o u s i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s a n d r e a l i g n -

m e n t s o f r e l i g i o n t r a n s p i r e d i n t h i s p e r i o d .

I n s u m , a n d i n t h e b r o a d e s t s t r o k e s , w e m a y s p e a k o f t h e e x i l i c p e r i o d a s a

w a t e r s h e d p e r i o d , p r e c e d e d b y t h e p r e e x i l ic p e r i o d a n d f o l l o w e d b y t h e p o s t e x -

i li c p e r i o d . M o n a r c h y w a s a c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e p r e e x i l i c p e r i o d , w h e r e w e

m a y s p e a k o f t h e p r e m o n a r c h i c p e r i o d , t h e u n i t e d m o n a r c h y , a n d t h e n t h e d i v i d -

e d m o n a r c h y .

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Combining the Two Perspectives

Ca n we b l e n d th e i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l p e r io d i z a t i o n ? Yes , b y n o t in g t h a t t h ep r e e x i l i c / p r e m o n a r c h i c p e r i o d w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s c e n d a n c y of t h e A s s y r i a n s

a n d t h e n t h e B a b y l o n i a n s . B a b y l o n i a n a s c e n d a n c y c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h a l m o s t a l l

o f t h e e x i l i c p e r io d , wh ic h e n d e d o n e y e a r a f t e r t h e P e r s i a n c o n q u e s t o f Ba b y lo n .

Th e p o s t e x i l i c p e r io d wa s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y P e r s i a n a n d th e n Gr e e k r u l e .

T h e c h a r t b e l o w s u m m a r i z e s t h e p e r i o d i z a t i o n o f a n c i e n t I s ra e l f r o m b o t h

a n in t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l p e r s p e c t iv e :

586 538000 922

C E N T U R I E S (b.C.E.)

CRUCIAL DATE

EXTERNAL

Greek

d o m i n a t i o n

Assyrian Babylonian Persian

d o m i n a t i o n d o m i n a t i o n d o m i n a t i o n

Egyptian

d o m i n a t i o n

Exilic Postexilicn i ted mon archy Div ided mon archy

INTERNAL

P re m o n a rch i c

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5With Scissors and Paste

Th e S o u rces o f G en es i s

Púm ary Reading: Genesis 1-3.

Division of the Bible into Chapters

We a r e u s e d t o w o r k s of f i c t i o n a n d n o n f i c t i o n b e i n g d i v i d e d i n t o c h a p t e r s .

E a c h c h a p t e r i s s u p p o s e d t o b e , i n s o m e s e n s e , a s e l f - e n c l o s e d u n i t y . T h e

d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n c h a p t e r s o f f e r t h e i d e a l t i m e t o t a k e a b r e a k — t o r e f l e c t o n t h em e a n i n g a s a w h o l e o f t h e u n i t y o u h a v e j u s t c o m p l e t e d r e a d i n g , a c h a n c e t o g e t

a d r i n k o r a s n a c k , et c . T a k i n g a b r e a k b e t w e e n G e n e s i s 1 a n d 2 w o u l d s e e m n a t -

u r a l f o r a n y o f t h e s e p u r p o s e s — b u t a n y o n e w h o d i d t h i s w o u l d b e m i s r e a d i n g

th e f i r st u n i t o f G e n e s i s . T h a t ' s b e c a u s e t h i s c h a p t e r b r e a k is l o c a t e d i n t h e w r o n g

p l a c e .

T h e c h a p t e r n u m b e r s n o w f o u n d i n B i b l es a r e n o t in t e g r a l t o t h e t e x t .

R a t h e r , t h e y d a t e f r o m t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y c .E .1

T h e y f ir st a p p e a r e d i n m a n u -

s c r i p t s o f t h e V u lg a t e , t h e L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B ib l e t h a t t h e e a r l y C h u r c h

f a t h e r J e r o m e h a d w r i t t e n . By t h e m i d - s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , J e w i s h e d i t o r s i n t r o -

d u c e d c h a p t e r s i n t o p r i n t e d H e b r e w B i b le s a s w e l l . T h u s , t h e c h a p t e r d i v i s i o n s

a r e r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t , r e p r e s e n t i n g o n e p a r t i c u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h o w t h e

B i b l e m a y b e s u b d i v i d e d . T h e " s t a n d a r d " c h a p t e r d i v i s i o n s h a v e n o a u t h o r i t y ,

e s p e c i a l l y f o r J e w s , a n d t h e y a r e b e s t i g n o r e d .

Division of the Bible into Paragraphs

T o r a h s c r o l l s d i v i d e t h e P e n t a t e u c h i n t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t of p a r a g r a p h u n i t s b y

p l a c i n g w h i t e s p a c e b e t w e e n u n i t s .2

T h e s e w h i t e s p a c e s a r e o f t w o t y p e s : s h o r t

o n e s c a l l e d setumah ( ה מ ו ת ס , " c l o s e d " ) , w h e r e t h e n e x t u n i t c o n t i n u e s o n t h e

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s a m e l i n e ; a n d l o n g e r o n e s c a l l e d petuchah ( ה ח ו ת פ , " o p e n " ) , w h e r e t h e r e s t o f t h e

l i n e i s l e f t o p e n a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i t c o n t i n u e s o n l y o n t h e n e x t l in e . T h i s t r a -

d i t i o n o f l e a v i n g s p a c e s d a t e s b a c k a t l e a s t t o t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s ( m o s t l y f r o m

t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C .E . t o t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y c . E . ) . H o w e v e r , t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s

d o n o t a l w a y s a g r e e w i t h t h e d i v i s i o n s f o u n d i n c o n t e m p o r a r y T o r a h s c r o l l s ,

w h i c h t h e g r ea t m e d i e v a l J e w i s h s c h o l a r M a i m o n i d e s ( 1 1 3 5 - 1 2 0 4 ) e s t a b l is h e d

o n t h e b a s i s o f a h i g h l y a c c u r a t e t e n t h - c e n t u r y b i b l ic a l m a n u s c r i p t c a l le d t h e

A l e p p o C o d e x . I n o t h e r w o r d s , s p a c e s o r p a r a g r a p h d i v i s i o n s — w h i c h v a r y

s o m e w h a t e v e n a m o n g m e d i e v a l H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s a n d p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s o f

t h e B i b l e — h a v e n e v e r b e e n e n t i r e l y u n i f o r m . T h e y d o , h o w e v e r , r e p r e s e n t a s i g -

n i f i c a n t e a r l y i n t e r p r e t i v e t r a d i t i o n .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e d i v i s i o n s a r e n o t r e f l e c t e d i n E n g l i s h B i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s .

R a t h e r , e a c h t r a n s l a t o r h a s i n d e p e n d e n t l y d e c i d e d w h e r e u n i t s b e g i n a n d e n d .

T h e t y p e s e t t e r s h a v e se t t h e t y p e a c c o r d i n g l y . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e p a r a g r a p h

b r e a k s in t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t t h e p l a c e s w h e r e t h r e e c o m m i t t e e s w o r k -

i n g i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y f el t n e w u n i t s s h o u l d b e d e m a r -

c a t e d . A s w i t h a n y t r a n s l a t i o n , t h e i r d e c i s i o n s d e s e r v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n — b u t a r e

n o t d e f i n i t i v e .

Division of the Bible into Verses

V a r i o u s r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s f r o m t h e M i s h n a h ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 0 c . E .) a t t es t t o t h e

d i v i s i o n o f t h e B i b l e i n t o pesukim ( ם י ק ו ס פ , l i t e r a l l y " b r e a k i n g p o i n t s " ) , w h a t w e

w o u l d c a l l v e r s e s . 3 N o e a r l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e li st e x i s t s o f w h e r e t h e s e b r e a k i n g

p o i n t s w e r e p e r c e i v e d t o b e . H o w e v e r , s o m e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y w e r e

l a rg e ly t h e s a m e a s t h e l a t er d i v i s i o n s f o u n d i n m e d i e v a l H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s ,

w h i c h i n d i c a t e v e r s e e n d i n g s b y a m u s i c a l n o t e ( c a l le d a silluk— a v e r t i c a l l i n e )

u n d e r t h e f i n a l w o r d , a s w e l l as w h a t l o o k s l ik e a c o l o n ( s o/ pasuk) a f t e r e a c h

v e r s e . T h u s , o f t h e t h r e e d i v i s i o n s n o t e d in m a n u s c r i p t s — c h a p t e r s , p a r a g r a p h s ,

a n d v e r s e s — t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d b e s e e n a s t h e m o s t a n c i e n t a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e . Y e t,

t h e r e a r e s o m e t i m e s d i f f e r e n c e s i n h o w t h e s a m e w o r d s a re d i v i d e d i n t o v e r s e s

i n d i f f e r e n t b i b l ic a l c o n t e x t s ; s o m e m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t s r e f le c t t h e s e d i f fe r -

e n c e s i n t h e i r v e r s e c o u n t s . G i v e n t h e v a r i a n t s t h a t w e f i n d , t h e v e r s e d i v i s i o n s

s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n a s f u l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e . O c c a s i o n a l l y , w e i g h t y e v i d e n c e s u g -

g e s t s t h a t a u n i t of t h o u g h t r e a ll y e n d s m i d v e r s e w h i l e t h e s e c o n d p a r t of t h a t

v e r s e s t a r t s a n e w u n i t , o r t h a t a w o r d a t t h e e n d o f o n e v e r s e b e l o n g s a t t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e x t , o r v i c e v e r s a .

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Discerning the Bible^ Literary Units

T h e f o r e g o i n g c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g c h a p t e r , p a r a g r a p h , a n d v e r se d i v i s i o n sh a v e s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r h o w w e r e a d t h e B ib l e. W e h a v e t o d i s c o v e r a n d

u s e t e x t u a l c l u e s o t h e r t h a n t h e s e " l a t e " f o r m a l m a r k i n g s t o d e c i d e w h e r e u n i t s

b e g i n a n d e n d . T h u s , t h e B i b le s h o u l d b e e n v i s i o n e d a s a t e x t p u n c t u a t e d o n l y

b y w o r d s p a c e s4— w i t h n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e s e c t i o n s , p a r a g r a p h s , o r e v e n v e r s e s.

O u r f ir st s t e p w h e n r e a d i n g all b i b l i c a l t e x t s m u s t b e to s u b d i v i d e t h a t b i b l i c a l

t e x t i n to t h e s e k in d s o f u n i t s .

A n a n a l o g y i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s p r o c e d u r e a n d w h y it m a t t e r s . L et 's i m a g i n e t h a t

a t y p e s e t t e r m a d e a m i s t a k e i n l a y i n g o u t t h e t y p e of a c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e m s , a n d

p r i n t e d t h e m all a s o n e l o n g p o e m . S o m e o n e w i t h m o d e r n o r p o s t m o d e r n i n t e r -

e s t s m i g h t e n j o y r e a d i n g t h e r e s u l t a s a u n i f i e d w o r k . B u t m o s t of u s w o u l d p r e -

f e r t o d i v i d e t h e l o n g p o e m i n t o s e p a r a t e p o e m s . T o d o s o , w e w o u l d u s e s t y l is -

t ic a n d c o n t e n t - b a s e d c r i t e r ia . If , f o r e x a m p l e , a n E. E . C u m m i n g s p o e m f o l -

l o w e d a n E m i l y D i c k i n s o n p o e m , t h i s w o u l d b e e a s y ; i n o t h e r c a s e s , it w o u l d b e

m o r e d i f f i c u l t .

T h e B i b l e s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d l i k e t h i s i m a g i n a r y p o e t r y b o o k . E v e n t h o u g h

o u r p r i n t e d v e r s i o n s h o w s c h a p t e r s a n d v e r s e s , t h e s e s h o u l d b e i g n o r e d . I t m u s t

b e i m a g i n e d as a s i n g le , c o n t i n u o u s t e x t. F u r t h e r m o r e , w e m u s t d e v e l o p r o b u s t

c r it e ri a f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l u n i t s e m b e d d e d i n i t. O t h e r w i s e ,

w e m i g h t d o t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f r e a d i n g t h e f ir s t t w o l i n e s o f a C u m m i n g s p o e m

a s t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e p r e c e d i n g D i c k i n s o n p o e m !

T h e c r it e r i a u s e d f o r s e p a r a t i n g b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e u s e d t o

a n a l y z e p o e t r y . W e r e a d c a re f u l ly , a t t u n e d t o c h a n g e s i n s t y le a n d c o n t e n t , l o o k -

i n g f o r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n v e r se s .

N o n e o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a i s a i r t i g h t o r absolutely o b j e c t i v e . T h e r e is n o c o n s e n -

s u s a b o u t h o w m u c h v a r i a t i o n a t e x t m a y c o n t a i n in o r d e r t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a

u n i f i e d w o r k . N o r d o s c h o l a r s a l w a y s a g r e e o n w h e t h e r o r n o t a l a r g e r t e x t is

s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y . T h u s i n s o m e c a s e s w e f i n d r e a l d e b a t e a b o u t w h e r e a u n i t

b e g i n s a n d / o r e n d s . In m o s t ca s e s, h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s w i d e s p r e a d a g r e e m e n t .

Genesis 1-3 as a Unit

G e n e s i s 1 - 3 i s i n c o n s i s t e n t . It r e c o u n t s se v e r al e v e n t s t w i c e — f o r e x a m p l e , t h e

c r e a t i o n o f h u m a n k i n d is n a r r a t e d f i rs t i n 1 : 2 6 - 2 8 a n d t h e n i n 2 : 7 - 2 3 . T h e s e

e p i s o d e s c a n n o t b e s e e n a s a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f h u m a n k i n d

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i n c h a p t e r 1 , w h i c h is e l a b o r a t e d a n d f i ll e d i n c h a p t e r 2 , b e c a u s e t h e s e t w o

a c c o u n t s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e i r d e t a i l . I n c h a p t e r 1 , o n d a y si x , f i r st t h e l a n d

a n i m a l s a r e c r e a t e d ( w . 2 4 - 2 5 ) , a n d t h e n m a n a n d w o m a n a r e c r e a t e d s i m u l t a -

n e o u s l y ( w . 2 6 - 2 8 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , i n c h a p t e r 2 , f ir s t m a n is c r e a t e d (v. 7 ) , t h e n t h e

a n i m a l s a r e c r e a t e d ( w . 1 8 - 2 0 ) , a n d o n l y a f t e r t h e s e a r e f o u n d u n s u i t a b l e t o b e

m a n ' s p a r t n e r (v. 2 0 ) i s w o m a n c r e a t e d ( w . 2 1 - 2 3 ) . A s i n g l e s t or y , w r i t t e n b y a

s i n g l e a u t h o r , w o u l d n o t b e s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n s u c h a s i g n i f i c a n t m a t t e r .

T h i s m i g h t b e t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e s t o r i e s , b u t o n c e

it is n o t e d , o t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n s q u i c k l y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t . E a c h i n d i v i d u a l d if f e r -

e n c e b y i t s e l f m i g h t n o t b e c o n v i n c i n g , b u t c u m u l a t i v e l y , t h e y b e c o m e c o m -

p e l l i n g . O t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n c l u d e t h e f a c t t h a t i n G e n e s i s 1 t h e d e i t y i s c a l l e d

G o d ( ם י ה ל א ) ,w h e r e a s i n m u c h o f c h a p t e r s 2 - 3 t h e d e i t y i s c a l l e d YHWH Elohim

( ם י ה ל א ה ו ה י ," t h e L O R D G o d " ) . 5 T h e u n i t s u s e d i f f e r e n t w o r d s f o r c r u c i a l t e r m s·.ד τ ! '

l i ke " c r e a t i o n " — t h u s i n 1 : 2 7 , t h e fi r st h u m a n i s " c r e a t e d " ( א ר ב ,b-r-'), w h e r e a s

i n 2 : 7 t h e h u m a n i s " f o r m e d " ( ר צ י ,y-tz-r). I n f a c t , t h e w o r d t r a n s l a t e d a s " e r e -

a t e " ( א ר ב ) i s u s e d a t o t a l o f s e v e n t i m e s i n 1 : 1 - 2 : 3 , b u t n o t a t a ll i n 2 : 4 - 3 : 2 4 .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s t y le of c h a p t e r 1 i s u n l i k e t h e s ty l e o f m o s t of c h a p t e r s

2 - 3 . G e n e s i s 1 i s h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d i n t o " d a y s , " e a c h w i t h a r e c u r r i n g s e t o f f o r -m u l a s ( e .g . , " G o d s a id . . . it w a s s o , " " A n d G o d s a w t h a t t h i s w a s g o o d . A n d

t h e r e w a s e v e n i n g a n d t h e r e w a s m o r n i n g , X d a y. ") . I n c o n t r a s t , m o s t o f c h a p -

t e r s 2 - 3 i s f r e e f l o w i n g , w i t h a m u c h l o o s e r s t r u c t u r e , a n d n o n e o f t h e s e f o r m u -

l ai c p h r a s e s . T h i s i s c o n n e c t e d t o a n o t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n : t h e s t r u c t u r e o f c h a p t e r 1

p o r t r a y s a p o w e r f u l , m a j e s t i c G o d , w h i l e t h e G o d of m u c h of c h a p t e r s 2 - 3 —

w h o " m 0 v [ e s ] a b o u t i n t h e g a r d e n " ( 3 : 8 ) , t a l k s t o p e o p l e ( 3 : 9 - 1 1 ) , a n d e v e n t e n -

d e r l y c l o t h e s t h e m ( 3 : 2 1 ) — h a s a f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e . T h e s e t w o p i c -

t u r e s o f G o d a r e t h e w o r k o f d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s .

Giving the Text a Break

W h e r e i s t h e l i t e r a r y b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o s t o r i e s ? I n o t h e r w o r d s ,

w h e r e d o e s t h e s t o r y t h a t b e g i n s w i t h G e n e s i s 1 :1 e n d ? V e rs e 1 : 1 a n d t h e f ir s t

h a l f o f 2 : 4 , n a m e l y 2 : 4 a , f r a m e t h e s to r y . T h e w o r d p a i r " h e a v e n . . . e a r t h "

( ץ ר א ה . . . • י מ ש ה )a s w e l l a s t h e v e r b " t o c r e a t e " ( א ר ב )a p p e a r t o g e t h e r i n t h e s e

t w o c o n t e x t s o n l y . T h i s r e p e t i t i o n f o r m s a f r a m e o r e n v e l o p e a r o u n d t h e s t o r y .

G e n e s i s 2 : 4 a , " S u c h i s t h e s t o r y of h e a v e n a n d e a r t h w h e n t h e y w e r e c r e a t e d , "

t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e s t h e f i r s t s t o r y .

T h i s d e v i c e — i n w h i c h a p h r a s e o r s e v e r a l w o r d s i n d i c a t e t h e l i m i t s o f a

u n i t — i s c a l l e d a n " i n c l u s i o , " a n d it i s c o m m o n i n b i b l i c a l w r i t i n g . F o r e x a m p l e ,

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t h e T o w e r o f B a b e l s t o r y i n G e n e s i s 1 1 b e g i n s ץ ר א ה ״ ל כ י ה י ו ," T h e w h o l e e a r t h

w a s , " a n d c o n c l u d e s ץ ר א ה ״ ל כ י נ פ ״ ל ע ,"over the f ace o f the who le ea r th" (v . 9 ;

t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . S i m i l a r l y , P s a l m 8 b e g i n s a n d e n d s w i t h t h e v e r y s a m e v e r s e : Ό

LORD, o u r L o r d , H o w m a j e s t i c i s Y o u r n a m e t h r o u g h o u t t h e e a r t h " ( w . 2 , 1 0 ) .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e w o r d eileh ( ה ל א , " s u c h is ") m a y b e u s e d e i t h e r t o p o i n t b a c k -

w a r d ( a s a c o n c l u s i o n ) o r t o p o i n t f o r w a r d ( a s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n ) . I n t h i s c a s e ,

h o w e v e r , it c a n n o t b e a n i n t r o d u c t i o n f o r t w o r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) I ts u s e of " h e a v e n a n d

e a r t h " s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r s b a c k t o G e n e s i s 1 : 1 a n d o t h e r i n s t a n c e s in t h a t c h a p t e r ,

w h i l e t h i s p h r a s e i s n e v e r f o u n d in 2 : 5 - 3 : 2 4 ; a n d ( 2 ) i t u s e s t h e v e r b b-r-'(ארב,

" t o c r e a t e " ) , w h i c h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c h a p t e r 1 b u t a b s e n t i n 2 : 5 - 3 : 2 4 .

G e n e s i s 2 : 4 b , t h e s e c o n d p a r t of 2 : 4 , t h u s i n t r o d u c e s a n e w st o ry , w h i c hc o n t i n u e s p a s t c h a p t e r 3 . I n fa c t , t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f 2 : 4 f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t it is

c o m p o s i t e ; it i s u n l i k e l y t h a t a s i n g l e a u t h o r w o u l d r e f e r t o t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d

f ir st a s " h e a v e n a n d e a r t h " ( 2 : 4 a ) a n d t h e n a s " e a r t h a n d h e a v e n " ( 2 : 4 b ) . T h i s

e x p l a i n s w h y m a n y B i bl es , i n c l u d i n g t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n , b e g i n a n e w p a r a g r a p h

w i t h 2 : 4 b , b r e a k i n g i n t h e m i d d l e o f a v e r s e .

Two Stories and Their Relationship

O n c e t h e d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o s t o r i e s is d e t e r m i n e d a t t h e m i d d l e of

G e n e s i s 2 : 4 , a f in a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m j u m p s o u t — t h e y a r e n o t b o t h e r e -

a t i o n s t o r i e s o f t h e s a m e t y p e . T h e f i r s t s t o r y d e s c r i b e s t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e w o r l d ,

i n w h i c h p e o p l e p l a y a r o l e a l o n g s i d e a ll e l s e t h a t i s c r e a t e d . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e s e c -

o n d c r e a t i o n s t o r y h a s p e o p l e a s i t s m a i n f o c u s , n a r r a t i n g t h e c r e a t i o n o f p a r t s of

t h e w o r l d o n l y to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a re r e l e v a n t t o p e o p l e . T h u s l : l - 2 : 4 a i s

a n a n c i e n t I s r a el i te s t o r y a b o u t t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d , w h i l e 2 : 4 b - 3 : 2 4 i s a

d i f f e r e n t s t o r y , b y a d i f f e r e n t I s r a e l i t e a u t h o r w i t h d i f f e r e n t i d e a s , a n d i t s f o c u s i s

t h e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k i n d .

T h i s a n a l y s i s r a i s e s t w o i s s u e s : If G e n e s i s l : l - 2 : 4 a a n d 2 : 4 b - 3 a r e te l l i n g

d i f f e r e n t s t o r i e s , t h e n w h y n o t r e a d t h e s e c o n d s t o r y a s a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e f i r st ,

t h u s r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 a s o n e l o n g s t o r y ? I n a d d i t i o n , if w e i n s is t o n r e a d i n g

t h e m a s t w o s t o r i e s , i s t h e m o d e l p r o p o u n d e d h e r e , o f t w o s t o r i e s b e i n g w o v e n

t o g e t h e r , a p l a u s i b l e m o d e l f o r h o w l i t e r a t u r e w a s p r o d u c e d i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d ?

T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e a d i n g G e n e s i s 1 - 3 a s a c o m p o s i t i o n a l u n i t y is v i t i a t e d

b y t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o c a b u l a r y , s t yl e , a n d c o n t e n t b e t w e e n t h e t w o

s t o r i e s . W h i l e i n t h e o r y , a s t o r y a b o u t t h e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k i n d m i g h t c o m e a s

a n e l a b o r a t i o n o r c u l m i n a t i o n o f a g e n e r a l c r e a t i o n s t or y , i n p r a c t i c e w e c o u l d

o n l y c l a i m t h a t t h i s w e r e t h e c a s e i f t h e t w o l a r g e l y a g r e e d i n c o n t e n t , s t y l e , a n d

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v o c a b u l a r y . G i v e n t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a ll o f t h e s e a r e a s , t h e s t o r i e s

s h o u l d b e s e p a r a t e d , a n d v i e w e d a s w r i t t e n b y d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s .

T h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n , c o n c e r n i n g t h e b l e n d i n g o f t h e t w o s t o r i e s t o g e t h e r

i n t o a s i n g l e s t or y , h i g h l i g h t s o n e o f t h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m u c h o f

a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n w r i t i n g — a d i f f e r e n c e t h a t w e m u s t s i m p l y a c c e p t a n d g e t

u s e d t o , o r w e w i l l b e l i k e M a r t a ( s e e c h a p t e r 3 ) . I n m o s t m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s , t h e

n a m e o f t h e a u t h o r is c l o s e ly l i n k e d t o t h e l it e r a r y w o r k h e o r s h e h a s p r o d u c e d ;

t h r o u g h c o p y r i g h t c o n t r o l , t h e a u t h o r c a n p r o t e c t t h a t w o r k . A n c i e n t w r i t i n g

w a s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . M u c h w r i t i n g i n t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t w a s a n o n y m o u s .

B e y o n d t h a t , t h e r e w a s n o c o n c e p t i o n t h a t a w o r k m u s t b e c o p i e d o v e r e x a c t l y .

T h e c o p y i s t t y p i c a l l y p l a y e d a c r e a t i v e r o l e i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t e x t s , o f t e na d d i n g t o t h e m . T h i s m a y b e s e e n m o s t c l e a r l y i n a v a r i e t y o f M e s o p o t a m i a n

t e x t s , m o s t e s p e c i a l l y t h e G i l g a m e s h e p i c , w h i c h e x p a n d e d o v e r t i m e , a n d e v e n

i n c o r p o r a t e d l a r g e s e c t i o n s f r o m o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s .6 I t may a l so be seen i n va r -

i o u s D e a d S e a S c r o l l m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e T o r a h a s w e l l . 7 I n f a c t , i n m a n y w a y s t h e

B i b l e i s l i k e m o d e r n t e x t s t h a t c i r c u l a t e o n t h e I n t e r n e t — t h e i r o r i g i n a l a u t h o r i s

o f t e n u n k n o w n , a n d m a n y u s e r s w h o f o r w a r d th e t e x t s r e vi se t h e m o r a d d t o

t h e m i n s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s . W e m u s t g e t u s e d t o t h i s d i f f e r e n t n o t i o n o f " t e x t " a s

w e a p p r o a c h t h e B i b l e .

Source Criticism of the Torah

T h e s t o r i e s i n G e n e s i s l : l - 2 : 4 a a n d 2 : 4 b - 3 : 2 4 s h o u l d n o t b e v i e w e d a s f r a g -

m e n t s t h a t b e c a m e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e T o r a h . R a t h e r , t h e y a r e e a c h i n t r o d u c -

t i o n s t o a m u c h m o r e e x t e n s i v e d o c u m e n t , o r " s o u r c e , " t h a t m a y b e f o u n d i n t h eT o r a h . I t i s c a l l e d " s o u r c e c r i t i c i s m " w h e n w e u s e t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s t o d i v i d e

t h e T o r a h t e x t i n t o e a r l i e r w r i t t e n d o c u m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d b y e d i -

t o r s o r r e d a c t o r s . W h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e T o r a h a s a w h o l e , i t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

T o r a h is c o m p r i s e d o f f o u r m a i n s o u r c e s — f o u r o r i g i n a l ly s e p a r a t e , ( m o r e o r le s s)

c o m p l e t e d o c u m e n t s — t h a t h a v e b e e n w o v e n t o g e t h e r . 8 T h e d a t e o f t h e s e d o c u -

m e n t s , c a l l e d J , E , D , a n d P, h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f m u c h d e b a t e i n r e c e n t b i b -

l ic a l s c h o l a r s h i p . T h e o l d e s t d o c u m e n t i s m o s t li k e l y J , w h i c h w a s g i v e n t h i s

n a m e s i n c e i n G e n e s i s i t t y p i c a l l y u s e s t h e f o u r - l e t t e r n a m e o f G o d , YHWH (TT1ÌT),w h i c h s o m e C h r i s t i a n t r a n s l a t o r s h a v e t r a n s c r i b e d a s " J e h o v a h . " T h e J P S t r a n s -

l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h i s n a m e a s " t h e LO RD ," w h i l e o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n s u s e " t h e

E t e r n a l " o r Y a h w e h o r Y H W H . P r o b a b l y of J u d e a n a u t h o r s h i p , t h i s s o u r c e w a s

w r i t t e n i n t h e fi r st h a lf o f t h e m o n a r c h i c p e r i o d . N e x t is E , t h e E l o h i s t d o c u m e n t ,

s o n a m e d b e c a u s e i t t y p i c a l l y r e f e r s t o G o d i n G e n e s i s u s i n g t h e t e r m Elohim

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( ם י ה י ל א , ״ G o d ״ ) . It m a y o r i g i n a t e f r o m t h e N o r t h e r n k i n g d o m , a n d i s l i k el y

s l i g h t l y l a t e r t h a n J . Ε i s r e la t iv e ly sh or t , a n d u n l i ke th e J an d P, i t i s un c l ea r if it

s h o u l d b e v i e w e d a s a n o r i g i n a l l y s e p a r a t e d o c u m e n t . Ρ r e f e r s t o t h e P r i e s tl y

s o u r c e , w h i c h a l s o u s e s Elohim a n d o t h e r d i v i n e n a m e s ( b u t n o t YHWH) i n

G e n e s i s . T h i s d o c u m e n t i s s h a p e d b y P ri e st ly c o n c e r n s , i n c l u d i n g o r d e r , p u ri t y ,

a n d a s s u r i n g t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e a m o n g I s r a e l . I t s d a t e h a s b e e n a n i s s u e o f g r e a t

d e b a t e i n b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p . M o s t li ke ly , t h i s s o u r c e r e p r e s e n t s a s c h o o l o f

t h o u g h t t h a t w a s a c t i v e o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e

B a b y l o n i a n e x i l e o f 5 8 6 . T h e D s o u r c e s t a n d s f o r D e u t e r o n o m y , t h e f in a l b o o k o f

t h e T o r a h . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f p a r t s o f t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r s , w h i c h c o n t a i n a

d i v e r s it y o f m a t e r i a l , m o s t o f D e u t e r o n o m y f e a t u r e s a s p e c i al v o c a b u l a r y a n dp a r t i c u l a r t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s — e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r o p e r w o r s h i p o f a s i n g le G o d

i n t h e p r o p e r w a y i n t h e p r o p e r p l a c e ( J e r u s a l e m ) , w h e r e H i s " n a m e " r e s i d e s .

L i k e P, D i s n o t a t o t a l l y u n i f i e d c o m p o s i t i o n f r o m a s i n g l e t i m e a n d p l a c e , b u t

r e p r e s e n t s a s t r e a m o f t r a d i t i o n t h a t i s m o r e o r l e s s c o t e r m i n u s w i t h Ρ W i t h t h e

e x c e p t i o n o f t h e D s o u r c e , w h i c h m o r e o r l e s s h a s i t s o w n b o o k , t h e T o r a h a s i t

is n o w s t r u c t u r e d r e p r e s e n t s a c a r e f u l c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e s o u r c e s .

Putting the Pieces Together

G i v e n t h e a p p a r e n t e x i s t e n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l s o u r c e s , t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n e d i t e d

t o g e t h e r , o r " r e d a c t e d , " a t s o m e p o i n t . M o s t l i k e l y t h i s o c c u r r e d i n s t a g e s .

S c h o l a r s c a l l t h e f i n a l e d i t o r R , f o r r e d a c t o r . I n t h i s f o r m , t h e w o r k o f t h e P r i e s t l y

s o u r c e h a s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g v o i c e , a n d e v e n i n t r o d u c e s t h e T o r a h . ( G e n .

l : l - 2 : 4 a i s P ; G e n . 2 : 4 b ff. i s J . ) F o r t h i s r e a s o n , s o m e s c h o l a r s e q u a t e R w i t h

the f ina l vo ice o f Ρ

E x a c t l y w h y t h e s o u r c e s w e r e i n t e r t w i n e d i n t h i s w a y i s u n c l e a r . E x p l o r i n g

t h i s i s s u e re a l ly i n v o l v e s a s k i n g t w o q u e s t i o n s : ( 1 ) W h y w e r e al l o f t h e s e s o u r c e s

r e t a i n e d , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t r e t a i n i n g t h e l a t e st o r m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e o n e ? ( 2 ) W h y

w e r e th e y c o m b i n e d i n t h i s o d d w a y, r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g l ef t a s c o m p l e t e d o c u -

m e n t s t h a t w o u l d b e r e a d s i d e b y s i d e , m u c h l i k e t h e m o d e l o f t h e f o u r d i f f e r -

e n t a n d separate g o s p e l s , w h i c h i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n B i bl e o r N e w T e s t a m e n t ?

S i n c e t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e g o i n g b a c k t o t h e r e d a c t i o n o f t h e T o r a h ,

t h e s e i s s u e s m a y b e e x p l o r e d o n l y i n a m o s t t e n t a t i v e f a s h i o n , w i t h p l a u s i b l e

r a t h e r t h a n d e f in i t i v e a n s w e r s . P r o b a b l y t h e e a r li e r d o c u m e n t s h a d a c e r t a i n

p r e s t i g e a n d a u t h o r i t y i n a n c i e n t I s ra e l , a n d c o u l d n o t s i m p l y b e d i s c a r d e d . 9

A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e d a c t i o n o f t h e T o r a h f r o m a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s m o s t l i k e ly r e p -

r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o e n f r a n c h i s e t h o s e g r o u p s w h o h e l d t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r s o u r c e s

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a s a u t ho r i t a t i ve . C e r t a i n l y t he T or a h doe s no t c on t a i n all of the ea r ly t r ad i t ions

of I s rae l . Ye t, it do es co nt a i n the t r ad i t io ns tha t the r eda c to r f el t we re im po r ta n t

f o r b r i ng i ng t og e t he r a c o r e g r o up o f I s ra e l ( m os t l ike l y du r i n g t he B a b y l on i a n

e x i l e o f 5 8 6 - 5 3 8 B . C . E . ) .

T h e m i x i ng of t he s e s ou r c e s by i n t e r t w i n i ng t h e m p r e s e r v e d a va r i e t y o f

s o u r c e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s . (V a r io u s m e t h o d s of i n t e r t w i n i n g w e r e u s e d — t h e p r e -

fe r red me thod was to in te r leave l a rge b locks of ma te r ia l , a s in the in i t i a l chap-

t e r s o f G e ne s i s . H ow e ve r , w he n t h i s w ou l d ha ve c a us e d na r r a t i ve d i f f i c u l t i e s , a s

i n t h e f l o o d s t o r y o r t h e p l a g u e s o f E x o d u s , t h e s o u r c e s w e r e i n t e r w o v e n —

s e ve r a l ve r s e s f r om one s ou r c e , f o l l ow e d by s e ve r a l ve r s e s f r om t he o t he r . ) Mor e

t ha n one hundr e d ye a r s a go , t he g r e a t A m e r i c a n s c ho l a r G . Ε Moor e c a l l e d a t t e n -t i o n t o t h e s e c o n d - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r T a t i a n , w h o c o m p o s e d t h e

D i a t e s s a r o n . 1 0 T hi s w or k i s a ha r m ony o f t he G os pe l s , w he r e m os t o f t he f ou r

c a non i c a l gos pe l s a r e c om bi ne d i n t o a s i ng l e w or k , e xa c t l y t he s a m e w a y t ha t

s c h o l a r s p r o p o s e t h e f o u r T o r a h s t r a n d s of J , E , D , a n d Ρ h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d .

T h i s , a l ong w i t h o t he r a nc i e n t e xa m pl e s , s how s t ha t e ve n t hough t he c l a s s i c a l

m o de l po s i t e d by so ur ce c r i t i c i sm m ay seem s t ran ge to us , it r e f l ec t s a w ay th a t

pe op l e w r o t e l i t e r a t u r e i n a n t i qu i t y . 1 1

T h e f ir s t s t e p f o r r e a d i ng t he be g i nn i n g of G e n e s i s i s c om pl e t e . W e k n o w

tha t the s tory tha t begins in 1 :1 ends a t 2 :4a . This i s a s ign i f i can t s t ep , s ince i t

a l l o w s u s , e n c o u r a g e s u s , o r p e r h a p s e v e n f o rc e s u s to r e a d G e n e s i s l : l - 2 : 4 a

apa r t f rom the s tory tha t fo l lows . But th i s i s on ly a t echnica l , p re l imina ry s tep to

i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l . T h e f o l l ow i n g c h a p t e r w il l a d d r e s s t he m e a n i ng o f

each of these s tor ie s .

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6

Creat ion vs. Creat ionism

G e n e s i s 1 - 3 a s M y t h

Primary Reading: Genesis 1-3.

Genesis 1-3 as Science

De f i n i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t b i b li c a l u n i t s , a n d t h u s u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g w h e r e o n e s t o r y e n d s a n d a n o t h e r b e g i n s , i s a m e a n s t o w a r d a n

e n d , r a t h e r t h a n a n e n d i n i t s e l f . T h e n e x t s t a g e , i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s t o r y , o r i n t h i sc a se , i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e t w o c r e a t i o n s t o r i es e m b e d d e d i n G e n e s i s

1 - 3 , is a m o r e d i f f i c u l t a n d a m o r e s u b j e c t i v e t a s k t h a n d e t e r m i n i n g th a t t w o s t o -

r ie s h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e p e n d s o n g e n r e . T h u s , as w e b e g i n t o

e x p lo r e t h e m e a n in g o f t h e s e t e x t s , w e a r e n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n M a r t a (s e e "T h e

R u l e s o f t h e G a m e " i n c h a p t e r 3 ) , w h o is c o n f r o n t i n g t h e n e w s p a p e r — a n d i ts

c o m i c s s e c t i o n — f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e .

W e m a y e v e n b e w o r s e o ff t h a n M a r t a . W e n a tu r a l l y m a k e f o r e ig n s t o r i e s f it

t h e g e n r e th a t t h e y m o s t r e s e m b l e f r o m o u r e x p e r i e n c e . T h e s t o r i e s i n G e n e s i s

1 - 3 d e a l w i t h c r e a t i o n — w i t h t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w o r l d , o f v e g e t a t i o n , o f h u m a n

l i fe , o f t h e a n im a l s . A t f ir s t b l u s h , t h e y l o o k l i k e s c i e n c e , a g e n r e i n t e r e s t e d i n

a n s w e r i n g b a s i c q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e real s t r u c t u r e o f t h e real w o r l d a n d i t s c o n -

s t i t u e n t f e a t u r e s . If w e s u b s c r i b e t o m a i n s t r e a m s c i e n c e , G e n e s i s 1 - 3 l o o k s l ik e

w r o n g , b a d , o r p r i m i t i v e s c i e n c e .

P a r t i c u l a r l y in A m e r i c a , m a n y p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d t h e B ib le t o b e s c i e n c e ; i n

f a c t, t h e y u n d e r s t a n d i t t o b e m o r e c o r r e c t t h a n m a i n s t r e a m s c i e n t i f i c a s s e r t i o n s ,w h i c h a r e , a f t e r a l l, j u s t t h e o r i e s . T h i s b o o k i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o e x p lo r e i n d e t a i l

t h i s p o s i t i o n , o f t e n c a l l e d " c r e a t i o n i s m " o r e v e n " c r e a t i o n s c i e n c e . "1

T h i s m o v e -

m e n t h a s t w o p r i m a r y p r o b l e m s : ( 1 ) i t b e g i n s w i t h a n a s s e r t i o n , n o t e x p l i c i t i n

th e B ibl e i t s el f , t h a t t h e B ib l e m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s l i te r a l ly t r u e — a s s c i e n c e ,

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na tu ra l h i s to ry , o r h i s to ry ; and (2 ) i t ignores ev idence wi th in the Bib le tha t b ib -

l ica l t ex ts shou ld no t be read in the same way as modern sc ien t i f ic l i t e ra tu re .

Th e fi r s t w or ds of the Bible a re : "W he n G od beg an to c rea te hea ve n an d

ear th" ; they a re no t : "Th is i s a sc ien t i f ic t r ea tmen t o f the o r ig in o f the wor ld . " In

g e n e r a l t h e B ib l e d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e wo r k s w i th g e n r e l a b e l s ; i t d o e s n o t e x p l i c -

i tl y m a r k t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n , f o r e x a m p le , h i s to r y a n d h i s to r i c a l f i c t i o n .

Th i s i s p r o b l e m a t i c f o r a n y o n e w h o wa n t s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e B ib le a s a n a n c i e n t

I s r a e l i t e , r e a d in g i t a s t h e y d id . I n d e e d , t h i s i s p e r h a p s t h e b ig g e s t p r o b l e m we

c o n f r o n t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e B ib l e , s i n c e n o s e c t i o n c o n ta in s a l i b r a r y c a l l n u m-

b e r , t e l l i n g u s wh e th e r i t b e lo n g s o n t h e f i c t i o n o r t h e n o n f i c t i o n s h e lv e s . No r

m a y we a u to m a t i c a l l y a s s u m e th a t t h e te x t , w h i c h i s o v e r two mi l l e n n i a o ld , m a yb e r e a d t h e s a me wa y a s t h e c o n te mp o r a r y g e n r e t h a t i t i s mo s t s im i l a r t o .

T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e i m p o r t a n t im p l i c a t i o n s f o r G e n e s i s 1 - 3 . T h e y d o

n o t b e g in w i th a g e n r e l a b e l " s c i e n c e , " a n d t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n wh y we s h o u ld p r e -

s u m e th a t t h e a u th o r w a n te d t h e m to b e v i e w e d a s s u c h . Th e d i f f i c u l t t a s k of

a s s ig n in g t h e i r g e n r e mu s t f o l l o w a n i n t e r n a l a n a ly s i s o f t h e s e t e x t s , a n d mu s t

t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a n c i e n t , r a t h e r t h a n m o d e r n , w a y s o f r e a d i n g t e x t s . 2

M o s t p e o p le u n d e r s t a n d th e g o a l o f s c i e n c e a s d e s c r ib in g the w a y a p a r t i c u -

l ar p h e n o m e n o n o r o b j e ct w o r k s o r d e v e l o p s . I n c h a p t e r 5 , I r a i se d p r o b l e m s

a b o u t r e a d i n g Ge n e s i s 1 - 3 a s s c i e n c e , s in c e i t s h o w e d th a t t h i s p a s s a g e i n c o r -

p o r a t e s two m u tu a l ly e x c lu s iv e a c c o u n t s o f c r e a t i o n . S u c h c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ar e n o t

accep tab le in sc ience ; th i s sugges t s a t the ve ry leas t tha t the redac to r who op ted

t o c o m b i n e t h e s e t w o s t o r i e s d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e m a s the d e f in i t i v e , s c i e n t i f -

i c a c c o u n t f o r h o w th e wo r ld w a s c r e a t e d . Th e j o b o f t h e s c ie n t i s t , l i ke t h e m o d -

e r n h i s to r i a n , i s t o a n a ly z e c o m p e t in g t h e o r i e s , a n d o n t h e b a s i s o f e v id e n c e t o

d e t e r m i n e w h i c h one i s co r rec t .

Genesis 1-3 as Myth

T h e t w o c r e a t i o n s t o r i e s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o G e n e s i s 1 - 3 s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

m y th s , n o t a s s c i e n c e . " M y th " i s a n a m b i g u o u s t e r m . C o l lo q u ia l l y , i t i s o f t e n

u n d e r s t o o d a s w r o n g o r b a d s c i e n c e , a s a f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r i m i t i v e a n d i n c o r r e c t

wa y o f u n d e r s t a n d in g t h e wo r ld t h a t h a s n o p l a c e i n mo d e r n s o c i e ty . I n f a c t , i n

e v e r y d a y s p e e c h , t h e s t a t e m e n t " Th a t 's a m y t h " i s s y n o n y m o u s w i th " Th a t 's

fa lse ."

Th e s c h o la r ly wo r ld , p a r t i c u l a r ly w i th in a n th r o p o lo g y a n d c l a s s i c a l s t u d i e s ,

v i e w s m y t h — i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n — i n a f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t

w a y. T h o u g h t h e r e a re a l m o s t a s m a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f m y t h a s s c h o l a r s w h o

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e x p l o r e t h i s i s s u e , t h e r e is a c o n s e n s u s t h a t m y t h i s a n e s s e n t i a l, a n d c o n s t r u c -

t i v e , e l e m e n t o f a l l c u l t u r e s .

T h e c l a s s i c i s t W a l t e r B u r k e r t , i n Structure and History in Greek Mythology and

Ritual, d e v e l o p e d s o m e of t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s c o n c e r n i n g m y t h . 3 M o s t

u s e f u l i s B u r k e r t ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t " m y t h c a n b e d e f i n e d as a m e t a p h o r a t t a le

l e v e l . "4

L e t's im a g in e t h a t M a r t a o v e r h e a r d s o m e o n e s a y t o a l o v e r , "Yo u a r e a

r o s e . " M a r t a w o u l d o b j e c t , o r m i g h t a t t h e v e r y l e a s t b e b e w i l d e r e d , n o t i n g , " Y o u r

l o v e r i s n' t g r e e n , d o e s n ' t h a v e t h o r n s , a n d i s l a c k i n g a f l o w e r ! " B u t m e t a p h o r s ,

u n l i k e n o n f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e (e . g ., " y o u a r e r e a d i n g a b o o k " ) , ar e n e i t h e r r i g h t

n o r w r o n g .5

M e t a p h o r s c a n b e c l a s si f i ed i n o t h e r w a y s : h e l p f u l o r u n h e l p f u l ;

o r i g i n a l o r s t a n d a r d ; e t c . Y e t a l l m e t a p h o r s a r e l i t e r a l l y f a l s e — b y d e f i n i t i o n . W e

c a n s a y t h e s a m e a b o u t m y t h s : t h e y m a y b e li t er a ll y f a ls e , b u t l i k e m e t a p h o r s ,

t h e y a re t r u e — o f t e n p r o f o u n d l y s o — o n a f i g u r a t iv e l ev el . B o t h m e t a p h o r s a n d

m y t h s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n s o c i e t y b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f n o n f i g u r a -

t i v e l a n g u a g e .

T h e m o r e t e c h n i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f f e r e d b y B u r k e r t o f a m y t h i s " a t r a d i t i o n a l

t a l e w i t h s e c o n d a r y , p a r t i a l r e f e r e n c e t o s o m e t h i n g o f c o l l e c t i v e i m p o r t a n c e . "6

L e t u s f o c u s o n t h e co r e of t h i s d e f i n i t i o n : " s o m e t h i n g of c o l l e ct i v e i m p o r t a n c e . "

T h e j o b of t h e i n t e r p r e t e r of m y t h s i s t o d i s c o v e r h o w t h e m y t h i s u s i n g m y t h o -

l o g i c a l / m e t a p h o r i c a l l a n g u a g e to c o n v e y " s o m e t h i n g of c o l le c ti v e i m p o r t a n c e . "

A ll o f t h e t y p i c a l t o o l s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m u s t b e u s e d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h i s

" s o m e t h i n g " i s, a n d h o w t h e m y t h is c o n s t r u c t e d t o d e v e l o p i ts i d e a s a b o u t t h i s

s o m e t h i n g , o r i n t h e c a se o f m o r e c o m p l e x m y t h s , t h e s e " s o m e t h i n g s . "

N o t o n l y w o r d s a n d t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l m e a n i n g s d e t e r m i n e a l i te r a r y w o r k ' s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e w a y in w h i c h t h e w o r d s ar e p a t t e r n e d — t h e i r s t r u c t u r e — i s

o f t e n a s i m p o r t a n t i n s h a p i n g m e a n i n g .7

O n e q u e s t i o n th a t h e l p s u s u n d e r s t a n d

t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e fi r st c r e a t i o n s t o r y o f G e n e s i s l : l - 2 : 4 a i s: W h e r e d o e s d a y

o n e of c r e a t i o n b e g in ? V a r io u s p i e c e s o f e v id e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t i t b e g i n s i n v e r s e

3 , a n d t h a t i n t e r m s o f s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e a r e s i x p r i m a r y d a y s of c r e a t i o n , w h i c h

c o v e r v e r s e s 3 - 3 1 . A t f i r s t , t h e i d e a t h a t d a y o n e b e g in s i n v e r s e 3 , a n d n o t w i th

v e r s e 1 , s e e m s i l lo g i ca l , b u t e v e r y d a y of c r e a t i o n f r o m d a y t w o o n w a r d b e g i n s

w i th t h e f o r m u l a : "G o d s a id , ' L et t h e r e b e . . ." ' ( w . 6 , 9 , 1 4 , 2 0 , 2 4 ) . T h i s s u g -

g e s t s t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f d a y o n e b e g in s o n ly i n v e r s e 3 : "G o d s a id , ' L e t t h e r e

b e l i g h t ' ; a n d t h e r e w a s l i g h t . "T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r e c e d in g tw o v e r s e s a n d t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e n a r r a t i v e

b e c o m e c l e a r e r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n c l u d i n g v e r s e s , G e n e s i s 2 : l - 4 a . T h e i n t e r -

v e n i n g m a t e r i a l , 1 : 3 - 3 1 , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s t r u c t u r e . E a c h d a y b e g i n s " G o d

s a id , 'L e t . . .'" T h e p h r a s e " ( A n d ) G o d s a id " c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f e r e -

a t ive ac t iv i ty , occur r ing in e igh t ve r se s (3 , 6 , 9 , 11 , 14 , 20 , 24 , 26) . Sure ly th i s i s

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t h e s t o r y t h a t t h e p s a l m i s t i s r e f e r r i n g t o w h e n h e s t a t e s , " B y t h e w o r d o f t h e

L O R D t h e h e a v e n s w e r e m a d e , b y t h e b r e a t h o f H i s m o u t h , al l t h e i r h o s t " ( 3 3 : 6 ) .

S i x t i m e s a f t e r G o d c r e a t e s " b y t h e w o r d , " w e r e a d " i t w a s s o " ( w . 7 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 5 ,

2 4 , 3 0 ) . S i x t i m e s G o d s e e s t h a t w h a t H e c r e a t e d w a s g o o d ( w . 4 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 8 ,

2 1 , 2 5 ; w i t h a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f " v e r y g o o d " in v. 3 1 ) . 8 S i x t i m e s w e h a v e t h e

r e f r a i n , " A n d t h e r e w a s e v e n i n g a n d t h e r e w a s m o r n i n g , d a y . . ." ( w . 5 , 8 , 1 3 ,

1 9 , 2 3 , 3 1 ; t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . A l l o f t h e s e p h r a s e s a r e m i s s i n g i n b o t h 1 : 1 - 3 a n d

i n 2 : l - 4 a ; t h e f a c t t h a t t h o s e v e r s e s d o n o t f it t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e c e n t r a l c r e a t i o n

s t o r y e s t a b l i s h e s t h e m a s " o t h e r , " a s n o t p a r t o f t h e a c t u a l s t o ry . I n s t e a d , t h e y

s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n c l u s i o n — o r b e t t e r, a p r o l o g u e a n d a n

e p i l o g u e — t o t h a t s t o r y .T h i s p r o l o g u e a n d e p i l o g u e a re j o i n e d t o g e t h e r n o t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e e le -

m e n t s t h a t t h e y l a c k , b u t a l s o t h r o u g h t h e p r o m i n e n t u s e of a l l i t e r a t i o n t h a t

d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e s e s m a l l u n i t s . T h e B i b l e o p e n s a l l i t e r a t i v e l y : bereishit bara

( א ר ב ת י ש א ר ב ," W h e n . . . b e g a n t o c r e a t e " ) ; t h e s e c o n d v e r s e d e s c r i b e s t h e e a r t h

a s tohu va-vohu ( ו ה ב ו ו ה ת , " u n f o r m e d a n d v o i d " ) a n d m e n t i o n s aruach mer-

achefet ( ת פ ח ר מ ח ו ר , " [d i v in e ] w i n d h o v e r i n g " ; t r a n si , a d a p t e d ) . T h i s a t t e n t i o n t o

s o u n d i s e c h o e d i n v e r s e s 2 : 2 - 3 , w h i c h s e e m t o r e v e l i n t h e p l a y a m o n g t h e

r e p e a t i n g w o r d s ha-shevi'i ( י ע י ב ש ה , " s e v e n t h " ) ,shavat ( ת ב ש , "t o c e a s e" ) , a n d

asah ( ה ש ע , " t o d o " ) . A l o n g w i t h t h e p h r a s e " c r e a t e . . . h e a v e n a n d e a r t h " ( f o u n d

i n 1 : 1 a n d e c h o e d i n 2 : 4 a ; s e e " G i v i n g t h e T e x t a B r e a k " i n c h a p t e r 5 ) , t h i s a l l i t -

e r a t i o n h e l p s t o d e f i n e l : l - 2 : 4 a a s a u n i t .

The Meaning of Genesis l : l -2:4a

B u t w h a t d o e s t h i s u n i t m e a n ? T h e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s a r e n o t r e p e a t e d f o r a e s -

t h e t i c p u r p o s e s ; r a t h e r , t h e s e r e p e t i t i o n s e n c o d e a k e y m e s s a g e of t h i s c h a p t e r :

G o d i s a h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d , p o w e r f u l c r e a t o r . H e s a y s : I t i s s o , i t i s g o o d . 9 T h e r e

a r e n o if s o r b u t s — t h e w o r l d is c o m p l e t e l y r e s p o n s i v e t o H i s c o m m a n d s .

T h i s a s p e c t o f t h e G o d o f t h i s c r e a t i o n s t o r y i s f u r t h e r r e f l e c t e d i n a n o t h e r

a s p e c t o f t h e s t o r y ' s s t r u c t u r e : t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e s e s i x d a y s o f c r e a t i o n

m a y b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o t r i a d s , w h e r e e l e m e n t s A , B , a n d C of e a c h t ri a d a r e c o n -

n e c t e d . 1 0 T h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m i l l u st r a t e s t h i s s t r u c t u r e :

Postcreat ion

Day 1

Light

Day 2

Sky, water bodies

Day 3

Land, vegeta t ion

Day 4

L umi na r i e s

Day 5

Birds, fish

Day 6

Land an imals

Prec rea t ion

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O n d a y o n e G o d c r e a t e s l i g h t , 1 1 a n d o n d a y f o u r , t h e l u m i n a r i e s ; o n d a y t w o G o d

c r e a t e s h e a v e n s a n d w a t e r , a n d o n d a y f iv e , i ts i n h a b i t a n t s , b i r d s a n d f i s h ; o n d a y

t h r e e G o d c r e a t e s l a n d a n d v e g e t a t i o n , a n d o n d a y s i x , l a n d a n i m a l s , i n c l u d i n g

h u m a n k i n d . T h e s y m m e t r y , w h i c h is s t r i k i n g , h i g h l i g h t s t h e o r d e r l i n e s s of e r e -

a t i o n . It i s e v e n p r e s e n t i n t h e a l li t e ra t i v e m i r r o r i n g o f t h e p r e c r e a t i o n ( 1 : 1 - 2 )

a n d p o s t c r e a t i o n ( 2 : l - 4 a ) s t o r y .

T h i s e m p h a s i s o n o r d e r i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g g i v e n t h a t t h i s i s a P r i e s t l y s to r y .

T h e P r i es t l y S c h o o l i n a n c i e n t I s r ae l c o n c e r n e d i ts el f w i t h o r d e r a n d o r d e r i n g ,

a n d h o w t h i s r e f l e c t s o n G o d . 1 2 S u c h c o n c e r n s m a y b e s e e n , fo r e x a m p l e , i n

L e v i t ic u s 2 0 : 2 5 - 2 6 , w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h i n g s th a t ar e b e i n g b-d-l ( ל ד ב , " s e t a p a r t "

o r " s e p a r a t e d " ) :

So you shall set apart t h e c l e a n b e a s t f r o m t h e u n c l e a n , t h e u n c l e a n b i r d

f r o m t h e c l e a n . Y ou s h a ll n o t d r a w a b o m i n a t i o n u p o n y o u r s e l v e s

t h r o u g h b e a s t o r b i r d o r a n y t h i n g w i t h w h i c h t h e g r o u n d i s a l iv e , w h i c h

I have set apart f o r y o u t o t r e a t a s u n c l e a n . Y o u s h a l l b e h o l y t o M e , f o r

I t h e L O R D a m h o l y , a n d I have set you apart f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e s t o b e

M i n e , ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d )

T h a t s a m e v e r b a l r o o t i s u s e d f iv e t i m e s i n G e n e s i s 1 ( w . 4 , 6 , 7 , 1 4 , 1 8 ) .

T h e o p p o s i t e o f s t r u c t u r e is c h a o s , a n d it i s t h u s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t 1 : 1 - 2

d e s c r i b e p r i m e v a l c h a o s — a w o r l d t h a t i s " u n f o r m e d a n d v o i d , " c o n t a i n i n g d a r k -

n e s s a n d a m y s t e r i o u s w i n d . T h i s s t o r y d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e c r e a t i o n o u t o f n o t h -

i n g ( L a t i n : creatio ex nihilo). P r i m e v a l s t u f f a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n v e r s e s 1 - 2 , a n d t h e

t e x t s h o w s n o c o n c e r n f o r h o w it o r i g i n a t e d . R a t h e r , it i s a m y t h a b o u t h o w G o d

a l o n e s t r u c t u r e d p r i m o r d i a l m a t t e r i n t o a h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d w o r l d . O n l y u p o n i t s

c o m p l e t i o n i s t h i s s t r u c t u r e " v e ry g o o d . " A n d o n l y t h e n c a n G o d " r e st " ( 2 : 1 - 3 ) .M u c h of t h e a c t i v i ty o f G o d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t o r y is d e s c r i b e d u s i n g t h e v e r b

bara ( א ר ב ) ,t y p i c a l l y t r a n s l a t e d " t o c r e a t e , " a w o r d u s e d m o r e t h a n f i f t y t i m e s i n

t h e B i bl e . U n l i k e o t h e r c r e a t i o n w o r d s , h o w e v e r , it a l w a y s h a s G o d a s i t s s u b j e c t .

T h a t i s , s o t o s p e a k , G o d m a y bara b u t h u m a n s c a n n e v e r bara ( a t l e a s t a c c o r d -

i n g t o t h e a t t e s t e d e v i d e n c e ) . T h i s v e r b a p p e a r s t o b e p a r t o f a s m a l l c l a s s o f

H e b r e w w o r d s t h a t a r e u s e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o G o d o n l y , t h e r e b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n

c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , G o d is t o t a l l y o t h e r . 1 3 U s e o f t h e v e r b bara a c c e n t u a t e s G o d s

m a j e s t y . It a l s o f i t s t h e d e p i c t i o n o f G o d e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s m y t h .

L a n g u a g e t h a t s e t s G o d a p a r t i s u n u s u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o t r a n s l a t e . I n m o s t

c a s e s , w h e n b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s a s c r i b e d a c t i o n s t o G o d — l i k e " t o s e e , " " t o d o , " " t o

h e a r , " " t o f a s h i o n " — t h e y u s e d t h e s a m e v e r b t y p i c a l l y u s e d f o r p e o p l e : t h e y

m o d e l e d t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f G o d a f t e r t h e i r r e al -l if e e x p e r i e n c e s . W h e r e t h e

a u t h o r s a v o i d e d d e p i c t i n g G o d t h r o u g h h u m a n an a lo g y , t h e y p o i n t e d t o t h e

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i n c o m p a r a b i l i t y of G o d — w h o m n o r m a l la n g u a g e c a n n o t p or tr ay . T h u s , G e n e s i s

1 :1 mig h t ( a wk wa r d ly ) b e t r a n s l a t e d : " I n t h e b e g in n in g o f Go d ' s c r e a t i o n ( wh ic h

i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m h u m a n c r e a t i o n , b u t " c r e a t i o n " i s t h e c lo s e s t En g l i s h w o r d t o

des c r ib e th i s ac t ion ) of he av en a nd e a r t h . . . ."

Humankind in the Priestly Creation Story

M y th s , l i k e ma n y o th e r n a r r a t i v e g e n r e s , n o t o n ly d e s c r ib e , b u t a l s o p r e s c r ib e .

F e w a re n e u t r a l , a n d m o s t m a k e v a l u e j u d g m e n t s . S o m e of t h e v a l u e j u d g m e n t s

m a d e b y t h e fi r st c r e a t i o n s to r y a re o b v io u s a n d h a v e b e e n n o t e d a l r e a d y : t h ew o r l d i s v e r y g o o d , a n d Go d i s p o w e r f u l a n d is h e e d e d . Th e s t r u c tu r e of o u r

c h a r t ( a b o v e ) m ig h t s u g g e s t t h a t e a c h o f t h e b o x e d e l e me n t s , r e p r e s e n t in g wh a t

was c rea ted on each day , a re o f equa l va lue . I s th i s so—or as a c rea t ion myth ,

d o e s t h e te x t a l so e s t a b l is h v al u e j u d g m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o r

s ig n i f i c a n t e l e me n t ( s ) o f c r e a t i o n ?

Th i s s t o r y h ig h l ig h t s t h e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k in d . Th i s i s n o t s u r p r i s in g in a

t e x t wr i t t e n b y p e o p le . Th e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k in d i s t h e lo n g e s t s e c t i o n , c o m -

p r i s in g v e r s e s 2 6 - 3 0 . O n ly a f t e r p e o p le a r e c r e a t e d i s t h e wo r ld " v e ry g o o d " (v.

31) , r a the r than s imply "good ," a s in a l l o f the ea r l ie r days o f c rea t ion . On ly peo-

p ie " ru le" and "mas te r" (v . 28 ) . On ly fo r peop le i s the ac t o f c rea t ion expressed

us ing the p lu ra l "Le t us" (v . 26 ) . And on ly wi th peop le does the tex t express i t se l f

in poetry (v . 27) .

Th e s e l a s t two p o in t s r e q u i r e f u r th e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n . Le t u s l o o k mo r e c lo s e ly

a t G e n e s i s 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 , w h i c h r e a d s :

A n d Go d s a id , " Le t u s m a k e m a n in o u r ima g e , a f t e r o u r l i k e n e s s. Th e y

shal l ru le the f ish of the sea , the b irds of the sky, the ca t t le , the whole

e a r th , a n d a l l t h e c r e e p in g t h in g s t h a t c r e e p o n e a r th . " An d Go d c r e a t -

e d ma n in H i s ima g e , i n t h e ima g e o f Go d He c r e a t e d h im; ma le a n d

f e ma le He c r e a t e d t h e m .

The mean ing o f the f i r s t pe rson p lu ra l "us" and "our" has been the focus o f g rea t

d e b a t e a n d p o l e m i c e v e n i n a n t i q u i t y . 1 4 Th e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t h e r e Go d i s s p e a k -

in g in t h e " ro y a l we " is o f t e n p r o p o u n d e d . Ho we v e r , t h i s is u n l ik e ly , s i n c e s u c h

u s a g e is o th e r w i s e u n a t t e s t e d w i th v e r b s i n t h e B ib l e .1 5

M ore likely, the tex t i s im pl ic i t ly po r t r ay in g Go d in te rm s o f a h u m a n k ing :

Go d i s t a lk in g t o h i s r o y a l c o u n s e lo r s o r c a b in e t . 1 6 S u c h i m a g e r y a p p e a r s c l e a r -

ly in o t he r b ib l ica l t ex ts , su ch as Jo b 1 - 2 , I sa iah 6 , an d espec ia l ly 1 Kings 22 :19 :

"I saw the L O R D s e a t e d u p o n H i s t h r o n e , w i th a l l t h e h o s t o f h e a v e n s t a n d in g i n

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a t t e n d a n c e t o t h e r i g h t a n d t o t h e l e ft o f H i m . " T h e c r e a t i o n o f p e o p l e i s s o s i g -

n i f i c a n t t h a t t h i s c r e a t i v e a c t a l o n e d e m a n d s t h a t G o d c o n s u l t h i s c a b i n e t , c o m -

p r i s e d o f a n g e l s o r o t h e r h e a v e n l y f i g u r e s . B u t a s t h e n e x t v e r s e m a k e s c l e a r v i a

a s i n g u l a r v e r b , c o n s u l t a t i o n i s t h e i r o n l y ro l e : G o d c r e a t e s p e o p l e w i t h o u t t h e i r

a s s i s t a n c e .

I n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s , t h e N e w R e v i s e d S t a n d a r d V e r s i o n ( N R S V ) t r a n s l a t i o n

b e t t e r c a p t u r e s t h e e s s e n c e of G e n e s i s 1 : 2 7 t h a n t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n . T h e N R S V

p r i n t s t h e v e r s e i n d e n t e d , a s p o e t r y :

S o G o d c r e a t e d h u m a n k i n d i n H i s i m a g e ,

I n t h e i m a g e o f G o d H e c r e a t e d t h e m ;

M a l e a n d f e m a l e H e c r e a t e d t h e m .

T h o u g h a m o r e t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n of H e b r e w p o e t r y w i l l w a i t u n t i l w e s t u d y

t h e m o r e p o e t i c t e x t s s u c h a s p r o p h e c y a n d p s a l m s ( s ee " T h e P o e t r y of I s a ia h "

i n c h a p t e r 1 7 ) , t h i s v e r s e h a s o b v i o u s l y n o n p r o s a i c f e a t u r e s : i t s d i v i s i o n i n t o d i s -

t i n c t s e c t i o n s o f r o u g h l y e q u a l l e n g t h , a n d i t s u s e o f r e p e t i t i o n ( e . g . , " G o d , " " e r e -

a t e d , " " i m a g e , " " t h e m " ) a m o n g i ts v a r i o u s l i n e s . T h i s p o e t i c i n t e r l u d e i n t h e m i d -

d i e o f a n o t h e r w i s e p r o s e p a s s a g e h e i g h t e n s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f

h u m a n k i n d .

In the Image of God

A c l o s e l o o k at t h e H e b r e w w o r d i n g r e s o l v e s t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p h r a s e " i m a g e

o f G o d 1 ״ / a s w e l l a s w h e t h e r it i s " m a n " o r " h u m a n k i n d " t h a t is b e i n g c r e a t e d .

G e n e s i s 1 : 2 7 u s e s t h e w o r d ha-adam ( ם ד א ה ) . G e n e r a l l y t h is i s a g e n d e r - n e u t r a l

t e r m , u s e d t o c o n v e y t h e m e a n i n g " h u m a n k i n d " a s w e l l a s "a p e r s o n " of e i t h e r

g e n d e r . T h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e v e r s e , " M a l e a n d f e m a l e H e c r e a t e d t h e m , " m a k e s i t

c l e a r t h a t ha-adam r e f e r s t o " h u m a n k i n d " r a t h e r t h a n " m a n . " ( L a rg e ly u n d e r t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f G e n e s i s 2 — w h i c h f i r st d e s c r i b e s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a m a n , a n d t h e n t h e

c r e a t i o n o f a w o m a n — G e n . 1 : 27 h a s s o m e t i m e s b e e n u n d e r s t o o d a s " G o d e r e-

a t e d m a n . . . ." B u t a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e s e a r e t w o s e p a r a t e c r e a t i o n s t o r i e s , a n d

G e n e s i s 2 s h e d s n o l i g h t o n t h e m e a n i n g o f ha-adam i n 1 : 2 7 , w h i c h is g e n d e r -

n e u t r a l . )T h e w o r d tzelem ( ם ל צ , " i m a g e " ) e l s e w h e r e a l w a y s r e f e r s t o a p h y s i c a l r e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e B o o k of E z e k i e l u s e s tzelem w h e n it r e f e r s t o " m e n

s c u l p t u r e d u p o n t h e w a l l s , figures o f C h a l d e a n s d r a w n in v e r m i l i o n " ( 2 3 : 1 4 ) o r

w h e n i t a c c u s e s I s ra e l o f f o r n i c a t i n g w i t h " p h a l l i c images" ( 1 6 : 1 7 ) . T h e w o r d

o f t e n r e f e r s t o i d o l s ( e . g ., N u m . 3 3 : 5 2 ; E z e k . 7 : 2 0 ; A m o s 5 : 2 6 ; 2 C h r o n . 2 3 : 1 7 ) .

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I t a lw ays s ign i f ie s a co nc re t e en t i ty ra t he r tha n an abs t ra c t on e . Th is i s no t s u r -

p r i s i n g s in c e t h e B ib l e ( i n c o n t r a s t t o mo s t me d ie v a l p h i lo s o p h ic a l t r a d i t i o n s ,

b o th J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n ) o f t e n d e p i c t s G o d in c o r p o r e a l t e r m s , a s i n E x o d u s

24 :1 0 : "a nd t hey sa w the G od o f I s rae l : u n d e r H is fee t. . . ." Ezek ie l , a p r ie s t

w h o s e wr i t i n g s h a r e s ma n y f e a tu r e s w i th t h a t of t h e P r ie s t ly s c h o o l , d e s c r ib e s

G o d in h ig h ly c o r p o r e a l t e r m s in h i s i n i t ia l v i s io n ( Ez e . l : 2 6 - 2 8 a ) :

Ab o v e th e e x p a n s e o v e r t h e i r h e a d s wa s t h e s e mb la n c e o f a t h r o n e , i n

a p p e a r a n c e li k e s a p p h i r e ; a n d o n t o p , u p o n th i s s e m b la n c e o f a t h r o n e ,

t h e r e w a s t h e s e m b l a n c e of a h u m a n f o r m . F r o m w h a t a p p e a r e d a s h i s

lo in s u p , I s a w a g l e a m a s of a m b e r — w h a t l o o k e d l ik e a f ir e e n c a s e d i n

a f r a m e ; a n d f r o m w h a t a p p e a r e d a s h i s l o in s d o w n , I s a w w h a t l o o k e d

l ike f i re . There was a rad iance a l l abou t h im. Like the appearance o f the

b o w w h ic h s h in e s in th e c lo u d s o n a d a y o f r a in , s u c h wa s t h e a p p e a r -

a n c e o f t h e s u r r o u n d in g r a d i a n c e . Th a t wa s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e s e m-

b lance o f the P resence o f the L O R D .

Go d i s h e r e d e p i c t e d a s a p h y s i c a l b e in g , wh o h a s a n ima g e in " th e s e m-

b l a n c e of a h u m a n f o r m . " F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e g e n d e r of G o d c a n n o t b e d i s t i n -

g u i s h e d , s i n c e f r o m lo in s d o w n , G o d i s e n c a s e d b y f i re . Th i s m a y f it q u i t e n e a t -

l y t h e p o s s ib l e imp l i c a t i o n s o f Ge n e s i s 1 :2 7 : t h a t h u ma n k in d , c r e a t e d ma le a n d

f e m a l e , m i m i c s G o d .1 8

H o w e v e r w e i n t e r p r e t t h e c r e a t i o n o f h u m a n k i n d , t h e s e c r e a t i o n s a r e u n l i k e

a n y o th e r . Va r io u s e l e me n t s i n Ge n e s i s 1 :2 6 - 3 0 h ig h l ig h t t h e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f

h u ma n k in d ' s b e in g c r e a t e d i n Go d ' s ( p h y s i c a l ) ima g e , w i th ma le a n d f e ma le

e q u a l . Th e c o n c lu s io n o f t h i s my th , h o we v e r , d e s c r ib e s t h e S a b b a th i n a ma n n e r

t h a t e v e n s u r p a s s e s h u m a n k i n d — o n l y t h e S a b b a t h i s " d e c l ar e d h o l y " ( G e n .2 : 3 ) . 1 9 Ho l in e s s is e s p e c i a l l y im p o r t a n t w i th in t h e P r ie s t ly s y s t e m , i n w h ic h t h e

Ho ly S a b b a th p l a y s a l e a d in g ro l e ( s e e e s p e c i a l ly Ex o d . 3 1 : 1 2 - 1 7 ) . Th u s , i n

o f f e r in g t h e s e e v a lu a t i o n s , t h e f ir s t c r e a t i o n s to r y h ig h l ig h t s t h e im p o r t a n c e o f

b o t h h u m a n k i n d a n d t h e S a b b a t h .

The Meaning of Genesis 2:4b-3:24

C r i ti c al bi b l ic a l s c h o l a r s h i p a l l o w s u s — p e r h a p s e v e n f o r c es u s — t o s e e G e n e s i s

l : l - 2 : 4 a a n d 2 : 4 b - 3 : 2 4 a s t w o d i s t i n c t s t o r ie s t h a t s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d

separa te ly . Of course we canno t eas i ly fo rge t the p reced ing s to ry as we read the

G ard en o f E de n s to ry . H ow eve r , it i s ev en ha rd er to pu t a s ide al l tha t we a l rea dy

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" k n o w " a b o u t t h i s s t o r y it s el f. N o b i b l i c a l s t o r y i s m o r e f a m i l i a r i n W e s t e r n

c u l t u r e .

A s i t h a p p e n s , t h e s t o r y a s w i d e l y k n o w n h a s b e e n f i l le d o u t t h r o u g h v a r i -

o u s ( C h r i s t i a n ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , n o w h e r e d o e s t h e t e x t i t s e l f t e l l u s

w h a t t h e f o r b i d d e n f r u i t w a s . I n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n it w a s g e n e r a l l y u n d e r -

s t o o d a s a n a p p l e , w h e r e a s e a r ly J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n o f f e r e d s e v e r a l o p i n i o n s a s to

t h e f ru i t 's i d e n t i ty , w i t h t h e f ig b e i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r — a n d c o n t e x t u a l l y t h e

m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e ( se e e s p e c i a ll y G e n . 3 : 7 ) . 2 0

O t h e r d e a r l y h e l d v i e w s o f t h i s t e x t a r e a l s o n o t b o r n e o u t b y a c l o s e r e a d -

i n g . T h u s , w e m i g h t b e l i e v e t h a t i ts m a i n t h e m e is t h e c u r s e r e c e i v e d b y t h e

w o m a n ( a n d all w o m e n ) , y et t h e w o r d " c u r s e " is a b s e n t i n G o d ' s c o m m e n t s t oh e r ( G e n . 3 : 1 6 ) , w h i l e it i s p r e s e n t i n G o d ' s s t a t e m e n t s b o t h t o t h e s e r p e n t ( 3 : 1 4 )

a n d to t h e m a n ( 3 : 1 7 ) . 2 1 M o r e o v e r , t h e d o c t r i n e s o f t h e F a l l o f M a n o r o r i g i n a l

s i n a r e n o w h e r e t o b e f o u n d i n t h i s p a s s a g e , t h o u g h t h e y a p p e a r i n e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t e x t . 2 2

T h e G a r d e n S t o r y is a b o u t i m m o r t a l i t y l o st a n d s e x u a l i ty g a i n e d . 2 3 I t b e g i n s

f r o m a s i m p l e p r e m i s e : o r i g in a l ly , p e o p l e w e r e i m m o r t a l . I n f a c t , t h e h u g e li fe

s p a n s r e c o r d e d i n t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f G e n e s i s a r e p a r t o f a n e f f o r t t o m a k e a

b r i d g e b e t w e e n t h a t o r i g in a l i m m o r t a l i t y a n d " n o r m a l " l if e s p a n s . A s i m m o r t a l

b e i n g s , t h e y w e r e a s e x u a l ; i n t h e G a r d e n s t o r y G o d d o e s n o t t e l l t h e m t o " b e f e r -

t il e a n d i n c r e a s e " a s t h e y w e r e t o l d i n t h e f i r s t c r e a t i o n s t o r y ( G e n . 1 : 2 8 ) .

S e x u a l i t y i s d i s c o v e r e d o n l y a f t e r e a t i n g f r o m t h e tr e e , w h e n " t h e y p e r c e i v e d t h a t

t h e y w e r e n a k e d " ( 3 : 7 ). I n f a c t, t h e d i v i n e c o m m a n d o f 2 : 1 7 s h o u l d n o t b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d — " f o r a s s o o n a s y o u e a t o f i t, y o u s h a l l d i e " ( s o

t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n ) — b u t r a t h e r " f o r a s s o o n a s y o u e a t o f i t, y o u s h a l l b e c o m e

m o r t a l . " T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n ( p r o c r e a t i v e ) s e x u a l i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y i s c o m -

p e l l i n g a n d w a s w e l l u n d e r s t o o d e v e n i n a n t i q u i t y — i f p e o p l e w e r e to b e b o t h

s e x u a l l y p r o c r e a t i v e a n d i m m o r t a l , d i s a s t r o u s o v e r p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d r e s u l t . 2 4

M a n y d e t a il s w i t h i n c h a p t e r s 2 - 3 s u p p o r t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e t re e t h a t

i s f i r s t f o r b i d d e n i s ( l i t e r a l l y ) " t h e t r e e o f k n o w l e d g e o f g o o d a n d b a d . " H e r e

da-at ( ת ע ד , " k n o w l e d g e " ) i s b e i n g u s e d i n a s e n s e t h a t it o f t e n h a s i n t h e B i b le :

i n t i m a t e o r s e x u a l k n o w l e d g e . " G o o d a n d b a d " i s b e i n g u s e d h e r e as a f i g u r e o f

s p e e c h c a l l e d a " m e r i s m " : t w o o p p o s i t e t e r m s a r e j o i n e d b y t h e w o r d " a n d " ; t h e

r e s u l t i n g f i g u r e m e a n s " e v e r y t h i n g " o r " t h e u l t i m a t e . "2 5

(A m e r i s m i s l i k e w i s eu s e d in G e n e s i s 1 : 1 , " h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , " w h i c h t h e r e m e a n s t h e e n t i r e w o r l d . )

T h e w o r d s " g o o d a n d b a d " h a v e n o m o r a l c o n n o t a t i o n h e r e .

O n l y a f t e r t h e p r i m o r d i a l c o u p l e e a t f r o m t h e tr e e d o t h e y g a i n s e x u a l a w a r e -

n e s s . I n d e e d , i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h i s s t o r y c o n c l u d e s , w e r e a d " N o w t h e m a n

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k n e w h i s w i f e E v e , a n d s h e c o n c e i v e d a n d b o r e C a i n " ( G e n . 4 : 1 ) . T h a t i s , e a t i n g

f r o m t h e tr e e o f " k n o w l e d g e " l e a d s t o a v e r y s p e c i f i c t y p e o f " k n o w i n g . " N o w h e r e

i n t h e t e x t i s t h i s k n o w l e d g e d e p i c t e d a s i n t e l l e c t u a l o r e t h i c a l .

T h i s r e a d i n g a l s o e x p l a i n s w h y t h e t re e o f l if e i s m e n t i o n e d o n l y t o w a r d t h e

e n d o f t h e s t o r y ( G e n . 3 : 2 2 ) . E a r l y i n t h e s t o r y , p e o p l e w e r e i m m o r t a l , s o t h a t

t r e e o f f e r e d n o a d v a n t a g e , a n d t h u s w a s n o t m e n t i o n e d . H o w e v e r , o n l y a f te r e a t -

i n g f r o m t h e t r e e o f u l t i m a t e " k n o w l e d g e , " b e c o m i n g s e x u a l , a n d b e c o m i n g m o r -

t a l, d o e s t h e t r e e o f l if e c o m e i n t o f o c u s . E a t i n g f r o m t h i s tr e e w o u l d a l l o w p e o -

p i e t o b e c o m e b o t h i m m o r t a l a n d s e x u a l, c r e a t i n g a n o v e r p o p u l a t i o n p r o b l e m .

T h e fi rs t c o u p l e w a s e x p e l l e d n o t a s p u n i s h m e n t , b u t s o t h a t t h e y m i g h t n o t

" t a k e a l s o f r o m t h e t r e e o f l i f e a n d e a t , a n d l i v e f o r e v e r ! " ( 3 : 2 2 ) .T h e r e n a m i n g o f t h e w o m a n a s E v e , chaw ah ( ה ו ח , " p r o g e n i t r e s s " ) , " b e c a u s e

s h e w a s t h e m o t h e r o f a ll t h e l iv i n g " ( G e n . 3 : 2 0 ) , h a p p e n s o n l y a f t e r e a t i n g f r o m

t h e t r e e . T h i s t o o b o l s t e r s t h e " s e x u a l " r e a d i n g o f t h i s s t o r y — e a t i n g o f t h e t r e e o f

u l t i m a t e " k n o w l e d g e " t u r n s t h e w i f e o f A d a m f r o m ha-ishah ( ה ש א ה , " th e

w o m a n " ) i n t o a ( p o t e n t i a l) m o t h e r .

G o d ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e w o m a n a f t e r s h e e a t s f r o m t h e t r e e i s not a c u r s e . T h e

w o r d s " A n d t o t h e w o m a n H e s a i d , / '1 w i l l m a k e m o s t s e v e r e / Y o u r p a n g s i n

c h i l d b e a r i n g ; / I n p a i n s h a l l y o u b e a r c h i l d r e n . / Y et y o u r u r g e s h a l l b e f o r y o u r

h u s b a n d , / A n d h e s h a l l r u l e o v e r y o u ' " ( G e n . 3 : 1 6 ) a r e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f w o m e n ' s

n e w s ta t e : p r o c r e a t i v e , w i t h al l t h e " p a i n s " c o n n e c t e d t o p r o c r e a t i o n in t h e p r e -

m o d e r n w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t u r a l p a i n o f c h i l d b i r t h . T h i s v e r s e i s n o t s t a t i n g

( a s a h a r m o n i s t i c r e a d i n g of G e n e s i s 1 - 3 m i g h t i m p l y ) t h a t b e f o r e e a t i n g t h e f r u i t

w o m e n g a v e b i r t h p a i n l e s sl y , b u t n o w t h e y w o u l d h a v e l a b o r p a i n s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , it n o t e s th a t w o m e n w i l l n o t d o w h a t m o s t p e o p l e d o — t r y t o

a v o i d p a i n a t a ll c o s t — b e c a u s e " y o u r u r g e s h a l l b e f o r y o u r h u s b a n d , / A n d h e

s h a l l r u l e o v e r y o u . " T h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s l a s t s e c t i o n is a m b i g u o u s . T h e r o o t

m-sh-l ( ל ש מ , " t o r u l e " ) h a s a g e n e r a l s e n s e , so t h a t i t s u s e m i g h t s u g g e s t a n o v e r -

a l l h i e r a r c h y o f m a l e o v e r f e m a l e . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s v e r s e s u g g e s t s t h a t

it m e a n s m e r e l y t h a t m e n w i l l d e t e r m i n e w h e n c o u p l e s e n g a g e i n s e x u a l i n t e r -

c o u r s e . 2 6

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a t t i t u d e of t h i s m y t h m a k e r t o w a r d t h e n e w

s t a t e t h a t h e i s d e s c r i b i n g . 2 7 I s h e h a p p y t h a t a b o r i n g l if e a s a s e x u a l i m m o r t a l s

i n E d e n h a s b e e n t r a d e d f o r a c h a l l e n g i n g , s e x u a l l if e o u t s i d e o f E d e n ? O r d o e s

h e m i s s i m m o r t a l i t y ? O r is h e b e i n g m e r e l y d e s c r ip t i v e , n o t i n g h o w h u m a n k i n d

m o v e d f r o m a n e a r l i e r s t a g e t o i t s c u r r e n t o n e ? T h e B i bl e ( i n c o n t r a s t t o m u c h o f

V i c t o r i a n a n d p o s t - V i c t o r i a n s o c i e t y ) h a s a g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d

h u m a n s e x u a l i ty , a s m a y b e s e e n m o s t c l e a r l y f r o m t h e S o n g o f S o n g s (s e e " Se x

i n t h e S o n g . . ." i n c h a p t e r 2 5 ) . I n v a r i o u s p l a c e s , i t s e e s w o m e n i n p a r t i c u l a r

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( i n c o n t r a s t t o m e n ) a s v e r y se x u a l b e i n g s (s e e e s p e c i a l l y P r o v e r b s 1 - 9 ) . T h u s , it

i s q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e w i t h i n a b i b l i c a l c o n t e x t t o s e e E v e a s a t y p e of P a n d o r a f i g -

u r e , 2 8 w h o is t o b e c o m m e n d e d f o r b r i n g i n g s e x i n t o th i s w o r l d .

Implications and Conclusions

G e n e s i s l : l - 2 : 4 a a n d 2 : 4 b - 3 : 2 4 a r e t w o s e p a r a t e s t o r ie s , w r i t t e n b y d i f f e r e n t

a u t h o r s u s i n g d i f f e r e n t s ty l es . T h e y a r e b o t h m y t h s — n e i t h e r a i m s p r i m a r i l y a t

o f f e r i n g a s c i e n t i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f " t h e e a r t h a n d e v e r y t h i n g u p o n i t" ( N e h . 9 : 6 ) .

T h e y a r e m e t a p h o r s o n t h e s t o r y l e v e l , t r a d i t i o n a l t a l e s d e a l i n g w i t h i s s u e s o f c o l -l e c t iv e i m p o r t a n c e . A s s u c h , t h e y a r e " c r e a t i n g " w o r l d s .

T h e f ir s t s t o r y d e s c r i b e s a v e r y g o o d w o r l d , w h i c h i s h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d a n d

c o n t r o l l e d b y a m o s t p o w e r f u l G o d w h o i n s o m e w a y s i s s o d i s s i m i l a r f r o m

h u m a n s t h a t h e e v e n h a s h i s o w n w o r d , bara ( א ר ב ) , t o e x p r e s s h i s c r e a t i v e

act iv i ty .

T h e w o r l d of t h e s e c o n d s t o r y i s m u c h m o r e a m b i g u o u s . I ts G o d , a m a s t e r

p o t t e r ( G e n . 2 : 7 ) , 2 9 is m u c h m o r e h u m a n l i k e , w a l k i n g a n d t a l k in g , e v e n s e w i n g

( 3 : 2 1 ) . A l s o t h i s w o r l d i s u n l i k e t h a t i n t h e p r e v i o u s s t o r y : i t l a c k s t h e g e n d e r

e q u a l i t y o f t h e p r e v i o u s s t o ry , a n d it i s n o t " v e r y g o o d . "

M o d e r n " cr i ti c a l " b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p f o s t e r s t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s b y a l l o w i n g

t h e s t o r i e s t o b e d i s e n g a g e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r , a l l o w i n g e a c h t o b e s e e n a s a n

i n d e p e n d e n t s t or y, r e f l e c t i n g i ts a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e s . It u n d e r s t a n d s t h e m a s

c o n s t r u c t i v e m y t h s , w h i c h h e l p e d t o f r a m e t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f I s r a e l i t e s e l f -

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a s w e l l a s t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e i r G o d ,

a n d t o t h e w o r l d t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d H e h a d c r e a t e d .

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7The Ancestors as Heroes

Primary Reading: Genesis 12-50 (esp. chaps. 12, 20, 26, 37).

Patriarchal History?

Th e Bo o k o f Ge n e s i s i s o f t e n d iv id e d i n to tw o p a r t s : c h a p t e r s 1 - 1 1 ,

Un iv e r s a l M y th ; a n d c h a p te r s 1 2 - 5 0 , P a t r i a r c h a l H i s to ry . To th e e x t e n t t h a t

n a m e s h e lp u s s h a p e h o w we r e a d u n i t s , t h e s e n a m e s ( a s we l l a s t h e s e d iv i s io n s )

a r e b o t h p r o b l e m a t i c .

The appe l la t ion "Universa l Myth" i s the le ss p rob lemat ic o f the two . By andla rge , the f i r s t e leven ch ap te rs of Ge nes i s sh ou ld be v iew ed as m yt h s in the se nse

1 des c r i bed in ch ap te r 6 . Th ey a re s to r ie s de a l in g w i th i s sues o f co l lec t ive im po r -

tance , and shou ld no t be seen as sc ience , na tu ra l h i s to ry , o r h i s to ry . Mos t o f the

s to r ie s dea l wi t h un ive rsa l co nc ern s . T h is is ce r ta in ly the case fo r the in i t ia l s to -

r ies , as I sh o w ed in ch ap te r 6 , bu t i t i s a lso t ru e of m os t of th e la ter s tor ies .

Ge n e s i s 1 0 i s a l o n g , s e g m e n t e d g e n e a lo g y 1 t h a t d e a l s w i th t h e r e l a t i o n s h ip s

a m o n g th e e a r th ' s v a r i o u s p e o p l e s . L ik e w i se , 1 1 : 1 - 9 c o n t a i n s t h e w e l l - k n o w n

Tower o f Babe l s to ry , wh ich ends : "and f rom the re the L O R D s c a t t e r e d t h e m o v e r

the face o f the w ho le ea r th "— it i s ha rd to im ag i ne a m or e un ive r sa l s to ry ! Th is

un ive rsa l se t t ing makes sense , s ince the f i r s t e leven chap te rs o f Genes i s may be

r e a d a s a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n " c r i m e a n d p u n i s h m e n t , " 2 or more specif ica l ly , as

s u c c e s s iv e f a il e d a t t e m p t s b y Go d to c r e a t e a n o b e d ie n t h u m a n k in d : t h e Ed e n

g e n e r a t i o n d i s o b e y s , t h e fl o o d g e n e r a t i o n d i s o b e y s , a n d f i n a l ly t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f

th e To we r o f Ba b e l d i s o b e y s . Th e s e f a i l u r e s j u s t i f y t h e c h o o s in g of A b r a h a m in

c h a p t e r 1 2 . 3

Yet A br ah am , o r A br am , as he i s f i rs t ca l led , i s no t f i r s t in t r od uc ed in

Ge nes i s 12 . Ra the r , he i s in t ro du ce d in the gene a log y in 11 :26 : "W he n Terah ha d

l ived 70 yea rs , he beg o t Abr am , Nah or , an d H ara n . " In fac t , on e ve r s ion o f

A b r a m s m ig r a t i o n f r o m M e s o p o t a m ia i s p r e s e r v e d in v e r s e 3 1 : " Te r ah t o o k h i s

s o n Ab r a m , h i s g r a n d s o n Lot t h e s o n o f H a r a n , a n d h i s d a u g h te r - i n - l a w S a r a i,

the wi fe o f h i s son Abram, and they se t ou t toge the r f rom Ur o f the Cha ldeans

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f o r t h e l a n d o f C a n a a n ; b u t w h e n t h e y h a d c o m e a s f a r a s H a r a n , t h e y s e t t l e d

t h e r e ." T h u s 1 2 : 1 , " T h e L O R D s a i d t o A b r a m , ' G o f o r t h f r o m y o u r n a t i v e l a n d a n d

f r o m y o u r f a t h e r ' s h o u s e t o t h e l a n d t h a t I w i l l s h o w y o u , ' " i s n o t t h e b e g i n n i n g

of a new s to ry .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h o u g h m u c h i n c h a p t e r s 1 - 1 1 i s u n i v e r s a l in o u t l o o k , n o t a ll

o f t h e m a t e r i a l m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h a t w a y . G e n e s i s 2 : 1 - 3 d e s c r i b e s t h e o r i -

g i n of t h e S h a b b a t , w h i c h i s a u n i q u e l y I s r a e l i t e i n s t i t u t i o n , a s " a s i g n f o r a ll t i m e

b e t w e e n M e a n d t h e p e o p l e o f I sr a e l" ( E x o d . 3 1 : 1 7 ) . T h u s , t h i s s u p p o s e d l y u n i -

v e r s ai i n t r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d e s e l e m e n t s o f p a r t i c u l a r i t y — w h i c h is n o t s u r p r i s i n g ,

g i v e n t h a t Is r a e l i t e s w r o t e t h e s e s t o r i e s f o r a n I s r a e l i te a u d i e n c e .

T h e t e r m " P a t r i a r c h a l H i s t o r y " i s d o u b l y p r o b l e m a t i c a s i t i s a p p l i e d t o c h a p -t e r s 1 2 - 5 0 : t h e y a r e n e i t h e r " p a t r i a r c h a l " n o r a r e t h e y " h i s t o r y " i n t h e c o m m o n -

l y u n d e r s t o o d s e n s e o f t h e w o r d . T h e M a t r i a r c h s p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n m a n y o f

t h e s e s t o r i e s . 4 I n G e n e s i s 2 7 , it i s R e b e k a h w h o m a k e s s u r e t h a t t h e r i g h t s o n

( J a c o b , n o t E s a u ) r e c e i v e s t h e b l e s s i n g f r o m I s a a c . I n 2 5 : 2 2 , w h e n s h e f e e l s t h e

t w o c h i l d r e n s t r u g g l i n g i n h e r w o m b , s h e d i r e c t l y i n q u i r e s o f t h e LORD, a n d i s

a n s w e r e d d i r e c t l y (v. 2 3 ) . T a m a r i n G e n e s i s 3 8 i s a n o t h e r s t r o n g w o m a n , o u t -

s m a r t i n g h e r f a t h e r -i n - l aw , J u d a h . S h e is n o t c o n d e m n e d b y t h e t e x t; i n fa c t

J u d a h r e c o g n i z e s t h a t " S h e i s m o r e r i g h t t h a n I " ( 3 8 : 2 6 ) , a n d s h e i s r e w a r d e d

w i t h c h i l d r e n . H e r f i rs t b o r n s o n , P e r e z , i s t h e a n c e s t o r of D a v i d . S h e is e v e n

n a m e d i n a b l e s s i n g i n R u t h 4 : 1 2 : " m a y y o u r h o u s e b e l ik e t h e h o u s e of P e r e z

w h o m T a m a r b o r e to J u d a h . " T h u s , a l t h o u g h t h e P a t r i a rc h s o u t n u m b e r t h e

M a t r i a r c h s i n t e r m s o f v e r s e s , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e s o c i e t y d e p i c t e d i s b y a n d l a rg e

p a t r i a r c h a l ( t h a t is , t h e m a i n l o c u s o f p o w e r i s i n t h e m e n ) , 5 t h i s u n i t s h o u l d n o t

b e c a l l e d "Patriarchal H i s t o r y . "

M e a n w h i l e , " h i s t o r y " i s n o t o r i o u s l y h a r d t o d e f i n e . It i s o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d a sa n a c c o u n t o f w h a t a c t u a l ly t o o k p l a c e . 6 S u c h a c c o u n t s c a n n e v e r b e i d e n t i c a l t o

t h e e v e n t s t h e m s e l v e s , y e t w e t y p i c a l l y j u d g e h i s t o r i a n s b y h o w c l o s e ly t h e i r

a c c o u n t m i r r o r s o r m a p s t h o s e e v e n t s — b y w h a t t h e y a d d , o m i t , o r tw i s t .

" H i s t o r y " i n t h i s s e n s e h a r d l y a p p l i e s t o t h e n a r r a t i v e s i n G e n e s i s 1 2 — 5 0 . T h e r e

i s n o r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t it s a u t h o r s w e r e t r y i n g t o r e l a t e e x a c t l y w h a t h a p -

p e n e d , o r e v e n w h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d t o b e h i s t o r i c a l l y t r u e . T h e s t o r i e s w e r e c o m -

p o s e d m u c h l a t e r t h a n t h e e v e n t s t h e y d e p i c t , f o r t h e y re f le c t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f

t h a t l a t e r p e r i o d . ׳ F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , I a v o i d t h e t e r m " P a t r i a r c h a l H i s t o ry . "

Role Models?

T h e s t o r ie s o f G e n e s i s 1 2 - 5 0 a re o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d t o b e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a n c e s -

t o r s a s p a r a d i g m a t i c f i g u r e s, a s r o l e m o d e l s w h o s e b e h a v i o r s h o u l d b e e m u l a t e d

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b y t h e c o m m u n i t y . P r o b a b l y t h i s w a y of r e a d i n g t h e s t o r i e s i s v e r y o l d , f o r it i s

c u s t o m a r y to v i e w a n c e s t o r s i n t h i s i d e a l i z e d f a s h i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e s e s t o r i e s

w e r e li k el y n o t u n d e r s t o o d t h i s w a y d u r i n g t h e b i b li c a l p e r i o d .

T h e b ib l i c a l t e x t c o r r o b o r a t e s t h i s c l a i m . It c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d

r e f e r e n c e s t o A b r a h a m a n d J a c o b o u t s i d e of G e n e s i s . (I s aa c i s h a r d l y m e n t i o n e d ,

j u s t a s h e is h a r d l y m e n t i o n e d i n G e n e s i s . ) F o r e x a m p l e , a f t e r I s ra e l s i n s , M o s e s

p r a y s t o G o d , a s k i n g h i m t o r e m e m b e r A b r a h a m , I sa a c , a n d J a c o b ( s ee , e .g . ,

E x o d . 3 2 : 1 3 ; D e u t . 9 : 2 7 ) . H o w e v e r , n e v e r o n c e d o e s M o s e s t e l l t h e I s r a e l i t e s t o

r e m e m b e r t h e P a t r i a r c h s a n d t o e m u l a t e t h e i r b e h a v i o r . E v e n I s a i a h 5 1 : 2 , a n

e x i l ic p r o p h e t i c t e x t t h a t o p e n s " L o o k b a c k t o A b r a h a m y o u r f a t h e r / A n d t o

S a r a h w h o b r o u g h t y o u f o r t h , " d o e s n o t c o n t i n u e b y s a y i n g t h a t y o u s h o u l d f o l-l o w t h e i r a c t i o n s . P r o p h e t i c l i t e r a tu r e a n d P s a l m s o f f e r m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o

e n c o u r a g e t h e p e o p l e t o e m u l a t e t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , b u t t h i s i s never done once,

i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t v i e w e d a s r o l e m o d e l s i n t h e b i b l i c a l p e r i o d .

I n f a c t, a r e a d i n g o f t h e s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e a n c e s t o r s w i t h o u t t h e p r e s u m p t i o n

t h a t t h e y a r e r o l e m o d e l s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y h a v e q u i t e a f e w w a r t s . T h i s i s c l e a r -

e s t w i t h J a c o b , w h o s e w h o l e l i fe i s s u f f u s e d w i t h t r i c k e ry . H i s b r o t h e r , E s a u , is

q u i t e c o r r e c t w h e n h e r e m a r k s , " W a s h e , t h e n , n a m e d J a c o b t h a t h e m i g h t s u p -

p l a n t m e t h e s e t w o t i m e s ? F i r s t h e t o o k a w a y m y b i r t h r i g h t a n d n o w h e h a s

t a k e n a w a y m y b l e s s i n g ! " ( G e n . 2 7 : 3 6 ) , p u n n i n g o n t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

w o r d s bekhorah ( ה ר ו כ ב , " b i r t h r i g h t " ) a n d berakhah ( ה כ ר ב , " b l e s s i n g " ) . T h e

e n t i r e l i fe s t o r y o f J a c o b c o u l d b e r e a d a s a t y p e of m o r a l i t y t a l e : t r i c k o t h e r s a n d

y o u s h a l l b e t r i c k e d . 8 H e t r i c k s h i s b r o t h e r , a n d t h e n l e a d s a l i fe o f b e i n g t r i c k e d

b y o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g h i s w i f e ( 3 1 : 1 9 - 3 2 ) a n d h i s c h i l d r e n ( c h a p . 3 7 ) . T h i s is a

g r o u p of s t o r i e s f r o m w h i c h a n c i e n t I s r a e l it e s m i g h t h a v e l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e d a n -

g e r s o f t r ic k e r y , a s w e l l a s t h e d i v i n e c o n c e r n b e s t o w e d o n t h e i r a n c e s t o r n a m e dI s ra e l o r J a c o b , b u t i t d o e s n o t i l l u s t r a t e a p a r a d i g m t h a t s h o u l d b e e m u l a t e d .

T h e s a m e is t r u e o f A b r a h a m . N o w h e r e d o e s t h e te x t o f G e n e s i s o r a n y o t h e r

b i b l i c a l t e x t s u g g e s t t h a t e a c h I s r a e l i t e s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o s a c r i f i c e h i s c h i l d ,

a s A b r a h a m w a s i n c h a p t e r 2 2 . In f a c t, t h a t s t o r y i n i t s c u r r e n t f o r m s u g g e s t s t h a t

t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s t e s t w a s t o r e w a r d A b r a h a m b y p r o m i s i n g t h a t h i s d e s c e n -

d e n t s w o u l d b e c o m e n u m e r o u s a n d c o n q u e r t h e l a n d of I sr ae l, t h e r e b y b e c o m -

i n g a s o u r c e of b l e s s i n g fo r o t h e r s ( 2 2 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) . 9

S e v e r al o t h e r a c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b y A b r a h a m d o n o t p r o v i d e s u i t a b l e m o d -

e l s f o r e m u l a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , in G e n e s i s 1 2 , f a i rl y e a r l y i n t h e n a r r a t i v e w h e n

h e a n d h i s w i f e a r e s t il l c a l l e d A b r a m a n d S a r a i , A b r a m p a s s e s h e r o ff a s h i s s i s -

t e r, s o t h a t h e w i l l n o t b e k i l l e d ( 1 2 : 1 0 - 2 0 ) . S a r a i i s t a k e n i n t o t h e r o y a l h a r e m

(v . 1 5 ) a s P h a r a o h ' s w i f e (v. 1 9 ) ! A b r a m i s i n d e e d s a v e d , b u t a t S a r a i' s e x p e n s e .

T h i s i s n o t p a r a d i g m a t i c , r i g h t e o u s b e h a v i o r .

M a n y e a r l y p o s t b i b l i c a l r e t e l l i n g s o f t h i s s t o r y , w r i t t e n a f t e r t h e i d e a d e v e l -

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o p e d t h a t t h e P a t r i a r c h s s h o u l d b e v i e w e d as r o l e m o d e l s , r e s p o n d t o t h e m o r a l

p r o b l e m t h a t t h e s e s t o r i e s p r e s e n t .1 0

J u b i l e e s , a p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c w o r k1 1

f r o m

t h e s e c o n d p r e - C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r y , n o t e s t w i c e i n r e t e l l i n g G e n e s i s 1 2 t h a t S a r a i

w a s t a k e n " b y f o r c e " ( 1 3 : 1 1 - 1 3 ) . T h e g r e a t H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h s c h o l a r P h i l o c o m -

m e n t e d t h a t S ar a i " w h o i n a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y w a s at t h e m e r c y o f a l i c e n t i o u s a n d

c r u e l - h e a r t e d d e s p o t a n d h a d n o t o n e t o p r o t e c t h e r — f o r h e r h u s b a n d w a s h e l p -

less . . ." (On Abraham, 9 4 - 9 5 ) . In t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , a g r e a tl y e x p a n d e d

r e t e l l i n g o f G e n e s i s in A r a m a i c f o u n d a m o n g t h e D e a d S e a S c r o ll s ( 2 0 : 1 0 ) a n d

i n t h e m e d i e v a l M i d r a s h T a n c h u m a ( Lekh Lekhah 5 ) , A b r a m i s d e p i c t e d a s w e e p -

in g , r a t h e r t h a n c a l l o u s ly p a s s in g h i s w i f e o f f . I n e a c h o f t h e s e r e t e l l i n g s ,

A b r a h a m ' s r o l e i s r e w r i t t e n s o t h a t h e i s a v i c t im o f c i r c u m s ta n c e s .

The Legends of the Jews, a c o m p i l a t i o n b y L o u i s G i n z b e r g o f r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s

f r o m t h e p o s t b i b l i c a l p e r i o d t h r o u g h t h e m e d i e v a l p e r i o d , s h o w s a s i m i l a r t e n -

d e n c y . D r a w i n g f r o m a v a r i e t y o f p o s t b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s , t h i s i s h o w G i n z b e r g

r e t el l s p a r t of t h e s t o r y o f G e n e s i s 1 2 : 1 0 - 2 0 :1 2

O n h i s j o u r n e y f r o m C a n a a n t o E g y p t , A b r a h a m f ir st o b s e r v e d t h e b e a u -

ty o f S a r a h . C h a s t e a s h e w a s , h e h a d n e v e r b e f o r e l o o k e d a t h e r , b u t

n o w , w h e n t h e y w e r e w a d i n g t h r o u g h a s t r e a m , h e s a w t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f

h e r b e a u t y i n t h e w a t e r l i k e t h e b r i l l i a n c e o f t h e s u n . W h e r e f o r e h e

s p o k e t o h e r t h u s , " T h e E g y p t i a n s a r e v e r y s e n s u a l , a n d I w i l l p u t t h e e

in a c a s k e t t h a t n o h a r m b e f a l l m e o n a c c o u n t o f t h e e . " A t t h e E g y p t i a n

b o u n d a r y , t h e t a x c o l l e c t o r s a s k e d h i m a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e c a s k e t ,

a n d A b r a h a m t o l d t h e m h e h a d b a r l e y i n i t . " N o , " t h e y s a i d , " i t c o n t a i n s

w h e a t . " " V er y w e l l , " r e p l i e d A b r a h a m , "I a m p r e p a r e d t o p a y t h e ta x o n

w h e a t . " T h e o f f i c e r s t h e n h a z a r d e d t h e g u e s s , " It c o n t a i n s p e p p e r ! "

A b r a h a m a g r e e d t o p a y t h e t ax o n p e p p e r , a n d w h e n t h e y c h a r g e d h i m

w i th c o n c e a l i n g g o ld i n t h e c a s k e t , h e d i d n o t r e f u s e t o p a y t h e t a x o n

g o l d , a n d f i n a ll y o n p r e c i o u s s t o n e s . S e e i n g t h a t h e d e m u r r e d t o n o

c h a r g e , h o w e v e r h i g h , t h e t a x c o l l e c to r s , m a d e t h o r o u g h l y s u s p i c i o u s ,

i n s i st e d u p o n h i s u n f a s t e n i n g t h e c a s k e t a n d l e t t i n g t h e m e x a m i n e t h e

c o n t e n t s . W h e n it w a s f o r c e d o p e n , t h e w h o l e o f E g y p t w a s r e s p l e n d e n t

w i t h t h e b e a u t y o f S a r a h . I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h h e r , a ll o t h e r b e a u t i e s

w e r e l i k e a p e s c o m p a r e d w i t h m e n . S h e e x c e l l e d E v e h e r s e l f . T h e s e r -v a n t s o f P h a r a o h o u t b i d o n e a n o t h e r in s e e k i n g t o o b t a i n p o s s e s s i o n o f

h e r , t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o f o p i n i o n t h a t s o r a d i a n t a b e a u t y o u g h t n o t t o

r e m a i n t h e p r o p e r t y o f a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e y r e p o r t e d t h e m a t t e r t o

t h e k i n g , a n d P h a r a o h s e n t a p o w e r f u l a r m e d f o r c e t o b r i n g S a r a h t o t h e

p a l a c e , a n d s o b e w i t c h e d w a s h e b y h e r c h a r m s t h a t t h o s e w h o h a d

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b r o u g h t h i m t h e n e w s o f h e r c o m i n g i n t o E g y p t w e r e l o a d e d d o w n w i t h

b o u n t i f u l g i f t s .

T h i s a c c o u n t ( o r m o r e c o r r e c t l y c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c c o u n t s ) " c l e a n s u p " t h e i m a g eof A br a ha m . So do s i m i l a r s ou r c e s t ha t i n s i s t , c on t r a r y t o w ha t t he b i b l i c a l t e x t

i m p l i e s , t h a t e a c h t i m e P h a r a o h a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s u m m a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n

a n g e l p r o t e c t i n g S ar ai s t r u c k h i m . ״ (A much ea r l i e r r e te l l ing of the s tory by

J os e phus s ugge s t s : "B u t G od t hw a r t e d h i s [ Pha r a oh ' s ] c r i m i na l pa s s i on by a n

o u t b r e a k o f d i s e a s e a n d p o l i t i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e . " 1 4 ) T he s e va r i ous r e t e l l i ngs , w h i c h

e m be l l i s h t he b i b l ic a l t e x t , h i gh l i gh t f o r u s the que s t i on a b l e b e h a v i o r of t he b i b -

l ic a l A br a h a m , f u r t he r s ug ge s t i n g t ha t he , a l o ng w i t h t he o t he r a nc e s t o r s of

G e ne s i s , a r e no t i n t e nde d a s r o l e m ode l s .

The Ancestors as Symbols15

G i ve n t ha t G e ne s i s w a s w r i t t e n ov e r a l on g t i m e pe r i o d by d i f f e r e n t a u t ho r s , w e

may not expec t a l l o f the ances t ra l s tor ie s to sha re the same goa l . For example ,

i n G e ne s i s 14 A br a m i s p r e s e n t e d a s a g r e a t w a r r i o r , 1 6 an image tha t i s no t

s h a r e d w i t h t he r e st o f A br a h a m m a t e r i a l — t h i s p r e s e n t s a s i ng l e , pa r t i c u l a r v i e wof A br a h a m i n a nc i e n t I s r a e l, w h i c h w a s p r e s e r v e d i n t he b ib l i c al t e x t . T h us , t h e

sea rch for a s ing le explana t ion for a l l o f these ances t ra l s tor ie s i s fu t i l e . In f ac t , i t

i s l i ke l y t ha t m a ny o f t he m w e r e r e w or ke d a s t he y w e r e t r a ns m i t t e d , a nd t he i r

o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e o r p u r p o s e s w e r e o b s c u r e d i n t h e p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r , i n s o m e

cases , the i r goa l s r ema in v i s ib le .

Som e o f t he s t o r i e s i n G e ne s i s a r e s ym bo l i c , w he r e t he a nc e s t o r r e p r e s e n t s

I s rae l a s a w ho le , o r a g ro u p wi th in I s rae l . Th is i s ev i den t in the s tor y we ex am -

i n e d a b o v e , G e n e s i s 1 2 : 1 0 - 2 0 :

T he r e w a s a f a m i ne i n t he l a nd , a nd A br a m w e n t dow n t o E gyp t t o

s o j ou r n t he r e , f o r t he f a m i ne w a s s e ve r e i n t he l a nd . A s he w a s a bou t t o

e n t e r E gyp t , he s a i d t o h i s w i f e Sa r a i , " I know w ha t a be a u t i f u l w om a n

you a re . I f the Egypt ians see you , and th ink , ' She i s h i s wi fe , ' they wi l l

ki l l me and le t you l ive . Please say tha t you are my s is te r , tha t i t may go

w e l l w i t h m e be c a us e of yo u , a nd t ha t I m a y r e m a i n a li ve t h a n ks t o

y o u . " W h e n A b r a m e n t e r e d E g y p t , t h e E g y p t i a n s s a w h o w v e r y b e a u t i -

f u l t he w o m a n w a s . Pha r a oh ' s c ou r t i e r s s a w he r a n d p r a i s e d h e r t o

P h a r a o h , a n d t h e w o m a n w a s t a k e n i n t o P h a r a o h ' s p a l a c e . A n d b e c a u s e

o f he r , i t w e n t w e l l w i t h A br a m ; he a c qu i r e d s he e p , oxe n , a s s e s , m a l e

a nd f e m a l e s l a ve s , s he - a s s e s , a nd c a m e l s . B u t t he L or d a f f l i c t e d Pha r a oh

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a n d h i s h o u s e h o l d w i t h m i g h t y p l a g u e s o n a c c o u n t o f S a r a i , t h e w i f e o f

A b r a m . P h a r a o h s e n t fo r A b r a m a n d s a i d , " W h a t is t h i s y o u h a v e d o n e

t o m e ! W h y d i d y o u n o t t el l m e t h a t s h e w a s y o u r w i f e ? W h y d i d y o u

say, 'She i s m y s i s t e r , ' so tha t I to o k h er as m y wi fe? Now , he re i s yo u r

w i f e ; t a k e h e r a n d b e g o n e ! " A n d P h a r a o h p u t m e n i n c h a r g e o f h i m , a n d

t h e y s e n t h i m o f f w i t h h i s w i f e a n d a ll t h a t h e p o s s e s s e d .

T h i s s t o r y h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of m u c h s t u d y b e c a u s e it i s r e p e a t e d a g a i n i n

G e n e s i s , i n c h a p t e r s 2 0 ( w i t h A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h ) a n d 2 6 ( w i t h I s a a c a n d

R e b e k a h ) . 1 7 T h e d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h e t h r e e v e r s i o n s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t , a n d y i e l d

i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g h o w s t o r i e s w e r e t o l d a n d r e t o l d i n a n c i e n t

I s ra e l , a n d h o w v a r i a n t s o f t h e s a m e s t o r y m i g h t h a v e d e v e l o p e d o v e r t i m e . T h i s

c o m p a r i s o n a l s o h i g h l i g h t s e l e m e n t s t h a t ar e u n i q u e t o e a c h s to ry .

S e v e r a l f e a t u r e s s t i c k o u t in t h e G e n e s i s 1 2 v e r s i o n : A b r a m , m o t i v a t e d b y a

f a m i n e , s p e c i f i c a l l y g o e s t o E g y p t ; t h r o u g h d e c e i t h e is e n r i c h e d t h e r e ; a n d h e i s

e v e n t u a l l y e x p e l l e d . It i s q u i t e o d d t h a t d e s p i t e P h a r a o h ' s a p p a r e n t a n g e r a t

A b r a m , A b r a m g e t s t o k e e p t h e v a r i o u s p o s s e s s i o n s t h a t P h a r a o h h a d g iv e n h i m .

W h e n t o l d i n t h i s o u t l i n e f o r m , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t s t o r y i s a " p r e - t e l l i n g " of

t h e l a t e r s t o r y of I s r a e l i n E g y p t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e J o s e p h s t o r y , I s r a e l ( t h e p e r -s o n a n d t h e n a t i o n ) e n d s u p i n E g y p t d u e t o a f a m i n e . ( C o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h

G e n e s i s 2 0 , w h i c h i s s e t i n G e r a r . ) T h e r e t h e I s r a e l i te s a r e u l t i m a t e l y e n r i c h e d

w h e n t h e y a s k t h e i r E g y p t i a n n e i g h b o r s t o " b o r r o w " s i l v e r a n d g o l d o b j e c t s a n d

g a r m e n t s ( E x o d . 3 : 2 2 ; 1 1 : 2 ; 1 2 : 3 5 ) . T h e I s r a e l i t e s a r e u l t i m a t e l y e x p e l l e d ( E x o d .

1 2 : 3 1 - 3 2 ) . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n G e n e s i s 1 2 : 1 0 - 2 0 a n d th e E x o d u s s t o r y is

s e a l e d b y t h e w o r d nega'im ( • י ע ג נ , " p l a g u e s " ) i n G e n e s i s 1 2 : 1 7 a n d a g a i n i n

E x o d u s 1 1 : 1 (o f t h e p l a g u e s b r o u g h t a g a i n st P h a r a o h ) .

T h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o s t o r i e s w e r e r e c o g n i z e d i n c la s si c al

J e w i s h s o u r c e s . G e n e s i s R a b b a h , a n e a r l y r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h ( a t y p e o f B i b l e

c o m m e n t a r y ) , n o t e s c e r t a i n v e r b a l s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n o u r u n i t a n d l a t e r T o r a h

t e x t s : i t i n t r o d u c e s t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t " G o d s a i d t o A b r a h a m

o u r f a t h e r , ' G o a n d p r e p a r e t h e p a t h f o r y o u r c h i l d r e n ' " ( G e n e s i s R a b b a h 4 0 : 6 ) .

T h e m e d i e v a l c o m m e n t a t o r N a c h m a n i d e s , a c t i v e i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , n o t e d

v a r i o u s t h e m a t i c c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e s t o r i e s , a n d c o n c l u d e s b y n o t i n g ,

" A b s o l u t e l y e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n e d t o t h e f a t h e r h a p p e n e d t o t h e c h i l d r e n "

( c o m m e n t a r y o n G e n . 1 2 : 1 0 ) . F o r t h e s e s c h o l a r s , h i s t o r y — o r m o r e p r e c is e ly ,

c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s o f h i s t o r y — i s c y c l i c a l , 1 8 a n d t h u s w h a t h a p p e n s o n c e " h e l p s"

a n e v e n t h a p p e n a g a i n . M o d e r n b i b l ic a l s c h o l a r s h i p u n d e r s t a n d s th e s a m e d a t a

d i f f e r e n t l y — i t a s s u m e s t h a t a n a u t h o r p r e f i g u r e s l a t er e v e n t s b y c o m p o s i n g a

s t o r y w i t h t h e s a m e e l e m e n t s b u t s e t t i n g i t a t a n e a r l i e r t i m e . T h i s h i g h l i g h t s t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h a t l a t e r e v e n t . H e r e , t h e E x o d u s m o t i f , o n e o f t h e m o s t c e n t r a l

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mo t i f s o f t h e e n t i r e B ib l e , i s p r e f ig u r e d —th i s ma y b e s e e n a s a t y p e o f f u l f i l lme n t

o f De u te r o n o my 1 6 :3 , wh ic h e n jo in s t h a t t h e Ex o d u s s h o u ld b e r e c a l l e d " a s l o n g

a s y o u l i v e. " D e u te r o n o m y in p a r t i c u l a r d o e s t h i s b y c o n n e c t in g v a r i o u s la w s t o

t h e E x o d u s . 1 9 Th e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e Ex o d u s i s a l s o e mp h a s i z e d b y p l a c in g i t a t

t h e v e r y b e g in n in g o f t h e a n c e s t r a l s t o r i e s , i n Ge n e s i s 1 2 :1 0 - 2 0 .

I t i s d i f f icu l t to k n o w h o w an anc ie n t I s rae l i t e w ou ld ha ve " read" Ge nes is

1 2 :1 0 -2 0 , be cau se , a s i s the case fo r b ib l ica l t ex ts in gen era l , it do es no t co n t a in

a g e n r e l a b e l . W e mig h t d i s t i n g u i s h v a r io u s t e x t s t h a t p r e s e n t t h e p a s t w i th s u c h

labe ls a s " t rue h i s to ry , " " symb ol ic h i s to ry , " "h is to r ica l f i c t io n , " o r " l igh t e n te r -

t a in me n t s e t i n t h e p a s t . " Us in g v a r io u s i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l c lu e s , we ma y

s o m e t i m e s s u r m i s e t o w h i c h c a t e g o r y a p a r t i c u l a r t ex t b e lo n g s . I n t h e c a se o fG e n e s i s 1 2 : 1 0 - 2 0 , a n o v e r a b u n d a n c e of c l u e s a s s o c i a t in g t h i s p a s s a g e w i t h t h e

E x o d u s w o u ld h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o t h e a n c i e n t I s r a e li t e t h a t it i s s y m b o l i c . Ra th e r

th a n d e p i c t i n g r e a l e v e n t s , i t wa s me a n t t o b o l s t e r t h e imp o r t a n c e o f t h e Ex o d u s ,

a n d to s u p p o r t a v i e w of p r o v id e n c e t h a t s u g g e s t s a d e i t y w h o p r o t e c t s h i s p e o -

p i e — w h o g o e s d o w n w i t h t h e m i n t o e x i l e , b u t a l s o r e t u r n s w i t h t h e m f r o m t h e r e

( s e e Ge n . 4 6 :4 ) .

Ge n e s i s 1 2 :1 0 - 2 0 is n o t u n iq u e a s a s y m b o l i c t e x t . O th e r s m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d

by s ign i f ican t s imi la r i t i e s be tween the tex t in Genes i s and la te r t ex ts o r even ts ,

o r when odd i t ie s in the tex t a re bes t exp la ined by obse rv ing tha t a s to ry in

Ge n e s i s i s f o l l o w in g th e s c r ip t of a n o t h e r s to r y. Th e s e c r i te r i a a r e s o m e w h a t s u b -

j e c t i v e , a n d i s o l a t i n g t h e s e s y mb o l i c s t o r i e s c a n b e d i f f i c u l t , e s p e c i a l ly b e c a u s e

the Bib le p re se rv es fo r us on ly a sm al l pa r t o f the t ra d i t ion s of an c ie n t I s rae l .

O th e r s t o r i e s ma y q u i t e p o s s ib ly b e s y mb o l i c , b u t we c a n n o l o n g e r r e c o g n iz e

w h a t t h e y a r e p a t t e r n e d a f t e r . Eo r t h i s r e a s o n we c a n n o t s a y h o w m a n y o r wh a t

p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e a n c e s t r a l s t o r i e s i n Ge n e s i s a r e s y mb o l i c .

The Jose ph Story

I n ma n y wa y s , t h e J o s e p h s to r y i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m m a n y o f t h e o th e r s t o r i e s i n

Ge n e s i s . A l th o u g h th e r e a re a s ma l l n u m b e r o f i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s w i th in t h i s s to r y ,

s u c h a s w h e th e r J o s e p h wa s s o ld t o t h e M id ia n i t e s ( 3 7 : 2 8 a , 3 6 ) o r I s h ma e l i t e s

( 3 7 : 2 5 - 2 7 , 2 8 b ) , th e s e a re r a t h e r i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l w h e n c o m p a r e d t o c o n t r a d i c -

t i o n s i n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s of Ge n e s i s . Ev e n c h a p te r 3 8 , t h e s to r y o f J u d a h a n d

Ta ma r , wh ic h i n t e r r u p t s t h e f l o w of t h e J o s e p h s to r y, i s we l l i n t e g r a t e d i n to t h e

l a r g e r s t o r y t h r o u g h u s e o f t h e me a n d v o c a b u la r y . 2 0 Th ere i s a sense o f d ra m a

a n d d e e p in t e r e s t i n w h a t w e w o u l d c al l h u m a n p s y c h o l o g y t h r o u g h o u t t h e

s to r y. Ge n e s i s 3 7 - 5 0 in c o r p o r a t e s a v a r i e ty o f t r a d i t i o n s ; it wa s n o t t h e w o r k o f

a s in g l e a u th o r . Ho we v e r , i t d o e s n o t c o n t a in t h e u s u a l s o u r c e s f o u n d in Ge n e s i s

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0 , E , P ) , a n d it c o n t a i n s m a n y f e w e r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s p a r t of t h e

b o o k . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t o r y a s a s e p a r a t e

n o v e l l a ;2 1

i n a n y c a se , w e m a y c e r t a i n l y s p e a k o f t h e J o s e p h story.

S e v e r a l e l e m e n t s of t h e J o s e p h s t o r y a r e c l e a r l y s y m b o l i c . F o r e x a m p l e , a s i g -

n i f i c a n t t h e m e of t h i s s t o r y is t h e c o n f l i c t a m o n g t h e b r o t h e r s ( e s p e c i a ll y J o s e p h

a n d J u d a h ) , w h i c h m i r r o r s t h e c o n f l i c t s o f t h e d i v i d e d m o n a r c h y ( se e " Is ra el 's

H i s t o r y a s S e e n f r o m t h e I n s i d e " i n c h a p t e r 4 ) . T h e s t o r y e x p l a i n s w h y J u d a h

b e c a m e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t r i b e a m o n g t h e c h i l d r e n of L e a h . I n f a c t , m u c h o f

t h e J o s e p h s t o r y c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e n a r r a t i v e e l a b o r a t i o n of a n i d e a f o u n d

i n 1 C h r o n i c l e s :

( 5 :1 ) T h e s o n s o f R e u b e n t h e f i r s t - b o r n o f I s r a e l . H e w a s t h e f i r s t - b o r n ;

b u t w h e n h e d e f i l e d h i s fa t h e r 's b e d , h i s b i r t h r i g h t w a s g i v e n t o t h e s o n s

o f J o s e p h s o n o f I s r a e l, s o h e i s n o t r e c k o n e d a s f i r s t - b o r n i n t h e g e n e a l -

o g y ; ( 2 ) t h o u g h J u d a h b e c a m e m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n h i s b r o t h e r s a n d a

l e a d e r c a m e f r o m h i m , y e t t h e b i r t h r i g h t b e l o n g e d t o J o s e p h .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , th e s t o r y d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g R e u b e n , J u d a h , a n d

J o s e p h , w h i c h a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e l a t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g s u b g r o u p s o f

I s rae l .

I n g e n e a l o g i c a l l i s t s , b e i n g f i r s t b o r n o f t e n r e p r e s e n t s b e i n g t h e m o s t p o w e r -

f u l .2 2

T h u s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n h o w t h i s ro l e m o v e d f r o m ( t h e t ri b e o f )

R e u b e n t o J u d a h . T h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d t o s o m e e x t e n t b e f o r e t h e J o s e p h s t o r y

b e g i n s , b u t is c o n t i n u e d i n t h e J o s e p h s t o ry . T h e b e g i n n i n g of G e n e s i s 3 5 : 2 2

n o t e s , "W h i l e I s r a el s t a y e d in t h a t l a n d , R e u b e n w e n t a n d l ay w i th B i lh a h , h i s

f a t h e r' s c o n c u b i n e ; a n d I s r a e l f o u n d o u t " ; a c c o r d i n g t o 4 9 : 4 , t h i s d i s q u a l i f i e d

R e u b e n f r o m l e a d e r s h i p . S i m il a rl y , t h e n e x t t w o c h i l d r e n , S i m e o n a n d L e v i, a r ed i s q u a l i f i e d b e c a u s e t h e y m a s s a c r e d a C a n a a n i t e c it y ( c h a p . 3 4 ; s e e 4 9 : 5 - 7 ) .

T h u s , b e f o r e t h e J o s e p h s t o r y s t a rt s , J u d a h , t h e f o u r t h - b o r n s o n , i s l e ft a s t h e

d o m i n a n t b r o t h e r .2 3

T h i s t h e m e of w h o d e s e r v e s t h e r i g h t of t h e f i r s t b o r n i s p l a y e d o u t a l m o s t

f r o m t h e o p e n i n g of t h e J o s e p h s t o ry . R e u b e n is u n s u c c e s s f u l i n s a v i n g J o s e p h

( G e n . 3 7 : 2 1 - 2 2 , 2 9 - 3 0 ) , w h i l e J u d a h ' s p l a n s u c c e e d s ( w . 2 6 - 2 7 ) . T h e p r o m i -

n e n t r o l e o f J u d a h i s t h e n r e f l e c t e d i n G e n e s i s 3 8 , w h i c h h a s a s i t s f o c u s J u d a h

a n d h i s fa m i ly. L a t e r i n t h e st o r y , a f t e r t h e b r o t h e r s h a v e r e t u r n e d f r o m E g y p t

w h i l e l e av i n g S i m e o n b e h i n d a s a h o s t a g e , R e u b e n o f f e r s t o r e t u r n t o E g y p t w i t h

B e n j a m i n , b u t J a c o b r e f u s e s ( 4 2 : 3 7 - 3 8 ) . A fe w v e r s es l at er , J u d a h m a k e s a s i m -

i l a r o f f e r ( 3 8 :8 - 1 4 ) , a n d t h i s t im e J a c o b a c c e d e s t o t h e o f f e r . I n b o th o f t h e s e

p l a c e s , J u d a h p l a y s t h e r o l e o f l e a d e r , o f f i r s t b o r n , i n s t e a d o f R e u b e n . T h e p o s i -

t i o n t h a t J u d a h ' s d e s c e n d e n t K i n g D a v i d w i l l p l a y i s s a n c t i o n e d t h r o u g h t h e s e

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d e t a i l s o f t h e s t o ry , a s w e l l a s o t h e r s t h a t p l a c e J u d a h i n a p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h ip

( se e 4 4 : 1 6 - 3 4 ; 4 6 : 2 8 ) . T h e J o s e p h s t o r y c a n a ls o b e v i e w e d s y m b o l i c a l l y as a

s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e h o u s e o f J u d a h , r e p r e s e n t i n g th e D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y , a n d

t h e h o u s e o f J o s e p h , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e n o r t h e r n k i n g d o m . T h e s to r y a c c u r a t e l y

r e f l e c t s t h e fa c t t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n k i n g d o m ( " J o s e p h " ) w a s m u c h l a rg e r i n a r e a ,

a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l m i l it a ri ly , t h a n J u d a h t o t h e s o u t h .

H o w e v e r , r e a d i n g t h e s t o r y a s only a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y i s e r r o n e o u s . I n a n t i q -

u i ty , a s i n m o d e r n t i m e s , l i t e r a r y w o r k s w e r e o f t e n w r i t t e n f o r m o r e t h a n o n e

p u r p o s e . A s a l r e a d y n o t e d , t h e a u t h o r o r c o m p i l e r of t h e J o s e p h s t o r y h a d a n

u n u s u a l l y s t r o n g d r a m a t i c s e n s e , a n d w a s q u i t e i n t e r e s t e d i n h u m a n p s y c h o l o -

gy. T h i s m a y a l r e a d y b e s e e n f r o m t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s t or y , w h i c h s h o w s ak e e n i n t e r e s t in t h e v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a f a t h e r a n d s e t s o f c h i l d r e n

f r o m v a r io u s w iv e s . It n o t e s d e t a i l s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l l y o m i t t e d i n b ib l i c a l s t o r i e s ,

s u c h a s t h e a g e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ( J o s e p h i s 1 7 y e a r s o ld , a c c o r d in g t o G e n .

3 7 : 2 ) , a n d o t h e r m u n d a n e i n f o r m a t i o n , l ik e J o s e p h s p e n d i n g h is t i m e w i t h t h e

c o n c u b i n e ' s c h i l d r e n ( v. 2 ) . T h u s , f r o m i t s v e r y b e g i n n i n g , t h e s t o r y s e t s u p a

p r o b l e m — h o w w i l l a y o u n g c h i l d , t h e s o n o f t h e d e a d f a v o r e d w i f e , f a r e , e s p e -

d a l l y s i n c e h e s e e m s t o b e a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h t h e l e s s p o w e r f u l c h i l d r e n ?

L i k e m a n y g o o d s t o r i e s, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e J o s e p h s t o r y l e a v e s m a n y

q u e s t i o n s u n a n s w e r e d . H o w a r e w e t o u n d e r s t a n d J o s e p h ? Is h e a s p o i l e d b r a t

w h o t a k e s a d v a n t a g e o f h i s s i t u a t i o n a s f a v o r e d s o n , o r i s h e n a ïv e ? W h a t a b o u t

J a c o b ? W h y , f o r e x a m p l e , d o e s h e s e n d J o s e p h o u t a f t e r h i s b r o t h e r s ( G e n .

3 7 : 1 3 ) — i s h e t r y i n g to t e a c h J o s e p h a l e s s o n , o r i s h e o b l i v i o u s to t h e d y n a m i c

a m o n g t h e b r o t h e r s ? M a n y m o r e s u c h q u e s t i o n s a r e a t t h e s u r f a c e h e r e , s u g g e s t -

i n g t h a t i t w o u ld b e a s im p l i f i c a t i o n t o r e a d t h i s s t o r y only as a po l i t i c a l a l l egory .

An Obstacle Story?

I n a d d i t i o n t o l o o k in g a t t h e m e a n in g o f i n d iv id u a l s t o r i e s , i t i s p o s s ib l e t o s e e i f

t h e y h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d i n t o a m e a n i n g f u l w h o l e . T h e st o r i e s o f A b r a h a m ' s

f a m i l y m a y b e r e a d f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d a s a s o m e w h a t s m o o t h n a r r a t i v e

b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e p r o m i s e o f t h e l a n d i n G e n e s i s 1 2 , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a r e c a -

p i t u l a t i o n o f t h a t p r o m i s e i n t h e f i n al c h a p t e r , i n 5 0 : 2 4 , b y t h e d y i n g J o s e p h : " I

a m a b o u t t o d i e . G o d w i l l s u r e l y t a k e n o t i c e of y o u a n d b r i n g y o u u p f r o m t h i s

l a n d t o t h e l a n d t h a t H e p r o m i s e d o n o a t h t o A b r a h a m , t o I s a ac , a n d t o J a c o b . "

O n e s c h o l a r h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t m u c h o f t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h i s l a r g e s e c t i o n

m a y b e r e a d a s a n o b s t a c l e s to r y . T h a t i s, it o p e n s w i th t h e p r o m is e o f l a n d a n d

p r o g e n y t o A b r a h a m a n d h i s d e s c e n d e n t s , a n d t h e n i n g r e a t d e t a i l , t i m e a f t e r

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t ime , n o t e s v a r i o u s o b s t a c l e s th a t p r e v e n t t h i s p r o m is e f r o m b e in g f u l f i l l e d . 2 4

Th e A b r a h a m s to r y, f o r e x a m p le , m a y b e o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o ws : A b r a h a m i s g iv e n

a g r a n d p r o m is e w i th tw o ma in p a r t s : l a n d , a n d t h e p r o g e n y to fi ll i t ( Ge n .1 2 : 1 - 3 ) . H e s u c c e s sf u l l y m i g r a t e s t o C a n a a n a n d w a l k s t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a n d

(12 :4 -9 ) . Ye t a s soon as he has done so , he needs to leave due to famine ; in the

p r o c e s s , h e is w o r r i e d a b o u t b e i n g k i ll e d , a n d h i s w i f e , t h r o u g h w h o m h e m u s t

b e a r p r o g e n y , i s t a k e n i n to P h a r a o h s h a r e m . S in c e h e is c h i l d l e s s , o n e m ig h t

th in k t h a t Lo t , h i s n e p h e w, wo u ld b e h i s h e i r . Ho we v e r , wh e n g iv e n t h e c h o ic e ,

Lo t ch oo se s no t the lan d of C an aa n bu t the p la in of the Jo rd an ( ch ap . 13) . Lo t

i s u l t im a te ly c a p tu r e d i n wa r , a n d A b r a h a m th e wa r r io r r e c o v e r s h im . In t h e

p r o c e s s , K i n g M e l c h i z e d e k o f S a l e m m a k e s a g e n e r o u s o f fe r t o A b r a h a m , w h o

c e r t a in ly c o u ld h a v e a t t a in e d s o m e te r r it o r y , b u t A b r a h a m r e f u s e s ( c h a p . 1 4 ) .

Th e c o v e n a n t is r e n e w e d th r o u g h a d e t a i l e d c e r e m o n y ( c h a p . 1 5 ) . S in c e S a r ai ,

Ab ram' s wi fe , has no t con ce ive d , Sa ra i sug ges t s tha t Ab ra m take H aga r a s a wi fe ,

s o h e mig h t h a v e a n h e i r . No s o o n e r d o e s h e d o t h i s t h e n s h e c o n c e iv e s a n d i s

b a n i s h e d b y S a r a i t o t h e w i ld e r n e s s , u n d e r min in g t h e p o s s ib i l i t y t h a t Ab r a m ' s

h e i r p r o b l e m wi l l b e s o lv e d . Th e c o v e n a n t i s r e n e w e d a n d c i r c u m c i s io n i s m a n -

d a t e d ( c h a p . 1 7 ). ( G e n e s i s 1 8 - 1 9 is a b o u t S o d o m , f o r m i n g a n i n t e r l u d e . ) S a r a h

i s t a k e n b y Ab ime le c h o f Ge r a r , a g a in ma k in g u s wo n d e r h o w a n h e i r t o

A br ah am w i l l be p ro du ce d (c ha p . 20) . F ina l ly , the he i r , I saac , i s b o rn (2 1 :1 ) , so

i t i s s a f e t o b a n i s h I s h ma e l , t h e " b a c k u p h e i r " ( c h a p . 2 1 ) . No s o o n e r d o e s I s a ac

g r o w u p a b i t , t h a n Go d a s k s A b r a h a m : " Tak e y o u r s o n , y o u r o n ly s o n , w h o m

yo u love , Isaac , an d o f fe r h im u p . . ." (22 :2 ) ; Ab ra ha m agrees , an d i s rea dy to

k i l l h i s h e i r ( c h a p . 2 2 ) . F in a l l y , Ab r a h a m ma k e s a r e a l e s t a t e t r a n s a c t i o n —b u t

p u r c h a s e s o n ly a c a v e f o r b u r i a l p u r p o s e s ( c h a p . 2 3 ) .

By the t ime we ge t to Genes i s 24 , Abraham is e lde r ly , has a s ing le ch i ld toc a r r y o n t h e p r o m is e , a n d h a s n o m o r e o f t h e l a n d t h a n a b u r i a l p lo t . O b s t a c l e

a f t e r o b s t a c l e h a s b e e n p u t in h is p l a c e — f o r e ig n k in g s w h o d e s i r e t h e w i f e w h o

wi l l p r o d u c e t h e h e i r , b a n i s h e d c h i ld r e n , a lm o s t s a c r if i c e d c h i l d r e n , g r e a t wa r s ,

e t c . Th i s p a t t e r n c a n b e s e e n a s c o n t in u in g t h r o u g h o u t Ge n e s i s —i t i s e s p e c i a l l y

e v id e n t i n t h e f i g h t s t h a t J a c o b h a s w i th h i s tw in Es a u . Th u s , it w o u ld s e e m q u i t e

a p p r o p r i a t e t o v i e w Ge n e s i s 1 2 - 5 0 a s o n e b ig o b s t a c l e s t o r y .

Ho we v e r , a mid t h e v a r io u s o b s t a c l e s , t h e c o v e n a n ta l p r o mis e i s r e p e a t e d

t ime a n d t ime a g a in . Th e e mp h a s i s s h o u ld n o t b e o n t h e o b s t a c l e s , b u t o n t h e

c o n s t a n t ly r e n e w e d p r o m is e . Ev e n a f t e r t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t e x p e r i e n c e s , s u c h a s

t h e b i n d i n g of I sa a c, t h e c o v e n a n t a l p r o m i s e is r e n e w e d ( G e n . 2 2 : 1 5 - 1 8 ) . E v e n

a t t h e v e r y e n d o f t h e b o o k , wh e n th e I s r a e l i t e s a r e i n Eg y p t , w i th n o imme d ia t e

h o p e of r e tu r n in g t o I s r ae l , t h i s p r o m is e i s r e p e a t e d : " Go d w i l l s u r e ly t a k e n o t i c e

o f y o u a n d b r in g y o u u p f r o m th i s l a n d t o t h e l a n d t h a t H e p r o m is e d o n o a th t o

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A b r a h a m , t o I s a ac , a n d t o J a c o b " ( 5 0 :2 4 ) . In s u m , t h e s t r u c tu r e of Ge n e s i s 1 2 - 5 0

sug ges t s tha t i t sh ou ld no t be read as s t r a ig h t f o r w ard h i s to ry , in te res ted in the

p a s t f o r i t s o w n s a k e . I n s t e a d , t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e b o o k f u n c t io n s a s a m y t h o f

e n c o u r a g e m e n t — i t m i g h t s e e m i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e p r o m i s e t o b e f u l fi l le d , y et t h e

p r o m is e i s r e n e w e d t im e a f t e r t ime . I t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e f u l f i l lme n t o f t h e p r o m -

i s e, t h e d iv in e b l e s s in g , i s r i g h t a r o u n d th e c o r n e r — a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t w o u ld

h a v e b e e n m o s t w e lc o m e to r e a d e r s of t h i s t e x t a s a w h o le . P a t t e r n s i n b o th i n d i -

v id u a l s t o r i e s , a n d i n t h e s to r i e s a s t h e y h a v e b e e n c o mb in e d , s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s

ma te r i a l wa s n o t wr i t t e n i n o r d e r t o r e p r e s e n t wh a t a c tu a l l y h a p p e n e d , b u t

r a th e r , o n t h e l e ve l o f m y th o lo g i c a l ma te r i a l , t o d e a l w i th s u c h f u n d a m e n ta l

q u e s t i o n s a s : W h y d o we o w n th i s l a n d ? H o w s h o u ld w e r ea c t i n th e f a ce o fa d v e r s i t y ?

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8Biblical Law

C o d e s a n d C o l l e c t i o n s

Primary Reading: Exodus 19-24.

The Nature of Biblical Law

L a w s h o u ld b e t h e e a s i e s t g e n r e t o " r e a d " a n d u n d e r s t a n d . W e d o n o t h a v e

a n e v e r y d a y a c q u a in t a n c e w i th p r o p h e c y , a n d h i s to r i c a l t e x t s p l a y o n ly a

m i n o r r o l e i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t w e a l l e n c o u n t e r l a w s o n ada i ly bas i s . Lega l ba t t l e s a re o f ten the sub jec t o f news head l ines . We dea l wi th

l a ws w h e n w e a r e s e r v e d w i th t i c k e t s f o r p a r k in g o r t r a f f ic v io l a t i o n s , w h e n we

b u y h o u s e s o r r e n t a p a r t m e n t s , w h e n w e wr i t e o u r w i ll s . Be c a u s e la w i s a b a s i c

p a r t o f o u r l i v e s , mo s t Ame r i c a n s h a v e s o me f a mi l i a r i t y w i th t h e l e g a l s y s t e m

a n d i t s u n d e r p i n n i n g s .

Th is fami l ia ri ty , w h i ch on the su r fa ce m ak es b ib l ica l l aw eas ie r to u nd e r -

s t a n d th a n o th e r g e n r e s , i s m o r e o f a n im p e d i m e n t t h a n a h e lp . Th o u g h b ib l i c a l

l a w l o o k s m u c h l i ke o u r o w n l a w s , i n t e r m s of i ts u n d e r p i n n i n g s a n d f u n c t i o n

i t i s f u n d a me n ta l l y d i f f e r e n t .

Th e mo s t s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n m o d e r n l a w a n d b ib l i c a l l a w i s i ts

im p u te d a u th o r : E x o d u s c l a ims th a t t h e o r ig in o f i t s l a ws is d iv in e . Th e

D e c a l o g u e ( t h e " T e n C o m m a n d m e n t s " ) 1 is p r e s e n t e d a s u n m e d i a t e d r e v e l a ti o n

by God to a l l I s rae l ; i t i s in t roduced by "God spoke a l l these words , say ing . . . "

( 2 0 :1 ) . Th e l a ws t h a t f o l l o w th e De c a lo g u e i n 2 0 :2 0 2 - 2 3 : 1 9 a r e p r e s e n t e d a s

God ' s reve la t ion to Mo ses tha t Mo ses i s su p po se d to re lay to I s rae l , "The L O R D

sa id to M oses: T h u s shal l yo u say to the Isra e l i tes . . ." (2 0: 19 ) . T hu s, a l l of the

l a ws in c o r p o r a t e d i n c h a p t e r s 1 9 - 2 4 a r e p r e s e n t e d a s d iv in e la w.

Th e s t r u c tu r e o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f Ex o d u s e mp h a s i z e s t h a t t h e l a ws i t i n c o r -

p o r a t e s a r e Go d ' s l a ws b y o p e n in g w i th a d e s c r ip t i o n of t h e r e v e l a t i o n ( c h a p . 1 9 ) ,

w h ic h is f o l l o we d b y t h e De c a lo g u e ( 2 0 : 1 - 1 4 ) , wh ic h i s f o l l o w e d b y a d e s c r ip -

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t i o n of t h e r e v e l a t i o n ( 2 0 : 1 5 - 1 8 ) , w h i c h i s f o l l o w e d b y a g r o u p of la ws

( 2 0 : 1 9 - 2 3 : 3 3 ) , wh ic h is f o l l o w e d b y a f i n a l d e s c r ip t i o n o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n ( c h a p .

2 4 ) . Th i s c r e a t e s a d o u b le - d e c k e r s a n d w ic h , h ig h l ig h t in g t h e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f t h e

law as d iv ine reve la t ion .

Re v e l a t i o n ( c h a p . 1 9 )

D e c a l o g u e ( 2 0 : 1 - 1 4 )

R e v e l a t i o n ( 2 0 : 1 5 - 1 8 )

L a w s ( 2 0 : 1 9 - 2 3 : 3 3 )

Re v e l a t i o n ( c h a p . 2 4 )

Th i s s t r u c tu r e c o r r e s p o n d s t o e x p l i c i t s t a t e me n t s a b o u t t h e d iv in e o r ig in o f t h elaw, w hi ch m ay see m l ike overk i l l . All o f th i s m ay have be en necessa ry , ho w ev -

e r , b e c a u s e t h i s c o n c e p t io n i s o n e of t h e f e w in w h i c h t h e B ib le wa s u n iq u e w i th -

in i t s a n c i e n t N e a r Ea s t e r n c o n te x t . 3 Elsewhere , i t was no t the de i ty bu t the k ing

w h o e s t a b l i s h e d l a w a n d p r o p a g a t e d l e g al c o l l e c t i o n s . F o r e x a m p le , t h e p r o lo g u e

t o t h e f a m o u s L a w s o f H a m m u r a b i 4 c o n c l u d e s : " W h e n th e g o d M a r d u k c o m -

m a n d e d m e to p r o v id e j u s t wa y s f o r t h e p e o p le o f t h e l a n d [ in o r d e r t o a t t a in ]

a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r , I e s t a b l i s h e d t r u t h a n d ju s t i c e a s t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of t h e

l a n d , I e n h a n c e d th e we l l - b e in g of t h e p e o p le . A t t h a t t ime : If a m a n a c c u s e s

a n o t h e r m a n a n d c h a r g e s h i m w i t h h o m i c i d e . . . "5 Th e s a me id e a i s r e in f o r c e d

in the ep i lo gue tha t fo l l ow s the laws : "Th ese a re the ju s t dec is io ns w hi ch

H a m m u r a b i , t h e a b l e k in g , h a s e s t a b l i s h e d . . . "6 S t i l l l a t e r , Ha mmu r a b i c a l l s

h ims e l f " k in g o f j u s t i c e , t o w h o m th e g o d S h im a c h u h a s g r a n t e d [ i n sig h t i n to ]

t h e t r u t h . M y p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a r e c h o i c e . . ."7

Th u s , i n b r o a d e s t s t r o k e s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f E x o d u s 1 9 - 2 4 i s s im i l a r t o

t h a t of H a m m u r a b i — t h e y b o t h h a v e n a r r at i v e m a t e r ia l s u r r o u n d i n g l a w s .H o w e v e r , i n t h e l a w c o l l e c ti o n of H a m m u r a b i , t h e s u r r o u n d i n g m a t e r i a l m a k e s

i t c l e a r t h a t t h e s e l a ws o r ig in a t e f r o m th e h u ma n k in g , wh i l e Go d a s K in g wa s

u n d e r s to o d to b e t h e l a wg iv e r i n I s r a e l . 8 This exp la ins why , in con t ras t to su r -

r o u n d in g s o c i e t i e s , t h e B ib l e p o r t r a y s k in g s a s p l a y in g a r e l a t i v e ly min o r r o l e i n

th e c r e a t i o n o f l a w , a n d a c c o r d in g t o s o me , e v e n in t h e a d min i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e . 9

Th e f ac t t h a t t h e B ibl e u n d e r s t a n d s G o d to b e t h e l a wg iv e r a l s o e x p la in s a n

o d d i ty o f t h e b ib l i c a l l a w c o l l e c t i o n s : t h e wa y in wh ic h t h e y c o mb in e ( wh a t we

w o u ld c a l l) r e l i g io u s l a w a n d ( w h a t we wo u l d c a l l) s e c u l a r la w , i n c lu d in g c r im -

ina l l aw and to r t s . For example , the Deca logue says bo th "You sha l l have no

o th e r g o d s b e s id e s M e " ( Ex o d . 2 0 :3 ) a n d " Yo u s h a l l n o t s t e a l " ( 2 0 :1 3 ) . Th e l a w

c o l l e c t io n t h a t fo l l o w s i n E x o d u s c o n t a i n s l aw s a b o u t g o r i n g o x e n ( 2 1 : 2 8 - 3 2 ) a s

we l l a s p i l g r ima g e f e s t i v a l s ( 2 3 :1 4 - 1 7 ) . S u c h " r e l i g io u s l a ws " a n d " s e c u l a r l a ws "

a r e o f t e n m ix e d to g e th e r i n a d j a c e n t v e r s e s (e . g ., 2 3 : 1 - 4 ) .

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S o m e t im e s t h e B ib le , i n i t s s t r u c tu r e , d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n r e l ig io u s l a w —

l a w s r e g u l a ti n g h o w G o d s h o u l d b e w o r s h i p p e d — a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l law . T h e

De c a lo g u e , f o r e x a m p le , is d iv id e d i n to tw o s e c t i o n s : r e li g io u s l aw , t h e n i n t e r -

p e r s o n a l la w . Yet, e v e n h e r e , a l a w th a t w e w o u ld c o n s i d e r i n t e r p e r s o n a l , h o n -

o r in g one ' s pa ren ts , i s g iven a re l ig io us jus t i f ic a t io n : ". . . tha t yo u m ay lo ng

e n d u r e o n t h e l a n d t h a t t h e L O R D y o u r Go d is a s s ig n in g t o y o u " ( Ex o d . 2 0 :1 2 ) . 1 0

E x o d u s 2 2 : 2 0 - 2 3 i s s i m i l a r :

Yo u s h a l l n o t w r o n g a s t r a n g e r o r o p p r e s s h im , f o r y o u w e r e s t r a n g e r s

in the land o f Egyp t . You sha l l no t i l l - t r ea t any widow or o rphan . I f you

do m is t re a t th em , I wi l l he ed th e i r ou tc r y as so on as the y c ry ou t to Me,

a n d M y a n g e r s h a l l b l a z e f o r th a n d I w i l l p u t y o u to t h e s wo r d , a n d y o u r

o w n w i v e s s h a l l b e c o m e w i d o w s a n d y o u r c h i l d r e n o r p h a n s .

Th e n o t io n t h a t t h e b ib l i c a l a u th o r s u n d e r s to o d a l l l a w a s d iv in e l a w 1 1

s h o w s u p m o s t c le a rl y w h e n c o m p a r i n g la w s of a d u l t e r y in t h e a n c i e n t N e a r

Eas t wi th those in the Bib le . Adu l te ry in the anc ien t Near Eas t was typ ica l ly t rea t -

e d a s a n o f f e n s e a g a in s t t h e w r o n g e d h u s b a n d . I n c e r t a in c a s e s , t h e o f f e n d e d

h u s b a n d h a d a r o le i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p u n i s h m e n t of h i s w i f e a n d h e r p a r a -

m o u r — " h e s h a l l t r ea t h e r a s h e w i s h e s . " 1 2 Th o u g h o n e b ib l i c a l t e x t s e e ms to b e

f a mi l i a r w i th t h i s n o t io n ( P ro v . 6 :3 4 - 3 5 , w h i c h i s o u t s id e t h e To r a h ) , 1 3 all

b ib l i c a l l e g al t e x t s i n s is t o n a b s o lu t e p u n i s h m e n t— n o th in g is l e f t u p t o t h e

hu sb an d ' s d i sc re t io n . Th i s pe rsp ec t ive i s a l so fo u nd ou t s id e of l ega l t ex ts ; it ma y

b e s e e n , f o r e x a m p le , i n J o s e p h ' s a n s w e r t o P o t ip h a r ' s w i f e w h e n s h e t r i e s t o

s e d u c e h im : " H o w th e n c o u ld I d o t h i s m o s t w ic k e d th in g , a n d s in b e f o r e

Go d ? " ( G e n . 3 9 :9 ) . A d u l t e r y h e r e i s n o t u n d e r s to o d a s a c r im e a g a in s t t h e

w r o n g e d h u s b a n d , b u t a s a " si n b e f o r e G o d , " w h o is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e s o u r c e

of law.

Th e u n iq u e n e s s o f t h e B ib l e ' s c o n c e p t io n e x p la in s wh y th e B ib l e d e p i c t s r e v -

e l a t i o n i n s u c h d e t a i l . I t a l s o a c c o u n t s f o r a n u n u s u a l n u m b e r a n d d iv e r s i t y o f

sources tha t a t tempt to exp la in th i s even t . Al l o f these , in tu rn , he lp us see the

u n d e r ly in g d iv e r s i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d in g s o f Go d , a n d o f r e v e l a t i o n i t s e l f , t h a t

e x i s t e d w i th in a n c i e n t I s r a e l . 1 4 F o r e x a m p l e , m o s t o f t h e s o u r c e s e m p h a s i z e t h a t

M o s e s a lo n e h a d c lo s e a c c e s s t o Go d , a n d t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f r e v e l a t i o n wa s d a n -

g e r o u s , y e t E x o d u s 2 4 : 9 - 1 1 n o t e s : " T h e n M o s e s a n d A a r o n , N a d a b a n d A b i h u ,

an d seven ty e ld e rs o f I s rae l a s ce nd ed ; an d the y saw the Go d of I s rae l . . . . Yet H e

d id no t ra i se His hand aga ins t the leaders o f the I s rae l i t e s ; they behe ld God , and

they a te and d rank . " Because the idea o f d iv ine ly revea led law was so un ique to

a n c i e n t I s r a e l , a n u n u s u a l ly l a r g e n u mb e r o f d iv e r s e s o u r c e s a t t e mp t t o e x p l a in

t h i s e v e n t . 1 5

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The Decalogue

A s n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e f i r s t s e t o f l a w s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h i s c o r p u s i s t h eD e c a l o g u e , i n E x o d u s 2 0 : 2 - 1 4 . T h e u s u a l n a m e f o r t h i s s e l e c t i o n , " t h e T en

C o m m a n d m e n t s , " i s n o t a t t e s t e d in t h e B i b l e — a n d i s i n a c c u r a t e . T h e f ir st s t a t e -

m e n t i n t h e D e c a l o g u e r e a d s : " I t h e L O R D a m y o u r G o d w h o b r o u g h t y o u o u t o f

t h e l a n d o f E g y p t , t h e h o u s e of b o n d a g e " ( 2 0 : 2 ) ; t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y n o t a c o m -

m a n d m e n t . T h e t e r m " D e c a lo g u e , " f r o m t h e G r e e k deca ( t e n ) logos ( w o r d s ) , i s

s u p e r i o r . T h a t G r e e k t e r m i s a n c i e n t — u s e d i n t h e S e p t u a g i n t ( t h e G r e e k t r a n s -

l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e b e g u n i n A l e x a n d r i a i n t h e t h i r d p r e - C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r y ) t o

r e n d e r aseret ha-devarim ( ם י ר ב ד ה m f c W ; E x o d . 3 4 : 2 8 ; D e u t . 4 : 1 3 , 1 0 : 4 ) . T h e· τ ι ™ ν ν י ו™ י י

w o r d davar ( ר ב ד ; ) , s i n g u l a r o f devarim ( • , 1 ־ T J ) , i s o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n

b i b l i c a l n o u n s ; t y p i c a l l y i t m e a n s " t h i n g " o r " w o r d . " ( G i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

t h e D e c a l o g u e , i t s n a m e i n r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y a n d n o t s u r p r i s i n g -

ly to aseret ha-dibrot [ ת ת ב ד ה ת ר ש ע ] , w h i c h m e a n s s pe c if ic a ll y " th e t e n d i v in e

u t t e r a n c e s . " )

B o t h of t h e c o m m o n l y u s e d t e r m s , D e c a l o g u e a n d t h e T e n C o m m a n d m e n t s ,

f o l l o w t h e t r a d i t i o n of E x o d u s a n d D e u t e r o n o m y i n i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h i s t e x t m u s t

b e d i v i d e d i n t o t e n s e c t i o n s . T h i s m o s t l i k e l y r e f l e c t s a n o t i o n o f t e n a s a n u m -

b e r e x p r e s s i n g p e r f e c t i o n . Y et, t h e D e c a l o g u e c o m p r i s e s a s m a n y a s t h i r t e e n s e p -

a r a t e s t a t e m e n t s :

1 . (v. 2) I t h e L O R D a m y o u r G o d w h o b r o u g h t y o u o u t o f t h e l a n d o f

E g y p t . . .

2 . (v. 3 ) Y o u s h a l l h a v e n o o t h e r g o d s b e s i d e s M e .

3 . (v. 4 ) Y o u s h a l l n o t m a k e f o r y o u r s e l f a s c u l p t u r e d i m a g e . . .4 . (v. 5 ) Y o u s h a l l n o t b o w d o w n t o t h e m o r s e r v e t h e m .

5 . (v . 7 ) You sha l l n o t swe ar f a l s e ly by th e n a m e o f th e Lo rd y o u r G o d . . .

6 . (v. 8 ) R e m e m b e r t h e s a b b a t h d a y a n d k e e p i t h o l y

7 . (v. 1 2 ) H o n o r y o u r f a t h e r a n d y o u r m o t h e r . . .

8 . (v. 1 3 ) Y o u s h a l l n o t m u r d e r .

9 . (v. 1 3 ) Y o u s h a l l n o t c o m m i t a d u l t e r y .

10 . (v . 13 ) You shal l n o t s te al .

1 1 . (v. 1 3 ) Y o u s h a l l n o t b e a r f a ls e w i t n e s s a g a i n s t y o u r n e i g h b o r .

1 2 . (v. 1 4 ) Y o u s h a l l n o t c o v e t y o u r n e i g h b o r ' s h o u s e .

13 . (v . 14 ) You sha l l n o t cov e t yo u r ne i gh bo r ' s w i fe . . .

A l r e a d y t h e a n c i e n t s k n e w o f d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t h o w t o g r o u p t h e s e

t h i r t e e n p i e c e s t o g e t h e r t o f o r m " t e n " s t a t e m e n t s . 1 6 C l a s s i c a l J e w i s h a n d

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C h r i s t i a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s d i f fe r e d s i g n i fi c a n tl y .1 7

F o r i n s t a n c e , C h r i s t i a n s h a v e

n o r m a l l y t a k e n t h e m a s " t e n commandments," r e l e g a t i n g v e r s e 2 , " I a m t he L O R D "

t o a n u n n u m b e r e d i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h i l e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n a s a r u l e c o u n t s t h i s a s

t h e fi rs t d i v i n e u t t e r a n c e . T h u s , w i t h i n J e w i s h c o n t e x t s , t h e t e r m D e c a l o g u e ,

w h i c h i s m o r e i n c l u s i v e of a ll t h e v e r s e s , i s t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m .

T h e D e c a lo g u e i s t h e o n ly c o l l e c t i o n o f l a w th a t , a c c o r d in g t o b ib l i c a l t r a d i -

t i o n , G o d r e v e a l e d t o all I s ra e l w i t h o u t a n i n t e r m e d i a r y . ( I n d e e d , t h i s h e l p s t o

a c c o u n t f o r i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e w i th in b ib l i c a l a n d l a t e r r e l i g io u s t r a d i t i o n s . I n t h e

Bib le i t s e l f , i t i s n o t ma rk e d a s th e cen te r o f o r so ur ce fo r a l l th e o t h e r b ib l ic a l

l a w s , a s s o m e t i m e s c l a i m e d i n J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n . ) C r i ti c a l b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p h a s

a t t e m p t e d t o p r o d u c e an e a rl i er p r o t o - D e c a l o g u e , w h i c h i s m u c h sh o r t e r , a n dw h e r e t h e u t t e r a n c e s t e n d t o b e s i m i l a r i n f o r m a n d l e n g t h t o t h e g r o u p i n v. 1 3 :

"Y o u s h a l l n o t m u r d e r . Y o u s h a l l n o t c o m m i t a d u l t e r y . Y o u s h a l l n o t s t e a l . "1 8

S u c h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n j e c t u r a l . Y et c l e a r ly t h e D e c a l o g u e e x i s t e d i n s e v e r -

a l f o r m s i n a n c i e n t I s r a el . T h e v e r s i o n i n D e u t e r o n o m y 5 d i f f e r s f r o m t h a t i n

E x o d u s 2 0 i n b o t h s m a l l a n d l a r g e w a y s .1 9

F o r e x a m p l e , a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t r e a -

s o n is g i v e n i n D e u t e r o n o m y f o r w h y t h e S a b b a t h s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d , a n d t h a t

t e x t i n t r o d u c e s t h e S a b b a t h i n j u n c t i o n u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t v e r b , a s m a y b e s e e n

f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g j u x t a p o s i t i o n :

Deuteronomy 5:12-15

O b s e r v e t h e s a b b a t h d a y a n d k e e p i t

holy , as the L O R D y o u r G o d h a s c o m -

m a n d e d y o u . S ix d a y s y o u sh a l l l a b o r

a n d d o al l y o u r w o r k , b u t t h e s e v e n t h

d a y i s a s a b b a th o f t h e L O R D y o u r G o d ;

y o u sh a ll n o t d o a n y w o r k — y o u , y o u r

s o n o r y o u r d a u g h t e r , y o u r m a l e o r

f e m a le s l a v e , y o u r o x o r y o u r a s s , o r

a n y of y o u r c a t t l e , o r t h e s t r a n g e r i n

y o u r s e t t l e m e n t s , s o t h a t y o u r m a l e

a n d f e m a le s l a v e m a y r e s t a s y o u d o .

R e m e m b e r t h a t y o u w e r e a s l av e i n t h el a n d o f E g y p t a n d t h e L O R D y o u r G o d

f r e e d y o u f r o m t h e r e w i t h a m i g h t y

h a n d a n d a n o u t s t r e t c h e d a r m ; t h e r e -

f o r e t h e L O R D y o u r G o d h a s c o m m a n d -

e d y o u t o o b s e r v e t h e s a b b a t h d a y .

Exodus 20:8-11

R e m e m b e r t h e s a b b a t h d a y a n d k e e p i t

h o ly. S ix d a y s y o u s h a l l l a b o r a n d d o

a ll y o u r w o r k , b u t t h e s e v e n t h d a y i s a

s a b b a t h o f t h e L O R D y o u r G o d : y o u

s h al l n o t d o a n y w o r k — y o u , y o u r s o n

o r d a u g h t e r , y o u r m a l e o r f e m a l e s l a v e ,

o r y o u r c a t t l e , o r t h e s t r a n g e r w h o i s

w i t h i n y o u r s e t t l e m e n t s . F o r i n s i x

d a y s t h e L O R D m a d e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h

a n d s e a , a n d a ll t h a t i s i n t h e m , a n d H e

r e s t e d o n t h e s e v e n t h d a y ; t h e r e f o r e

t h e L O R D b l e s s e d th e s a b b a t h d a y a n d

h a l l o w e d i t .

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O n a m o r e m i n o r le ve l, E x o d u s a n d D e u t e r o n o m y u s e d i f f e r e n t w o r d s , t h a t

l i k e l y h a v e d i f f e r e n t n u a n c e s , f o r t h e p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t f a ls e t e s t i m o n y ; E x o d .

2 0 : 1 3 u s e s t h e n o u n shaker " f al se " ), w h i l e D e u t e r o n o m y 5 : 1 7 u s e s shav

( א ו ש , " v a i n " ). I n a d d i t i o n to t h e d i f f e r e n c e s s e e n b e t w e e n E x o d u s a n d

D e u t e r o n o m y , s e v e r a l b i b l i c a l a n d e a r l y p o s t b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s q u o t e t h e t h r e e

s h o r t i n j u n c t i o n s ( " Y o u s h a l l n o t m u r d e r . Y o u s h a l l n o t c o m m i t a d u l t e r y . Y o u

s h a l l n o t s t e a l" ) i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r f r o m t h e o n e p r e s e r v e d i n b o t h E x o d u s a n d

D e u t e r o n o m y . F o r e x a m p l e , J e r e m i a h 7 : 9 a s k s r h e t o r i c a ll y , " W i l l y o u s t e a l a n d

m u r d e r a n d c o m m i t a d u l t e r y ? " w h i l e a n c i e n t s o u r c e s r a n g i n g f r o m P h i l o t o th e

C h r i s t i a n s ' N e w T e s t a m e n t ( R o m . 1 3 : 9 ) k n o w o f t h e o r d e r " a d u l t e r y . . . m u r d e r

. . . s tea l . "2 0

T h o u g h m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s m a y e x i s t i n r e a s o n s g i v e n , i n t e r m s u s e d , i n s y n -

t a x , o r i n t h e o r d e r o f v a r i o u s i n j u n c t i o n s , t h e b a s i c i n j u n c t i o n s a r e a l w a y s t h e

s a m e . A r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h e n t ri v ia l ? N o , b e c a u s e t h e y e x i s t i n t h e si n g l e b i b l i -

c a l t e x t t h a t i s s u p p o s e d t o c o n t a i n the unmediated word of God. T h e y t e a c h u s

t h a t t h e a n c i e n t s d i d n o t t r a n s m i t b i b l i c a l t e x t s l i k e w e t r a n s m i t m o d e r n t e x t s ,

u s i n g p h o t o c o p i e r s a n d " c u t - a n d - p a s t e " w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m s . R a t h e r , a l l

b i b li c a l t e x ts c h a n g e d d u r i n g t h e ir t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e y w e r e u p d a t e d , e x p a n d e d ,

a n d m a d e t o f it t h e i r b r o a d e r c o n t e x t . 2 1 If t h i s h a p p e n e d t o t h e D e c a l o g u e —

w h i c h is a s c r i b e d d i r e c t l y t o G o d — t h e n it c e r t a i n l y h a p p e n e d t o o t h e r t e x t s ,

w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n e v e n m o r e f l u i d . 2 2 I n a n y c a s e , t h e m a n y v e r s i o n s s h o w

t h a t E x o d u s 2 0 : 2 - 1 4 c a n n o t s i m p l y b e s e e n a s the w o r d s t h a t G o d s p o k e o n

S i n a i .

A n o t h e r p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e D e c a l o g u e s h o u l d n o t b e u p h e l d

a s the c e n t r a l b i b l i c a l t e x t . T h e D e c a l o g u e s t a t e s w h y o n e s h o u l d n o t b o w d o w n

o r s e r v e o t h e r g o d s :

F o r I t h e L o r d y o u r G o d a m a n i m p a s s i o n e d G o d , v i s i t i n g t h e g u il t o f

t h e p a r e n t s u p o n t h e c h i l d r e n , u p o n t h e t h i r d a n d u p o n t h e f o u r t h g e n -

e r a t i o n s o f t h o s e w h o r e je c t M e , b u t s h o w i n g k i n d n e s s t o t h e t h o u -

s a n d t h g e n e r a t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l ov e M e a n d k e e p M y c o m m a n d m e n t s

( E x o d . 2 0 : 5 - 6 ) .

T h i s n o t i o n of i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l p u n i s h m e n t is e x p r e s s e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B ib le

( se e e s p e c i a ll y E x o d . 3 4 : 6 - 7 ) , a n d is i l l u s t r a t e d , fo r e x a m p l e , w h e n G o d " t r a n s -

f e r s" D a v i d ' s s i n t o t h e c h i l d o f h i s a d u l t e r o u s a f f a i r w i t h B a t h s h e b a , a n d t h a t

c h i l d d i e s ( 2 S a m . 1 2 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . 2 3 Y et, t h i s i d e a — u n a m b i g u o u s l y s t a te d "b y G o d "

i n t h e D e c a l o g u e — i s d i s p u t e d b y o t h e r b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g E z e k i e l 1 8 ,

w h i c h s t a t e s d e c i s i v e l y : " t h e p e r s o n w h o s i n s , o n l y h e s h a l l d i e " ( v . 4 ) .

D e u t e r o n o m y 7 : 9 - 1 0 is e v e n m o r e s t r i k i n g , q u o t i n g f r o m t h i s i n j u n c t i o n in t h e

D e c a l o g u e o n l y t o a r g u e a g a i n s t i t : " K n o w , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t o n l y t h e L O R D y o u r

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G o d i s G o d , t h e s t e a d f a s t G o d w h o k e e p s H i s c o v e n a n t f a i t h f u l l y t o t h e t h o u -

s a n d t h g e n e r a t i o n of t h o s e w h o lo v e H i m a n d k e e p H i s c o m m a n d m e n t s , b u t

w h o i n s t a n t l y r e q u i t e s w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n t h o s e w h o r e je c t H i m — n e v e r s l o w w i t h

t h o s e w h o r e j e c t H i m , b u t r e q u i t i n g t h e m i n s t a n t l y . " 2 4 T h i s p o l e m i c i n d i c a t e s

t h a t t h o s e w h o c o n s t i t u t e d b i b l i c a l I s ra e l d i d n o t a ll a g r e e w i t h t h e D e c a l o g u e ' s

t h e o l o g y . I n s h o r t , t h e D e c a l o g u e d o e s n o t p o s s e s s a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y , n o t e v e n

in the Bible i t se l f .

T h e r e is a g r e a t d e a l th a t w e d o n o t k n o w a b o u t t h e D e c a l o g u e . W e c a n n o t

d e t e r m i n e i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m , a l t h o u g h w e a re s u r e t h a t it i s n o t c u r r e n t l y i n t h a t

f o r m . 2 5 W e c a n n o t p i n p o i n t w h e n , w h e r e , a n d h o w it b e c a m e v i e w e d s o c e n -

t ra l ly i n I s r a e l — q u o t e d i n v a r i o u s p r o p h e t i c a n d o t h e r t e x t s .

2 6

N o r c a n w e e a s -i l y d i s c e r n i t s f u n c t i o n ( a l t h o u g h w e c a n r u l e i t o u t a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f l a w s , s i n c e

it c o n t a i n s n o s a n c t i o n s f o r v i o l a t i n g p a r t i c u l a r n o r m s ) . D e s p i t e t h e s e g r e a t

u n c e r t a i n t i e s , it o c c u p i e s a s t r i k i n g l y c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n w i t h i n J e w i s h , C h r i s t i a n ,

a n d i n d e e d a ll o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t io n .

The Covenant Collection

T h e l e g al c o l l e c t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s t h e D e c a l o g u e i s o f t e n n a m e d t h e " C o v e n a n t

C o d e . " 2 7 U n l i k e t h e D e c a l o g u e , it a p p e a r s in o n l y o n e v e r s io n . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t

i s p r e s e n t e d a s m e d i a t e d r e v e l a t i o n t h a t M o s e s i s s u p p o s e d t o " se t b e f o r e " t h e

I s r a e li t e s ( E x o d . 2 1 : 1 ) . It d e r i v e s i ts n a m e f r o m E x o d u s 2 4 : 7 , " T h e n h e [ M o s e s ]

t o o k sefer ha-berit ( ת י ר ב ה ר פ ס , " t h e r e c o r d of t h e c o v e n a n t " ) a n d r e a d it a l o u d

t o t h e p e o p l e . A n d t h e y s a i d , A l l t h a t t h e L O R D h a s s p o k e n w e w i l l f a i t h f u l l y d o ! " '

W h a t t h e t e r m " r e c o r d o f t h e c o v e n a n t " r e f e r s t o i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s u n c e r t a i n , b u tb y c o n v e n t i o n b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s u s e t h a t n a m e t o d e s c r i b e al l o f t h e p r e c e d i n g

l aw s f o u n d i n E x o d u s 2 0 : 1 9 - 2 3 : 3 3 .

A n e v e n b e t t e r d e s i g n a t i o n t h a n " t h e C o v e n a n t C o d e " w o u l d b e " t h e

C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n . " C o d e s a re t y p ic a l l y m e a n t t o b e c o m p l e t e , a n d a r e o r g a n -

i z e d f o r u s e b y t h e c o u r t s . T h e m a t e r i a l i n E x o d u s 2 0 : 1 9 - 2 3 : 3 3 is n e i t h e r . It c o n -

t a i n s , f o r e x a m p l e , n o m a t e r i a l o n h o w i n d i v i d u a l s m a r r i e d o r d i v o r c e d , n o r h o w

s h e p h e r d s f u lf i ll e d t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s t o f l o c k o w n e r s (s e e G e n . 3 1 : 3 8 - 3 9 ) , t w o

a r e a s o f w i d e s p r e a d c o n c e r n in a n t i q u i t y . M o r e o v e r , s o m e p a r t s , s u c h a s

2 2 : 1 7 - 1 9 , a re o r g a n iz e d b y p u n i s h m e n t :

Y o u s h a l l n o t t o l e r a t e a s o r c e r e s s .

W h o e v e r li e s w i t h a b e a s t s h a l l b e p u t t o d e a t h .

W h o e v e r s a c r i fi c e s t o a g o d o t h e r t h a n t h e L o r d a l o n e s h a l l b e

p r o s c r i b e d .

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( Se e a l so 2 1 : 1 5 - 1 7 . ) S u c h a s y s t e m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n w o u l d b e c u m b e r s o m e f o r

l a w y e r s a n d j u d g e s . In f a c t , b e c a u s e n o N e a r E a s t e r n c u l t u r e a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d

c o d e s i n t h e l a t e r R o m a n s e n s e , it i s b e s t t o s p e a k in g e n e r a l of " c o l l e c t i o n s . " 2 8

T h e d i v e r s i t y of m a t e r i a l s f o u n d i n E x o d u s 2 0 : 1 9 - 2 3 : 3 3 f u r t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t

it s h o u l d n o t b e r e a d a s a c o d e . M o s t o f t h e l a w s a re c o u c h e d i n c o n d i t i o n a l

t e r m s : ki ( י כ , " I f / W h e n . . . t h e n " ) . F o r e x a m p l e : "I f a m a n s e d u c e s a v i r g i n f o r

w h o m t h e b r i d e - p r i c e h a s n o t b e e n p a i d , a n d li es w i t h h e r , then h e m u s t m a k e

h e r h i s w i f e b y p a y m e n t o f a b r i d e - p r i c e . If h e r f a t h e r r e f u s e s t o g i v e h e r t o h i m ,

then h e m u s t s ti ll w e i g h o u t s il v e r i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e b r i d e - p r i c e f o r v i r g i n s "

( 2 2 : 1 5 - 1 6 , t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . T h i s i s c a l l e d " c a s u i s ti c " l aw . I t i s t h e m a i n f o r m o f

l a w k n o w n f r o m t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t .2 9

O t h e r i n j u n c t i o n s i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n a r ec o u c h e d i n a b s o l u t e t e r m s , as i n t h e D e c a l o g u e . O n e e x a m p l e o f a b s o l u t e ( o r

" a p o d i c t i c " ) l a w i s " W h o e v e r l ie s w i t h a b e a s t s h a l l b e p u t t o d e a t h " ( 2 2 : 1 8 ) .

A p o d i c t i c l a w i s h a r d l y f o u n d i n o t h e r a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n c o l l e c t i o n s . T h e

m i x i n g o f a p o d i c t i c a n d c a s u i s t i c l a w s e t s t h e B i bl e a p a r t f r o m o t h e r a n c i e n t N e a r

E a s t e r n l e g a l t e x t s .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e B i b l e a p p e a r s t o s h a r e w i t h o t h e r a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n

l a w c o l l e c t i o n s t h e c h a r a c t e r of n o t b e i n g a c o d e i n t e n d e d f o r c o u r t u s e .

C o n s i d e r w h a t a p p e a r t o b e im p r a c t i c a l o r i m p o s s i b l e l a w s . F o r e x a m p l e , l a w

2 1 8 of H a m m u r a b i r e a ds :

If a p h y s i c i a n p e r f o r m s m a j o r s u r g e r y w i t h a b r o n z e l a n c e t u p o n a

m e m b e r of t h e u p p e r cl a ss a n d t h u s c a u s e s th e p e r s o n 's d e a t h , o r o p e n s

t h e t e m p l e o f a p e r s o n of t h e u p p e r c la s s a n d t h u s b l i n d s t h a t p e r s o n ' s

e y e , t h e y s h a l l c u t of f h i s h a n d . 3 0

I n s u c h a w o r l d , n o p h y s i c i a n w o u l d o p t t o s e r v e t h e u p p e r cl as s. L a w s 2 2 9 - 3 0r e a d :

If a b u i l d e r c o n s t r u c t s a h o u s e f o r a m a n b u t d o e s n o t m a k e h i s w o r k

s o u n d , a n d t h e h o u s e t h a t h e c o n s t r u c t s c o l l a p s e s a n d c a u s e s t h e d e a t h

o f t h e h o u s e h o l d e r , t h a t b u i l d e r s h a l l b e k i l l e d . If i t s h o u l d c a u s e t h e

d e a t h o f t h e s o n o f t h e h o u s e h o l d e r , t h e y s h a l l k i ll a s o n of t h a t

b u i l d e r . 3 1

T h i s l a w p r e s e n t s p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s of a d i f f e r e n t t y p e : W h a t i f a c h i l d l e s s c o n -t r a c t o r k i l l s t h e s o n o f t h e h o u s e h o l d e r ?

T h u s , a l t h o u g h H a m m u r a b i i s l o n g e r, m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e , a n d m o r e l og i-

c a ll y o r d e r e d t h a n th e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n — t h a t is , a l t h o u g h it l o o k s m o r e l ik e

a l e g a l c o d e — i t t o o s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a c o l l e c t i o n . S o m e o f i t s l a w s m a y r e f l e c t

t h e n o r m s of t h e la w c o u r t s in H a m m u r a b i ' s p e r i o d , b u t o t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e l a w s

j u s t q u o t e d , a r e m o s t l i k e l y " t h e o r e t i c a l l a w . " S u c h l a w s e x p r e s s t h e i d e a l s o f a

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p a r t i c u l a r r e f o r m e r w i th in a s o ci ety. Th u s , l a w 2 1 8 e x p r e s s e s t h e n o t i o n t h a t

p h y s i c i a n s a r e n o t s u p p o s e d to h a r m th e i r p a t i e n t s , e v e n a c c id e n t a l l y , wh i l e l a w

2 3 0 e x p r e s s e s t h e s e r i o u s n e s s w i t h w h i c h a n c i e n t c o n t r a c t o r s w e r e s u p p o s e d t o

w o r k .

The Goring Ox

Un f o r tu n a t e ly , we c a n n o l o n g e r k n o w wh ic h l a ws r e c o r d e d in t h e La ws o f

H a m m u r a b i w e r e r e al , a n d w h i c h w e r e i d e a l — t h e r e i s n o t e x t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n

b e tw e e n th e m . Ne v e r th e l e s s , a ll s u c h l a ws m a y b e e x a m in e d to r e v e a l h o w th e y

r e f le c t t h e n o r m s ( b o th r e a l a n d i d e a l ) o f t h e le g i s ts w h o e d i t e d t h e m . Th e s a m e

is t r ue of b ib l ic a l law. In the res t of th i s ch ap te r I wil l a t te m pt to tease out so m e

n o r ms th a t a r e wo v e n in to t h e Co v e n a n t Co l l e c t i o n i n Ex o d u s . F o r t h e t ime

be i ng , I wi l l na r r ow m y foc us to a s ing le top ic : a go r in g ox .

T h e p a s s ag e i n q u e s t i o n is E x o d u s 2 1 : 2 8 - 3 2 , w h i c h s t a te s :

W h e n a n o x g o r e s a m a n o r a w o m a n to d e a th , t h e o x s h a l l b e s to n e d

an d i t s f l e sh sha l l no t be ea t en , bu t the o w ne r o f the ox is no t to be p u n -

i she d . I f, how eve r , tha t ox ha s be en in the hab i t o f gor in g , and i t s ow ne r ,

t h o u g h w a r n e d , h a s f a i le d t o g u a r d i t, a n d it k i ll s a m a n o r a w o m a n —

the ox sha l l be s toned and i t s owner , too , sha l l be pu t to dea th . I f r an -

s o m i s l a id u p o n h i m , h e 3 2 m u s t p a y w h a t e v e r i s l a id u p o n h i m to

redeem h is l i f e . So , too , i f i t go res a minor , ma le o r female , the owner

sha l l be dea l t wi th accord ing to the same ru le . Bu t i f the ox gores a s lave ,

male o r female , he sha l l pay th i r ty sheke ls o f s i lve r to the mas te r , and

the ox sha l l be s toned .

Th is l aw, o r more p roper ly , these laws , dea l wi th the fo l lowing four cases :

(1 ) unexpec ted gor ing by an ox ; (2 ) gor ing by a hab i tua l go re r ; (3 ) gor ing o f a

minor ; (4 ) gor ing o f a s lave . Espec ia l ly g iven tha t oxen do no t typ ica l ly gore peo-

p i e , t h e s im i l a r i t i e s i n s t r u c tu r e a n d e v e n wo r d in g b e twe e n th e l a ws i n Ex o d u s

a n d H a m m u r a b i 2 5 0 - 5 2 a r e v e r y s t ri k i ng . H a m m u r a b i r e ad s :

(250) I f an ox gores a man whi le i t i s pass ing th rough the s t ree t , tha tcase has no bas i s fo r a c la im. (251) I f a man ' s ox i s a known gore r , and

th e a u th o r i t i e s o f h i s c it y q u a r t e r n o t i f y h i m th a t i t i s a k n o w n g o r e r , b u t

he do es no t b lu n t i t s h o rn s o r co n t r o l h i s ox , an d tha t ox gore s to d ea th

a member o f the upper c lass , he [ the owner ] sha l l g ive th i r ty sheke ls o f

s i lver . (252) I f i t i s a man 's s lave [who is fa ta l ly gored] , he shal l g ive

twe n ty s h e k e l s o f s i l v e r .3 3

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T h o u g h w e a r e u n c e r t a i n o f t h e d a t e o f t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n , i t i s c e r -

t a i n l y s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s l a t e r t h a n t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y - B . C . E . L a w s of

H a m m u r a b i . A l t h o u g h t h e " m a i n c o p y " o f t h e s e l a w s w a s i n s c r i b e d o n a b a s a l ts t e le i n B a b y l o n , la t e r r e m o v e d t o E l a m ( a n d n o w f o u n d a t t h e L o u v r e ) , w e k n o w

t h a t t h e L a w s o f H a m m u r a b i b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n s c r i b a l t r a d i t i o n ,

a n d w e r e c o p i e d f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s .3 4

G i v e n t h e m a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e

w a y t h i s l a w is e x p r e s s e d i n E x o d u s a n d H a m m u r a b i , i t is h i g h l y l ik e ly t h a t t h e

a u t h o r of t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n k n e w t h e la w s a s t h e y a p p e a r e d

i n H a m m u r a b i , p e r h a p s v ia a n i n t e r m e d i a r y s o u r c e , a n d r e v is e d t h e m t o f it

I s r ae l it e n o r m s . T h u s , a l t h o u g h t h e s i m i l a r it i e s b e t w e e n t h e e a r l ie r B a b y l o n i a n

a n d l a t e r I s r a e l it e l a w a r e s t r i k i n g , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e e v e n m o re t e l l i n g . T h e y c a n

b e a n a l y z e d t o u n c o v e r t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e I s ra e li te l e g i s la t o r c h a n g e d h i s

s o u r c e t o c o n v e y d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s .3 5

B o t h c o l l e c t i o n s d e a l w i t h h o m i c i d e c a u s e d b y a p e r s o n ' s b e n i g n a n i m a l . I n

m o d e r n t e r m s , it i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a p e r s o n d r i v i n g a c a r t h a t s e e m e d t o b e i n p e r -

f e e t r u n n i n g o r d e r b u t s u d d e n l y l o s t i ts b r a k e s , s o t h a t t h e d r i v e r c o u l d n o t a v o i d

h i t t i n g a n d k i l l i n g a p e d e s t r i a n . G i v e n t h a t n o t e v e n n e g l i g e n c e w a s i n v o l v e d , t h e

o w n e r of t h e o x i s n o t h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e i n e i t h e r a n c i e n t c u l t u r e fo r t h e d e a t h .

Y et, b i b l ic a l l a w c o n t a i n s a n a d d i t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n a b s e n t f r o m H a m m u r a b i : " t h e

o x s h a l l b e s t o n e d a n d i ts f l e s h s h a l l n o t b e e a t e n . " T h i s is a s i g n i f i c a n t e c o n o m -

i c l o s s fo r t h e o w n e r of t h e o x — i t w o u l d b e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e

c a r t h a t a c c i d e n t a l l y k il l e d s o m e o n e b e b r o u g h t t o a " c ar c r u n c h e r " a n d f la t -

t e n e d . T h e s t o n i n g of t h e o x m o s t l i k e l y r e f l e c t s a p e c u l i a r l y I s r a e l it e i d e a , t h a t

t h e o x h a s p e r p e t r a t e d a b o u n d a r y v io l a t io n b y c o m m i t t i n g a h u m a n h o m i c i d e .

A s s u c h , it b e c a m e t a b o o , a n d it m u s t b e k i l l e d , a n d i ts o w n e r i s d e p r i v e d o f t h e

n o r m a l b e n e f i t d e r i v e d f r o m a d e a d o x — i t s u s e a s f o o d .

C o m p a r i n g t h e s e c o n d c as e , t h e h a b i t u a l l y g o r i n g o x , i s e v e n m o r e i n s t r u c -

t ive . Fo r b o th a nc ie n t cu l tu re s , t h i s i s a case of ne g l ig en ce . In ou r cu l t u r e , it i s

c o m p a r a b l e t o h a v i n g y o u r c a r fa il a n i n s p e c t i o n b e c a u s e y o u r b r a k e s a r e f au lt y,

b e i n g t o l d n o t t o d r i v e a n y w h e r e w i t h o u t f i x i n g t h e m , a n d t h e n d r i v i n g a w a y

a n d k i l li n g a p e d e s t r i a n b e c a u s e t h e b r a k e s c o u l d n o t s t o p t h e c a r o n t i m e .

N e i t h e r t h e a c t i o n n o r t h e c h o i c e o f v i c t i m w a s p r e m e d i t a t e d , y e t t h e k i l l i n g

c o u l d h a v e b e e n — a n d f r o m t h e l eg is la to r 's p e r s p e c t i v e s , s h o u l d h a v e b e e n —

a n t i c i p a t e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , H a m m u r a b i d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r t h e o w n e r o f t h e o x

g u i l t y o f f i rs t d e g re e m u rd e r ( a c a p i t a l c r i m e ) o r e v e n m a n s l a u g h t e r , y e t t h e

g u i l t y p a r t y m u s t p a y a m o n e t a r y f i n e o f t h i r t y s il v e r s h e k e l s , m o s t l i k e ly t h e e c o -

n o m i c v a l u e o f a n u p p e r - c l a s s i n d i v i d u a l a t t h a t t i m e .

In c o n t r a s t , t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n n o t e s t h a t if t h i s h a b i t u a l l y g o r i n g o x

k i ll s "a m a n o r a w o m a n — t h e o x s h a l l b e s t o n e d a n d i t s o w n e r , t o o , sh a l l b e p u t

t o d e a t h . If r a n s o m is l a id u p o n h i m , h e m u s t p a y w h a t e v e r is l a id u p o n h i m t o

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r e d e e m h i s l i fe . " Th e s to n in g o f t h e o x i s e x p e c t e d , f o l l o win g th e n o r m s d e v e l -

o p e d in t h e p r e c e d in g c a s e . Ye t , t h e l a w s u g g e s t s t h a t n e g l ig e n c e wh ic h c a u s e s

a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s d e a th i s s o s e r io u s t h a t t h e o w n e r t o o d e s e r v e s t o b e s to n e d .

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s s o f t e n e d b y a l l o w i n g t h e o w n e r t o r a n s o m h i m s e l f , m o s t l ik e -

ly b y p a y in g a f i n e t o t h e f a mi ly o f t h e i n d iv id u a l g o r e d . 3 6 Th e in i ti a l s u g g e s t i o n

th a t " i ts o w n e r , t o o , s h a l l b e p u t t o d e a th " r e f l e c t s a b a s i c p r in c ip l e o r p o s tu l a t e 3 7

of the Co ve na n t C o l le c t io n , and in de ed o f a l l o f the b ib l ic a l l aw co l le c t ion s : t he

f u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e a s c r i b e d to h u m a n l if e. T h u s , t h e p e r s o n w h o a c c i d e n t a l l y

a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y b u t t h r o u g h n e g l i g e n c e ki ll s a h u m a n t h r o u g h a n a g e n t s u c h

as an ox , i s dese rv ing o f dea th .

Th e s u b c a s e f o u n d in Ex o d u s 2 1 : 3 1 , "S o , t o o , if i t g o r e s a m in o r , ma le o rf e m a le , t h e o w n e r s h a ll b e d e a l t w i th a c c o r d in g t o t h e s a m e r u l e , " i s a b s e n t f r o m

H a m m u r a b i . T h i s t o o is s i g n i f ic a n t . M a n y o f t h e la w s i n H a m m u r a b i a r e c l as s

c o n s c i o u s , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a m o n g th r e e g r o u p s : t he u p p e r c la s s, c o m m o n e r s , a n d

s l a v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , l a w s 1 9 6 - 9 9 r e a d :

If a n u p p e r - c l a s s p e r s o n s h o u l d b l i n d t h e ey e o f a n o t h e r u p p e r - c l a s s

p e r s o n , t h e y sh a l l b l i n d h i s e y e . If h e s h o u l d b r e a k t h e b o n e o f a n o t h e r

u p p e r - c l a s s p e r s o n , t h e y s h a l l b r e a k h i s b o n e . If h e s h o u ld b l i n d t h e e y eo f a c o m m o n e r o r b r e a k t h e b o n e of a c o m m o n e r , h e s h a l l w e i g h a n d

del iver s ix ty shekels of s i lver . I f he should b l ind the eye of the s lave of

a n u p p e r - c l a s s p e r s o n , o r b r e a k t h e b o n e o f a s l a v e o f a n u p p e r - c l a s s

person , he sha l l we igh and de l ive r one-ha l f o f h i s va lue [ in s i lve r ] .

B i b l i c a l l e g i s l a t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w h o c o m p o s e d t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n ,

a c c e p t e d o n ly p a r t o f t h i s v a lu e s y s t e m. As i n Ha mmu r a b i , s l a v e s a r e t r e a t e d s e p -

a r at e ly , s i n c e (i n b o th c u l tu r e s ) t h e sl a ve 's o w n e r mu s t b e c o m p e n s a t e d f o r t h ee c o n o m i c l o s s . 3 8 ( F o r t h e s t a tu s o f s l a v e s i n t h e Co v e n a n t Co l l e c t i o n , s e e Ex o d u s

2 1 : 2 0 - 2 1 . ) H o w e v e r , n o w h e r e d o b i b li c al l aw s d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n c l a s se s of

n o n s l a v e s , a s i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n u p p e r c l a ss a n d c o m -

mo n e r . I n f a c t , t h e b e s t e x p l a n a t io n f o r Ex o d u s 2 1 :3 1 , " S o , t o o , i f i t g o r e s a

min o r , ma le o r f e ma le , t h e o wn e r s h a l l b e d e a l t w i th a c c o r d in g t o t h e s a me r u l e , "

i s t h a t i t i s t a k in g i s s u e w i th t h e n o t io n t h a t ( f r e e ) p e o p le s h o u ld b e t r e a t e d d i f -

f e r en t ia l ly , b a s e d o n t h e i r w o r th .

From the Goring Ox to Biblical "Law" in General

F o r r e a s o n s o f s p a c e , I c a n n o t t r e a t h e r e t h e ma n y o th e r l a ws c o n ta in e d i n t h e

C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n . ( T h i s b o o k c a n n o t s u b s t i t u t e f o r a c o m m e n t a r y , w h i c h

e x p l a i n s e a c h v e r s e .) H o w e v e r , m a n y of t h e a b o v e o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e g o r i n g

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o x l a w d o h o l d t r u e f o r o t h e r l a w s i n t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n . T h a t is , m a n y o f

t h o s e l a w s m a y b e i d e a l , m a n y a r e r e v i s i o n s o f e a r l i e r M e s o p o t a m i a n l a w s , b u t

t h e y a v o i d t h e s h a r p c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s s e e n in M e s o p o t a m i a .

M o r e o v e r , m a n y o f o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t a t u s o f t h e C o v e n a n t

C o l l e c t i o n a r e e q u a l l y t r u e o f l a w e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B i b le . C o n s i d e r t h e o t h e r l e g a l

c o l l e c t i o n s : t h e H o l i n e s s C o l l e c t i o n o f L e v i t i c u s 1 7 - 2 6 a n d t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c

L a w C o l l e c t i o n in D e u t e r o n o m y 1 2 - 2 6 . N o n e of t h e s e i s o r g a n i z e d l i k e a l a w

c o d e ; n o n e is c o m p r e h e n s i v e . T h e y a ll c o n t a i n r e p e t i t i o n s of t h e s a m e l a w s .

S o m e o f t h e i r l a w s , m a n y s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e , a r e i d e a l r a t h e r t h a n r e a l : t h e J u b i l e e

y e a r ( L e v i t i c u s 2 5 ) ; t h e cheirem ( • ") Π , " p r o s c r i p t i o n " o r " b a n " ) o f t h e C a n a a n i t e s

( D e u t . 2 0 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) ; a n d o t h e r s .3 9

T h e s e f e a t u r e s d i s t i n g u i s h b i b l ic a l l a w f r o ml a w a s w e n o r m a l l y e x p e r i e n c e o r u n d e r s t a n d it . T h u s t h o s e " la w s " m a y h a v e

f u n c t i o n e d i n a n c i e n t I s ra e l d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n d o to d a y ' s l a w s a s t h e y a p p l y to o u r

o w n l i v e s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , if w e l o o k a t a ll o f t h e s e l a w c o l l e c t i o n s t o g e t h e r , w e s e e a n o t h -

e r r e a s o n t o b e c a u t i o u s w h e n w e s p e a k o f b i b l i c a l "l aw . " A s I w i l l s h o w i n c h a p -

t e r s 9 a n d 1 0 , e a c h of t h e s e c o l l e c t i o n s c o m e s f r o m a d i f f e r e n t t i m e p e r i o d a n d

r e f l e c ts a d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . ( A l t h o u g h t h e d a t e of t h e C o v e n a n t

C o l l e c t i o n i s u n c e r t a i n , i t i s l i k e l y t h e e a r l i e s t of t h e t h r e e c o l l e c t i o n s . I n c o n t r a s t

t o t h e o t h e r s , it r e f l e c t s a l a rg e l y n o n u r b a n p e r s p e c t i v e . 4 0 ) W h e n d e a l i n g

w i t h t h e s a m e i s s u e , t h e t h r e e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t e n d i f f e r s i g n i fi c a n t ly . F o r e x a m p l e ,

E x o d u s a n d D e u t e r o n o m y r e c o g n i z e t h a t a n I s ra e l it e m a y e n s l a v e a n o t h e r

I s ra e l it e " f o r e v e r " ( 2 1 : 5 - 6 a n d 1 5 : 1 6 - 1 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , w h e r e a s L e v i t i c u s in s i st s

t h a t I s r a e l i t e s l a v e s m u s t b e r e l e a s e d e v e r y f i f t i e t h y e a r , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t " t h e y a r e

M y s e r v a n t s , w h o m I f r e e d f r o m t h e l a n d o f E g y p t ; t h e y m a y n o t g i v e t h e m s e l v e s

o v e r i n t o s e r v i t u d e " ( 2 5 : 4 2 ; c f. w . 3 9 - 4 3 ) . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e : E x o d u s c a l ls i ts f al lf e st iv a l " t h e fe s ti v a l o f i n g a t h e r i n g " a n d n o t e s th a t it s h o u l d b e c o m m e m o r a t e d

" at t h e e n d of t h e y e a r " f o r a n u n s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d ( 2 3 : 1 6 ) . D e u t e r o n o m y k n o w s

t h e s a m e f e s t i v a l a s t h e f e a s t o f b o o t h s ( s u k k o t ) , c o m m e m o r a t e d f o r s e v e n d a y s

( 1 6 : 1 3 - 1 5 ) . L e v i t i c u s d e s c r i b e s a f e a st o f b o o t h s t h a t b e g i n s in t h e s e v e n t h

m o n t h , a n d it is c o n c l u d e d b y a s o l e m n g a t h e r i n g o n t h e eighth d a y ( 2 3 : 3 3 - 3 6 ) !

S u c h d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s l eg a l c o r p o r a a r e t h e n o r m r a t h e r t h a n

t h e e x c e p t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c e r t a i n p o s t u l a t e s s e e m t o s t a n d b e h i n d a l l b i b l i c a l

l a w s. T h e y i n c l u d e a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d h u m a n l ife t h a t m a k e s c a p i t al p u n i s h m e n t

l e s s f r e q u e n t i n t h e B i b l e t h a n i n H a m m u r a b i ' s l a w s , a n d t h a t s h i e s a w a y

f r o m v i c a r i o u s p u n i s h m e n t , t h a t is , p u n i s h m e n t f o r a c r i m e c o m m i t t e d b y

a n o t h e r fa m i ly m e m b e r . 4 1 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e t a i l a r e

l a rg e a n d f r e q u e n t e n o u g h t o w a r r a n t a v o i d i n g s e n t e n c e s t h a t b e g i n , " B ib li ca l

l a w s u g g e s ts . . . "

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9

"Incense Is Offensive to Me"

Th e Cult in A nc ien t Israel

Primary Reading: Leviticus 16.

Ritual Within the Bible

R e l ig io u s r i t u a l h a s a n a mb ig u o u s p l a c e w i th in mo d e r n l i f e . 1 It is often cri-

t i q u e d a s a n a r c h a i c r e m n a n t o f e a r l i er p r a c t i c e s , w h ic h s h o u ld b e r e p l a c e d

b y m o r e a b s t r a c t f o r m s of r e l i g io n .2

This an t ipa thy toward r i tua l i s r e f lec ted in the work o f many b ib l ica l scho l -

a r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n f lu e n c e d b y t h e wo r k o f t h e g r e a t Ge r ma n s c h o la r J u l i u s

W e l lh a u s e n , w h o s y s t e m a t i z e d m u c h of b ib l ic a l s c h o la r s h ip t o w a r d t h e e n d of

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 3 He v iewed the h i s to ry o f b ib l ica l re l ig ion as a dévo lu -

t ion , in w hi ch f ree exp res s io n o f re l ig ion , re f lec ted in the ea r ly sou rces , w as g rad -

u a l ly r e p l a c e d — m o s t e s p e c i a l ly in t h e P r i e s tl y S o u r c e — b y f ix e d r i t u a l . I n t h i s

v iew, the p ro ph e t s , som e of w h o m are seen as hos t i l e tow ard r i tua l , a re v iew ed

as the ape x of b ib l ica l re l ig ion . It w as no t u nu su a l , fo r ex am ple , fo r sch o la rs to

h igh l igh t the cen t r a l i ty o f t ex ts su ch as I sa iah 1 : 10 -1 7 :

(10) Hear the word o f the Lord , / You ch ie f ta ins o f Sodom; / Give ea r to

o u r G o d s i n s t r u c t i o n , / Y ou f o lk of G o m o r r a h ! / ( 1 1 ) " W h a t n e e d h a v e

I of a ll yo u r sacr i f ices?" / Says the Lo rd . / "I am sat ed w ith b u rn t offe r-

ing s of ra m s, / A nd sue t of fa t l ing s , / A nd bl oo d of bu l ls ; / A nd I hav e

n o d e l i g h t / I n l a mb s a n d h e - g o a t s . / ( 1 2 ) Th a t y o u c o me to a p p e a r

b e f o r e M e — / W h o a s k e d th a t of y o u ? / T r a m p le M y c o u r t s ( 1 3 ) n o

m or e ; / Br in g ing ob la t i on s is fu t i l e , / Ince nse i s o f fens ive to Me. / N ew

m o o n a n d s a b b a th , / P r o c l a im in g of s o l e m n i t i e s , / As s e mb l i e s w i th i n iq -

u i ty , / I ca nn o t a b id e . / (14 ) Your ne w m o o n s an d f ixed sea son s / Fi ll Me

wi th l o a th in g ; / Th e y a re b e c o m e a b u r d e n to M e , / I c a n n o t e n d u r e

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t h e m . / ( 1 5 ) An d wh e n y o u l i ft u p y o u r h a n d s , / I w i l l t u r n M y e y e s

aw ay f r om you ; / T h o u g h yo u p r ay a t l en g th , / I wi l l no t l i s ten . / Your

h a n d s ar e s t a i n e d w i t h c r i m e — ( 1 6 ) W a s h y o u r s e l v e s c l e a n; / P u t y o u r

ev i l do in gs / Aw ay f ro m My s igh t . / Cease to d o ev i l; / (17 ) Lea rn to do

g o o d . / De v o te y o u r s e lv e s t o j u s t i c e ; / A id t h e w r o n g e d . / U p h o l d t h e

r ig h t s o f t h e o r p h a n ; / De f e n d th e c a u s e o f t h e w id o w. "

T h e s e v er s e s a r e o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d a s a b l a n k e t c o n d e m n a t i o n o f r i tu a l p r a c t i c e s ,

e s p e c i a l ly t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e J e r u s a l e m c u l t a s p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e To r a h ;

e th i c a l b e h a v io r i s me a n t t o r e p l a c e r i t u a l b e h a v io r . Th i s u n i t f r o m I s a i a h w i l l b e

ex am in ed in ch ap te r 17 (see " I sa iah as a Typ ica l Class ica l P rop he t " ) ; fo r now , i t

i s su f f ic ien t to no te tha t th i s nega t ive v iew of r i tua l i s exaggera ted . The fac t tha t

the Bible is so r ich in r i tua ls cer ta in ly argues for the ir centra l i ty . Indeed, th is is

c o n f i r m e d b y t e x t s s u c h a s I s a i a h 1 :1 0 - 1 7 , f o r o n ly c e n t r a l p r a c t i c e s w o u ld h a v e

b e e n r a il e d a g a i n st so v o c if e ro u s ly . T h u s , d e v e l o p i n g a s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d -

in g of r i t u a l i s c r u c i a l f o r u n d e r s t a n d in g wh a t b ib l i c a l t e x t s m e a n t .

Ri tua l w as a cen t ra l pa r t o f a l l an c ie n t N ear Ea s te r n re l ig ions . Ma ny r i tua l

tex ts cover ing a wide va r ie ty o f s i tua t ions have been d iscovered a t Ugar i t , a c i ty

n e a r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t o f S y r ia , w h i c h h a s y i e ld e d a l a r ge n u m b e r o f t e x t sf r o m t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . 4 Th e s e t e x t s a r e e x t r e me ly imp o r -

t a n t g iv e n t h e g e o g r a p h ic a l p r o x im i ty o f Ug a r i t t o I s ra e l, a n d a l t h o u g h th e y p r e -

d a t e b ib l i c a l l i t e r a tu r e b y s e v e r a l c e n tu r i e s , t h e y s h o w s ig n i f i c a n t c o n t ig u i t i e s

wi th the Bib le . Ugar i t i c na r ra t ive tex ts h igh l igh t the s ign i f ican t ro le tha t r i tua l

p layed in da i ly l i f e the re . 5 A s imi l a r p i c tu r e i s e v id e n t w i th I s ra e l' s imm e d ia t e

n e i g h b o r s , w h e r e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f r i t u a l t e x t s h a v e b e e n u n e a r t h e d . 6 T h u s ,

g iven the geograph ica l and h is to r ica l con tex t o f the Bib le , the p rominen t ro le o f

r i tua l in i t i s expec ted .

I wi l l foc us he re on the Te m ple r i tua l a ssoc ia ted wi th Yom K ipp ur , the D ay

of A to ne m en t . S ince it wa s an un u su a l r i tu a l eve n fo r the Bib le , I wi l l su pp le -

m en t it s ana lys i s w i th so m e gen era l re f lec t ions on the p lace o f ritual w i th in

Israelite l ife.

Th e Yom Ki p p u r r i t u a l is f o u n d in Le v i ti c u s 1 6 . Ac tua l ly , v e r s e s 1 - 2 8 o u t -

l i n e two r i t u a l s t h a t c o m b i n e t o f o r m th e l a r g e r r i t u a l . Th e f i r st r i t u a l ( w h ic h

i t s e l f c o mp r i s e s s e v e r a l s u b - r i t u a l s ) t r a n s p i r e s i n s id e t h e s a n c tu a r y p r e c in c t s ( w .

1 - 1 9 , 2 7 - 2 8 ) . T h e s e c o n d r i t u a l , i n v o l v i n g t h e s c a p e g o a t , t a k e s p l a c e o u t s i d e

th e s a n c tu a r y ( w . 2 0 - 2 6 ) . Ve r s e 2 0 s e r v e s t o i n t e g r a t e t h e two : " W h e n h e h a s

f in i shed purg ing the Shr ine , the Ten t o f Mee t ing , and the a l ta r , the l ive goa t sha l l

b e b r o u g h t f o r w a r d . " Th e s e r i t u a l s c o m b i n e t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s —

the r i tua l c leans ing o f the sanc tua ry , and the purg ing o f the peop le ' s s ins—are

a c c o m p l i s h e d .

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The Day of Atonement Rituals: Background

K e y T e r m s U s e d t o D e s c r i b e t h e R i t u a l s

I n c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h p r a c t i c e , r e p e n t a n c e i s s e e n a s t h e k e y f e a t u r e o f Y o m

K i p p u r , o r t h e D a y o f A t o n e m e n t . T h e l i t u r g y of t h e d a y is r e p l e t e w i t h c o n f e s -

s i o n s , o n e o f w h i c h h a s a s i t s r e f r a i n " f o r a l l t h e s e , Ο G o d o f f o r g i v e n e s s , f o r g i v e

u s , p a r d o n u s , g r a n t u s r e m i s s i o n . " 7 I t i s t h e r e f o r e n a t u r a l t o r e a d t h e r i t u a l

d e s c r i b e d i n L e v i t i c u s 1 6 i n t e r m s o f t h i s t h e m e , a s c o n n e c t e d t o r e p e n t a n c e . Y et,

a c l o s e r e a d i n g o f t h a t b i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s u g g e s t s o t h e r w i s e : n e i t h e r teshuvah

( ה ב ו ש ת , " r e p e n t a n c e " ) n o r t h e w o r d f r o m w h i c h it d e r i v e s , shuv ב) ו ש , " tor e t u r n " ) , ar e f o u n d a n y w h e r e i n t h e c h a p t e r . I n d e e d , t h i s r o o t i s f i rs t u s e d i n t h e

T o r a h i n t h e t h e o l o g i c a l s e n s e o f " r e p e n t " o r " r e t u r n t o G o d " o n l y i n D e u t e r -

o n o m y : " w h e n y o u a re i n d i s t r e s s b e c a u s e a ll t h e s e t h i n g s h a v e b e f a l l e n y o u a n d ,

i n t h e e n d , ve-shavta ( ת ב ש ו , ' y o u r e t u r n ' ) t o t h e L O R D y o u r G o d a n d o b e y H i m "

( 4 : 3 0 ) . In f a c t , w i t h i n t h e T o r a h , o n l y i n D e u t e r o n o m y d o e s t h e c o n c e p t o f

r e p e n t a n c e p l a y a c e n t r a l ro l e . G i v e n t h a t P r i e s t ly t e x t s a n d t h o s e f r o m D e u t e r -

o n o m y r e p r e s e n t t h e t w o g r e a t y e t different s t r e a m s o f t h o u g h t i n t h e B i b l e , t h e

f a c t t h a t sh u v i s p r o m i n e n t i n o n e a n d a b s e n t i n t h e o t h e r i s s i g n i f i c a n t .

R a t h e r t h a n s h u v , P r i e s t l y t e x t s u s e t h e v e r b kipper. W h a t t h e n i s t h e m e a n -

i n g o f t h e r o o t k-p-r ( ר פ כ ) t h a t is t y p i c a l l y t r a n s l a t e d a s " t o a t o n e " — a n d t h a t i s

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e da y 's n a m e ? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e h a v e a r a t h e r i n c o m p l e t e k n o w l -

e d g e of b i b l i c a l H e b r e w . A s d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 3 , w e l a c k w h a t l i n g u i s t i c s c h o l -

a r s c a ll " i n f o r m a n t s , " n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f a l a n g u a g e w h o c a n t el l r e s e a r c h e r s w h a t

a w o r d o r a g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e m e a n s , o r w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r l o c u t i o n i s

g r a m m a t i c a l . C o n t e m p o r a r y H e b r e w is n o t a r el ia b le s o u r c e fo r u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h e b i b l i c a l i d i o m ; t o o m u c h t i m e h a s p a s s e d — t h e l a n g u a g e h a s e v o l v e d m e a n -

w h i l e . I n s t e a d , w e k n o w w h a t a p a r t i c u l a r b ib l i c a l w o r d m e a n s u s i n g t h e f o l -

l o w i n g t h r e e m e t h o d s : (1 ) c o m p a r i s o n w i t h r e l a te d ( c o g n a t e ) w o r d s i n o t h e r

S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s ; ( 2 ) c o n s u l t i n g t h e a n c i e n t B i b l e t r a n s l a t o r s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e

o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t — t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n m o s t l ik e l y b e g u n i n t h e th i r d p r e -

C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r y — b e c a u s e i t i s t h e o l d e s t v e r s i o n a n d t y p i c a l l y h i g h l y l i t e ra l ) ;

a n d ( 3 ) i n f e r e n c e f r o m t h e l i t e ra r y c o n t e x t .

In the case o f the roo t k-p-r, t h e f i rs t a n d t h i r d m e t h o d s a r e t h e m o s t h e l p -

f u l . 8 I n S y r i a c , a d i a l e c t o f A r a m a i c t h a t is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o H e b r e w , t h e r o o t

m e a n s " t o w i p e . " 9 It w a s u s e d o f w i p i n g h a n d s o r e y e s . It w a s u s e d m e t a p h o r i -

ca l ly in the Peshitta, t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e , i n s e n t e n c e s l i k e " S a u l

w i p e d o u t [ i . e . , d i d a w a y w i t h ] t h e r e m n a n t o f t h e A m a l e k i t e s . " T h e r o o t i s a l s o

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w e l l a t te s t e d i n A k k a d i a n — a S e m i t ic l a n g u a g e of a n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a — w h i c h

i s m o r e d i s t a n t l y r e l a t e d t o H e b r e w y e t c l o se e n o u g h t o p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a -

t ion . There too i t had the sense o f " to wipe o f f . " 1 0 I t w a s u s e d , f o r e x a m p l e , o f a

pe rso n ' s fee t , o r o f c l e an ing j ewe l ry . Re la t ed to th i s u se w as " to pu r i fy , " o f t e n v ia

r i t u a l ( o r m a g i c a l ) m e a n s , a n d r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t e m p l e s , c o u n t r i e s ,

f i el d s , a n d h o m e s .

Th i s l a t t e r sense o f k-p-r f i t s sev e ra l of i t s ap pe ar an ce s in Lev i t i cus 16 . ( He re

I a m a p p l y i n g m e t h o d 3 , a b o v e . ) T h e c o r e v e r s e o f o u r c h a p t e r u s e s t h e r o o t

k-p-r i n t h i s c h a ra c t e r i s t i c w a y : " T h u s h e s h a l l k-p-r t h e S h r i n e1 1

o f t h e u n c l e a n -

n e s s a n d t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f t h e I s r a e l it e s , w h a t e v e r t h e i r s i n s ; a n d h e s h a l l d o t h e

s a m e fo r t h e T e n t o f M e e t i n g , w h i c h a b i d e s w i t h t h e m i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e i ru n c l e a n n e s s " (v. 1 6 ) . T h e ro o t i s u s e d n o t i n r e f e r e n c e t o p e o p l e n o r to a n a c t i o n

p e r f o r m e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s ( s u c h a s r e p e n t a n c e ) ; r a t h e r , t w o s t r u c t u r e s , " t h e

S h r i n e " a n d " t h e T e n t o f M e e t i n g , " a r e "k-p-r-ed." In ve rse 20 , th e a l tar as we l l i s

"k-p-r-ed."12S e v e r a l m o d e r n t r a n s l a t i o n s r e n d e r t h e s e i n s t a n c e s a s " a t o n e , "

1 3b u t

t h i s s e e m s a t b e s t o p a q u e o r u n c l e a r — h o w c a n o n e a t o n e f o r t h e a lt ar ? I n s t e a d ,

t h e J P S tr a n s l a t i o n ' s " p u rg e " b e t t e r r e f l e c t s t h e u n d e r p i n n i n g s of t h e r i tu a l o u t -

l i n e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r , w h o s e m a i n t h e m e is t h e p u rg i n g o r p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

S a n c t u a r y ( o r T e m p l e ) .

C o n c e p t B e h i n d t h e I n s i d e R i t u a l

T h e B ib le s c h o l a r J a c o b M i l g ro m g i v e s a c o m p e l l i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f i rs t s e t

o f r i t ua l s , re l a t ing them to wha t he ca l l s "The P r i e s t ly 'P i c tu re o f Dor i an Gray . ' "1 4

T h e S a n c t u a r y ( t h e P r i es t ly a u t h o r ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e ) i sl i k e t h e p a i n t i n g i n O s c a r W i l d e ' s s t o ry , w h i c h c h a n g e s a s a r e s u l t o f v a r i o u s

h u m a n a c t iv i ti e s. H e r e t h e P r i es t ly c o n c e p t i o n s e e m s t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e T e m p l e

a b s o r b s d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of i m p u r i t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t l o ci . F o r e x a m p l e , " w a n t o n

u n r e p e n t e d s i n " p o l l u t e s c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e T e m p l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e H o l y o f

H o l i e s . T h e T e m p l e a b s o r b s s u c h i m p u r i t i e s , w h i c h b u i l d u p a s t h e y a r e s t o r e d

t h e r e . T h u s t h e T e m p l e m u s t o n o c c a s i o n b e r i t u a l l y p u r i f i e d .

T h e b u i l d u p of t h e s e i m p u r i t i e s is , f r o m t h e P r ie s t l y p e r s p e c t i v e , a t h r e a t t o

n a t i o n a l s e cu r i ty . T h e p r i e s t E z e k i e l e v i n c e s t h i s c o n c e r n i n t h e f i rs t p o r t i o n o f

t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k t h a t b e a r s h i s n a m e . E z e k i e l p r o p h e s i e d i n B a b y l o n a f t e r

b e i n g e x i l e d t h e r e f r o m J e r u s a l e m i n 597 B.c .E .1 5

T h e f i rs t e l e v e n c h a p t e r s of h i s

b o o k p o r t r a y " d i v in e a b a n d o n m e n t , " a m o t i f f r e q u e n t i n a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n —

p a r t i c u l a r l y A s s y r i a n — l i t e r a t u r e . 1 6 A c c o r d i n g to E z e k ie l , G o d — o r m o r e p r e -

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cisely, kevod Y H W H ( H I T ל ו ב כ ] ," t h e P r e s e n c e o f t h e L O R D " ) — e x i t e d t h e T e m p l e .

T h e P r e s e n c e fi rs t l e f t t h e p l a t f o r m of t h e T e m p l e ( 1 0 : 1 8 ) a n d t h e n " a s c e n d e d

f r o m t h e m i d s t o f t h e c i t y a n d s t o o d o n t h e h i l l e a s t o f t h e c i t y " ( 1 1 : 2 3 ) . T h i sa b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e T e m p l e b y t h e d i v i n e P r e s e n c e is w h a t u l t i m a t e l y a l l o w e d i t

t o b e d e s t r o y e d . E z e k i e l a l so e x p l a i n s w h y G o d l e f t: " A n d [ G o d ] s a i d t o m e ,

' M o r t a l , d o y o u s e e w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g , t h e t e r r i b l e a b o m i n a t i o n s t h a t t h e

H o u s e o f I s ra e l i s p r a c t i c i n g h e r e , t o d r i v e M e fa r f r o m M y S a n c t u a r y ? " ' ( 8 : 6 ) .

C h a p t e r 8 d e s c r i b e s a w i d e r a n g e of " a b o m i n a t i o n s " ( i m p r o p e r ac t s) , i n c l u d i n g

w o r s h i p o f t h e s u n ( v . 1 6 ) . T h e s e a c t i v i t i e s p o l l u t e d t h e T e m p l e , s a y s E z e k i e l ,

a n d c a u s e d G o d t o a b a n d o n it . S i m i l a r t h i n k i n g s t a n d s b e h i n d L e v i t i c u s 16 as

w e l l . H e r e t h e r i t u a l s a r e p l a n n e d t o p u r i f y t h e T e m p l e f r o m l i k e p o l l u t a n t s ,t h e r e b y a s s u r i n g c o n t i n u e d d i v i n e p r e s e n c e a n d b l e s s i n g .

P h y s i c a l S e t t i n g o f t h e I n s i d e R i t u a l

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Univers i ty Press , Inc . Used by permiss ion.

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• Ha-kodesh ( ש ד ק ה , " t h e h o l y a r e a " ) , t y p i c a l l y t r a n s l a t e d a s " S h r i n e " i n t h e

J P S t r a n s l a t i o n , h o u s e s t h e l a m p s t a n d , t h e t a b l e f o r t h e b r e a d of d i s p la y ,

a n d t h e a l t a r o f i n c e n s e . O n l y ( r i t u a l l y p u r e ) p r i e s t s m a y e n t e r t h i s a r e a .• T h e H o l y o f H o l i e s i s b e h i n d t h i s a r e a . It m a y b e e n t e r e d o n l y b y t h e

h i g h p r i e s t — A a r o n o r f u t u r e h i g h p r i e s ts d e s c e n d e d f r o m h i m — w h e n

p u r i f y i n g t h e T e m p l e (L ev . 1 6 : 2 - 3 ) . T h i s a r e a , a c c o r d i n g to P r i e s t ly t r a -

d i t i o n , c o n t a i n e d t h e A r k , w h i c h w a s c o v e r e d b y a kappore t ת) ר פ כ ).

S c h o l a r s d e b a t e t h e n a t u r e a n d t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s w o r d , a n d h o w i t i s

r e l a t e d t o t h e r o o t k-p-r; t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n r e n d e r s it a s " c o v e r " ; o t h e r s

r e n d e r i t a s " m e r c y s e a t ." A c c o r d i n g t o P r ie s t l y a c c o u n t s , a " c u r t a i n " s e p -

a r a t e s t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s f r o m t h e S h r i n e .

The Inside Ritual

L e v i t i c u s 1 6 : 1 - 1 9 e n u m e r a t e s a s e t o f r i t u a l s t h a t s h a r e c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s : s a c r i -

f i c e , b l o o d , S a n c t u a r y , a n d A a r o n t h e h i g h p r i e s t . T h i s p a s s a g e d e t a i l s a s e t o f

o r d e r e d a c t iv i t i e s t h a t , if p r e c i s e l y p e r f o r m e d , w i l l p u r i f y t h e T e m p l e , t h e r e b y

g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e .

T h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c h a p t e r c o n n e c t s t h e r i t u a l t o t h e e n i g m a t i c s t o r y c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e d e a t h s of N a d a b a n d A b i h u i n L e v i t i c u s 1 0 . (I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t in a n

e a r l i e r f o r m o f L e v i t i c u s , c h a p . 1 6 d i r e c t l y f o l l o w e d c h a p . 1 0 . ) T h e s e t w o c h a p -

t e r s m a y r e l a t e t o e a c h o t h e r i n a v a r i e t y of w a y s . N a d a b a n d A b i h u h a v e d i e d i n

t h e S a n c t u a r y , a n d t h u s i t n e e d s t o b e p u r g e d o r c l e a n e d . P e r h a p s , t o o , t h e

d e a t h s o f t h e s e t w o s o n s o f A a r o n w a s c a u s e d b y t h e i r i m p r o p e r e n t r y i n t o p a r t

o f t h e S a n c t u a r y , w h i c h w o u l d e x p l a i n w h y c h a p t e r 1 6 o u t l i n e s w h o m a y s a f e l ye n t e r t h e i n n e r m o s t s e c t i o n o f t h e S a n c t u a r y , a s w e l l a s w h e n a n d h o w t o d o s o .

V e r se 2 s t r e s s e s t h e d a n g e r of e n t e r i n g t h e i n n e r m o s t p a r t o f t h e T e m p l e ( " i n t o

t h e S h r i n e b e h i n d t h e c u r t a i n , i n f r o n t o f t h e c o v e r t h a t is u p o n t h e a r k " ) . It

a n t i c i p a t e s v e r s e s 1 2 - 1 3 , w h i c h p r e s c r i b e th e m a n n e r in w h i c h A a r o n m a y e n t e r

t h i s a r e a :

( 1 2 ) A n d h e s h a l l t a k e a p a n f u l o f g l o w i n g c o a l s s c o o p e d f r o m t h e a l t a r

b e f o r e t h e LORD, a n d t w o h a n d f u l s o f f i n e l y g r o u n d a r o m a t i c i n c e n s e ,a n d b r i n g t h i s b e h i n d t h e c u r t a i n . ( 1 3 ) H e s h a l l p u t t h e i n c e n s e o n t h e

f i r e b e f o r e t h e L O R D , S O t h a t t h e c l o u d f r o m t h e i n c e n s e s c r e e n s t h e

c o v e r t h a t i s o v e r t h e A r k o f t h e P a c t , l e s t h e d i e .

A s e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B i b le , t h e a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t s e e i n g G o d c a u s e s d e a t h

( s e e , e . g ., J u d g . 1 3 : 2 2 ) . T h e i n c e n s e h e r e a c t s a s a s m o k e s c r e e n , p r e v e n t i n g

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A a r o n ( a n d h i s h i g h - p r i e s t d e s c e n d a n t s ) f r o m s e e i n g G o d ' s c l o u d l i k e m a n i f e s t a -

t i o n i n t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s .

L e v i t i c u s 1 6 : 3 - 4 n o t e s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e r i t u a l. A a r o n b r i n g s t h e r e q -

u i s i t e s a c r i f i c ia l a n i m a l s (v. 3 ) . H e m u s t b e r i t u a l l y p u r e a n d p r o p e r l y d r e s s e d i n

" w o r k c l o t h e s . " I n a d d i t i o n , h e b r i n g s t h r e e o t h e r a n i m a l s o n b e h a l f o f I s r a e l ( v .

5 ) . Two o f these a re fo r a chattat ( ת א ט ח ) ;a l t h o u g h t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n a n d m o s t

o t h e r s r e n d e r t h i s a s " a s i n o f f e r i n g , " i t i s b e t t e r t r a n s l a t e d "a p u r i f i c a t i o n o f f e r -

i n g , " i n o t h e r w o r d s , a n o f f e r i n g t h a t w il l p u r i f y o r p u r g e o r c l e a n s e a s p e c i f i c

a r e a o f t h e T e m p l e . 1 7

T h e t e x t c o n t i n u e s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r i tu a l i ts e lf : A a r o n c a n o n l y

s e r v e a s a p r o p e r o f f i c i a n t if h e ( a n d h i s p r i e s t l y f a m i ly , f o r w h o m h e s e e m s t o

b e a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ) i s r i t u a l l y p u r e , t h u s h e m u s t f ir s t o f f e r h i s o w n p u r i f i c a t i o n

o f f e r i n g ( Le v. 1 6 : 6 ) . T h e n h e m a y b e g i n t o p e r f o r m t h e m a i n p a r t o f t h e r i t u a l ,

d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h of t h e t w o h e - g o a t s w i l l b e u s e d f o r t h e n a t i o n ' s p u r i f i c a t i o n

o f f e r i n g ( w . 7 - 8 ) . T h a t o f f e r i n g i s c o m p l e t e d (v. 9 ) , w h i l e t h e o t h e r h e - g o a t i s

p u t o n h o l d u n t i l t h e m a i n ritu al i s c o m p l e t e d (v . 1 0 ) .

L e v i t i c u s 1 6 : 1 1 r e t u r n s u s t o v e r s e 6 ; i t i s n o t a n e w a c t i o n , b u t a r e p e t i t i o n

o f t h e p r e v i o u s t a k e n a c t i o n , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l n o t e t h a t t h i s a n i m a l m u s t b e

s l a u g h t e r e d . T h i s is d o n e i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h i s s l a u g h t e r i n g p r o d u c e d b l o o d ,

w h i c h m u s t b e s a v e d b e c a u s e it w i l l b e t h e c e n t r a l a g e n t of t h e r i t u a l t h a t f o l l o w s

i n v e r s e 1 4 . H o w e v e r , s i n c e t h a t r i t u a l w i l l t r a n s p i r e i n t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s ,

" b e h i n d t h e c u r t a i n , " it m u s t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g i n c e n s e , t h e r e b y p r o d u c i n g

a c l o u d s o t h a t t h e D i v i n e P r e s e n c e i s n o t s e e n ( w . 1 2 - 1 3 ; s e e a b o v e , " C o n c e p t

B e h i n d t h e I n s i d e R i t u a l " ) . W h i l e i n t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s , b l o o d o f t w o p u r i f i c a -

t i o n o f f e r i n g s i s s p r i n k l e d : t h a t o f A a r o n ' s p u r i f i c a t i o n o f f e r i n g b u l l (v. 1 4 — s e e

w . 3 , 1 1 ) , a n d t h a t o f t h e n a t i o n ' s h e - g o a t (v . 1 5 — s e e v. 5 ) . L i k e m o s t r i t u a l s , i n

o r d e r t o b e e f fe c t i v e , t h i s o n e m u s t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a p r e c i s e f a s h i o n ; i n t h i s

c a s e , s p r i n k l i n g th e b l o o d s e v e n t i m e s , a n u m b e r u s e d f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e B ib le t o

s y m b o l i z e c o m p l e t e n e s s .

T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o r r e s u l t of t h e s e r i t u a l s i s n o t e d i n L e v i t i c u s 1 6 : 1 6 : " T h u s

h e s h a l l p u r g e t h e S h r i n e o f t h e u n c l e a n n e s s a n d t r a n s g r e s s i o n o f t h e I s r a e l i t e s ,

w h a t e v e r t h e i r s i n s ; a n d h e s h a l l d o t h e s a m e f o r t h e T e n t o f M e e t i n g , w h i c h

a b i d e s w i t h t h e m i n t h e m i d s t of t h e i r u n c l e a n n e s s . " T h i s " p u r g i n g " o r r i tu a l

p u r i f i c a t i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f a n i m a l b l o o d , w h i c h f o r t h e

P r i e s t l y a u t h o r s is s e e n a s a k i n d o f " r i t u a l d e t e r g e n t . " 1 8 E x a c tl y h o w a n d w h y

b l o o d f u n c t i o n s i n t h i s w a y is u n c l e a r , t h o u g h it i s l i k e ly c o n n e c t e d t o t h e

P r i e s t l y a s s e r t i o n t h a t b l o o d i s t o b e i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e nefesh ( ש פ נ , "l i f e f o rc e " )

o f t h e a n i m a l ( 1 7 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) ; p e r h a p s i n s o m e s e n s e i t r e a n i m a t e s a n d t h u s p u r i f i e s .

L e v i t i c u s 1 6 : 1 7 o f f e rs s o m e a d d i t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d v e r s e s

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1 8 - 1 9 p r e s c r ib e t h e f i n al p a r t of t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l , p u r g in g t h e a l t a r i n t h e

H oly sec t ion t h r ou gh a f ina l b l oo d r i tua l . Th e "ho rn s o f the a l ta r" re fe r to qu ar te r -

c i r c u l a r p r o tu b e r a n c e s l i k e t h o s e f o u n d in v a r io u s a l t a r s e x c a v a t e d i n I s r a e l .

As m a y b e s e e n f r o m th e d i f f e r e n t v o c a b u la r y u s e d i n v e r s e s 1 6 a n d 1 9 , e a c h a c t

o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e s s o m e t h i n g s l i g h t ly d i f f e r e n t , p u r i f y i n g p a r t s of t h e

s t r u c tu r e f r o m d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s i n s . W i th v e r s e 1 9 , t h e ma in r i t u a l i s c o mp le t -

e d , a n d t h r o u g h th e u s e o f r i t u a l d e t e r g e n t b lo o d , t h e Te mp le o r S a n c tu a r y i s

res to red to a s ta te o f r i tua l pu r i ty . I t i s aga in a "house" tha t wi l l no t repe l God , 1 9

a p l a c e wh e r e He w i l l wa n t t o r e s id e .

The Outside Ritual

Th e f u n c t i o n of t h e p r e v io u s r i t u a l w a s t o p u r i f y v a r io u s h o ly p l a c e s a n d o b j e c t s ;

the pu rp o se o f th i s sca pe go a t ritual i s c la r i f ied in Lev i t icu s 16 :21 : "Aaron sh a l l

l ay bo th h i s hands upon the head o f the l ive goa t and confess over i t a l l the in iq -

u i t i e s a n d t r a n s g r e s s io n s o f t h e I s r a e l i t e s , wh a te v e r t h e i r s i n s , p u t t i n g t h e m o n

the head o f the goa t ; and i t sha l l be sen t o f f to the wi lde rness th rough a des ig -

n a t e d m a n . "

T h e r e m a y b e s o m e r e d u n d a n c y b e t w e e n t h i s r i t u a l a n d t h e p r e v i o u s o f f e r -

i n g s a n d b lo o d r i t u a l , o r t h i s ma y b e s e e n a s a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t r i t u a l , p u r g in g t h e

I s r a e l i t e s o f i n t e n t io n a l s i n s , wh ic h ma y n o t h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d b y t h e p r e v io u s

set of r i tua ls . At any ra te , the goat is l i te ra l ly carry ing off the s ins of the people ,

removing them to an a rea ou ts ide o f c iv i l i za t ion , to "an inaccess ib le reg ion" (Lev .

16 :22 ) . T he ac t ion s o f A aro n h igh l igh t the ro le o f the goa t . For o t he r sac r i f ices ,

t h e p e r s o n o f f e r in g t h e a n im a l is t o ld t o p l a c e o n e h a n d o n t h e s a c r i fi c e ( 3 :8 , 1 3 ;4 :4 , 2 9 , 3 3 ) a s a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s i s h i s o r h e r a n ima l . He r e , h o we v e r , Aa r o n

p l a c e s b o t h of h i s h a n d s o n t h e a n i m a l — a u n i q u e ac t w i t h i n t h e B i b l e — t h r o u g h

w h i c h h e t r a n s f e r s t h e s in s o n to t h e a n im a l .

The word "Azaze l" appears four t imes in Lev i t icus 16 (w. 8 , 10 [ twice ] , 26 ) .

I t i s e ty m o lo g ic a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a in , n o t f i t t i n g t h e t h r e e - l e t t e r p a t t e r n t y p i c a l

o f H e b r e w r o o t s . N o r i s c o n t e x t p a r t i c u l a r ly h e lp f u l i n c l a r i f y in g i ts p r e c i s e

me a n in g . Th e S e p tu a g in t ( t h e Gr e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B ib l e ) u n d e r s to o d i t t o

m e a n " s c a p e g o a t , " w h i c h i s q u i t e s u i t a b l e f o r v e r s e s 8 a n d 1 0 a , b u t l es s l i k e ly f o r

1 0 b a n d 2 6 . S o m e u n d e r s t a n d it t o b e a p l a c e - n a m e . A l te r n at iv e ly , s o m e u n d e r -

s t a n d Az a z e l t o m e a n " f o r t h e e l im in a t io n o f d iv in e a n g e r . " 2 0 T h i s m a y b e m o r e

s a t i s f a c to r y f r o m a m o d e r n t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t is e t y m o l o g i c a l l y u n l i k e -

ly. T h e m o s t l i k e ly e x p la n a t io n d e r iv e s f r o m th e p a r a l l e l i s m o f v e r s e 8 , " o n e

m a r k e d f o r t h e L O R D a n d t h e o t h e r m a r k e d f o r A z a z e l, " w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h e

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a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n — f o u n d i n a w i d e ra n g e o f s o u r c e s — t h a t A z a ze l w a s t h e n a m e

o f a d e m o n .2 1

T h i s r i tu a l w o u l d t h e n b e a r e m n a n t o f a n o l d e r p r e b i b l i c a l r i t u -

a l, s o m e w h a t " I sr a el i ti z ed , " p r o p i t i a t i n g a m a l e v o l e n t w i l d e r n e s s d e m o n .

T h e d e f in i t i o n o f A z a z e l i s l i k e ly a n i n t r a c t a b l e p r o b l e m . N e v e r th e l e s s , it i s

c l ea r t h a t t h e r i tu a l p e r f o r m e d i n L e v i t ic u s 1 6 : 2 0 - 2 2 c o m p l e m e n t s t h e e a rl i er

r i t u a l , s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e w i t h t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f

I s r a e l t h r o u g h t h i s r i t e o f e l im in a t i o n .

T h e r es t o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s a n t i c l i m a c t i c , t y i n g t o g e t h e r l o o s e e n d s .

Spec i f ic a l ly , i t dea l s wi th f ina l a c t ions o f a l l o f the pa r t i c ipan ts in the r i tua l s—

A a r o n , w h o p u r g e d t h e T e m p l e ( L e v . 1 6 : 2 3 - 2 5 ) , t h e p e r s o n w h o l e d t h e s c a p e -

g o a t (v. 2 6 ) , a n d t h e p e r s o n w h o b u r n e d t h e c a r c a s s e s o f t h e a n i m a l s w h o s e

b l o o d w a s u s e d f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n ( w . 2 7 - 2 8 ) . A ll o f t h e s e p e o p l e c a m e i n t o c o n -

t ac t w i t h e i t h e r s u p e r c h a r g e d h o l i n e s s , s u p e r c h a r g e d i m p u r i t y , o r b o t h , a n d t h u s

t h e y r e q u i r e r i t u a l p u r i f i c a t i o n b e f o r e r e s u m i n g n o r m a l l i f e .

Refraining the Ritual

T h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o L e v i t i c u s 1 6 m a y s u g g e s t t h a t it w a s a ritu -

a l t o b e p e r f o r m e d a s n e e d e d t o p u r i f y t h e s a n c t u a r y : " T h e L O R D s a id t o M o s e s :

"T el l y o u r b r o th e r A a r o n t h a t h e i s n o t t o c o m e a t w i l l i n to t h e S h r in e . . . T h u s

o n l y s h a l l A a r o n e n t e r t h e S h r i n e " ( w . 2 - 3 ) . N o p a r t i c u l a r t i m e is s p e c i f i e d f o r

t h i s r i t u a l. O n e w o u l d e x p e c t it t o b e p e r f o r m e d a s n e e d e d — f o r e x a m p l e , a f t e r

t h e p o l l u t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e t h r o u g h c o r p s e c o n t a m i n a t i o n , a s w h e n N a d a b a n d

A b i h u d i e d i n t h e T a b e r n a c l e ( v. 1; s e e a b o v e , "T h e I n s id e R i tu a l " ) .

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , v e r s e s 2 9 - 3 4 m a y n o t b e a n o r i g in a l p a r t o f L e v i t i c u s 1 6 .

T h e y f u r t h e r r i tu a l i ze th e p u r i f i c a t i o n c e r e m o n y b y f ix i n g w h e n i t s h o u l d t r a n -

s p i r e : o n t h e t e n t h d a y of t h e s e v e n t h m o n t h , w h a t i s c a l l ed in L e v i t i c u s 2 3 : 2 7

Yom Ha-kippuiim, t h e D a y o f P u r g a t i o n ( o r A t o n e m e n t ) . T h i s a d d i t i o n s u p p l e -

m e n t s t h e r i t u a l s d e s c r i b e d e a r l ie r i n L e v i t i c u s 1 6 , w h i c h f o c u s o n t h e s a n c t u a r y

a n d A a r o n , w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t " y o u s h a l l p r a c t i c e s e l f - d e n i a l ; a n d y o u

s h a l l d o n o m a n n e r o f w o r k , n e i t h e r t h e c i t i z e n n o r t h e a l i e n w h o r e s i d e s a m o n g

y o u . . . . It s h a l l b e a s a b b a t h o f c o m p l e t e r e s t f o r y o u , a n d y o u s h a l l p r a c t i c e

s e l f -d e n i a l " ( w . 2 9 - 3 1 ) , a r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t is a p p l i c a b l e to t h e b r o a d e r c o m m u -n i ty , n o t o n ly t o A a r o n a n d h i s ( p r i e s t l y ) f am i ly . T h i s b r o a d e r c o n c e r n i s t y p i c a l

o f t h e w o r k o f t h e H o l i n e s s S c h o o l , t h e g r o u p r e s p o n s i b l e f o r L e v i t i c u s 1 7 - 2 6 ,

w h i c h h a s a s i t s r e f r a in "Y ou s h a l l b e h o ly ." T h i s s c h o o l t e n d s t o d e m o c r a t i z e t h e

n a r r o w p r i e s t l y p e r s p e c t i v e s e e n e l s e w h e r e i n P r i e s t l y l i t e r a t u r e .2 2

A p p a r e n t l y t h e a u t h o r f r o m t h e H o l i n e s s S c h o o l b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s t y p e o f

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r i t u a l n e e d e d to b e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d a t a p a r t i c u l a r t im e , o n Yo m Kip p u r , im m e -

d ia te ly p r ec ed in g the fes t iva l o f Su kk o t . Bib l ica l ev ide nc e sug ges t s tha t Su kk o t

w a s the ma jo r f a l l f e s t i v a l . ( On ly i n p o s tb ib l i c a l t ime s d id Ro s h Ha s h a n a h , t h e

J e w i s h N e w Yea r c e l e b r a t e d o n t h e f i rs t d a y of t h e s e v e n th m o n th , n in e d a y s

b e f o r e Y o m K i p p u r a n d f o u r t e e n d a y s b e f o r e S u k k o t , b e c o m e c e n t ra l . ) T h e d e d -

i c a t i o n o f S o lo mo n s Te mp le wa s o n S u k k o t ( 1 K in g s 8 :2 ) , a n d i t i s S u k k o t t h a t

i s c e l e b r a t e d w i th g r e a t f a n f a r e d u r i n g t h e e a r ly p o s t e x i l i c p e r io d ( Ne h .

8 : 1 3 - 1 8 ) . T h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e f o r a n a n n u a l r i tu a l " h o u s e c l e a n i n g " w o u l d

b e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g S u k k o t .

Bu t th i s i s no t the on ly log ica l occ as io n fo r su ch a r i tua l . A no th er m a j o r fe s -

t iv a l c o m p l e x i s i n t h e s p r in g , c o m p r i s e d o f t h e o n e - d a y P e s a c h o r P a s s o v e r f e s-t iva l , fo l lowed by the seven-day Matzo t , o r Unleavened Bread , fe s t iva l (Lev .

2 3 : 5 - 8 ) . 2 3 T h u s , it s h o u ld n o t b e s u r p r i s in g t h a t a d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n d e v e lo p e d

t h a t w o u l d t i m e t h i s h o u s e c l e a n i n g t h e n . E z e k ie l 4 5 : 1 8 - 2 0 n o t e s :

(18) Thus sa id the Lord GOD: On the f i r s t day o f the f i r s t month , you

sha l l t ake a bu l l of the he rd w i th ou t b le m ish , an d yo u sha l l c lean se th e

Sanc tua ry . (19) The p r ies t sha l l t ake some o f the b lood o f the pur i f ica -

t ion o f fe r ing an d ap p ly it to the do or po s t s of the Te m ple , to the fo urcorners o f the ledge o f the a l ta r , and to the doorpos ts o f the ga te o f the

in n e r c o u r t . ( 2 0 ) Yo u s h a l l d o t h e s a me o n th e s e v e n th d a y o f t h e mo n th

t o p u r g e t h e T e m p l e f r o m u n c l e a n n e s s c a u s e d b y u n w i t t i n g o r i g n o r a n t

p e r s o n s .

If b o th t h i s a n d t h e Le v i ti c u s 1 6 r i t u a l we r e p e r f o r m e d , t h e Te m p le wo u ld b e

c l e a n s e d tw ic e a n n u a l ly , h e lp in g t o a s s u r e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e P r e s e n c e , w i th t h e

a t te nd an t p ro t ec t io n of a ll I s rae l.

Other Biblical Rituals

Th ere i s n o suc h th in g as the typ ica l b ib l ica l r i tua l . T he re f o r e the d i sc uss ion o f

th e s t r u c tu r e a n d me a n in g o f Le v i t i c u s 1 6 c a n n o t b e a p p l i e d t o a l l o th e r r i t u a l s .

However , we ana lyzed th i s example to show tha t r i tua l s—even those invo lv ing lo t s

o f e le m ent s an d lo t s o f b l oo d— ar e no t m ean ing l ess p resc r ib ed ac t ions . Ra the r ,they a re a se r ie s o f ac t iv i t ie s tha t have m ea n i ng a nd se rve pa r t icu la r fun c t ion s .

O th e r r i t u a l s s h o u ld b e a n a ly z e d s im i l a r ly . I n s o me c a s e s , t h e i r p u r p o s e i s

f a ir l y t r a n s p a r e n t f r o m th e im m e d ia t e b ib l i c a l c o n t e x t a lo n e . Co n s i d e r t h e r i t u a l

i n D e u t e r o n o m y 2 1 : 1 - 9 c o n c e r n i n g e x p i a t io n f or a h o m i c i d e w h e n t h e m u r d e r -

e r canno t be found . I t u ses b lood to c leanse the land : "do no t l e t gu i l t fo r the

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b l o o d of t h e i n n o c e n t r e m a i n a m o n g Yo u r p e o p l e I s r a e l" (v. 8 ) . W i t h t h i s i n

m i n d , it i s r e l at iv e l y e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d m u c h o f t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e r i t u a l . 2 4

H o w e v e r , m a n y r i t u a l s d o n o t d e t a i l t h e i r f u n c t i o n s o c l e a r l y . T h e i r m e a n i n g

r e m a i n s m o r e o p a q u e w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o o t h e r t y p e s o f a n a l y s i s . 2 5

L e v i t i c u s in p a r t i c u l a r is f u l l o f r i t u a l s . I n c o n t r a s t t o m a n y r i t u a l s f o u n d i n

o t h e r b i b l i c a l b o o k s , t h e s e m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d a t t h e s a n c t u a r y . T h i s i s b e c a u s e

L e v i t i c u s i s a P r i e s t l y b o o k , a n d t h e p r i e s t s ' l i ve s c e n t e r e d o n t h e T e m p l e . T h e r e

i s a s t r o n g s e n s e , o f t e n a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h r e p e t i t i o n , t h a t t h e s e r it u a l s m u s t

b e p e r f o r m e d e x a c t l y a s p r e s c r i b e d . T h i s i s m i r r o r e d i n t h e h i g h l y r e p e t i t i v e s e c -

t i o n s of E x o d u s 2 5 - 3 1 , 3 5 - 4 0 , w h i c h d e t a il t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e T a b e r n a c l e

a n d t h e ir f u l f i l l m e n t , a n d w h i c h c u l m i n a t e w i t h :

( 3 9 : 4 2 ) J u s t a s t h e L o r d h a d c o m m a n d e d M o s e s , s o t h e I s r a e li t es h a d

d o n e a l l t h e w o r k . ( 4 3 ) A n d w h e n M o s e s s a w t h a t t h e y h a d p e r f o r m e d

all t h e t a s k s — a s th e L o r d h a d c o m m a n d e d , s o t h e y h a d d o n e — M o s e s

b l e s s e d t h e m .

F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e P r i e s t l y a u t h o r , t h e r i t u a l s p r e s c r i b e d a r e d i v i n e

c o m m a n d m e n t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e it i s c r u c i a l t o f o l l o w t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n s e x a ct ly ,

i n s u r i n g d i v i n e s a t i s f a c t i o n , a n d t h u s h u m a n s u c c e s s . I n t h e w o r d s o f E x o d u s2 5 : 8 , "L e t t h e m m a k e M e a s a n c t u a r y t h a t I m a y d w e l l a m o n g t h e m . " T h i s

e x p l a i n s wh y s u c h r i t u a l s p l a y s u c h a c r u c i a l r o l e i n a n c i e n t I s r a e l i t e s o c i e t y , a n d

i n t h e s o c i e t i e s o f i t s n e i g h b o r s .

M a n y o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s l a c k a n e t h i c a l o r m o r a l c o m p o n e n t , a n d w e m i s u n -

d e r s t a n d ( o r " a n a c h r o n i z e " ) t h e m if w e c l a i m t h a t s u c h a c o m p o n e n t is i m p l i c i t .

W e a l s o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e f u n c t i o n o f r i t u a l i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . T h e t e x t s a r e

q u i t e c le a r : If t h e r i t u a l s a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d p r o p e r l y , if t h e b l o o d is s p r i n k l e d t h e

r i g h t n u m b e r o f t i m e s i n t h e c o r r e c t p l a c e , a n d t h e s c a p e g o a t b e a r i n g t h e s i n s i s

s a f e ly b r o u g h t t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s , t h e n t h e T e m p l e w il l b e c l e a n s e d , a n d t h e p e o -

p i e s s i n s w i l l b e a n n u l l e d . N o p r a y e r , c o n t r i t i o n , o r r e p e n t a n c e is n e c e s s a r y —

t h e r i t u a l by itself, if p r o p e r l y p e r f o r m e d , a s s u r e s t h e d i v i n e P r e s e n c e a n d d i v i n e

b l e s s i n g . 2 6

T h e b e l ie f t h a t r i tu a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s , if c a r e f u l l y f o l l o w e d , w i l l m a i n t a i n t h e

d i v i n e P r e s e n c e i s a p e c u l i a r l y P r i e s t l y v i ew . I t i s e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h i s

v i e w m i g h t d e v e l o p w i t h i n a g r o u p t h a t h a d t h e T e m p l e a n d i t s r i t u a l s a s t h e i r

c e n t e r . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , a s w e s h a l l s e e l a te r , d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s h a d o t h e r v i e w s

c o n c e r n i n g w h a t w o u l d l e ad t o d i v i n e b l e s s i n g . 2 ׳

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10

"In the Fortieth Year . . . MosesAddressed the Israe l i tes"

R e a d i n g D e u t e r o n o m y

Primary Reading: Deuteronomy (esp. chaps. 1, 4, 5, 12, 31).

A Pious Fraud

De u t e r o n o m y c o n t a i n s t h e lo n g e s t i n t r o d u c t o r y s e n t e n c e of a n y b i b l ic a l

b o o k :

(1 ) These a re the words tha t Moses addressed to a l l I s rae l on the o the r

s i d e o f t h e J o r d a n — t h r o u g h t h e w i l d e r n e s s , i n t h e A r a b a h n e a r S u p h ,

b e twe e n P a r a n a n d To p h e l , La b a n , Ha z e r o th , a n d D i - z a h a b , ( 2 ) i t i s

e l e v e n d a y s f r o m H o r e b t o K a d e s h - b a r n e a b y t h e M o u n t Se ir r o u t e —

(3) i t was in the fo r t ie th yea r , on the f i r s t day o f the e leven th month ,

t h a t M o s e s a d d r e s s e d t h e I s r a e l i t e s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s

tha t the L O R D h a d g iv e n h i m f o r t h e m , ( 4 ) a f t e r h e h a d d e f e a t e d S ih o n

k in g o f t h e Amo r i t e s , wh o d we l t i n He s h b o n , a n d K in g Og o f Ba s h a n ,

wh o d we l t a t As h ta r o th a n d Ed r e i , ( 5 ) o n t h e o th e r s i d e o f t h e J o r d a n ,

in t h e l a n d o f M o a b , M o s e s u n d e r to o k to e x p o u n d th i s Te a c h in g ; h e

s a id : ( t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) .

The long l i s t o f de ta i l s g iven he re has a s imple func t ion : to leg i t imize the book

as a who le . I t i s ano the r way o f say ing : " I am au then t ic . " There i s a good reason

th a t De u t e r o n o m y in p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s t o b e l e g i t ima te d i n t h i s wa y s o m u c h o f

the bo ok re pe a ts na r ra t iv es an d lega l m a te r ia l f rom ea r l ie r in the T orah .

D e u t e r o n o m y 5 , f o r e x a m p l e , r e c o u n t s t he D e c a l o g u e o f E x o d u s 2 0 . T h e s e c o n d

ha l f o f ch ap te r 1 re te l l s the s to ry of the sp ies , fou nd in N u m b e rs 1 3 -1 4 . I t s fe s -

t iv a l c a l e n d a r in c h a p t e r 1 6 r e s e m b l e s th e o n e f o u n d i n E x o d u s 2 3 : 1 4 - 1 9 . F o r

g o o d r e a s o n , t h e b o o k i s c a ll ed in E n g l i s h D e u t e r o n o m y — f r o m t h e G r e e k

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deutero-nomos, " s e c o n d l a w " — a n d in r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s mishnei torah, " a r e p e t i t i o n

o f t h e T o r a h . " A t f i r s t b l u s h , t h a t is p r e c i s e ly w h a t t h e b o o k i s: M o s e s ' r e p e t i t i o n

o f s e l e c t e d e a r l i e r l a w s a n d n a r r a t i v e s a s h i s v a l e d i c to r y a d d r e s s .

T h e r e p e t i t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s f a r f r o m e x a c t . E v e n t h e D e c a l o g u e , w h i c h c l a i m s

t o b e t h e w o r d s t h a t t h e L O R D s p o k e ( " t h os e a n d n o m o r e — t o y o u r w h o l e c o n -

g r e g a t i o n a t t h e m o u n t a i n " ; D e u t . 5 : 1 9 ) , d o e s n o t r e p l i c a t e e x a c t l y t h e w o r d s

f o u n d i n E x o d u s 2 0 . M o s t e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e S a b b a t h u t t e r a n c e , b u t n o t o n l y

t h e r e , t h e t ex t o f D e u t e r o n o m y d e v i a t e s s ig n i f i c an t l y f r o m E x o d u s .1

In f ac t , tha t

u t t e r a n c e h a s b e e n " D e u t e r o n o m i z e d , " t h a t is , m a d e to f it t h e t h e o l o g y a n d l a n -

g u a g e of t h e b o o k o f D e u t e r o n o m y , w h i c h h a s n o k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s e v e n - d a y

c r e a t i o n m e n t i o n e d i n G e n e s i s 1 a n d E x o d u s 2 0 , b u t i s f u l l o f r e f e r e n c e s t o t h eE x o d u s , a m a j o r t h e m e in D e u t e r o n o m y .

2

T h e s o - c a l l e d s p y s t o r y is a l s o r e v i s e d i n a n u m b e r o f s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s . F o r

e x a m p l e , a c c o r d i n g to N u m b e r s 1 3 : 2 , it w a s G o d w h o i n i ti a t e d t h e s e n d i n g of

t h e s c o u t s , w h i l e a c c o r d i n g to D e u t e r o n o m y 1 : 2 2 - 2 3 , t h i s w a s t h e p e o p l e ' s i d e a ,

w h i c h M o s e s a p p r o v e d . A c c o r d i n g t o N u m b e r s 1 3 : 2 , e a c h tr ib e 's c h i e f t a i n w a s

s e n t , w h i l e D e u t e r o n o m y 1 : 2 3 n o t e s o n l y t h a t " o n e f r o m e a c h t ri b e " w a s s e n t .

M a n y o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e c i t e d .

L e g al t r a d i t i o n s a r e e q u a l l y f l ex i b l e . T h o u g h t h e r e ar e m a n y s i m i l a r i t i es

b e t w e e n t h e f e st iv a l c a l e n d a r s i n E x o d u s 2 3 a n d D e u t e r o n o m y 1 6 , t h e r e a r e

m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s a s w e l l . T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s i n c l u d e a n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e a r e o n l y

t h r e e p i l g r i m a g e f e s ti v al s, i n c u m b e n t u p o n m a l e s on ly . E x o d u s 2 3 : 1 7 r e a d s ,

"T h r e e t im e s a y e a r a ll y o u r m a le s s h a l l a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e S o v e r e ig n , t h e L O R D , "

c o m p a r e d t o D e u t e r o n o m y 1 6 : 1 6 , " T h r e e t i m e s a y e a r — o n t h e F e a s t o f

U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d , o n t h e F e as t o f W e e k s , a n d o n t h e F e a s t o f B o o t h s — a l l y o u r

m a l e s s h a l l a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e L O R D y o u r G o d i n t h e p l a c e t h a t H e w i l l c h o o s e . "I n b o t h t h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f R o s h H a s h a n a h ( N e w Y ea r) o r Y o m K i p p u r ( t h e

D a y of A t o n e m e n t ) , f o u n d in t h e P r ie s t l y c a l e n d a r of L e v i t i c u s 2 3 . T h e d i f f e r -

e n c e s a r e a l s o q u i t e s t r i k in g . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e fa ll f e s t iv a l i s n o t e d i n q u i t e b r i e f

t e r m s i n E x o d u s 2 3 : 1 6 , " a n d t h e F e a s t o f I n g a t h e r i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r ,

w h e n y o u g a t h e r i n t h e r e s u l t s o f y o u r w o r k f r o m t h e f i el d . " I t i s r e n a m e d ,

e x p a n d e d , a n d c h a n g e d q u i t e s i g n i f ic a n t l y i n D e u t e r o n o m y 1 6:

( 1 3 ) A f t e r t h e i n g a t h e r i n g f r o m y o u r t h r e s h i n g f l o o r a n d y o u r v a t ,y o u s h a l l h o ld t h e F e a s t o f B o o th s f o r s e v e n d a y s . ( 1 4 ) Y o u s h a l l

r e j o i c e i n y o u r f e st i v al , w i t h y o u r s o n a n d d a u g h t e r , y o u r m a l e a n d

f e m a le s l a v e , t h e L e v i t e , t h e s t r a n g e r , t h e f a th e r l e s s , a n d t h e w id o w

i n y o u r c o m m u n i t i e s . ( 1 5 ) Y o u s h a l l h o l d a f e s t i v a l f o r t h e L O R D

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y o u r G o d s e v e n d a y s , i n t h e p l a c e t h a t t h e L O R D w i l l c h o o s e ; f o r t h e

L O R D y o u r G o d w i ll b l e s s a ll y o u r c r o p s a n d a ll y o u r u n d e r t a k i n g s ,

a n d y o u s h a l l h a v e n o t h i n g b u t j o y .

T h e n a m e o f t h e f e s ti v a l h a s b e e n c h a n g e d , it i s c e l e b r a t e d f o r a p r e s c r i b e d t i m e

p e r i o d , a n d it m u s t b e h e ld " i n t h e p l a c e t h a t t h e L O R D w i l l c h o o s e , " g e n e r a l l y

u n d e r s t o o d t o b e J e r u s a l e m . V a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f t h e u n d e r c l a s s a r e m e n t i o n e d

a s i n c l u d e d , a n d d i v i n e b l e s s i n g is e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n e d a s t h e r e w a r d f o r i t s e e l -

e b r a t i o n .

T h e s e c h a n g e s of e a r l ie r n a r r a t i v e a n d l eg a l m a t e r i a l t y p i f y D e u t e r o n o m y3

( a n d m a n y m o r e s u c h e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e c i t e d ) .4

T h e y a r e a l l t h e m o r e s t r i k i n g

g i v e n t h a t D e u t e r o n o m y n o t e s : "Y ou s h a l l n o t a d d a n y t h i n g to w h a t I c o m m a n d

y o u o r t a k e a n y t h i n g a w a y f r o m i t " ( 4 : 2 ) , a n d " B e c a r e f u l t o o b s e r v e o n l y t h a t

w h i c h I e n j o i n u p o n y o u : n e i t h e r a d d t o it n o r t a k e a w a y f r o m i t" ( 1 3 : 1 ) . Yet it

t a m p e r s w i t h i ts s o u r c e s e x t e n s iv e l y .5

T h e s e f a c t o r s a ll s u g g e s t a s p e c i a l o r i g i n f o r D e u t e r o n o m y . I n d e e d , b o t h t r a -

d i t i o n a l J e w i s h a n d m o d e r n c r it i ca l s c h o l a r s h i p h a v e c o n n e c t e d it t o t h e b o o k

f o u n d , a c c o r d i n g t o 2 K i n g s 2 2 : 8 , in th e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e w h e n K i n g j o s i a h o f

J u d a h p u r i f i e d a n d r e n o v a t e d t h e T e m p l e i n 6 2 2 B . C . E .

6

A S a r e s u l t o f r e a d in g t h i sb o o k , J o s i a h e n a c t s s e v e r a l r e f o r m s ( s e e 2 K i n g s 2 3 ) t h a t r e s o n a t e r e m a r k a b l y

w i t h t h e l a w s i n D e u t e r o n o m y , e s p e c i a l ly t h e l a w s e m p h a s i z e d t h e r e c o n c e r n i n g

w o r s h i p p i n g o n e G o d i n a u n i f i e d f a s h i o n i n o n e T e m p l e (i n J e r u s a l e m ) .

A c c o r d i n g to t h e r a b b i n i c p e r s p e c t iv e , D e u t e r o n o m y w a s h i d d e n a w a y b y t h e

a p o s t a t e k i n g M a n a s s e h , w h o r e i g n e d t w o k i n g s b e f o r e J o s i a h . T h e c ri t ic a l p o s i -

t i o n s u g g e s t s i n s t e a d t h a t t h e b o o k " d i s c o v e r e d " i n t h e T e m p l e w a s t h e p r o d u c t

o f t h e s c r i b e s o f J o s i a h s c o u r t , a l t h o u g h i t m a y i n c o r p o r a t e s t il l e a r l i e r w o r k s ,

p e r h a p s o f N o r t h e r n I s r a e li t e o r i g i n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e g r e a t b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r

W i l h e l m M a r t i n L e b r e c h t d e W e t t e c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e c o r e o r o r i g i n a l t e x t o f

D e u t e r o n o m y7

as "a p ious fo rge ry . "

S o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o l a r s f o l lo w d e W e t t e 's o p i n i o n , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t v e r s-

e s s u c h a s D e u t e r o n o m y 4 : 2 a n d 1 3 : 1 a r e i n s e r t e d t o c o v e r u p t h e n a t u r e of t h e

b o o k a s a f o r g e ry . O th e r s s e e t h e s e v e r s e s a s t y p i c a l a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n r h e to -

r i c , i n w h ic h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s d e p i c t e d a s a l e g i t im a t e r e s t a t e m e n t of e a r l i e r t r a -

d i t i o n s .

8

T h i s i d e a e x t e n d s b e y o n d t h e b i b l i c a l p e r i o d ; t h e g r e a t f i r s t - c e n t u r y - c . E .J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n J o s e p h u s r e w r i t e s t h e B i bl e q u i t e r a d i c a ll y i n h i s Antiquities, y e t

h e t o o s t a t e s ( 1 . 1 7 ) : "T h e p r e c i s e d e t a i l s o f o u r S c r ip tu r e r e c o r d s w i l l , t h e n , b e s e t

f o r t h , e a c h i n it s p l a c e as m y n a r r a t i v e p r o c e e d s . . . n e i t h e r a d d i n g n o r o m i t t i n g

a n y t h i n g . "9

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Comparing Peaches and Nectarines

C o m p a r i s o n i s a n e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l t o o l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g b i b l ic a l t e x ts . It i s

g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n o f E x o d u s s e r v e d as t h e

b a s i s f o r m u c h o f t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c l a w c o l l e c t i o n , a n d w a s r e v i s e d e x t e n s i v e -

ly .1 0

T h e l a w s c o n c e r n i n g t h e H e b r e w s l a v e i n b o t h c o l l e c t i o n s w i l l b e c o m p a r e d

h e r e t o s e e t h e d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f D e u t e r o n o m y . W e w i l l t h e n b e a b l e t o

e x p l o r e i n g r e a t e r d e t a il w h e n a n d w h y t h e s e m i g h t h a v e d e v e l o p e d .

T h e t w o l a w s a r e r e p r o d u c e d b e l o w .

Deuteronomy 15

( 1 2 ) If a f e l l o w H e b r e w , m a n o r

w o m a n , is s o l d t o y o u , h e s h a l l s e r v e

y o u s ix y e a r s , a n d i n t h e s e v e n t h y e a r

y o u s h a l l s e t h i m f r e e . ( 1 3 ) W h e n y o u

s e t h i m f r e e , d o n o t le t h i m g o e m p t y -

h a n d e d : ( 1 4 ) F u r n i s h h i m o u t o f t h e

f l o c k , t h r e s h i n g f l o o r , a n d v a t , w i t hw h i c h t h e L O R D y o u r G o d h a s b l e s s e d

y o u . ( 1 5 ) B ea r i n m i n d t h a t y o u w e r e

s l a v e s i n t h e l a n d o f E g y p t a n d t h e

L O R D y o u r G o d r e d e e m e d y o u ; t h e r e -

f o re I e n j o i n t h is c o m m a n d m e n t u p o n

y o u t o d a y . ( 1 6 ) B u t s h o u ld h e s a y t o

y o u , "I d o n o t w a n t t o l e av e y o u " — f o r

h e l o v es y o u a n d y o u r h o u s e h o l d a n d

i s h a p p y w i t h y o u — ( 1 7 ) y o u s h a ll

t a k e a n a w l a n d p u t i t t h r o u g h h i s e a r

i n t o t h e d o o r , a n d h e s h a l l b e c o m e

y o u r s l av e i n p e r p e t u i t y D o t h e s a m e

w i t h y o u r f e m a l e s la v e . ( 1 8 ) W h e n y o u

d o s e t h im f r e e , d o n o t f e e l a g g r i e v e d ;

f o r i n t h e s ix y e a r s h e h a s g iv e n y o u

d o u b l e t h e s e r v i c e o f a h i r e d m a n .

M o r e o v e r , t h e L O R D y o u r G o d w i l l

b l e s s y o u i n a l l y o u d o .

Exodus 21

( 2 ) W h e n y o u a c q u i r e a H e b r e w s l a v e ,

h e s h a l l s e r v e s i x y e a r s ; i n t h e s e v e n t h

y e a r h e s h a l l g o f r e e , w i t h o u t p a y m e n t .

(3 ) If h e ca m e s ing l e , h e sha l l l e a ve

s ing le ; i f he had a wi fe , h i s wi fe sha l l

l e a v e w i t h h im . ( 4 ) If h i s m a s t e r g a v e

h i m a w i f e , a n d s h e h a s b o r n e h i mc h i l d r e n , t h e w i f e a n d h e r c h i l d r e n

s h a l l b e l o n g t o t h e m a s t e r , a n d h e s h a l l

l e a v e a l o n e . ( 5 ) B u t if t h e s l a v e

d e c l a r e s , "I l o v e m y m a s t e r , a n d m y

w i f e a n d c h i l d r e n : 1 d o n o t w i s h t o

g o f r e e , " ( 6 ) h i s m a s t e r s h a l l t a k e h i m

b e f o r e G o d . H e s h a l l b e b r o u g h t t o

t h e d o o r o r t h e d o o r p o s t , a n d h i s m a s -

t e r s h a l l p i e r c e h i s e a r w i th a n a w l ; a n d

h e s h a l l t h e n r e m a in h i s s l a v e f o r l i f e .

( 7 ) W h e n a m a n s e ll s h i s d a u g h t e r a s a

s l a v e , s h e s h a l l n o t b e f r e e d a s m a le

s lav es a re . (8 ) If sh e p r ov es to b e d i s -

p l e a s i n g t o h e r m a s t e r , w h o d e s i g n a t e d

h e r f o r h i m s e l f , h e m u s t le t h e r b e

r e d e e m e d ; h e s h a l l n o t h a v e t h e r i g h t

t o s e l l h e r t o o u t s i d e r s , s i n c e h e b r o k e

f a i t h w i t h h e r . ( 9 ) A n d i f h e d e s i g n a t e d

h e r f o r h i s s o n , h e s h a l l d e a l w i t h h e r

a s i s t h e p r a c t i c e w i t h f r e e m a i d e n s .

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( 1 0 ) If h e ma r r i e s a n o th e r , h e m u s t n o t

w i t h h o l d f r o m th i s o n e h e r f o o d , h e r

c lo th ing , o r he r con juga l r igh ts . (11) I f

he fa i l s he r in thes e th ree w ays , shes h a l l g o f r e e , w i th o u t p a y m e n t .

Th e f o r ma l s im i l a r i t i e s i n c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c tu r e s u p p o r t t h e n o t io n t h a t t h e s e

t e x t s a r e g e n e t i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d ; i n t h i s c a s e , t h a t De u te r o n o my k n e w a n d r e v i s e d

Exodus . Some o f the rev is ions a re minor , and may be s ty l i s t i c on ly , fo r example ,

t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e sl av e 's b e in g " a c q u i r e d " i n Ex o d u s , a n d b e in g " s o ld t o

y o u " i n De u te r o n o my . M a n y , h o we v e r , a r e q u i t e ma jo r , i n c lu d in g t h e wa y in

which the female s lave i s d i scussed : she i s in he r own ca tegory in Exodus , wh i le

in D e u te r o n o m y s h e i s t r e a t e d t h e s a m e as t h e ma le .

S e v e ra l d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e s e t e x t s a r e e s p e c i a l l y im p o r t a n t . D e u t e r o n -

o my o mi t s t h e s u b c a s e s d e a l i n g w i th t h e s l a v e ' s w i f e —p e r h a p s i t d id n o t a g r e e

w i th the idea tha t a b ou gh t s lave co u ld be used to s i re fu tu re s laves fo r the m as-

t e r , a s Ex o d u s 2 1 :4 imp l i e s . 1 1 In fac t , a t the ve ry p lace wh er e tha t l eg is la t ion w as

e x p e c t e d , De u t e r o n o m y n o te s : " ( 1 3 ) W h e n y o u s et h i m f r e e , d o n o t le t h i m g o

e m p t y - h a n d e d : ( 1 4 ) F u r n i s h h i m o u t of t h e f l o c k , t h r e s h in g f l oo r , a n d v a t, w i thw h i c h t h e L O R D y o u r G o d h a s b l e s s e d y o u . ( 1 5 ) Bear in mind tha t you were

slaves in the land of Egypt and the L O R D y o u r G o d r e d e e m e d y o u ; t h e r e f o r e I

e n j o i n t h is c o m m a n d m e n t u p o n y o u to da y. " T h i s i n t r o d u c e s t w o m a j o r t h e m e s

of D e u t e r o n o m y : it s h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m , a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e E x o d u s f r o m

E g y p t — w h i c h i s u s e d a s a m o t i v e c l a u s e i n m a n y l a w s . 1 2

Th e s u b c a s e o f t h e s l a v e wh o wa n t s t o s t a y w i th h i s ma s t e r a p p e a r s i n b o th

bo ok s , wi t h a s ign i f ican t chan ge : the r i tua l of p ie rc in g the ea r (no t the ea r lobe! )

w i th a n a wl i n Ex o d u s t r a n s p i r e s " b e f o r e Go d " (v. 6 ) , wh i l e i n De u te r o n o m y i t

t akes p lace a t " the [mas te r ' s ] door" (v . 17 ) . Exodus a l lows God to be worsh ipped

a t a p lu r a l i t y o f s a n c tu a r i e s ; i n t h e wo r d s o f Ex o d u s 2 0 :2 1 : "Make fo r Me an a l ta r

o f ea r th an d sac r i f ice on i t yo ur bu rn t o f fe r ing s an d yo ur sac r i f ices o f we l l - be in g ,

y o u r s h e e p a n d y o u r o x e n ; i n e ve ry p l a c e wh e r e I c a u s e M y n a m e to b e m e n -

t i o n e d I w i l l c o m e to y o u a n d b l e s s y o u . " Th i s f i ts w i th m a n y t r a d i t i o n s f o u n d

in Genes is , where the ances to rs bu i l t a l t a r s fo r God in a va r ie ty o f p laces ( see ,

e . g . , 2 2 :1 3 ; 4 6 :1 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , a c o r n e r s to n e o f De u te r o n o m y ' s t h e o lo g y is t h a tG o d m u s t p r o p e r l y b e w o r s h i p p e d o n l y i n t h e one p la c e t h a t Go d h a s c h o s e n f o r

h is name to dwel l . Th is i s no t on ly the co re theme o f the f i r s t l ega l sec t ion in

D e u te r o n o m y ( c h a p . 1 2 ) , b u t a l s o m a n i f e s t s i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t r e v i s io n of ma n y

e a r l i e r l a ws . 1 3 Th us , re t u r n i ng to the s lave laws , it i s n o w c lea r w hy D eu te r -

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o n o my c o n v e r t s a r i t u a l t h a t wa s t a k in g p l a c e a t l o c a l s a n c tu a r i e s i n to a p r iv a t e ,

home r i tua l : i t does no t wan t to t roub le the s laveowner and s lave to t rave l to

J e r u s a l e m t o p e r f o r m t h e r i t e . 1 4

D e u te r o n o m y h a s al s o c h a n g e d th e wa y in w h i c h t h e f e m a le s la v e i s t r e a t e d .

Al though the na tu re o f the case in Exodus i s no t ce r ta in , i t i s l ike ly to be tha t o f

a m in o r d a u g h t e r w h o i s s o ld i n to s l a v e r y b y h e r f a th e r . ^ By o m i t t i n g th i s c a s e,

an d ins tea d ins i s t in g twice (w . 12 , 17 ) tha t the fem ale sh ou ld be t rea te d as the

ma le , D e u te r o n o m y is r e m o v in g th i s p o s sib il it y .

F ina ll y , t h e e n d o f De u te r o n o m y ' s t e x t p r o v id e s a m o t iv e f o r w h y th e m a s t e r

s h o u ld n o t f e el b a d w h e n r e l e a s in g a s l a v e a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n th y e a r — " f o r

in t h e s ix y e a r s h e h a s g iv e n y o u d o u b l e t h e s e rv i c e o f a h i r e d m a n " — in o th e rwo r d s , t h e s l a v e wa s a l r e a d y a g o o d b u y , s o d o n o t b e t e mp te d t o t a k e f u r th e r

ad va n ta ge o f the s i tu a t io n . Th e a r gu m en t to re lease the s lave he re i s secu la r a nd

lo g i c a l r a th e r t h a n r e l i g io u s a n d s y mb o l i c .

T h i s c o m p a r i s o n b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s s e v e r al f u n d a m e n t a l f e a t u r e s of

D e u t e r o n o m y : i t s f o c u s o n c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of w o r s h i p , i ts h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m , i t s

b e t t e r m e n t o f t h e s t a tu s o f w o m e n , a n d i t s a t t e m p t t o u s e s e c u l a r lo g ic t o c o n -

vin ce Israe l i tes to fo l l ow divin e law. Is th er e any socia l or h is tor i ca l se t of even ts

th a t c a n h e lp e x p la in t h e s e r e ma r k a b ly d iv e r s e c h a n g e s ?

Deuteronomy as a Treaty

D e u t e r o n o m y o f f e r s a f i na l c l u e th a t m i g h t h e l p u n d e r s t a n d i ts o r i g in a n d m e a n -

ing : i t s s t r uc tu re , w h i ch i s un l ik e tha t o f an y o the r b ib l ica l bo ok . In i ti a l ly it s

f o r m a t l o o k s s i m i l a r t o L e v i t i c u s : b o t h b o o k s a r e c o m p r i s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f

l a ws , a n d b o th h a v e l o n g p a s s a g e s t o wa r d t h e e n d th a t o u t l i n e t h e r e s u l t s o f

f o l l o w i n g — a n d i n m u c h g r e a t e r d e t a i l , a b r o g a t i n g — t h e s e l a w s ( L e v i t i c u s 2 6 ;

D e u te r o n o m y 2 8 ) . Ho w e v e r , t h e tw o s t r u c tu r e s d i f f e r g r e a t l y a s we l l : Le v i t ic u s

b e g in s w i th l a ws , wh e r e a s t h e ma in l e g a l s e c t i o n o f De u te r o n o my b e g in s i n

c h a p t e r 1 2. F u r t h e r m o r e , w h i l e t h e s e t w o b o o k s ' l a w s o v e r l a p s o m e w h a t ( e s p e -

d a i ly t h e l a ws c o n c e r n in g p e r m i t t e d a n d p r o h ib i t e d a n im a l s i n Le v i t i c u s 1 1 a n d

De u te r o n o my 1 4 , t h e l a ws o f k e e p in g k o s h e r , a s t h e y a r e c a l l e d i n p o s tb ib l i c a l

l i t e ra t u re ) , the i r d i f fe ren ces a re fa r g rea te r . (Pa r t ly fo r th i s reas on , c r i t i ca l sch o l -a r s h a v e c o n c lu d e d th a t t h e s e b o o k s h a v e d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t t ime

p e r io d s , a n d mo r e imp o r t a n t , t h e y a r i se f r o m d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s . )

O n t h e c r u d e s t s c a l e , t h e n , D e u t e r o n o m y m a y b e a n a l y z e d a s I n t r o d u c t i o n

( c h a p s . 1 - 1 1 ) , L eg al C o r e ( 1 2 - 2 6 ) , a n d C o n c l u s i o n ( 2 7 - 3 4 1 6 ) . Th i s s t r u c tu r e i s

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s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e L a w s o f H a m m u r a b i , w h i c h is c o m p r i s e d o f l a w s f l a n k e d

b y a n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n c l u s i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n t e n t s a n d f u n c t i o n o f

H a m m u r a b i ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n c l u s i o n a r e v a s tl y d i f f e r e n t i n c o n t e n t , g o a l ,

a n d v o c a b u l a r y f r o m t h a t f o u n d i n D e u t e r o n o m y , s o it i s u n l i k e l y t h e y i n f l u -

e n c e d t h i s b i b l i c a l t e x t .

H a lf a c e n t u r y a g o , G e o r g e E. M e n d e n h a l l n o t e d t h a t D e u t e r o n o m y s h a r e d

t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s e c o n d - m i l l e n n i u m - B . C . E . H i t t i t e t r e a t i e s . 1 7 T h e H i t t i t e s , w h o

l i v e d i n p a r t o f t h e a r e a of m o d e r n T u r k e y , w e r e a m a j o r p o w e r o f t h e s e c o n d

m i l l e n n i u m , h a v i n g s u b j u g a t e d a n u m b e r of N e a r E a s t e r n st a te s . It e n t e r e d i n t o

t r e a t i e s w i t h t h e s e s t a t e s t h a t c a s t t h e H i t t i t e k i n g a s o v e r l o r d ( o r " s u z e r a i n " ) a n d

t h e v a n q u i s h e d s t a t e a s v a s s a l. A s M e n d e n h a l l o b s e r v e d , t h e s e t r e a t i e s h a d s i g -

n i f i c a n t s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s t o D e u t e r o n o m y , w i t h b o t h c o n t a i n i n g t h e f o l l o w -

i n g e l e m e n t s : p r e a m b l e , h i s t o r i c a l p r o l o g u e , t r e a t y s t i p u l a t i o n s , p r o v i s i o n s f o r

d e p o s i t i n t h e t e m p l e a n d p e r i o d i c r e a d i n g s , w i t n e s s e s , a n d c u r s e s a n d b l e s s i n g s .

T h i s s u g g e s t e d t o M e n d e n h a l l t h a t t h e e a r l y I s r a e l it e s b o r r o w e d t h e c o v e n a n t

f o r m f r o m t h e H i t t i te s .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , D e u t e r o n o m y n e e d s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a t h e o l o g i z e d

t r e a t y — i n w h i c h G o d i s t h e o v e r l o r d a n d I s ra e l i s t h e v a s s a l. O f c o u r s e , s o m e

f e a t u r e s o f t h e H i t t i t e t r e a t i e s w e r e m o d i f i e d ; f o r e x a m p l e , r a t h e r t h a n c a l l i n gu p o n a v a r i e t y o f g o d s t o w i t n e s s t h e tr e at y , D e u t e r o n o m y c a ll s u p o n h e a v e n a n d

e a r t h ( 4 : 2 6 ; 3 2 : 1 ) , b u t s u c h a d a p t a t i o n s d o n o t n e g a t e t h e c l a i m t h a t D e u t e r -

o n o m y i s t h e r e l ig i o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l d o c u m e n t . T h e fa c t t h a t t h e

w o r d berit ( ת י ר ב ) m a y b e u s e d b o t h f o r a t r e a t y b e t w e e n I s ra e l a n d o t h e r

n a t i o n s , a n d a s a t e c h n i c a l t e r m f o r t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n I s ra e l a n d G o d , s u p -

p o r t s M e n d e n h a l l ' s i d e a .

M o s t b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s a c c e p t t h e i n s i g h t t h a t D e u t e r o n o m y n e e d s t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s a t re a ty . S i n c e M e n d e n h a l l ' s a r t i c l e w a s p u b l i s h e d , h o w e v e r , a

n u m b e r o f f i r s t - m i l l e n n i u m A s s y r i a n v a s s a l t r e a t i e s h a v e a l s o b e e n p u b l i s h e d .

M a n y n o w b e li e v e t h a t t h e E s a r h a d d o n t r e a t i e s o f t h e e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r y

( p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 5 8 ) h a v e c l o s e r a n d m o r e d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n s t o D e u t e r o n o m y

t h a n t h e e a r l i e r H i t t i t e t r e a t i e s . 1 8 I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e c u r s e s f o u n d i n D e u t e r o n o m y

2 8 ( b u t n o t i n L e v i t i c u s 2 6 ) s h o w s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o t h e V a s s a l T r e a t i e s o f

E s a r h a d d o n ( a b b r e v ia t e d V T E ) . F o r e x a m p l e , D e u t e r o n o m y 2 8 : 2 3 r e a d s: " T h e

s k i e s a b o v e y o u r h e a d s h a l l b e c o p p e r a n d t h e e a r t h u n d e r y o u i r o n , " a n d V T E5 2 8 - 3 1 r e a d s : " M a y t h e y [ t h e g o d s ] m a k e y o u r g r o u n d l i k e i r o n s o t h a t n o o n e

c a n p l o u g h [ c u t ] i t. J u s t a s r a i n d o e s n o t f al l f r o m a b r a z e n h e a v e n , s o m a y r a i n

a n d d e w n o t c o m e u p o n y o u r f ie l d s a n d p a s t u r e s . " 1 9

J u d a h w a s a v a s s a l o f A s s y r i a fo r m u c h o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . A l t h o u g h n o

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v a s s a l t r e a t i e s b e t w e e n J u d a h a n d A s sy r i a h a v e b e e n u n e a r t h e d , it i s l i k e ly t h a t

t h e t y p e of l a n g u a g e q u o t e d a b o v e w o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d in t r e a ti e s w i t h J u d a h ,

a n d t h u s c o u l d h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e r e f o r D e u t e r o n o m y .

T h i s p r o p o s e d c o n t e x t s u g g e s t s a c o u p l e of c o n c l u s i o n s . F i r s t, s u c h t r e a t i e s

p r o b a b l y w o u l d h a v e b e e n k n o w n o n l y a m o n g t h e m o r e e d u c a t e d c l a ss o r ro y a l

s c r i b e s , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h i s c l a s s m a y h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w r i t i n g

D e u t e r o n o m y . ( T h e n a t u r e of t h e a u t h o r [ s ] i s o f t e n d i s c u s s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e

" W i s d o m " i n f l u e n c e o n D e u t e r o n o m y . 2 0 ) S e c o n d , if D e u t e r o n o m y is a r e l i g io u s

a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l f o r m , i t s p o i n t m a y b e p o l e m i c a l : t r u e a l l e g i a n c e

b e l o n g s t o t h e G o d o f I s r a e l — n o t t o t h e A s s y r i a n o v e r l o r d s a n d t h e i r g o d s .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , le t u s re c al l t h a t D e u t e r o n o m y i s o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e" b o o k " d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e T e m p l e i n t h e l a t e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . A s I s a i d e a r l i e r ,

J u d a h w a s a v a s sa l o f A s s yr ia f o r t h e p r e c e d i n g d e c a d e s , d u r i n g w h i c h s o m e f o r m

o f D e u t e r o n o m y m i g h t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n . It m a y h a v e e v e n b e e n m e a n t t o a t ta c k

t h e t y p e o f A s s y r i a n w o r s h i p i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r y b y K i n g

M a n a s s e h , t h e g r e a t a p o s t a t e k i n g . By l a t e r i n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n

D e u t e r o n o m y w a s " f o u n d , " J u d a h w a s n o l o n g e r a v a s sa l of A s s y ri a , w h i c h w a s

b u s y f i g h t i n g a l o s i n g s e r i e s o f w a r s a g a i n s t t h e a s c e n d a n t B a b y l o n i a n s . It i s e a s y

t o u n d e r s t a n d i n t h i s c o n t e x t w h y t h e b o o k a r g u e s t h a t G o d ( r a t h e r t h a n s o m e

M e s o p o t a m i a n p o w e r ) is t h e t ru e o v e r l o r d , a n d t h a t t h e f o r m s o f w o r s h i p i n t r o -

d u c e d b y M a n a s s e h u n d e r A s s y r i a n i n f l u e n c e a r e o f f e n s i v e . 2 1

For the Love of God

U n d e r s t a n d i n g D e u t e r o n o m y a s a t h e o l o g i z e d p o l i ti c a l t re at y, i n w h i c h t h e o v e r -

l o r d is G o d a n d t h e v a s s a l i s I s r a e l, a f f e c t s h o w w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e b o o k a s a

w h o l e , a s w e l l a s s o m e o f i t s p a r t s . 2 2 C e r t a i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e b o o k — s u c h a s t h e

l o n g h i s t o r ic a l p r o l o g u e , t h e i n j u n c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e a d i n g of t h e b o o k

a n d it s s a f e k e e p i n g ( 3 1 : 9 - 1 3 , 2 6 ) , a n d it s i n t e r e s t i n w i t n e s s e s — a r e b e s t u n d e r -

s t o o d w i t h i n t h e b r o a d e r t r e a t y c o n t e x t . 2 3 M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y , A s s y r i a n t r e a t i e s

u s e c e r t a i n w o r d s a s t e c h n i c a l t e r m s ( t h a t i s , t h e y d o n o t h a v e t h e i r n o r m a l

m e a n i n g s ) ; it is l ik e l y t h a t D e u t e r o n o m y u s e s t h e i r H e b r e w e q u i v a l e n t s in t h e

s a m e w a y .F r o m t h e J e w i s h p e r s p e c t i v e , o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n s o f

D e u t e r o n o m y i s 6 : 4 - 9 , w h i c h b y e a r l y i n t h e r a b b i n i c p e r i o d w a s r e c i t e d a s a

p r a y e r c a l l e d t h e Shema a f t e r i t s f i r s t w o r d ( i t b e g i n s : shema yisrael, " H e a r , Ο

I s r a e l " ) . 2 4 B e f o re t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n D e u t e r o n o m y a n d

A s s y r i a n v a s s a l t r e a t i e s, t h e b e g i n n i n g of v e r s e 5 w a s t h e s u b j e c t o f m u c h d i s -

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cussion: "You shal l love the L O R D y o u r Go d w i th a ll y o u r h e a r t a n d w i th al l y o u r

s o u l a n d w i t h a ll y o u r m i g h t . " H o w c a n s u c h l o v e b e c o m m a n d e d ?

Th e Va ss al T r e a ti e s o f Es a r h a d d o n c l a r if i e s w h a t t h i s m e a n s . Th e m a in p u r -

p o s e of VTE i s t o a s s u r e t h e p r o p e r s u c c e s s io n o f A s h u r b a n ip a l , s o n o f

Esarhaddon , to the th rone a f te r the dea th o f h i s fa the r . (Rebe l l ions by vassa l s

we r e c o m m o n a f t e r a k in g 's d e a th . I n d e e d , a r e b e l l i o n h a d p r e c e d e d th e a c c è s -

s io n o f Es a r h a d d o n h ims e l f t o t h e t h r o n e . ) I n t h i s c o n n e c t io n , o n e o f t h e ma in

s t ip u la t io ns of VTE i s tha t the vassa l s m u s t " love the c r ow n p r in ce des ign a te

A s h u r b a n i p a l . " 2 5 In th i s con tex t , i t i s qu i te c lea r tha t no t emot iona l love , bu t

o b e d ie n c e i s b e in g s o u g h t . W i l l i a m M o r a n , wh o f i rs t n o t e d t h a t t h i s i s t h e l o v e

th a t De u te r o n o my a s we l l i s s e e k in g , c a l l e d i t " c o v e n a n ta l l o v e " a n d s u g g e s t e d

th a t it i s i d e n t i c a l w i th l o y a l ty a n d o b e d ie n c e . 2 6

T h i s h a s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r h o w w e s h o u l d r e a d

D e u te r o n o m y 6 :5 a n d w h a t f o l l o ws . M o s t t r a n s l a t i o n s , i n c lu d in g t h e J P S t r a n s -

la t ion , p u t a pe r io d a f te r ve rse 5 , sug ges t in g tha t love o f G od i s sep ara te f r om the

in ju n c t io n s t h a t fo l lo w . P r o b a b ly a b e t t e r p u n c tu a t i o n o f t h i s t e x t w o u ld b e :

You shal l love the L O R D y o u r G o d w i th a ll y o u r h e a r t a n d w i th a ll

y o u r s o u l a n d w i th a l l y o u r m ig h t : Ta k e t o h e a r t t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s

w i t h w h i c h I c h a r g e y o u t h i s d a y — i m p r e s s t h e m u p o n y o u r c h i l -

d r e n , r e c i t e t h e m wh e n y o u s t a y a t h o me a n d wh e n y o u a r e a wa y ,

w h e n y o u li e d o w n a n d w h e n y o u g et u p ; b in d t h e m a s a s i g n o n

y o u r h a n d a n d le t t h e m s e r v e a s a s y m b o l o n y o u r f o r e h e a d ;

in s c r ib e t h e m o n th e d o o r p o s t s of y o u r h o u s e a n d o n y o u r g a t e s .

I n t h i s r e a d i n g , " l o v e " — n a m e l y o b e d i e n c e a n d l o y a l t y — i s n o t i m p o r t a n t i n

i t se l f, bu t m a t te r s to the ex ten t tha t i t i s exp ress ed t h r ou gh co nc re te ac t io ns :

t e a c h i n g c h i l d r e n , r e c i t i n g t h e s e w o r d s , 2 7 b i n d i n g a n d i n s c r i b i n g t h e m . 2 H In the

s a m e w a y t h a t h u m a n l ov e c a n b e f ul l y s h o w n o n l y w h e n e m o t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d ,

l o ve o f G o d m u s t b e e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h a c t i o n s. W i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

t r e a ty b a c k g r o u n d o f D e u te r o n o m y , i t i s e a s y t o m i s s t h i s p o i n t , a n d t o i n s i s t—

a s s o m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s a n d i n t er p r e te r s h a v e — t h a t D e u t e r o n o m y c o m m a n d s

lo v e a s a n e m o t io n . Th e c o n te x t u a l , h i s to r i c a l - c r i t ic a l r e a d in g of t h e b o o k p r e -

ven ts th i s e r ro r .

Conclusion

D e u te r o n o m y i s a v e r y sp e c i a l b o o k . A lmo s t a n y p a s s a g e f r o m i t i s r e c o g n iz a b l e

in s t a n t ly d u e to i ts c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v o c a b u la r y a n d d i s t i n c t i v e p h r a s e s a n d

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r h y t h m s . 2 9 I ts i d e a s — e s p e c i a l l y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f w o r s h i p p i n g one Go d in one

f a s h io n a n d in one p lace (e .g . , " I t has been c lea r ly demons t ra ted to you tha t the

L O R D a lo n e i s G o d ; t h e r e is n o n e b e s id e H im" ; 4 : 3 5 ) 3 0 — a l s o se t i t apar t f rom the

r e s t o f t h e To r a h . A l th o u g h th e s e i d e a s b e c o m e c e n t r a l w i th in J u d a i s m , t h e y we r e

n o t e x p r e s s e d e a rl i e r i n s u c h c le a r, u n e q u iv o c a l t e r ms . Th e o r ig in a n d p u r p o s e

o f s o me o f t h e s e i d e a s ma y r e ma in u n c l e a r , 3 1 ye t read ing i t a s a re sponse to a sev -

e n th - c e n t u r y v as s a l t r e a ty im p o s e d o n J u d a h b y t h e As s y r i a n s h e lp s t o e x p l a in

m u c h of w h a t m a k e s D e u t e r o n o m y u n i q u e .

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"The Wal l s Came Tumbl ing Down"

R e a d i n g J o s h u a

Primary Reading: Joshua (esp. chaps. 1-12, 21, 23-24).

A Challenging Book to Read

J o s h u a i s a d i f f i c u l t b o o k f o r u s t o r e a d , f o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s . F i r s t , i t s m a i n

t h e m e i s t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l . F e w o f u s c a r e t o r e a d s t o r i e s o f

c o n q u e s t , b e c a u s e w a r e v o k e s g r e a t a m b i v a l e n c e . I t i s n ' t p r e t t y . D u r i n g t h er e c o u n t e d b a t t l e s , I s r a e l p r a c t i c e d cheirem ( ם ר ח ) , a b a n o r p r o s c r i p t i o n a g a i n s t

c o n q u e r e d p l a c e s — " e x t e r m i n a t [ i n g ] e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e c it y w i t h t h e s w o r d : m a n

a n d w o m a n , y o u n g a n d o l d , o x a n d s h e e p a n d a ss " ( 6 : 2 1 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , a l m o s t

h a l f o f t h e b o o k i s c o m p r i s e d o f l o n g ( b o r i n g ) l is t s. T o c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s , it i s

e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e B o o k of J o s h u a r e p r e s e n t s w h a t r e al ly h a p p e n e d . I n

t h e w o r d s o f a r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r : " h a r d l y a n y o f t h e m a t e r i a l i t p r e s e r v e s i s t h e

s o r t t h a t c a n b e d i r e c t l y u s e d f o r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . " 1 T h u s , t h e r e a l q u e s -

t i o n t o a s k a b o u t J o s h u a i s : " W h y w o u l d a n y o n e h a v e t o l d t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f

I s r a e l i n t h i s f a s h i o n ? "

Joshua as History

A s n o t e d e a r l ie r , t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t e n a b l e h i s t o r i a n s t o

r e c o n s t r u c t e x a c t l y h o w t h e p e o p l e I s r a e l c a m e i n t o b e i n g , a n d h o w t h e y c a m e

t o p o s s e s s t h e i r l a n d . 2 T h i s m u c h , h o w e v e r , i s g e n e r a l l y c o n c e d e d :

A p e o p l e c a l l e d I s ra e l e x i s t e d i n t h e l a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y B .C.E. ( s e e " T h e B e g i n n i n g o f I s r a e l " i n c h a p t e r 4 ) ;

S o m e o n e c o n q u e r e d some o f t h e c i t i e s t h a t t h e B i b l e c l a i m s J o s h u a c o n -

q u e r e d ;

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• It i s d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c e r n w h o c o nq ue r e d t h e m ( w e k n o w t ha t t he Se a

People , inc luding the Phi l i s t ines , were a l so se t t l ing in the a rea a t th i s

t i m e a n d t a k i n g o v e r p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s ) ;

• O ne r e a s o n t ha t t he c o nq ue r o r s ' i de n t i t y i s ob s c u r e i s be c a us e Is r a el i te

a r t i f ac t s a re prac t i ca l ly the same a s those of o the r loca l g roups l iv ing a t

t h i s t i m e ;

• O f t he c i t ie s t ha t a c c o r d i ng t o J o s h u a w e r e c o nq ue r e d i n t he pe r i o d ,

a r c ha e o l og i c a l e v i de nc e f o r m a ny o f t hos e s i t e s s how no s i gns o f c on -

q u e s t ;

• T h i s p e r i o d m e a n w h i l e s h o w s a r e m a r k a b l e u p s u r g e o f n e w s e t t l e m e n t

i n t he c e n t r a l h i l l o r h i gh l a nd a r e a o f t he c oun t r y ; a nd• E gyp t 's l on gs t a n d i n g po l i t i c a l c on t r o l ove r t he a r e a o f C a na a n h a d

w a n e d b y t h i s p o i n t . 3

Signi f i can t ly , the d i f f i cu l ty in d i s t i ng ui sh in g I s rae l it e a r t i f ac t s im pl i e s tha t I s rae l

h a d n o t s p e n t c e n t u r i e s e n s l a v e d i n E g y p t .

A r c h a e o l o g y i s n o t f u l ly o b j e c t i v e — i t i n t e r p r e t s f o u n d a r ti f a ct s , a n d t h u s

s o m e p e o p l e m a y d o u b t a n u m b e r o f t h e p o i n t s m a d e a b o v e . W e c a n n o t a l w a y s

i de n t i f y b i b l i c a l p l a c e s w i t h c e rt a in t y . Sc h o l a r s de ba t e w h i c h m o d e r n s i t e c o r r e -s ponds t o a b i b l i c a l s i t e , e s pe c i a l l y w he n t he m ode r n s i t e w i t h t he s a m e na m e a s

t he b i b l i c a l one doe s no t c o r r obor a t e t he b i b l i c a l e v i de nc e . 4 H o w e v e r , w h e n

d e t e r m i n i n g c o r r e c t p l a c e - n a m e s fo r s i te s , w e s h o u l d n o t b e g i n w i t h t h e a s s u m p -

t ion tha t the Bib le i s f ac tua l h i s tory , expec t ing the a rchaeologica l r ecord to cor -

r o b o r a t e i t . ( U n t i l r e c e n t l y , s c h o l a r s m a d e s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n — e i t h e r e x p l i c i t -

l y o r t a c i t l y— a l l t oo o f t e n . )

T h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n h i g h l i g h t s t h e p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e b ib l i ca l a c c o u n t :

W h a t w ou l d t h e a r c ha e o l og i c a l r e c o r d l ook l i ke if t he B ook o f J o s h ua w e r e f a c-

t u a l? W e w o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d a c o m p l e t e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e m a j o r C a n a a n i t e

c i t i e s da t a b l e t o t he s a m e t i m e pe r i od . I n a dd i t i on , w e w ou l d e xpe c t t o f i nd

C a n a a n i t e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e ( p o t t e r y j u g s , h o u s i n g s t y l e s )5 r e p l a c e d by t o t a l l y ne w

s ty le s , mos t l ike ly wi th Egypt ian mot i f s o r s ty le s , r e f l ec t ing the or ig ins of the

c o n q u e r i n g p e o p l e .

H o w e v e r , s u c h e v i d e n c e e l u d e s u s e v e n a f t e r a l a rg e n u m b e r of e x c a v a t i o n s

a n d s u r v e y s ( m i n i - e x c a v a t i o n s ) . W h a t h a v e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s f o u n d i n s t e a d ? S o m e

e v i d e n c e o f d e s t r u c t i o n , b u t si g n i f i c a n t ly m o r e e v i d e n c e f o r n e w s e t t l e m e n t p a t -

t e r n s at p r e v i o u s l y u n i n h a b i t e d s i te s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s . T h i s s u g g e s t s t o m a n y t h a t

t h e m a i n c l a i m i n J o s h u a — a c o m p l e t e a n d t o ta l c o n q u e s t b y I s ra e l — i s fa ls e;

r a t he r , m a ny I s r a e l i t e s o r i g i na t e d a s C a na a n i t e s . 6 A r c ha e o l og i s t s i n ge ne r a l now

doub t t ha t t he pe op l e I s r a e l a r os e p r e dom i na n t l y ou t s i de o f t he l a nd o f I s r a e l . ׳

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Embedded Clues in the Stories of Joshua

T h e B o o k o f J o s h u a r e p e a t e d l y p a i n t s a p i c t u r e o f a c o m p l e t e c o n q u e s t o f t h ee n t i r e l a n d . T h i s c o m e s t h r o u g h c l e a r l y i n t w o s u m m a r y t e x t s , o n e l o c a t e d i n t h e

m i d d l e o f t h e b o o k , a n d o n e t o w a r d t h e e n d . E a c h u s e s t h e w o r d ko l ( ל כ , " a l l ,

e v e ry , w h o l e " ) r e p e a t e d l y t o h i g h l i g h t t h e t h e m e t h a t all w a s c o n q u e r e d a c c o r d -

i n g t o all t h a t G o d h a d p r o m i s e d . T h u s t h e f i rs t p a s s a g e r e a d s :

J o s h u a c o n q u e r e d t h e w h o l e ( ל כ ) o f t h i s r e g i o n : t h e h i ll c o u n t r y o f

J u d a h , al l ( ל כ ) t h e N e g e b , t h e w h o l e ( ל כ ) l a n d o f G o s h e n , t h e

S h e p h e l a h , t h e A r a b a h , a n d t h e h i l l c o u n t r y a n d c o a s t a l p l a i n of I s r a e l —e v e r y t h i n g f r o m M o u n t H a l a k , w h i c h a s c e n d s t o S e i r , a l l t h e w a y t o

B a a l - g a d i n t h e V a ll ey o f t h e L e b a n o n a t t h e f o o t o f M o u n t H e r m o n ; a n d

h e c a p t u r e d a ll ( ל כ ) t h e k i n g s t h e r e a n d e x e c u t e d t h e m . . . . A p a r t f r o m

t h e H i v i t e s w h o d w e l t in G i b e o n , n o t a s i n g l e c i ty m a d e t e r m s w i t h t h e

I s r a e li t e s ; a ll ( ל כ ) w e r e t a k e n i n b a t t l e . . . . T h u s J o s h u a c o n q u e r e d a ll

t h e ( ל כ ) t h e c o u n t r y , a c c o r d i n g t o a l l ( ל כ ) t h e L O R D h a d p r o m i s e d

M o s e s ; a n d J o s h u a a s s i g n e d i t t o I s r a el t o s h a r e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r t r i b -

a l d i v i s i o n s . A n d t h e l a n d h a d re s t f r o m w a r ( J o s h . 1 1 : 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 3 ;

t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) .

S i m i l a r l y , t h e s e c o n d s u m m a r y p a s s a g e r e a d s :

T h e L O R D g a v e t o I s r a e l t h e w h o l e ( ל כ ) c o u n t r y w h i c h H e h a d s w o r n t o

t h e i r f a t h e r s t h a t H e w o u l d a s s i g n t o t h e m ; t h e y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n of i t

a n d s e t t l e d i n i t . T h e L O R D g a v e t h e m r e s t o n a ll s i d e s , a c c o r d i n g t o a l l

( ל כ ) H e h a d p r o m i s e d t o t h e i r f a t h e r s o n o a t h . N o t o n e m a n of a ll ( ל כ )

t h e i r e n e m i e s w i t h s t o o d t h e m ; t h e L O R D d e l i v e r e d a l l ( ל כ ) t h e i r e n e m i e s

i n t o t h e i r h a n d s . N o t o n e o f a l l ( ל כ ) t h e g o o d t h i n g s w h i c h t h e L O R D

h a d p r o m i s e d t o th e H o u s e of I s ra e l w a s l a c k i n g . E v e r y t h i n g ( ל כ ) w a s

f u l f il l e d ( J o s h . 2 1 : 4 1 - 4 3 ; i n s o m e e d i t i o n s , w . 4 3 - 4 5 ; tr a n s i, a d a p t e d ) .

H e r e t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e w o r d ko l s e e m s m e a n i n g f u l : i t i s l i k e a b e l l r u n g o v e r

a n d o v e r s o a s t o s o u n d a c o n t i n u o u s t h e m a t i c n o t e . W e ca ll a r e p e a t e d w o r d

t h a t h e l p s g i ve s t r u c t u r e a n d m e a n i n g t o a l i t e r a r y u n i t a " l e a d i n g w o r d . " ( B i b l e

s c h o l a r s o f t e n u s e t h e G e r m a n e q u i v a l e n t , Leitwort.) L e a d i n g w o r d s p r o v i d e

g u i d a n c e t o t h e r e a d e r ; t h e y a r e k e y s t o a u n i t ' s m e a n i n g .

( M a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a n s l a t i o n s — i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f J P S — s e e k t o r e n d e r

t h e H e b r e w ' s p l a i n s e n s e i n t o n o r m a l E n g l i s h i d i o m . T h e i r t r a n s l a t i o n a p p r o a c h

o f t e n d o e s n o t p r e c i s e l y c o n v e y t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f l e a d i n g w o r d s i n t h e o r i g i n a l

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l a n g u a g e . P a r tl y t h i s i s b e c a u s e n o r m a l E n g l i s h d i s c o u r s e a v o i d s s u c h r e p e t i t i o n s

a s a w k w a r d o r m o n o t o n o u s . M o r e t o t h e p o i n t , a g i v e n H e b r e w w o r d u s u a l l y h a s

m o r e t h a n o n e s e n s e , a n d a p l a i n - s e n s e t r a n s l a t i o n b y n a t u r e c h o o s e s w h i c h e v -

e r E n g l i s h w o r d b e s t e x p r e s s e s i ts m e a n i n g i n e a c h c o n t e x t . A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f

t h e i d i o m a t i c t r a n s l a t i o n a p p r o a c h i s t h a t a b i b l i c a l u n i t ' s t h e m e m a y l i te r a ll y b e

l o s t i n t r a n s l a t i o n , as o u r t w o s u m m a r y p a s s a g e s i n J o s h u a i l l u s t r a t e . 8

I n c o n t r a s t , o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s a r e m o r e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e t e x t ' s u s e

o f a l e a d i n g w o r d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i n t h e i r B i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n , t h e t w o g r e a t t w e n t i -

e t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n - J e w i s h t h i n k e r s F r a n z R o s e n z w e i g a n d M a r t i n B u b e r

r e f l e c te d s u c h r e p e t i t i o n s w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e b y r e p e a t i n g t h e s a m e G e r m a n

w o r d .9

A c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a n s l a t o r of t h e B i bl e i n t o E n g l i s h , E v e r e t t F o x , i s c o n -t i n u i n g to f o l l o w B u b e r a n d R o s e n z w e i g ' s p r i n c i p l e s . 1 0 )

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f kol, o t h e r l e a d i n g w o r d s i n t h e t e x t s u g g e s t a

c o m p l e t e , t o t a l, a n d s w i f t c o n q u e s t . T h e m i r a c u l o u s a n d n e a r l y i n s t a n t c o n q u e s t

o f J e r i c h o — t h e f i r st c i t y a t t a c k e d a f t e r c r o s s i n g t h e J o r d a n ( J o s h . 6 ) — s e t s t h e

s t a g e fo r t h i s i d e a . L a te r , w h e n t h e S o u t h e r n c o a l i t i o n is d e f e a t e d ( c h a p . 1 0 ) , a

s i x f o l d r e p e t i t i o n o f " l e t n o n e e s c a p e " ( 1 0 : 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 3 , 3 7 , 3 9 , 4 0 ) , r e i n f o r c e s t h e

i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e c o n q u e s t w a s c o m p l e t e . A s i m u l t a n e o u s d e s c r i p t i o n o f s ix

p r o s c r i b e d c i t i es h a s t h e s a m e e f f e ct ( 1 0 : 1 , 2 8 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 3 9 , 4 0 ) . 1 1 C h a p t e r 1 2 a l s o

u s e s r e p e t i t i o n f o r e m p h a s i s . T h e fi r st p a r t of t h a t p a s s a g e , a b o u t t h e c o n q u e s t

o f T r a n s j o r d a n ( t h e a r e a e a s t o f t h e J o r d a n R i v e r ), r e p e a t s t h e w o r d ve-ad (ד ע ו ,

" u n t i l " o r " u p t o " ) s i x t i m e s , u n d e r s c o r i n g t h e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g n a t u r e o f I s r a e l ' s

b o u n d a r i e s . T h e s e c o n d p a r t of t h a t p a s s a g e , c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e

N o r t h e r n c o a l i ti o n , i s s t y li z e d a n d r e d u n d a n t . I n e n u m e r a t i n g t h e c i ti e s a n d

k i n g s c a p t u r e d , it s a y s t h i r t y - o n e t i m e s " t h e k i n g o f X : 1 ," w h e r e X i s t h e n a m e

o f o n e c i ty a f t e r a n o t h e r . ( T h i s l is t i s a ll t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e b e c a u s e e v i d e n c ed u g u p f r o m t h e r u i n s o f t h o s e c i t y - s t a t e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e y d i d n o t h a v e

k i n g s . ) A n d i n c a s e t h e r e a d e r m i s s e s t h e p o i n t , t h e l is t c o n c l u d e s : " T o ta l n u m -

b e r o f k i n g s : 3 1 . "

I n s u m , t h r o u g h t h e s t ra t e g i c u s e of l e a d i n g w o r d s , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s t r a n d

o f J o s h u a h i g h l i g h t s t h e c l a i m t h a t " t h e L O R D g a v e t o I s r a e l t h e w h o l e ( ל כ ) c o u n -

t r y w h i c h H e h a d s w o r n to t h e i r f a t h e r s t h a t H e w o u l d a s s i g n t o t h e m " ( J o s h .

2 1 : 4 1 ) .

Contradictory Assessments

A t a l e o f s w i f t a n d t o t a l v i c to r y , h o w e v e r , i s n o t t h e o n l y s t o r y t h a t J o s h u a t e l l s . 1 2

F o r i n s t a n c e , w e a l s o r e a d : " J o s h u a w a g e d w a r w i t h a l l t h o s e k i n g s o v e r a l o n g

p e r i o d " ( 1 1 : 1 8 ) — a s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r p a s s a g e s ' p o r t r a y a l o f a s o r t o f a n c i e n t

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S ix - Da y W a r . M o r e im p o r t a n t , imm e d i a t e ly a f t e r c h a p t e r 1 2's s u m m a r y of t h e

c o m p l e t e d c o n q u e s t , w e r e a d :

( 1 3 : 1 ) J o s h u a wa s n o w o ld , a d v a n c e d in y e a r s . Th e L O R D sa id to h im,"You have g rown o ld , you a re advanced in yea rs ; and ve ry much o f the

land s t i l l r emains to be taken possess ion o f . (2 ) Th is i s the te r r i to ry tha t

remains: a l l the d is t r ic ts of the Phi l is t ines and a l l those of the

G esh ur i te s , (3 ) f ro m the Sh iho r , w h i ch i s c lose to Eg yp t , to the te r r i to -

r y o f Ek r o n o n t h e n o r th , a r e a c c o u n te d Ca n a a n i t e , n a me ly , t h o s e o f t h e

f iv e l o r d s o f t h e P h i l i s t i n e s — t h e G a z i t e s , t h e A s h d o d i t e s , t h e

A s h k e l o n i t e s , t h e G i t t i t e s , a n d t h e E k r o n i t e s — a n d t h o s e o f t h e A w i m

( 4 ) o n t h e s o u t h ; f u r th e r , a ll t h e Ca n a a n i t e c o u n t r y f r o m M e a r a h o f th e

S id o n ia n s t o Ap h e k a t t h e Amo r i t e b o r d e r ( 5 ) a n d t h e l a n d o f t h e

Geba l l te s , wi th the whole Va l ley o f the Lebanon , f rom Baa l -gad a t the

f o o t o f M o u n t He r mo n to Le b o - h a ma th o n t h e e a s t , ( 6 ) w i th a l l t h e

inhab i tan ts o f the h i l l coun t ry f rom the Va l ley o f the Lebanon to

M is r e p h o th - m a im , n a me ly , a ll t h e S id o n ia n s . I M y s el f w i l l d i s p o s s e s s

th o s e n a t i o n s f o r t h e I sr a e l it e s ; y o u h a v e o n ly t o a p p o r t i o n t h e i r l a n d s

b y lo t a m o n g I sr a el , a s I h a v e c o m m a n d e d y o u . "

As a g lance a t any Bib le a t la s ind ica tes , th i s " land tha t remains" i s subs tan t ia l ! In

o th e r wo r d s , t h i s p a s s a g e d i r e c t l y c o n f l i c t s w i th t h e a c c o u n t g iv e n a f e w v e r s e s

e a r l i e r . 1 3

What a re we to make o f the fac t tha t th i s book p resen ts more than one idea

c o n c e r n in g b a s i c n o t io n s s u c h a s h o w th e l a n d wa s c o n q u e r e d a n d wh a t i t s

b o u n d a r i e s a r e? L ik e m a n y o th e r s c h o la r s , I c o n c lu d e f r o m i ts i n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c -

t ion s that the Bo ok of Jo sh ua is no t the w o rk of a s ingle auth or . Rather , it i s a co m -

pos i te book . Ei the r i t has gone th rough severa l s tages o f ed i t ing and redac t ion , o r

it wa s wr i t t e n b y a n a u th o r w h o ( f o r s o m e u n k n o w n r e a s o n ) i n c o r p o r a t e d e a r li e r

s o u r c e s —e v e n th o u g h th e y d id n o t a g r e e w i th t h e a u th o r ' s p o in t—o r b o th .

F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r t h e b o o k ' s c o m p o s i t e n a t u r e c o m e s in t o v i e w w h e n w e

c o n s id e r wh a t c r i t i c a l s c h o la r s c a l l t h e De u te r o n o mis t i c H i s to r y .

The Deuteronomistic History

W h at i s the re la t i on sh i p o f the f i r s t severa l bo ok s of the Bib le to eac h o the r?

S c h o l a r s h a v e g r o u p e d t h e m i n v a r i o u s w a y s . 1 4 Th e c a n o n h a s j o in e d t h e f i rs t

f ive b o ok s toge the r a s the Torah o r Pe n t a te uc h , l i t e ral ly " f ive bo ok s . " T h is u n i t

en ds wi th the dea th o f i t s m a i n p ro tag on is t , M oses . Yet M oses i s abs en t f ro m

Ge n e s i s , a n d o n e c o u ld a r g u e t h a t t h e t h e m e of e n t r y i n to t h e p r o m is e d l a n d —

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w h i c h b e g i n s i n G e n e s i s 1 2 — m o r e a c c u r a t e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e b o o k s . T h i s

t h e m e , h o w e v e r , i s n o t f u l f il l e d u n t i l J o s h u a . T h u s m a n y s c h o l a r s , e s p e c i a l l y

th r o u g h t h e m i d d l e of t h e tw e n t i e th c e n tu r y , s a w th e f ir s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e B ib l e ,

t h e H e x a t e u c h ( s ix b o o k s ) a s a l i t e r a ry u n i t . T h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e P e n t a t e u c h a l

s o u r c e s — c o l l e c t i v e l y t e r m e d " JE P D " — s p i l l o v e r i n t o J o s h u a ( t h o u g h n o t

b e y o n d ) , j u s t i f y i n g t h e s t u d y i n g o f t h e s e si x b o o k s a s a u n i t .

I n 1 9 4 3 , t h e G e r m a n b ib l i c al s c h o l a r M a r t i n N o t h p r o p o s e d a n e w m o d e l .1 5

B u i l d i n g o n t h e w o r k of o t h e r s , h e e m p h a s i z e d t h e f a ct t h a t t h e b o o k s of

D e u t e r o n o m y , J o s h u a , J u d g e s , S a m u e l , a n d K i n g s s h a r e s i m i l a r v o c a b u l a r y a n d

t h e o l o g y . N o t h c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h o s e b o o k s f o r m a l i t e r a r y u n i t t h a t h e n a m e d

t h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c H i s t o r y ( a b b r e v i a t e d " D t r H " ) . H e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s w o r k ,w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e d e a r l ie r s o u r c e s , w a s c o m p o s e d d u r i n g t h e B a b y l o n i a n e x i le .

W i t h c e r t a in m o d i f i c a t i o n s , t h i s h y p o t h e s i s h a s g a i n e d w i d e a s s e n t .1 6

S c h o l a r s h a v e q u e s t i o n e d N o t h ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e r e w a s a s i n g l e D e u t e r o - n o m i s t i c

" h i s t o r i a n . " M a n y n o w b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e w e r e t w o : o n e w o r k i n g d u r i n g t h e r e i g n

o f J o s i a h ( l a t e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y B .C .E.) a n d t h e o t h e r d u r i n g t h e B a b y lo n i a n e x i l e

( 5 8 6 - 5 3 8 ) , w h o m a y b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n th e b a s i s o f v o c a b u l a r y a n d i d e o l o g y .1 7

S ti ll o t h e r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d a d d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s , s e e i n g t h e s e h i s t o r i a n s ' w o r k a s

e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d . 1 8 D e s p i t e t h e m a n y c o m p e t i n g r e c o n s t r u c -

t i o n s o f h o w t h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c H i s t o r y a r r i v e d at i t s p r e s e n t f o r m , a b r o a d

e n o u g h c o n s e n s u s e x i st s t h a t w e c a n s p e a k of D e u t e r o n o m y t h r o u g h K i n g s a s a

" c o l l e c t i o n . "

W h y w e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r J o s h u a a p a r t o f t h i s c o l l e c t i o n i s c l e ar : it s h a r e s

m a n y f e a t u r e s o f D e u t e r o n o m y . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a l t a r s o n

M o u n t E b a l a n d t h e c u r s e c e r e m o n y p e r f o r m e d t h e r e i n J o s h u a 8 : 3 0 - 3 4 f u lf il l a

ritual p r e s c r i b e d i n D e u t e r o n o m y 1 7 . I n 8 : 2 9 , t h e i m p a l e d c o r p s e of t h e K i n g o f

A i i s r e m o v e d a t s u n s e t — t h i s a s s u m e s D e u t e r o n o m y 2 1 : 2 3 . J o s h u a t a k e s fo r

g r a n t e d t h a t t h e n a t i o n s o f C a n a a n n e e d t o b e p r o s c r i b e d o r k i l l e d — t h i s i n s t i -

t u t i o n is f o u n d in D e u t e r o n o m y o n l y ( 2 0 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) . A sefer ha -to ra h ה) ר ו ת ה ר פ ס ,

"B o o k of t h e T o r a h " ) i s m e n t i o n e d tw ic e i n J o s h u a ( 1 :8 ; 8 : 3 4 ) ; i n t h e T o r a h , it i s

a p p e a r s o n l y i n D e u t e r o n o m y ( 2 8 : 6 1 ; 2 9 : 2 0 ; 3 0 : 1 0 ) . I c o u l d a d d u c e f u r t h e r

e v i d e n c e t h a t l i n k s J o s h u a n o t o n l y t o D e u t e r o n o m y , b u t a l s o t o J u d g e s , S a m u e l ,

a n d K i n g s ,1 9

s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e h y p o t h e s i s of a D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c H i s t o r y is

q u i t e r o b u s t .

T h e D t r H h y p o t h e s i s is i m p o r t a n t f o r r e a d i n g J o s h u a p r o p e rl y . It h e l p s t o

e x p l a i n s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e t e x t: t h e s e a r e t h e r e s u l t o f t h e c o m p l e x

e v o l u t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l t e x t . It a l s o e x p l a in s w h y t h e b o o k i s s o i n a c c u r a t e a s a

h i s t o r y of t h e p r e m o n a r c h i c a l p e r i o d : t h e b o o k w a s n o t w r i t t e n u n t i l m a n y c e n -

tu r ie s l a te r .

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Revising History

In an t iqu i ty , a s to ry te l le r typ ica l ly re la ted de ta i l s ab ou t a pas t even t bec au se the yw e r e i m p o r t a n t , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e t r u e . 2 0 Th e o p e n in g o f t h e Bo o k o f

J o s h u a i ll u s t ra t e s t h i s p r i n c i p l e , w h i l e s h o w i n g h o w a D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c h i s t o r i a n

c o u ld r e v is e e a r l i er ma te r i a l s t o k e e p t h e m r e l e v a n t f o r t h e ( ex i li c ) c o m m u n i ty :

( 1 ) Afte r the dea th o f Moses the se rvan t o f the L O R D , t h e L O R D sa id to

J o s h u a s o n of N u n , M o s e s ' a t t e n d a n t : ( 2 ) " M y s e r v a n t M o s e s i s d e a d .

P r e p a r e t o c r o s s t h e J o r d a n , t o g e th e r w i th a ll t h i s p e o p le , i n to t h e l a n d

tha t I am g iv ing to the I s rae l i t e s. (3 ) Every spo t on wh ic h you r foo t

t re ad s I g ive to yo u , a s I p r om is ed Mo ses . . . . (5 ) N o one sha l l be ab le

to res is t yo u as lon g as yo u l ive . As I w as w ith M ose s , so I wil l be w it h

yo u ; I wi l l no t fa il yo u o r fo rsak e yo u . (6 ) Be s t r on g an d re so lu te , fo r

yo u sha l l ap po r t io n to th i s pe op le the land tha t I sw ore to the i r fa t he r s

to ass ign to them. (7 ) Bu t you mus t be ve ry s t rong and reso lu te to

o b s e r v e f a i t h f u l l y a ll t h e Te a c h in g t h a t M y s e r v a n t M o s e s e n jo in e d u p o n

yo u . D o no t dev ia te f r om it to the r igh t o r to the le f t , tha t yo u m ay be

success fu l wherever you go . (8 ) Le t no t th i s Book o f the Teach ing ceasef r om yo ur l ips , bu t rec i te i t da y an d n ig h t , so tha t you m ay obs e rv e

fa i th fu l ly a ll tha t i s w r i t t en in i t. O n l y th en wi l l yo u p ro sp er in y ou r

u n d e r t a k i n g s a n d o n ly t h e n w i l l y o u b e s u c c e s s f u l . ( 9 ) I c h a r g e y o u : Be

s t r o n g a n d r e s o lu t e ; d o n o t b e t e r r if i e d o r d i s m a y e d , f o r t h e L O R D y o u r

G o d is w i t h y o u w h e r e v e r y o u g o ." ( 1 0 ) J o s h u a t h e r e u p o n g a ve o r d e r s

to t h e o f f ic i a ls o f t h e p e o p le : ( 1 1 ) " Go th r o u g h th e c a m p a n d c h a r g e t h e

pe op le th us : Ge t p rov is io ns ready , fo r in th ree days ' t im e yo u a re to

c r o s s t h e J o r d a n . . . "

T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e b o o k p r e s e n t s t w o i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p r o b l e m s : ( 1 ) I t i s

u n d u ly repe t i t iv e , e spec ia l ly in i t s us e o f the phr as e "be s t r on g an d reso lu te" ; an d

( 2 ) I t i s c o n f u s in g , mo v in g f r o m mi l i t a r y ma t t e r s t o To r a h s tu d y a n d b a c k a g a in .

W e c a n b e s t a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e p r o b l e m s b y a s s u m in g th a t m o s t of v e r s e s 7 - 9 i s

a s e c o n d a r y a d d i t i o n . 2 1 Th e o r ig in a l t e x t , a s o n e wo u ld e x p e c t i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n ,

d e a l t o n ly w i th mi l i t a r y s t r e n g th ; t h i s wa s t h e c o n te x t i n wh ic h Go d to ld J o s h u a

to " b e s t r o n g a n d r e s o lu t e " — w o r d s t h a t fit t h e m i l i t a r y s p h e r e . Ho w e v e r , s u c h a

charge mean t l i t t l e to the ex i l i c aud ience l iv ing fa r f rom the land , and so an ex i l -

i c e d i t o r m o d i f i e d t h e w o r d s ( a t t r i b u t e d t o G o d ! ) 2 2 s o t h a t Go d to ld J o s h u a t o

be s t rong in re la t ion to Torah s tudy .

I n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e c o n f i r m s t h i s j u d g m e n t . E d i t o r s w h o a d d e d m a t e r i a l t o a

t e x t o f t e n r e p e a t e d a p h r a s e b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e i n s e r t i o n , f o r m in g a b r id g e o f

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s o r t s . If t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t w a s A - B - C , t o w h i c h X w a s a d d e d a f t e r B , t h e n e w t e x t

w o u l d o f t e n l o o k li k e A - B - X - B - C . W h e n Β i s r e p e a t e d a f t e r t h e i n s e r t i o n , s c h o l -

a r s c a l l i t a " r e s u m p t i v e r e p e t i t i o n . " I t i s a w a y o f e x p r e s s i n g " b a c k t o w h e r e w e

w e r e . " 2 3 T h e u s e o f t h i s d e v i c e i s q u i t e o b v i o u s i n J o s h u a 1 . H e r e i s t h e p a s s a g e

a g a i n , w i t h t h e r e s u m p t i v e r e p e t i t i o n m a r k e d i n b o l d , a n d t h e i n t e r v e n i n g ( s e c-

o n d a r y ) v e r s e s i n i t a l i c s :

(5 ) N o o ne sha l l be ab le to r es i s t yo u as lo ng as yo u l ive . As I w as w i t h

M ose s , so I w i l l be w i t h yo u ; I w i l l no t f a il yo u o r fo r s ak e y ou . (6 ) Be

s t r o n g a n d r e s o l u t e , f o r y o u sh a l l a p p o r t i o n t o t h i s p e o p l e t h e l a n d t h a t

I s w o r e t o t h e i r f a t h e r s t o a s s i g n t o t h e m . ( 7 ) B u t y o u m u s t b e v e r y

s t r o n g a n d r e s o l u t e to observe faithfully all the Teaching that M y servant

Moses enjoined upon you. Do not deviate from it to the right or to the left, that

you may be successful wherever you go. (8) Let not this Book of the Teaching

cease from your lips, but recite it day an d night, so that you may observe

faithfully all that is written in it. Only then will you prosper in your under-

takings and only then w ill you be successful. ( 9 ) I c h a r g e y o u : B e s t r o n g

a n d r e s o l u t e ; d o n o t b e t e rr i f ie d o r d i s m a y e d , f o r t h e L O R D y o u r G o d i s

w i t h y o u w h e r e v e r y o u g o . "

A n e x i l i c D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c e d i t o r h a s a d d e d t h e m a t e r i a l i n i t a l i c s a n d r e p e a t e d

t h e m a t e r i a l i n b o l d , u p d a t i n g t h e te x t t o f it w i t h n o r m s t h a t e m p h a s i z e t h e

i m p o r t a n c e of T o r a h s tu d y . T h r o u g h s u c h a d d i t i o n s th e b i b l i c a l t e x t w a s n o t

a l l o w e d t o a t r o p h y , b u t w a s k e p t a l i v e .

Origins

I h a v e e x p l a i n e d w h y a D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c e d i t o r c h a n g e d a n e ar l ie r t e xt . B u t w h y

d i d t h o s e v a r i o u s e a r l y s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e c o n q u e s t a r i s e i n t h e fi r s t p l a c e ? C r i t i c a l

s c h o l a r s h i p r e c o g n i z e s m a n y o f t h e m a s a t y p e k n o w n a s " e ti o lo g y ," a w o r d

d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e G r e e k v e r b aitia, " to c a u s e . " A n e t i o l o g y e x p l a i n s s o m e t h i n g

f a m i l i a r b y t e l l i n g a s t o r y a b o u t i t s o r i g i n . 2 4 I n t h e B o o k o f G e n e s i s , t h e s t o r y

a b o u t J a c o b / I s r a e l f i g h t i n g w i t h t h e m a n / a n g e l a n d g e t t i n g w o u n d e d i s a n e t i o l-

o g y . I t g i v e s m e a n i n g t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f n o t e a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t o f l i v e s t o c k :

" T h a t is w h y t h e c h i l d r e n o f I s r a e l t o t h i s d a y d o n o t e a t t h e t h i g h m u s c l e t h a t i s

o n t h e s o c k e t of t h e h i p , s i n c e J a c o b s h i p s o c k e t w a s w r e n c h e d a t t h e t h i g h m u s -

c l e " ( 3 2 : 3 3 ) .

E t i o l o g i e s a l s o e x p l a i n w e l l - k n o w n n a m e s . O f t e n t h e y g i v e a d e r i v a t i o n t h a t

p l a y s o n w o r d s y e t i s f a l s e f r o m a l i n g u i s t i c p o i n t o f v i e w ( t h e s e a r e o f t e n c a l l e d

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" f o l k e t y m o l o g i e s " ) . A g a i n i n G e n e s i s , t h e m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e E d o m i s

e x p l a i n e d b y a s t o r y in w h i c h E s a u r e q u e s t s of h i s b r o t h e r J a c o b : " ' G iv e m e s o m e

o f t h a t ha-adom ha-adom ( " re d s t u f f ' ) t o g u l p d o w n , f o r I a m f a m i s h e d ' — w h i c h

i s w h y h e w a s n a m e d E d o m " ( 2 5 : 3 0 ) . In b o t h o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s , t h e te x t u s e s

t h e p h r a s e al ken ( ן כ י ל ע , " t h a t i s w h y " o r " w h i c h i s w h y " ) .

N o t a ll e t i o l o g i e s a r e m a r k e d w i t h al ken. S t o r i e s a s a w h o l e c a n f u n c t i o n e t i -

o l o g i c a l l y , w i t h o u t g i v i n g a n e x p l i c i t s i g n a l t o t h e r e a d e r . T h a t t h e a c c o u n t i n

J o s h u a 7 - 8 of t h e c o n q u e s t of A i i s e t i o l o g i c a l b e c o m e s c l e a r o n c e w e k n o w t h a t

c i ty ' s ac tua l h i s to ry .

T h e n a m e A i m e a n s " h e a p " o r " r u i n s , " a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e i s q u i t e

d e f i n i t iv e a b o u t it b e i n g a n u n i n h a b i t e d r u i n f o r w e l l o v e r a t h o u s a n d y e a r s —r o u g h l y f r o m 2 4 0 0 B . C . E . u n t i l 1 2 0 0 B . C . E . 2 5 C o n t r a r y t o t h e b i b l i c a l d e p i c t i o n ,

i n J o s h u a ' s d a y A i h a d n o p o p u l a c e f o r h i m t o o v e r c o m e a n d k i ll o f f. T h i s s t o r y

t h e r e f o r e m a k e s s e n s e o n l y a s a n e t i o lo g i c a l n a r r a t i v e . It t o l d i t s a u d i e n c e w h y

t h e c i t y i s c a l l e d A i, a n d w h a t c a u s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o n t h i s s i te t h a t t h e I s r a e l -

i t e s n o w i n h a b i t e d . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n : i t w a s p a r t of t h e g r e a t a n d m i r a c u l o u s c o n -

q u e s t o f t h e l a n d , i n w h i c h G o d f o u g h t f o r I s r a e l a s l o n g a s t h e y o b s e r v e d G o d ' s

c o m m a n d s . T h e s t o r y g a v e a n a t i o n a l a n d m o r a l m e a n i n g t o t h e r u i n s .

M u c h o f t h e r e s t of t h e B o o k o f J o s h u a i s e t i o l o g i c a l a s w e l l , e x p l a i n i n g i n a

n o n h i s t o r i c a l f a s h i o n h o w a n d w h e n I s r a e l c o n q u e r e d v a r i o u s s i te s . E t i o l o g i e s o f

o t h e r s o r t s a r e m i x e d i n , i n c l u d i n g t h e s t o r y o f t h e G i b e o n i t e s : " J o s h u a m a d e

t h e m h e w e r s o f w o o d a n d d r a w e r s of w a t e r — a s t h e y s ti l l a r e — f o r t h e c o m m u -

n i ty and fo r the a l t a r o f the L O R D " ( 9 : 2 7 ) . 2 6

C o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r s m a y t e n d t o d o w n p l a y t h e v a l u e o f s u c h s t o r i e s

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o n s c i e n t i f i c o r a h i s t o r i c a l . H o w e v e r , e t i o l o g i e s w e r e e x t r e m e -

l y i m p o r t a n t i n a n t i q u i t y .2 7 N e v e r t h e l e s s , it w o u l d b e a m i s t a k e t o u n d e r s t a n d a ll

o f J o s h u a a s e t i o l o g i c a l. L i k e m o s t a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , J o s h u a i s c o m p l e x , c o m i n g

f r o m a v a r i e t y of t i m e p e r i o d s a n d s o c i a l c i rc l e s . It s e r v e s a v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s .

Concluding on a Different Note

T h e b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s h a d l it t le i n t e r e s t i n t h e p a s t f o r i t s o w n s a k e . T y p i c a ll y t h e y

r e t o l d o r f a s h i o n e d s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e p a s t f o r d i d a c t i c , t h e o l o g i c a l , o r p o l i t i c a lr e a s o n s . T h u s , it i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t J o s h u a d o e s n o t e n d w h e n w e r e a c h t h e s u m -

m a r y i n 2 1 : 4 1 - 4 3 ( q u o t e d a b o v e ) , w h i c h e n d s , " N o t o n e of a ll t h e g o o d t h i n g s

w h i c h t h e L O R D h a d p r o m i s e d t o t h e H o u s e o f I s r a e l w a s l a c k i n g . E v e r y t h i n g w a s

f u l f i l l e d . " T h i s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n i d e a l e n d i n g f o r t h e b o o k i f i t w e r e c o n -

c e r n e d o n l y w i t h l a n d - t e n u r e a n d j u s t i f y i n g t h e l a t e r I sr a el it e 's p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e

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l an d . Bu t Jo sh ua i s ab ou t mo re th an tha t . In the bo o k s f ina l fo rm , i t s l a s t th ree

c h a p te r s p r o c e e d to m a k e it s m a i n p o in t . Th e y f o c u s , i n d i f f e r e n t wa y s , o n o b e -

d i e n c e t o G o d .

Th i s t h e m e i s m o s t e x p l i ci t i n J o s h u a 2 3 , w h i c h c o n c lu d e s :

( 1 2 ) F o r s h o u ld y o u tu r n a wa y a n d a t t a c h y o u r s e lv e s t o t h e r e mn a n t o f

t h o s e n a t i o n s — t o t h o s e t h a t a re l ef t a m o n g y o u — a n d i n t e r m a r r y w i t h

t h e m , y o u j o i n i n g t h e m a n d t h e y j o i n i n g y o u , ( 1 3 ) k n o w f o r c e r t a i n t h a t

t h e L O R D y o u r Go d w i l l n o t c o n t in u e t o d r iv e t h e s e n a t i o n s o u t b e f o r e

yo u ; they sha l l be co m e a sna re an d a t ra p fo r yo u , a sco urg e to yo ur

s id e s a n d th o r n s i n y o u r e y e s , u n t i l y o u p e r i s h f r o m th i s g o o d l a n d th a t

th e L O R D y o u r Go d h a s g iv e n y o u . ( 1 4 ) " I [ J o s h u a ] a m n o w g o in g t h e

wa y o f a l l t h e e a r th . Ac k n o wle d g e w i th a l l y o u r h e a r t a n d s o u l t h a t n o t

one o f the good th ings tha t the L O R D y o u r Go d p r o mis e d y o u h a s f a i l e d

to h ap p en ; the y hav e al l co m e t ru e fo r yo u , no t a s ing le one has fa i led .

( 1 5 ) But ju s t a s eve ry go od th in g tha t the L O R D y o u r G o d p r o m i s e d y o u

has been fu l f i l l ed fo r you , so the L O R D c a n b r in g u p o n y o u e v e r y e v i l

th in g un t i l He has w ip ed yo u of f th i s go od la nd tha t the L O R D y o u r G o d

h a s g iv e n y o u . ( 1 6 ) If yo u b rea k the co ve na n t tha t the L O R D y o u r G o de n j o i n e d u p o n y o u , a n d g o a n d s e r v e o t h e r g o d s a n d b o w d o w n t o

t h e m , t h e n t h e L O R D ' S a n g e r w i l l b u r n a g a in s t y o u , a n d y o u s h a l l q u i c k -

ly p e r i s h f r o m th e g o o d l a n d th a t He h a s g iv e n y o u . "

Th e s e v e r s e s , l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h e c h a p te r , a r e b u r s t i n g w i th De u te r o n o mis t i c t e r -

m i n o l o g y . 2 8 He r e t h e p r o m is e o f t h e l a n d i s c o n d i t i o n a l . T h e f i n a l c h a p t e r a g a in

d i s p l a y s t h e s e f e a tu r e s . Th e r e a h i s to r i c a l r e p r i s e e mp h a s i z e s Go d ' s s a lv a t i o n o f

I s r ae l f r o m th e t ime of A b r a h a m u n t i l t h e e n t r y i n to th e l a n d ( 2 4 : 3 - 1 3 ) .

I m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w in g th a t p a s s a g e , h o w e v e r , i s o n e i n w h i c h J o s h u a g iv e s t h e

n a t io n a c h o i c e a s t o wh ic h g o d th e y wa n t t o f o l l o w ( w . 1 4 - 1 5 ) . An d th a t , i n

tu rn , i s fo l lo we d by a w ar n i ng tha t if I s rae l fo rs ake s G od , "He wi l l tu rn a nd dea l

h a r s h ly w i th y o u a n d ma k e a n e n d o f y o u " ( v . 2 0 ) .

Another Editorial Hand

I t i s no t on ly the en d o f the bo ok tha t re f ra m es the con qu es t acc ou n t tha t i s e l se -

w h e r e s o p o s i t i v e a n d o p t im i s t i c . No r is i t o n ly t h e De u te r o n o m is t i c h i s to r i a n

w h o h a d a h a n d in r e wo r k i n g t h e s e e a r l i e r t r a d i t i o n s i n to o n e t h a t w o u ld b e r e li -

g io u s ly me a n in g f u l f o r l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s . As n o t e d e a r l i e r, t h e o th e r g re a t s t r e a m

th a t p r o v id e d b ib l i c a l ma te r i a l is t h e P r i e s tl y T r a d i t i o n . Th e s e a re t h e a u th o r s

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w h o s e e m t o ha v e ha d t he fi na l h a n d i n e d i t i ng t he Pe n t a t e u c h , p l a c i ng t he i r e r e -

a t io n s tor y f i r s t, so tha t al l tha t fo l lo ws m ig ht b e read th ro u g h th a t l ens . It i s the y

w h o p r o v i de d a s i gn i f i c a n t na r r a t i v e a n d l e ga l f r a m e w or k f o r m os t o f t he

P e n t a t e u c h . W h i l e t h e y d i d n o t h a v e a m a j o r r o le i n s t r u c t u r i n g t h e D e u t e r o n -

omis t i c His tory , they a re no t to ta l ly absent f rom i t .

F o r e x a m p l e , a n a r r a t i v e n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e b o o k , c o n c e r n i n g t h e c i r -

cumcis ion a t G i lga l ( Josh . 5 :2-9) , i s ( l a rge ly) Pr ie s t ly in or ig in . Tha t i s , th i s pas -

sage fea ture s a cha rac te r i s t i ca l ly Pr ie s t ly conce rn . Of a l l the Torah ' s l eg i s la t ion ,

th e ri t e of c i r c um cis ion i s m en t i o n ed on ly in Pr ie s tly l aws ; i t i s ab sen t f ro m th e

C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n a n d t h e l a w s o f D e u t e r o n o m y . 2 9 O n l y i n Ρ i s c i r c u m c i s i on

o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e , s o m u c h s o t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o G e n e s i s 1 7 :

S u c h s h a l l b e t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n M e a n d y o u a n d y o u r o f f s p r i n g t o

f o l l o w w h i c h y o u s h a l l k e e p : e v e r y m a l e a m o n g y o u s h a l l b e c i r c u m -

c i sed . . . an d th a t sha l l be the s ign of the cov en an t be t w ee n M e an d yo u .

. . . T h u s s ha l l My c ov e n a n t be m a r ke d i n yo u r f l e sh a s a n e ve r l a s t i ng

pa c t . A n d if a ny m a l e w h o i s un c i r c u m c i s e d f ai ls t o c i r c um c i s e t he f l e s h

o f h i s f o r e s k i n , t ha t pe r s on s ha l l be c u t o f f f r om h i s k i n ; he ha s b r oke n

M y c o v e n a n t ( w . 1 0 - 1 4 ) .

S i m i l a r l y , t he P r i e s t l y l a w i n E xodus 12 : 48 e m pha s i z e d t ha t on l y m a l e s w ho

a r e c i r c u m c i s e d m a y e a t o f t he Pa sc a l o f f e r i n g— w hi c h , a s J o s h ua 5 : 10 i nd i c a t e s ,

i s t h e b a c k d r o p f o r t h e s to r y f o u n d h e r e . A P r i es t ly a u t h o r h a s r e w o r k e d m a t e -

r ia l i n o r d e r to r e i n f o r c e o n e o f h i s k e y i n s t i t u t i o n s — c i r c u m c i s i o n — b y m e n -

t i o n i n g i t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c o n q u e s t n a r r a t i v e . 3 0

Conclusion

W e ha v e s e e n t ha t t he c on c e r n i n J o s h ua i s no t w i t h " r e al " h i s t o ry , b u t w i t h t he

pow e r o f t r a d i t i ons a bou t t he pa s t t o t e a c h a nd e n l i gh t e n . I n t h i s book , bo t h t he

P r i e s t l y a n d D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c s c h o o l s w r o t e n e w t r a d i t i o n s . B o t h r e f r a m e d o l d e r

t r a d i t i o n s — t h e r e b y r e v i s i n g t h e i r m e a n i n g . T h r o u g h e t i o l o g i c a l t a l e s t h e y m a d e

e x i s t i n g p l a c e s a n d p r a c t i c e s m o r e m e a n i n g f u l .

T he h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t hod a l l ow s us t o r e c ove r t he s e c r e a t i ve s t e ps , s ot ha t w e m a y s e e t he t r a d i t i ons bo t h be f o r e t he i r r e w or k i ng a nd a f t e r t he i r r e v i -

s i o n . T h i s o f f e rs a p o w e r f u l m o d e l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g l a te r J u d a i s m , w h i c h i n a

s i m i l a r w a y ha s r e w or ke d a nd r e v i s e d e a r l i e r t r a d i t i ons a nd t e x t s . Suc h c r e a t i v i -

t y ha s a l l ow e d J uda i s m t o r e m a i n a dyna m i c , l i v i ng r e l i g i on .

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12

" M a y M y L o r d K i n g D a v i d

L i v e F o r e v e r "

Royal Ideo logy in Samuel and Judges

Primary Reading: Samu el (esp. 1 Samuel 8 through 2 Samuel 8;

Judges 1-3, 13-21).

Who Killed Goliath?

E v e r y o n e k n o w s th a t Da v id k i l l e d Go l i a th — th e s to r y o f 1 S a m u e l 1 7 i s

a m o n g th e b e s t k n o w n in t h e B ib le ; a v a r i e ty of f a m o u s p a in t i n g s h a v e

dep ic ted in gory de ta i l the scene o f Dav id de l ive r ing Gol ia th ' s head to Sau l . 1 Yet

in a n a p p e n d ix a d d e d to t h e b o o k o f S a mu e l , we r e a d : " Ag a in t h e r e wa s f i g h t in g

wi th t h e P h i l i s t i n e s a t Go b ; a n d E lh a n a n s o n of J a a r e - o r e g im th e Be th l e h e m i t e

k i l led Gol ia th the Gi t t i t e , whose spea r had a sha f t l ike a weaver ' s ba r" (2 Sam.

2 1 :1 9 ) . H i s to r i a n s f o l l o w a w e l l - k n o w n p r in c ip l e i n th e i r re s e a r c h : if two s o u r c e s

e a c h a t t r i b u t e t h e s a m e a c t i o n — e s p e c i a l l y a h e r o i c o n e — t o a w e l l - k n o w n f i gu r e

a n d t o o n e w h o is o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n , it p r o b a b l y h a p p e n e d w i t h th e u n k n o w n

f ig u r e ; a n d t h e s to r y wa s l a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e we l l - k n o w n p e r s o n . Th u s , if

t h e r e re a l ly wa s a g i a n t n a m e d G o l i a th , t h e n E lh a n a n k il l e d h im — n o t Da v id .

Ev e n if we d e n y th a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n a b o u t a g i a n t - s l a y e r wa s h i s to r i c a l , we w o u ld

s t i l l th ink i t l ike ly tha t the I s rae l i t e s to ld th i s s to ry f i r s t abou t Elhanan , and on ly

s e c o n d a r i l y a b o u t D a v i d .

Ad d i t i o n a l e v id e n c e b o l s t e r s t h i s c l a im . Th e Da v id a n d Go l i a th s to r y i n

1 Sa m ue l 17 i s fo lk lo r i s t i c . I t s s t r uc tu re an d p lo t do no t cha rac te r ize a na r ra t iv ein t e r e s t e d i n t h e p a s t a s it a c tu a l l y t r a n s p i r e d . Th e p lo t c o n c e r n s a y o u n g w h i p -

p e r s n a p p e r wh o c a n d e f e a t a f e a r f u l g i a n t b e f o r e w h o m e v e r y o n e el se c o w e r s .

Th e p e r s o n wh o e v e n tu a l l y d e f e a t s t h e g i a n t h a s b e e n p r o mis e d t h e h a n d o f t h e

k in g 's d a u g h t e r i n ma r r i a g e . As i n m u c h f o lk lo r e , t h e ta l e i n c lu d e s u n e x p e c t e d

tw i s t s , s u c h a s t h e ma n n e r i n wh ic h Da v id d i s p o s e s o f Go l i a th . Th e s c e n e wh e r e

Dav id t r ie s to wa lk in Sau l ' s a rmor i s even comica l .

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I n a d d i t i o n , t h e D a v i d a n d G o l i a t h s t o r y c o n f l i c t s w i t h it s c o n t e x t , s u g g e s t -

i n g t h a t i t i s a l a t e a d d i t i o n t o S a m u e l . I n t h e p r e v i o u s s t o r y ( 1 S a m . 1 6 : 1 5 - 2 3 ) ,

Da v i d wa s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o S a u l ' s c o u r t a s a l y r e p l a y e r t o h e l p e a s e S a u l ' s m e l a n -

c h o l y . Ho we v e r , t h r o u g h o u t c h a p t e r 1 7 , S a u l h a s n o i d e a wh o Da v i d i s . I n f a c t ,

w e r e a d :

( 5 5 ) W h e n S a u l s a w Da v i d g o i n g o u t t o a s s a u l t t h e P h i l i s t i n e , h e a s k e d

h i s a r m y c o m m a n d e r A b n e r , " W h o s e s o n is t h a t b o y, A b n e r ? " A n d

A b n e r r e p l i e d , "B y y o u r l i fe . Yo u r M a j e s t y , I d o n o t k n o w . " ( 5 6 ) " T h e n

f i n d o u t w h o s e s o n t h a t y o u n g f e l l o w i s, " t h e k i n g o r d e r e d . ( 5 7 ) S o

w h e n D a v i d r e t u r n e d a f t e r k i l l in g t h e P h i l i s t in e , A b n e r t o o k h i m a n d

b r o u g h t h i m t o S a u l , w i t h t h e h e a d o f t h e P h i l i s t i n e s t i l l i n h i s h a n d .

( 5 8 ) S a u l s a i d t o h i m , " W h o s e s o n a r e y o u , m y b o y ? " A n d Da v i d

a n s w e r e d , " T h e s o n o f y o u r s e r v a n t J e s s e th e B e t h l e h e m i t e . "

C h a p t e r 1 7 f i ts p o o r l y w i t h w h a t f o l l o w s a s we l l . I n t h e n e x t st o ry , S a u l t w i c e

s u g g e s t s to Da v i d t h a t h e m a r r y o n e o f h i s d a u g h t e r s i n e x c h a n g e f o r c e r t a i n

d e e d s ( 1 S a m . 1 8 : 1 7 , 2 5 ) . T h a t u n i t s h o w s n o a w a r e n e s s o f 1 7 : 2 5 , w h i c h h a d

p r o m i s e d t h e k i n g 's d a u g h t e r to t h e p e r s o n w h o c o u l d s l ay G o l i a t h . T h e s e t e n -

s i o n s a ll s u g g e s t t h a t a l a t e r h a n d i n s e r t e d t h e Da v i d a n d G o l i a t h s t o r y i n t o t h e

re s t o f 1 Samue l .

W h e r e d i d th a t la t e r s t o r y c o m e f r o m ? P r o b a b l y f r o m s t o r y t e l le r s w h o

e x p a n d e d o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s f o u n d i n t h e a p p e n d i x to S a m u e l m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .

B o t h p a s s a g e s s h a r e a c o u p l e o f u n u s u a l f e a t u r e s . On e i s t h e o d d s i m i l e t h a t

Go l i a th ' s spea r "had a sha f t l i ke a weave r ' s ba r" (1 Sam. 17 :7 ; 2 Sam. 21 :19 ) ; i t

a p p e a r s i n t h e B i b l e o n l y i n t h e s e t wo p l a c e s — a n d t h e i r p a r a l l e l s i n C h r o n i c l e s .

A n o t h e r i s t h e m e n t i o n o f a g i a n t w h o " t a u n t s " I sr a e l ( 1 S a m . 1 7 : 1 0 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 6 ,4 5 ; 2 S a m . 2 1 : 2 1 ) ; t h i s r o o t ( ף ר ח , ch-r-p) i s f o u n d n o w h e r e e ls e i n S a m u e l . T h e s e

c l u e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e D a v i d a n d G o l i a t h s t o r y g r e w f r o m 2 S a m u e l 2 1 : 1 8 - 2 2 , a

s h o r t u n i t d e s c r i b i n g t h e e x p l o i t s o f " Da v i d a n d h i s m e n , " t h e g i a n t - s l a y e r s .

T h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e D a v i d a n d Go l i a t h s t o r y i s a l a t e, s e c o n d a r y a d d i -

t i o n t o S a m u e l ra i s e s f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s : W h y d i d s o m e o n e w r i t e t h i s e p i s o d e ?

W h y d i d s o m e o n e i n s e r t it h e r e ? T h e a n s w e r t o t h o s e q u e s t i o n s w il l h e l p u s

u n c o v e r t h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f t h e B o o k o f S a m u e l .

The Ideology of Samuel

S o m e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s t o o k t h e B o o k of S a m u e l a s a n a c c u r a t e h i s t o r -

i c al t e x t . F o r e x a m p l e , J o h n B r i g h t c l a i m e d t h a t :

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Sa u l w a s a t r a g i c f i g u r e . O f s p l e n d id a p p e a r a n c e , m o d e s t , a t h i s b e s t

m a g n a n im o u s a n d w i l l i n g t o c o n f e s s h i s f a u l t s , a lw a y s f i e r c e ly c o u r a -

g e o u s , t h e r e w a s n e v e r th e l e s s i n h im a n e m o t io n a l i n s t a b i l i t y t h a t w a s

to b e h i s u n d o in g . A lw a y s o f a v o l a t i l e t e m p e r a m e n t c a p a b l e o f f r e n z i e s

o f e x c i t e m e n t , i t a p p e a r s t h a t a s p r e s s u r e w a s p u t o n h im h e b e c a m e

i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s t u r b e d o f m i n d , s w i n g i n g l i k e a p e n d u l u m b e t w e e n

m o m e n t s o f l u c i d i t y a n d b l a c k m o o d s i n w h i c h , i n c a p a b l e t o i n t e l l i g e n t

a c t i o n , h e i n d u lg e d i n b e h a v io r c a l c u l a t e d t o a l i e n a t e e v e n t h o s e c lo s e s t

t o h im . B e f o r e t h e e n d Sa u l w a s p r o b a b ly n o l o n g e r q u i t e s a n e . 2

B r ig h t s im p ly p a r a p h r a s e d t h e b ib l i c a l t e x t a n d r e m o v e d d iv in e c a u s a l i t y . Th u s ,

acco rd ing to Br igh t , i t was no t God who a f f l i c ted Sau l (1 Sam. 16 :14 , " an ev i ls p i r i t f r o m th e L O R D b e g a n t o t e r r i f y h im " ) b u t s o m e u n s p e c i f i e d m e n ta l m a l a d y .

H a p p i ly , s c h o l a r s n o w w id e ly r e c o g n i z e h o w u n s o u n d t h i s t y p e o f h i s t o r y

wr i t ing i s . I t f a i l s to address the mos t bas ic ques t ions abou t i t s sou rces , such a s :

W h e n w a s t h i s t e x t w r i t t e n ? W h o w r o t e it ? W h a t w a s th e p u r p o s e i n w r i t i n g it?

Obv ious ly , no one can answer these ques t ions de f in i t ive ly and p rec i se ly . We wi l l

n o t b e a b l e t o s a y t h a t t h i s p a r t o f Sa m u e l w a s d r a f t e d b y s o m e p h y s i c i a n n a m e d

J o s e p h w h o l i v e d i n G i lg a l a n d , a f t e r h a v in g v i s i t e d K in g Sa u l o n w h a t w e n o w

reckon as May 5 , 1003 B.C.E. , wrote i t up as case notes the next day . However ,

b y l i s t e n in g f o r i n t e r n a l h in t s i n t h e t e x t—b y e x p lo r in g r h e to r i c a l f e a tu r e s a n d

i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e m , a s I d e m o n s t r a t e d e a r l ie r i n t h i s b o o k — w e c a n a n s w e r s o m e

o f o u r q u e s t i o n s , e v e n i f t h e a n s w e r s m u s t b e t e n t a t i v e . O u r a n s w e r s w i l l d e t e r -

mine how we read th i s un i t : a s an accu ra te h i s to r ica l r eco rd o f the pas t , o r a s a

w o r k c o m p o s e d w i t h s o m e o t h e r g o a l i n m i n d .

Th e m a te r i a l f r o m 1 Sa m u e l 8 t h r o u g h 2 Sa m u e l 8 f o r m s a l i t e r a r y u n i t . 3 T h e

charac te r o f th i s ma te r ia l sugges t s tha t i t s ma in goa l i s to de leg i t ima te Sau l a sk ing and to l eg i t ima te Dav id a s Sau l ' s p rope r successo r . The tex t conveys th i s

m e s s a g e i n a n u m b e r o f w a y s . O n e w a y i s b y d e p i c t i n g D a v id a s Sa u l ' s s o n , w h o

th u s h a s a " le g al " c l a im to t h e t h r o n e . P o r t r a y in g D a v id ( t h e J u d e a n ) a s t h e a c tu -

a l son o f Sau l ( the Ben jamin i te ) wou ld exceed the c rea t iv i ty tha t the aud ience o f

a narra t ive about the pas t can to lera te . But the tex t poin ts to David ' s " f i l ia l" re la-

t i o n s h ip w i th Sa u l b y e m p h a s i z in g t h a t h e w a s t h e k in g ' s s o n - in - l a w .

In add i t ion , c lo th ing imagery p lays a ro le in the mot i f o f l eg i t imacy . The

w o r d i n g i s e v e n s o m e w h a t a w k w a r d , s o t h a t t h e p o i n t w i l l n o t b e m i s s e d :

" Jona than took o f f the c loak he was wear ing and gave i t to Dav id , and h i s tun ic ,

i n c lu d in g h i s s w o r d , i n c lu d in g h i s b o w , a n d i n c lu d in g h i s b e l t " ( 1 Sa m . 1 8 :4 ,

t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . 4 T h u s , J o n a t h a n s y m b o l i c a ll y t u r n s D a v i d i n t o h i m s e l f — t h e

e ld e s t s o n of Sa u l a n d c r o w n p r in c e . I n d e e d , m u c h l a te r J o n a th a n s a y s a s m u c h

to Dav id : "You a re go ing to be k ing ove r I s rae l" (1 Sam. 23 :17 ) .

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M o r e o v e r , t h e te x t p u t s t h e a c t u a l w o r d s " m y f a t h e r " a n d " m y s o n " i n t o t h e

m o u t h s o f D a v i d a n d Sa u l , r e s p e c t i v e l y — a l t h o u g h i n c o n t e x t th o s e w o r d s ' p l a i n

s e n s e i s n o t t h e i r l i t e r a l m e a n i n g . I n 1 S a m u e l 2 4 , D a v i d a d d r e s s e s S a u l , " P l e a s e ,

av i ( , 2 4 : 1 2 ) ". . ב) א ). T r u e t o i t s t r a n s l a t i o n a p p r o a c h , t h e J P S

d e r s av i c o n t e x t u a l l y a s t h e h o n o r i f i c " si r, " w h i l e a d d i n g a f o o t n o t e : "L it . ' [m y ]

f a t h e r . '" I n t h i s w a y , t h e t r a n s l a t o r s a l l o w t h a t t h e w o r d i n g h a s a d o u b l e m e a n -

i n g — n a m e l y , i t f u r t h e r s e r v e s t o s u g g e s t k i n s h i p b e t w e e n D a v i d a n d S a u l . A s th e

c h a p t e r c o n t i n u e s , S a u l is m a d e t o s a y w i t h a p p a r e n t t e n d e r n e s s , " Is t h a t y o u r

v o i c e , beni ( ל ב , ' m y s o n ' ) D a v i d ? " ( v . 1 7 ) . S a u l a s k s t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n a g a i n i n

a n a l t e r n a t i v e v e r s i o n o f t h i s s t o r y ( w h a t s c h o l a r s c a l l a " d o u b l e t " ; 2 6 : 1 7 ) , r e i n -

f o r c i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e e a r li e r c h a p t e r .I n s h o r t , b y c o m b i n i n g p a s s a g e s t h a t in d i f f e r e n t w a y s c r e a t e w h a t m i g h t b e

c a l l e d a p s e u d o g e n e a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S a u l, a n e d i t o r h a s l e g i t i m a t e d

D a v i d , m a k i n g h i m i n t o t h e c r o w n p r i n c e r a t h e r t h a n a u s u r p e r .

M e a n w h i l e , t h e t e xt p o r t r a y s D a v i d a n d S a u l a s o p p o s i t e s — i n p a r t i c u l a r , a s

c o n t r a s t i n g p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e f i g u r e s . 5 T h i s i s t r u e i n s e v e r a l w a y s , s t a r t i n g

w i t h t h e i r p h y s i q u e . S a u l i s d e s c r i b e d t w i c e a s " a h e a d t a l l e r t h a n a ll t h e p e o p l e "

( 1 S a m . 9 : 2 , 1 0 : 2 3 ) . In c o n t r a s t , D a v i d i s t w i c e c a l l e d ha-katan QûÌ?H; 16 :11 ,

1 7 : 1 4 ) . I n c o n t e x t , t h e p l a i n s e n s e o f t h i s w o r d i s " t h e y o u n g e s t " ( w h i c h i s h o w

t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n r e n d e r s it ). H o w e v e r , it c a n a l s o m e a n " t h e s m a l l e s t / s h o r t e s t , "

w h i c h r e s o n a t e s i n t h i s s t o r y w h e n j u x t a p o s e d w i t h b o t h t h e g i a n t G o l i a t h a n d

t h e t a l l S a u l . D e s c r i p t i o n s o f p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e s a r e r a r e i n t h e B i b l e ; u s u a l l y

w h e n t h e y a p p e a r , i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e p l o t . I n t h i s c a s e , t w o p u r p o s e s a r e

s e r v e d b y t h e i m p l i c i t c o n t r a s t i n s i z e . F i r s t , i t a l e r t s t h e r e a d e r t o t h e s u b t l e r

c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n D a v i d a n d S a u l . S e c o n d , i t c a s t s a s h a d o w o v e r S a u l : h e i s t h e

o n e w h o s h o u l d h a v e c o n f r o n t e d G o l i a t h , b u t i n s t e a d th e k i n g l et s s o m e y o u n g -s t e r w i t h l e s s s t a t u r e d o s o .

A g a i n , c l o t h i n g i m a g e r y c o n v e y s a s i m i l a r m e s s a g e . I n 1 S a m u e l 1 7 , D a v i d

t r i e s o n S a u l ' s c l o t h e s , b u t t h e y d o n o t f i t — D a v i d w i l l n o t b e c o m e a n e w S a u l .

H o w e v e r , t h e m a i n s e t o f c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n D a v i d a n d S a u l c e n t e r s o n m u r d e r .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , S a u l i s o n e w h o k i l l s t h e i n n o c e n t , w h i l e D a v i d s p a r e s e v e n t h e

g u i l t y . T h u s , S a u l t r i e s t w i c e t o h a v e D a v i d k i l l e d b y t h e P h i l i s t i n e s ( c h a p . 1 8 ) .

M o r e o v e r , t h e n a r r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s , "S a u l u r g e d h i s s o n J o n a t h a n a n d all h i s

c o u r t i e r s t o k i l l D a v i d " ( 1 9 : 1 ) a n d r e c o u n t s t w o a t t e m p t s o n D a v i d ' s l i f e ( w .1 0 - 1 7 ) . S a u l e v e n t r ie s t o k i ll h i s o w n s o n J o n a t h a n ( 1 4 : 4 4 , 2 0 : 3 3 ) a n d o r d e r s

t h e m u r d e r o f t h e p r i e s t s o f t h e c i t y o f N o b ( c h a p . 2 2 ) . S a u l p e r s o n a l l y c h a s e s

D a v i d i n a t t e m p t s t o k i l l h i m i n c h a p t e r s 2 3 , 2 4 , a n d 2 6 .

I n c o n t r a s t , D a v i d h a d e a s y o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o t a k e S au l 's l if e i n 1 S a m u e l 2 4

a n d 2 6 ; b u t a l t h o u g h t h e k i n g w a s t r y i n g t o h u n t h i m d o w n , D a v i d r e f u s e d t o

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kill " the L O R D ' S a n o i n t e d " ( 2 4 : 7 ; 2 6 : 1 1 ) . L i k e w i s e , D a v i d d i d n o t w a n t A b n e r —

Sa u l ' s r e l a t i v e a n d f o r m e r a r m y o f f i c e r —k i l l e d ( 2 Sa m . 3 ) . H e p u n i s h e d t h o s e

w h o k i l l e d I s h - B o s h e th , a s o n o f Sa u l ( c h a p . 4 ) . Th u s , D a v id h a s c o m p a s s io n

e v e n f o r t h o s e w h o t h r e a t e n h i s k in g s h ip .

O u r u n i t f u r t h e r c o n t r a s t s t h e t w o a n o i n t e d f i g u re s b y j u x t a p o s i n g t h e i r

t r e a tm e n t o f A m a le k i t e s . A c c o r d in g t o l e g i s l a t i o n i n D e u t e r o n o m y ( 2 5 :1 9 ) , t h e

A m a l e k i t e s m u s t b e e x t e r m i n a t e d . In 1 S a m u e l 1 5 : 2 - 3 , S a m u e l c o m m a n d s S a u l

to ca r ry th i s l aw ou t by k i l l ing the Amalek i te s a long wi th a l l the i r ca t t l e . Sau l ,

however , l eaves the i r k ing and some o f the i r ca t t l e a l ive . In con t ra s t , the pe rson

w h o f i n i s h e d o f f Sa u l o n M t . G i lb o a " j u s t h a p p e n e d " t o b e a n A m a le k i t e ( 2 Sa m .

1 :13 ) , and Dav id a r ranges fo r h im to be k i l l ed immedia te ly . Dav id fo l lows thelaw o f the ban tha t Sau l had ignored .

O n e o f t h e s t r o n g e s t c o n t r a s t s b e tw e e n t h e tw o c h a r a c t e r s i s t h a t D a v id

rece ives God ' s sp i r i t wh i le Sau l lo ses i t . A t a c ruc ia l momen t , Sau l i s incapab le o f

rece iv ing a d iv ine o rac le (1 Sam. 28 ) , wh i le a l l Dav id needs to do i s to a sk , and

th e o r a c l e i s r e c e iv e d ( 1 Sa m . 2 3 :2 ; 3 0 :7 - 8 ; 2 Sa m . 2 :1 ) . Fu r th e r m o r e , D a v id ' s

o r a c l e s a r e p o s i t i v e , a n d h e d e f e a t s h i s e n e m ie s ( 1 Sa m . 2 3 ; 2 7 :7 - 1 2 ; 3 0 ) , w h e r e -

as a f te r a nega t ive o rac le Sau l and much o f h i s f ami ly fa l l to the Ph i l i s t ines

( 1 S a m u e l 2 8 ; 3 1 ) . T h i s p a t t e r n , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r s , u n d e r s c o r e s t h ena r ra to r ' s s t a temen t tha t " the sp i r i t o f the L O R D gr ipped Dav id . . . [ and ] depa r t -

e d f r o m S a u l " ( 1 S a m . 1 6 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) .

I have a sse r ted tha t th i s pa r t o f Samue l (1 Samue l 8 th rough 2 Samue l 8 ) i s

a h igh ly ideo lo g ica l t ex t l eg i t im a t in g Dav id a s k ing . C an I p ro ve th i s in te r p re ta -

t ion? No , no t in the sense tha t a sc ien t i f i c f ac t can be p roven . The on ly "ev i -

d e n c e " t h a t w e h a v e i s t h e b ib l i c a l t e x t , w h o s e s t a t e m e n t s a n d l i t e r a r y f e a tu r e s

need to be exp la ined . One exp lana t ion i s tha t the t ex t i s " s imply" reco rd ing fac t sa n d e v e n t s . I r e j e c t t h a t e x p l a n a t i o n f o r s e v e r al r e a s o n s . P r e m o d e r n t e x t s , i n c l u d -

ing the Bib le , show l i t t l e an t iqua r ian in te re s t and ra re ly reco rd fac t s fo r the i r own

sake . In add i t ion , the s t ruc tu re and o the r l i t e ra ry fea tu res o f th i s ma te r ia l sug -

g e s t t h a t i t s e e k s s o m e th in g o th e r t h a n t h e a c tu a l p a s t .

D i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r a g iv e n b ib l i c a l t e x t n e e d t o b e w e ig h e d a g a in s t

e a c h o th e r . I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p u r p o s e s u g g e s t e d h e r e m a k e s s e n s e o f c o n t e n t a n d

th e c u r r e n t o f t h e p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n b e t t e r t h a n a n y o th e r e x p l a n a t i o n .

Ideology Serves Theology

A l th o u g h I p e r c e iv e a c o n s c io u s a n d c o n s i s t e n t l e g i t im a t io n o f D a v id a t t h e

expense o f Sau l , I do no t mean to sugges t tha t i t i s a rb i t r a ry o r pu re po l i t i ca l

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p r o p a g a n d a . It a l s o h a s a m o r a l d i m e n s i o n . A k e y e l e m e n t in t h i s u n i t is

1 S a m u e l 1 5 , t h e s t o r y a b o u t S a u l ' s f a i l u r e t o p r o s c r i b e t h i n g s A m a l e k i t e . I t t e l l s

u s t h a t G o d w i l l t r a n s f e r t h e k i n g s h i p f r o m S a u l ( t o D a v i d ) a s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f

h i s d i s d a i n i n g th e d i v i n e c o m m a n d . I n t h e p o e t i c w o r d s of t h e p r o p h e t S a m u e l :

" B e c a u s e y o u r e j e c t e d t h e L O R D ' S c o m m a n d , / H e h a s r e j e c t e d y o u a s k i n g "

( 1 5 : 2 3 ) . T h e p r e v i o u s v e r s e , w h i c h s o u n d s v e r y m u c h l i k e t h e l a t e r c l a s s i c a l

p r o p h e t s s u c h a s A m o s a n d I s a i a h ,6 e m p h a s i z e s t h a t " S u r e l y , o b e d i e n c e i s b e t t e r

t h a n s a c r i f i c e , / C o m p l i a n c e t h a n t h e f at o f r a m s . " T h u s , t h i s u n i t of S a m u e l l e g i t-

i m a t e s D a v i d w i t h i n a t h e o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k : S a u l l o s es h i s k i n g s h i p w h e n h e

r e j e c t s p r o p e r r e l ig i o u s n o r m s , a n d , i n t y p i ca l b i b l ic a l m e a s u r e - f o r - m e a s u r e

m a n n e r , is r e j e c t e d a s k i n g f o r r e j e c t i n g G o d . T h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t a p p l i e s n o to n l y t o K i n g S a u l , b u t a l s o t o a l l t h o s e w h o f o l l o w h i m .

Judges as History

J u d g e s , th e b o o k t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s S a m u e l , p r e s e n t s i ts el f a s t h e h i s t o -

r y o f t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e c o n q u e s t of t h e l a n d b y J o s h u a a n d t h e p e r i o d o f

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e m o n a r c h y . T h e p e o p l e w e r e l e d b y shofetim ( s i n g u l a r :

shofet, ט פ ש ) , o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d a s " j u d g e s " ( t h u s t h e n a m e of t h e b o o k ) . H o w e v e r ,

s i n c e t h e y h a d l it tl e t o d o w i t h j u d i c i a l m a t t e r s , " j u d g e s " i s a m i s n o m e r . T h e t e r m

i s b e t t e r r e n d e r e d a s " c h i e f t a i n s , " l o c a l o r tr i b a l l e a d e r s w h o r e s p o n d e d t o c r i s e s

a n d l e d t h e i r t r i b e — o r i n s o m e c a s e s , s e v e r a l t r i b e s — t o b a t t l e .

S o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s h a v e d o c u m e n t e d t h i s t y p e o f l e a d e r s h i p b y l o c a l c h i e f t a i n s

i n m a n y p r e m o n a r c h i c a l s o c i e t i e s . T h u s t h e B ib le 's p o r t r a y a l of I sr a el 's p r o g r è s -

s i o n f r o m c h i e f t a i n t o k i n g i s n o t o n l y l o g i c a l , b u t a l s o m o s t l i k e l y h i s t o r i c a l l yt r u e . T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e d e t a i l s f o u n d i n t h e B o o k o f J u d g e s

a r e a c c u r a t e .

N o n e of t h e f a ct s o r e v e n t s i n J u d g e s is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y o u t s i d e e v i d e n c e .

G i v e n t h e m a t t e r s t h a t i t d e a l s w i t h , t h i s i s n o t a t a l l s u r p r i s i n g ; t h e s e a r e n o t t h e

t y p e o f s i g n i f i ca n t e v e n t s t h a t c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s w o u l d r e c o r d . E v e n

s o , i t w o u l d b e i m p r o p e r t o p a r a p h r a s e t h e b o o k a n d t o a c c e p t i t s c h r o n o l o g y a s

c o r r e c t . I n t h e f o r m i n w h i c h i t h a s c o m e d o w n t o u s , t h e b o o k m a y p r e s e r v e

s o m e a c c u r a t e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , b u t t h e s e h a v e b e e n r e w o r k e d a n d r e o r g a n -i z e d f o r a p u r p o s e o t h e r t h a n t e l l i n g t h e p a s t a s i t r e a l l y w a s . T h u s , r e c o n s t r u c t -

i n g t h e " p e r i o d o f j u d g e s " o n t h e b a s i s of t h e B o o k o f J u d g e s i s p e r i l o u s .

C h r o n o l o g y i s u s u a l l y s e e n a s t h e b a c k b o n e o f h i s t o r y , y e t t h i s b o o k d o e s

n o t o f f e r a c o n s i s t e n t t i m e l i n e . F o r e x a m p l e , J u d g e s o p e n s " a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f

J o s h u a " ( 1 : 1 ) , y e t J o s h u a d i e s ( a g a in ? ) i n 2 : 8 . R e g a r d i n g t h e a c t i o n n a r r a t e d

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m e a n w h i l e , w e c a n n o t t e l l w h e n i t t r a n s p i r e d . Fu r th e r m o r e , t h e l a s t f i v e c h a p -

te r s o f the book seem to t ake p lace a t the same t ime as the in i t i a l chap te r s . In

1 8 :3 0 , a m a n w h o m th e t e x t s u g g e s t s w a s M o s e s ' g r a n d s o n i s f u n c t i o n in g a s a

p r ie s t , wh i le in 20 :28 , Ph inehas son o f E leaza r son o f Aaron i s the ma in p r ie s t .B o th of t h o s e f i g u r e s b r i n g u s b a c k t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r J o s h u a . H o w e v e r ,

a c c o r d in g t o t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n of J u d g e s , m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s h a v e p a s s e d .

In add i t ion , seve ra l o f the s to r ie s con ta in s ign i f ican t improbab i l i t i e s . Th is i s

m o s t e v id e n t i n t h e f i na l s t o r y of J u d g e s , c o n c e r n in g t h e r a p e of t h e c o n c u b in e

b y t h e B e n j a m in i t e s o f G ib e a h . A f t e r a m o b r a p e s t h i s w o m a n n e a r ly t o d e a th ,

h e r h u s b a n d " p i c k e d u p a k n i f e , a n d t o o k h o ld o f h i s c o n c u b in e a n d c u t h e r u p

l im b b y l im b in to tw e lv e p a r t s . H e s e n t t h e m th r o u g h o u t t h e t e r r i t o r y o f I s r a e l "

( 1 9 :2 9 ) , i n a n a t t e m p t t o m u s t e r t h e t r i b e s a g a in s t th e o f f e n d in g G ib e o n i t e s a n d

B e n ja m in i t e s . A s id e f r o m th e s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h i s a c t i o n , w h y w o u ld h e h a v e

needed twe lve p ieces? Af te r a l l , Ben jamin (one o f the twe lve t r ibes ) was go ing to

b e a t t a c k e d , s o h e w o u ld h a r d ly h a v e c a l l e d i t t o b a t t l e . Th u s , t h i s g r u e s o m e a n d

su r rea l i s t i c s to ry , in i t s a rc and in i t s de ta i l s , s eems to be someth ing o the r than a

re te l l ing o f ac tua l even ts o f the pas t .

Micro and Macro Structure in Judges

When we a re conf ron ted wi th a s to ry tha t i s se t in the pas t ye t seems no t to be

p o r t r a y in g t h e " r e a l " p a s t , w e a lw a y s n e e d t o a s k : Wh y h a s t h i s s t o r y b e e n

s h a p e d i n t h i s fa s h io n ? Fo r tu n a t e ly , t h e B o o k o f J u d g e s p r o v id e s a m p le c lu e s ,

b o th i n i t s s t o r i e s a n d i n h o w th e y a r e c o m b in e d . C o n s id e r a n o th e r s t o r y i n

Judges tha t i s c lea r ly no t h i s to r ica l :

(3 :7 ) The I s rae l i t e s d id wha t was o f fens ive to the LORD; they ignored the

L O R D t h e i r G o d a n d w o r s h ip e d t h e B a a l im a n d t h e A s h e r o th . ( 8 ) Th e

L O R D b e c a m e i n c e n s e d a t I s r a e l a n d s u r r e n d e r e d t h e m t o K i n g C u s h a n -

r i s h a th a im o f A r a m - n a h a r a im ; a n d t h e I s r a el i t es w e r e s u b j e c t t o

C u s h a n - r i s h a th a im f o r e i g h t y ea r s . ( 9 ) Th e I sr a e l it e s c r i e d o u t t o t h e

L O R D , a n d t h e L O R D ra i sed a champion fo r the I s rae l i t e s to de l ive r them:

O th n i e l t h e K e n i z z i t e , a y o u n g e r k in s m a n o f C a l e b . ( 1 0 ) Th e s p i r i t o fth e L O R D d e s c e n d e d u p o n h i m a n d h e b e c a m e I sr ae l's c h i e f t a i n . H e w e n t

ou t to war , and the L O R D d e l i v e r e d K i n g C u s h a n - r i s h a t h a i m o f A r a m

in to h i s h a n d s . H e p r e v a i l e d o v e r C u s h a n - r i s h a th a im , ( 1 1 ) a n d t h e l a n d

had peace fo r fo r ty yea rs ; then Othn ie l the Ken izz i te d ied , ( t r ans i , o f v .

1 1 a d a p t e d )

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C u s h a n - r i s h a t h a i m , t h e n a m e o f t h e k i n g o f A r a m - n a h a r a i m ( o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d a s

"A ram of th e tw o r ivers"—the Tigr is an d Eu ph ra te s) ca l ls a t te n t io n to i tse lf : i t i s

m e t r i c a l l y b a l a n c e d a n d r h y m e s w i th t h e n a m e o f h i s r e a lm , a q u i t e u n u s u a l f e a -

t u r e . M o r e t e l l i n g ly , t h e n a m e m e a n s " t h e d a r k d o u b l e - w ic k e d o n e . " I n a n c i e n t

Se m i t i c c u l t u r e s , n a m e s w e r e g iv e n b y p a r e n t s a t t h e t im e o f b i r t h , o f t e n e x p r e s s -

i n g p a r e n t a l f e e l i n g s u p o n t h e c h i l d ' s b i r t h —i t i s h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y a p a r -

e n t w o u ld n a m e a c h i l d " t h e d a r k d o u b l e - w ic k e d o n e . " I n a d d i t i o n , A r a m i s t o

th e n o r th o f I s r a e l , w h i l e t h e j u d g e , O th n i e l , i s a K e n i z z i t e , a n d t h u s f r o m th e

t r ibe of Ju da h , f r om the sou th o f I s rae l . I t i s ha rd to g rasp w hy he w ou ld f igh t

aga ins t an Aramean—th is i s l ike say ing tha t a Texan was the f i r s t to de fend the

U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r C a n a d a a t t a c k e d i t .T h e m i s p l a c e d g e o g r a p h y a n d t h e o d d n e s s o f t h e n a m e o f C u s h a n -

r i s h a th a im w o u ld h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o a n c i e n t r e a d e r s t h a t t h i s s t o r y i s s o m e th in g

o the r than s t ra igh t fo rward h i s to ry . In fac t , i t i s bes t r ead a s a s to ry abou t an idea l

Judean de fea t ing pu re ev i l . As the book ' s f i r s t s to ry abou t a ch ie f ta in , i t i s app ro -

p r ia te ly s imple and to the po in t : a l l s t a r t s ou t we l l when Judah i s in cha rge .

A s m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e n o t e d , m o s t o f t h e o t h e r c h i e f t a i n s i n J u d g e s

a r e q u i t e im p e r f e c t h e r o e s . A m o n g o th e r t h in g s , t h e y d o u b t G o d , s a c r i f i c e a

d a u g h t e r , c a v o r t w i th Ph i l i s t i n e w o m e n , a n d b r e a k r e l i g io u s v o w s . I n f a c t , t h ec h i e f t a in s f o r m a p a t t e r n : a s t h e n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s e s f r o m O th n i e l ( of J u d a h , i n

t h e s o u t h ) t o S a m s o n ( o f D a n , w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y w a s t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t t r i b e ) —

t h e c h i e f t a i n s b e c o m e w o r s e a n d w o r s e . T h i s p a t t e r n f u n c t i o n s t o d e n i g r a t e

n o r th e r n j u d g e s . A l l t o ld , t h e s e s t o r i e s s h a r p e n t h e m e s s a g e f r o m th e O th n i e l

a c c o u n t : o n ly J u d e a n l e a d e r s h ip is s a t is f a c to r y .

Th e b e g in n in g a n d e n d o f J u d g e s t o g e th e r a m p l i f y t h a t m e s s a g e . Th e s e s e c -

t i o n s d o n o t c o n t a in s t o r i e s a b o u t c h i e f t a in s . R a th e r , t h e i n i t i a l c h a p t e r s r e c o u n t

th e c o n q u e s t o f t h e l a n d , i n w h ic h J u d a h p l a y s a c r u c i a l r o l e , d e f e a t i n g t h o s e i n

i ts t e r r i t o r i e s — w h e r e a s o th e r t r i b e s fa il t o d o s o . N e a r t h e e n d o f t h e b o o k , c h a p -

t e r s 1 7 - 1 8 d e p i c t i n a d e r o g a to r y f a s h io n t h e o r i g in o f w o r s h ip i n t h e n o r th . Th e

las t th ree chap te r s , abou t the concub ine o f Gibeah , a re a p reque l to the se t o f

s t o r i e s a b o u t Sa u l i n 1 Sa m u e l , w h i c h w e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . Sa u l w o u ld c o m e

f r o m G i b e a h i n B e n j a m i n , w h e r e — s o J u d g e s t e l l s u s — t h e p e o p l e b e h a v e i n a

h o r r e n d o u s m a n n e r . T h e c o n c u b i n e h u s b a n d ' s a c t ( m u s t e r i n g t h e t r o o p s b y

c h o p p in g u p h e r b o d y a n d s e n d in g i t s p i e c e s t o a l l t h e t r i b e s ) w i l l s u r e ly c o m eto mind when we read o f Sau l ' s l a te r ac t : "He took a yoke o f oxen and cu t them

in to p i e c e s , w h ic h h e s e n t b y m e s s e n g e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e r r i t o r y o f I s r a e l , w i th

th e w a r n in g , ' Th u s s h a l l b e d o n e t o t h e c a t t l e o f a n y o n e w h o d o e s n o t f o l l o w

Sau l and Samue l in to ba t t l e ! ' " (1 Sam. 11 :7 ) . By den ig ra t ing Gibeah (Sau l ' s b i r th -

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p lace ) , Ben jamin (Sau l ' s t r ibe ) , and Jabesh Gi lead (a c i ty c lose ly a ssoc ia ted wi th

Sa u l ) , t h e c o n c u b in e o f G ib e a h s t o r y i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o c h a n c e t h a t

Saul wi l l be a good k ing .

Judges and Samuel as Parallel Stories

J u d g e s d o e s n o t d e s c ri b e a c c u r a t e l y t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n J o s h u a a n d S a u l.

Ins tead , i t para l le ls the Book of Samuel . Severa l t imes i t ra ises the issue of k ing-

s h i p — b y d i s c u s s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f G i d e o n b e c o m i n g k i n g ( 8 : 2 2 ) , b y h i g h -

l i g h t i n g A b im e le c h ' s r o l e a s k in g o f Sh e c h e m ( c h a p . 9 ) , a n d b y r e p e a t i n g t h e f o r -mula " in those days the re was no k ing in I s rae l" fou r t imes in i t s f ina l f ive chap-

t e r s . I n t h i s v e in , i t m a k e s a c l e a r v a lu e j u d g m e n t a b o u t w h o t h e p r o p e r k in g i s :

h e m u s t b e a n O t h n i e l - l i k e f i g u re w h o h a i ls f r o m J u d a h . H e c a n n o t b e n o r t h e r n .

H e c a n n o t b e a B e n j a m in i t e —c e r t a in ly n o t o n e f r o m G ib e a h l i k e Sa u l . Th e p e o -

p ie o f I s rae l do no t a sk fo r a k ing to rep lace Samue l , the l a s t ch ie f ta in , un t i l

1 Sa m u e l 8 . Y e t b y t h a t p o in t , t h e D e u t e r o n o m is t i c H i s to r i a n h a s a l r e a d y c o n d i -

t i o n e d r e a d e r s to t h i n k t h a t J u d e a n , D a v id i c k in g s h ip i s t h e o n ly le g i t im a t e k in d .

My t i t l e fo r the p resen t chap te r , "May My Lord King Dav id Live Foreve r , "re f lec t s I Kings 1 :31 , the book tha t fo l lows Samue l . Ye t tha t s ta temen t rea l ly i s

t h e m e s s a g e o f b o th J u d g e s a n d Sa m u e l . R e a d in g t h e s e tw o b o o k s a s f a c tu a l ,

r a t h e r t h a n a s r o y a l p r o p a g a n d a b o l s t e r i n g t h e D a v id i c d y n a s ty a n d s t a t e , w o u ld

b e a s e r i o u s e r r o r . I t w o u ld b e l i k e o p e n in g a n e w s p a p e r a n d r e a d in g t h e e d i t o -

r ia l pages a s fac tua l news .

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13

"For Israel Tore Away from theHouse of David"

R ea d in g K in g s

Primary Reading: 1 Kings 1-12, 16; 2 Kings 17-25.

History Is Too Important to Leave to Chance1

Thu s far I have em ph as iz ed tha t m u c h o f w ha t loo ks l ike h i s to ry in the Bib le

i s rea l ly mytho log ica l . Tha t i s , b ib l ica l t ex ts a re in te res ted in express ing o r

p r o m o t in g p a r t i c u l a r v i e ws a b o u t i s s u e s o f c o l l e c ti v e im p o r t a n c e ( s ee " Ge n e s i s

1 - 3 a s M y th " i n c h a p t e r 6 ) . Th e i s s u e s t h a t t h e s e t e x t s e x p lo r e ar e s o m e t i m e s

p o l i t i c a l a n d s o me t ime s t h e o lo g i c a l ; o f t e n t h e y a r e a c o mb in a t io n o f b o th . A t

t imes , these s to r ie s incorpora te ea r l ie r h i s to r ica l t r ad i t ions , bu t ra re ly , i f eve r , a re

th o s e t r a d i t i o n s p r e s e n t f o r t h e i r o w n s a k e — f o r w h a t i s c a l l ed " a n t iq u a r i a n

in t e r e s t . " 2 At f i rs t g lance , the Book of Kings looks d if ferent f rom the res t of th is

m a t e r i a l .W e wi l l r e tu r n t o S a mu e l o n e mo r e t ime to u n d e r l i n e t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s . I n

o n e o f S a mu e l ' s m o s t c e n t r a l t e x t s , N a t h a n o f f e r s Da v id a d iv in e p r o m is e c o n -

c e r n i n g h i s s o n :

(2 Sam . 7 :1 4) I wil l be a fa th er to h im , an d he sha l l be a so n to M e.

W h e n h e d o e s wr o n g , I w i l l c h a s t i s e h i m w i th t h e r o d of m e n a n d th e

a f f l i c t io n o f mo r t a l s ; ( 1 5 ) b u t I w i l l n e v e r w i th d r a w M y f a v o r f r o m h i m

a s I w i th d r e w it f r o m S a u l, w h o m I r e m o v e d to m a k e r o o m f o r y o u .( 1 6 ) Yo u r h o u s e a n d y o u r k in g s h ip s h a l l e v e r b e s e c u r e b e f o r e y o u ; y o u r

th r o n e s h a l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e v e r .

A l th o u g h K in g s s h a r e s s o me o f t h e s e s a me id e a s , i t n a r r a t e s t h e m in a v e r y

d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r . I n s t e a d o f l o n g , we l l - s t y l e d 3 c h a r a c t e r s t u d i e s , mo s t o f t h e

a c c o u n t s i n K in g s a r e s h o r t . Th e y a l s o c o n ta in d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d e t a i l s t h a n

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S a mu e l—d e ta i l s o f c h r o n o lo g y , o f t r i b u t e p a id , o f r o y a l b u i ld in g p r o j e c t s , e t c . I n

o th e r wo r d s , t h e s t r u c tu r e a n d s ty l e o f t h e b o o k a r e u n l ik e t h e b o o k s o f t h e e a r ly

p r o p h e t s t h a t p r e c e d e it . Th i s r ai s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e th e r we s h o u ld g ive t h e

t ra d i t ion s i t co n t a i ns the ben ef i t of the do u b t , and if w e sh ou ld t rea t Kings as

h is to ry , in our modern sense . The answer i s tha t Kings i s l ike the o the r books o f

th e B ibl e we h a v e e x a m in e d : i t p r e s e n t s h i s to r i c a l i n f o r m a t io n f o r t h e s a k e of

o th e r a g e n d a s . Th e f o l l o w in g s e c t i o n s w i l l e x p l a in wh y .

The Chronology of Kings

I n d i s c u s s in g w h y J u d g e s i s n o t h is to r y , I n o t e d t h a t wh e r e a s c h r o n o l o g y is t h e

"b ac kb on e" o f h i s to ry , Ju dg es i s ou t o f ch ron o lo g ic a l o r de r (see " Judges as

Hi s to r y " i n c h a p t e r 1 2 ) . Th e s a me c r i t i q u e a p p l i e s t o K in g s . A l th o u g h i t s u p p l i e s

c h r o n o l o g i c a l n o t e s m o r e o f t e n — a n d i n m o r e d e t a i l — i f w e l o o k c a r e f u l l y w e

wi l l see tha t K ings too i s ou t of ch r on o lo g ic a l o rde r .

W e n e e d lo o k n o f a r th e r t h a n t h e f ir s t l o n g u n i t i n K in g s , w h i c h c o n c e r n s

S o lo mo n , a s o n o f Da v id wh o f o l l o we d h im a s k in g . Ne a r t h a t u n i t ' s e n d we r e a d :

" W h e n Ha d a d h e a r d i n Eg y p t t h a t Da v id h a d b e e n l a id t o r e s t w i th h i s f a th e r s

a n d t h a t J o a b t h e a r m y c o m m a n d e r w a s d e a d , H a d a d s a id to P h a r a o h , ' G iv e m e

leave to go to my own coun t ry" ' (1 Kings 11 :21) . Clea r ly , th i s mus t have t ran -

sp i red ve ry ea r ly in So lomon ' s re ign , no t a t the end o f i t . Th is sugges t s tha t the

t e x t i s d o in g s o me th in g o th e r t h a n r e c a l l i n g t h e r e ig n o f S o lo mo n a s i t a c tu a l l y

h a p p e n e d i n c o r r e c t c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r .

E v e n t h e d e t a i l e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l n o t e s t h e m s e l v e s s o m e t i m e s p r o v i d e p r o b -

l e ms . I n th e f o l l o w in g e x c e r p t f r o m 1 K in g s 1 6 , n o t e t h e y e a r s w h e n d i f f e r e n t

r e ig n s b e g in a n d e n d . Ho w we l l d o t h e y f i t t o g e th e r ?4

( 1 5 ) D u r in g t h e twe n ty - s e v e n th y e a r of K in g As a o f J u d a h , Z im r i

r e ig n e d in T i r z a h f o r s e v e n d a y s . A t t h e t ime , t h e t r o o p s we r e e n c a m p e d

a t G ib b e th o n o f t h e P h i l i s t i n e s . ( 1 6 ) W h e n th e t r o o p s w h o w e r e

e n c a m p e d t h e r e l e a r n e d t h a t Z i m r i h a d c o m m i t t e d t r e a s o n a n d h a d

s t ruck down the k ing , tha t ve ry day , in the camp, a l l I s rae l acc la imed

th e a r my c o mma n d e r Omr i k in g o v e r I s r a e l . ( 1 7 ) Or a r i a n d a l l I s r a e l

t h e n w i t h d r e w f r o m G i b b e t h o n a n d la i d s ie g e t o T i r z a h . ( 1 8 ) W h e nZimr i saw tha t the town was taken , he wen t in to the c i tade l o f the roya l

p a l a c e a n d b u r n e d d o wn th e r o y a l p a l a c e o v e r h ims e l f . An d s o h e

d i e d — ( 1 9 ) b e c a u s e of t h e s in s w h ic h h e c o m m i t t e d a n d c a u s e d I s r ae l

t o c o m m i t , d o i n g w h a t w a s d i s p l e a s i n g t o t h e L O R D a n d f o l l o win g th e

w ays of Je ro bo am . (2 0) The o th e r eve n ts of Zimr i ' s r e ign , an d the t re a -

s o n wh ic h h e c o mmi t t e d , a r e r e c o r d e d in t h e An n a l s o f t h e K in g s o f

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I s rae l . (21 ) Then the peop le o f I s rae l sp l i t in to two fac t ions : a pa r t o f the

p e o p le f o l l o we d T ib n i s o n o f G in a th t o ma k e h im k in g , a n d t h e o th e r

p a r t f o l l o w e d O m r i . ( 2 2 ) T h o s e w h o f o l l o w e d O m r i p r o v e d s t r o n g e r

th a n t h o s e wh o f o l l o we d T ib n i s o n o f G in a th ; T ib n i d i e d a n d Omr i

b e c a m e k in g . ( 2 3 ) I n th e t h i r t y - f i r s t y e a r of K in g As a o f J u d a h , O m r i

b e c a me k in g o v e r I s r a e l—f o r twe lv e y e a r s . He r e ig n e d in T i r z a h s ix

y e a r s . ( 2 4 ) T h e n h e b o u g h t t h e h i ll of S a m a r i a f r o m S h e m e r f o r two t a l-

en ts o f s i lve r ; he bu i l t a town on the h i l l and named the town which he

b u i l t S a m a r i a , a f t e r S h e m e r , t h e o w n e r of t h e hi l l. ( 2 5 ) O m r i d id w h a t

w as d i sp l eas ing to the LORD; he was wor se th an a l l w h o p re ce de d h i m .

(26 ) He fo l lo we d a ll the way s o f Je ro bo am s on o f N eba t an d the s in swh ic h h e c o mmi t t e d a n d c a u s e d I s r a e l t o c o mmi t , v e x in g t h e LORD, t h e

God o f I s rae l , wi th the i r fu t i l i t i e s . (27) The o the r even ts o f Omri ' s r e ign ,

a n d h i s a c t i o n s , a n d t h e e x p lo i t s h e p e r f o r me d , a r e r e c o r d e d in t h e

Anna ls o f the Kings o f I s rae l . (28 ) Omri s lep t wi th h i s fa the rs and was

b u r i e d i n S a ma r i a ; a n d h i s s o n Ah a b s u c c e e d e d h im a s k in g . ( 2 9 ) A h a b

son o f Omri became k ing over I s rae l in the th i r ty -e igh th yea r o f King

Asa o f Ju da h , a nd A ha b so n o f O m ri re i gne d over Is rae l in Sam ar ia fo r

t w e n t y - t w o y e a r s .

If Z im r i o n ly r e ig n e d f o r s e v e n d a y s , a n d b e g a n to r e ig n d u r in g t h e twe n ty - s e v -

en th yea r o f Kin g Asa (v. 15 ) , h o w d id h i s successo r , O m ri , beg in to re ign in t he

th i r ty - f i r s t yea r o f King Asa (v . 23 )? I f Omri became k ing in the th i r ty - f i r s t yea r

o f Asa and re igned fo r twe lve yea rs (v . 23 ) , how i s i t poss ib le tha t h i s son , Ahab ,

be ga n to re ign in the th i r ty -e i gh th ye a r of Asa (v. 29 )? The re i s n o obv iou s wa y

to s o lv e t h i s a r i t h me t i c p r o b l e m. S o me s c h o la r s s p e c u l a t e t h a t two k in g s r e ig n e d

f o r t h e s a me t ime and t h e i r r e g n a l y e a r s c o u n te d f o r b o th k in g s . 5 U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,

the b ib l ica l t ex t i t se l f a t te s t s on ly ra re ly to such "co- regenc ies" and jus t i f ie s them

when they were necessa ry (e .g . , the f i r s t k ing became se r ious ly i l l ) .

Other Historical Issues in Kings

A c lose r loo k a t th i s sec t ion revea ls o th e r typ es o f p r ob lem s , tha t is , i s sue s th a t

mo d e r n h i s to r i a n s m ig h t b e c u r io u s a b o u t , b u t t h a t t h e t e x t d o e s n o t a d d r e s s .F o r e x a m p l e : W h o f a v o r e d Z i m r i a n d w h o f a v o r e d O m r i ? L ik e w i s e, w h o f a v o r e d

Tib n i o v e r Om r i ( 1 K in g s 1 6 :2 1 ) ? H o w a n d w h y d id O m r i s f a c t i o n w in (v. 2 2 )?

W h y d id O m r i mo v e h i s c a p i t a l , a n d wh y d id h e c h o o s e S a ma r i a (v. 2 4 ) ? Th e

b ib l i c a l h i s to r i a n s h o ws l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e s o r t s o f q u e s t i o n s , wh ic h wo u ld

p r e o c c u p y t h e m o d e r n h i s to r i an .

I n s t e a d , t h e D t r H i s mo s t ly i n t e r e s t e d i n e v a lu a t i n g e a c h of t h e s e k in g s a n d

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n o t in g t h e i r n e g a t iv e b e h a v io r . Th i s i s e s p e c i a l l y r e m a r k a b le c o n c e r n in g Z im r i ,

w h o r e ig n e d o n ly f o r s e v e n d a y s , y e t i s c o n d e m n e d " b e c a u s e o f t h e s in s w h i c h

h e c o m m i t t e d a n d c a u s e d I s r a e l t o c o m m i t , d o i n g w h a t w a s d i s p l e a s i n g t o t h e

L O R D a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e w a y s of J e r o b o a m " ( 1 K i n g s 1 6 : 1 9 ) . The s in i s King

J e r o b o a m ' s b u i ld in g o f c u l t s i t e s w i th g o ld e n c a lv e s i n Be th e l a n d Da n

( 1 2 : 2 5 - 3 3 ) , a n a c t i o n s e e n a s h o r r i f i c b y t h e D t r H , s in c e t h e s e s i t e s c o m p e te d

w i t h J e r u s a l e m , si te of t h e T e m p l e a n d r o ya l h o u s e . B u t h o w m u c h w o r s h i p

cou ld Zimr i have done in seven days , e spec ia l ly whi le he was engaged in a c iv i l

wa r ? Ra th e r , t h e c o m m e n t i n 1 K in g s 1 6 :1 9 is p a r t of t h e s t e r e o ty p e d e v a lu a t i o n

o f e a c h n o r t h e r n k in g b y t h e D t r H , a J u d e a n , wh o w i ll n o t m i s s a c h a n c e t o d e n -

ig r a t e t h e n o r th .A l th o u g h we k n o w o f o n ly a s ma l l n u m b e r of e x t r a b ib l i c a l s o u r c e s t h a t b e a r

d i r e c t l y o n t h e B ib le , a n u m b e r o f t h e s e c lu s t e r a r o u n d th e r e ig n of O m r i . Th e

M e s h a I n s c r ip t i o n , wr i t t e n i n M o a b i t e ( a S e mi t i c l a n g u a g e v e r y c lo s e t o He b r e w) ,

n o t e s : " O m r i wa s t h e k in g of I s r a el , a n d h e o p p r e s s e d M o a b f o r m a n y d a y s , fo r

C h e m o s h w a s a n g r y w i t h h i s l a n d . " 6 ( I n c id e n t a l l y , t h e M o a b i t e s a t t r i b u t e d t h e

o p p r e s s io n o f M o a b to t h e a n g e r o f Ch e mo s h , t h e i r h ig h g o d . I s r a e l wa s n o t

a lone in the anc ien t Near Eas t in be l iev ing tha t de i t i e s d i rec t ly pa r t ic ipa ted in

h i s to ry . ) I n a d d i t i o n , As s y r i a n r e c o r d s f r o m m o r e t h a n a c e n tu r y a f t e r t h e t ime o f

O m r i — a n d e v e n a f t e r t h e e n d o f h i s d y n a s t y — c o n t i n u e t o c al l N o r t h e r n I s ra e l

" th e h o u s e o f Omr i . "7

Th i s s u g g e s t s t h a t b o th Omr i a n d th e d y n a s ty h e e s t a b -

l i shed were mi l i t a r i ly power fu l . Ye t , the b ib l ica l t ex t ba re ly men t ions th i s .

A l th o u g h th e c lo s in g n o t i c e i n 1 K in g s 1 6 :2 7 me n t io n s Om r i ' s " a c t i o n s " ( o r, " h is

m ig h t y deed s" ) , it o f fe r s n o de ta i l s .

I n s u m , K in g s i s n o t f u n d a m e n ta l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e p r e v io u s " h i s to r i c al

b o o k s " we h a v e e x a m in e d . I t m a y lo o k a b i t d i f f e r e n t , a n d m a y p r e s e r v e a h ig h -e r pe rcen tage o f co r rec t t r ad i t ions , bu t th i s i s a d i f fe rence o f ex ten t , no t o f k ind .

As the fo l lowing examples wi l l show, Kings i s no t in te res ted in the pas t fo r i t s

o w n s a k e , b u t f o r m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s — f o r t e a c h i n g i d e o l o g ic a l a n d

th e o lo g i c a l l e s s o n s .

Solomon

Th e S o lo m o n m a te r i a l i n K in g s c lo s e ly f i ts t h i s d e s c r ip t i o n . E v e n a c u r s o r y r e a d -

in g o f 1 K in g s 1 - 1 1 s u g g e s t s t h a t i ts p e r s p e c t iv e d i f f e r s f r o m th a t of a m o d e r n

h i s to r i a n o f a n t i q u i ty . Th e te x t t e ll s u s a lmo s t n o th in g a b o u t S o lo m o n b e f o r e h e

accedes to the th rone o the r than the fac t tha t " the L O R D f a v o r e d h i m " ( 2 S a m .

1 2 : 2 4 ) . M a n y p a s s a g e s i n K in g s d e a l w i th h i s b u i ld in g p r o j e c t s i n e x a c t in g d e t a i l ;

n e v e r th e l e s s , t h e s e p a s s a g e s c o n ta in c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . F o r e x a m p le , 1 K in g s 5 :2 7 ,

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i n d i s c u s s i n g S o l o m o n ' s b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s , s a y s t h a t " K i n g S o l o m o n i m p o s e d

f o r c e d l a b o r o n a ll I s r a e l , " w h i l e 9 : 2 0 - 2 2 c l a im s , "A ll t h e p e o p l e t h a t w e r e l e ft o f

t h e A m o r i t e s , H i t t i t e s , P e r i z z i te s , H i v i t e s , a n d J e b u s i t e s w h o w e r e n o t of t h e

I s r a e l i te s t o c k . . . o f t h e s e S o lo m o n m a d e a s l a v e f o r c e , a s i s s ti ll t h e c a s e . B u t

h e d id n o t r e d u c e a n y I s r a e l i t e s t o s l a v e r y . . . ." D id S o l o m o n u s e I s r a e l it e f o r c e d

l a b o r o r n o t ?

O t h e r d e t a i l s i n t h e s t o r y s e e m t o b e e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e ly , f o r e x a m p l e t h e

s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e u s u r p e r A d o n i j a h a s k e d f o r A b i s h a g t h e S h u n a m m i t e , w h o

w a r m e d D a v id i n h i s o ld a g e ( 1 K in g s 1 ) , a s a w i f e . T h i s w o u ld h a v e b e e n t a n -

t a m o u n t t o a s k in g f o r t h e l a t e k in g ' s w i f e , o r at t h e v e r y l e a s t , t o a s k i n g t o m a r r y

a s e n i o r m e m b e r o f t h e f o r m e r r o y a l c o u r t . It w o u l d h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o S o l o m o nt h a t A d o n i j a h st il l w a n t e d t o b e k i n g , i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h h i m .

8C e r t a in ly ,

A d o n i j a h s h o u l d h a v e k n o w n t h a t S o l o m o n w o u l d v ie w h i s r e q u e s t a s a n

a t t e m p t t o u s u r p t h e t h r o n e , a n d t h a t h e w o u l d b e p u n i s h e d w i t h d e a t h ( se e v.

2 5 ) . It i s l i k e ly t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s s t o r y is t h a t t h e n a r r a to r w a n t e d t o g e t r i d

o f A d o n i j a h w i t h o u t m a k i n g S o l o m o n r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d c r e a t i n g t h i s i n c i d e n t

p r o v id e d t h e i d e a l w a y t o d o i t .

If t h e m a te r i a l a b o u t S o lo m o n w a s n o t a r r a n g e d c h r o n o lo g i c a l l y , a n d if i t i s

n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n a c o m p l e t e , b a l a n c e d , o r o b j e c t i v e p i c t u r e o f S o l o m o n ' s li fe ,

h o w i s it a r r a n g e d , a n d w h a t is it i n t e r e s t e d i n d o i n g ?9

I n o r d e r t o a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w e w i ll f i r st l o o k at t h e s t r u c tu r e o f t h e

t e x t . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e t s o f v e r s e s p a r a ll e l e a c h o t h e r in c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e ,

a n d w i l l h e lp u s t o d iv id e t h e f ir s t e l e v e n c h a p t e r s i n to s e c t i o n s :

1 Kings 9

( 2 4 ) A s s o o n a s P h a r a o h ' s d a u g h t e rw e n t u p f r o m th e C i ty o f D a v id t o t h e

p a l a c e t h a t h e h a d b u i l t f o r h e r , h e

b u i l t t h e M i l l o . ( 2 5 ) S o l o m o n u s e d t o

o f f e r b u r n t o f f e r i n g s a n d s a c r i f i c e s of

w e l l - b e i n g t h r e e t i m e s a y e a r o n t h e

a l ta r tha t he ha d bu i l t fo r th e L O R D ,

a n d h e u s e d t o o f f e r i n c e n s e o n t h e

on e tha t w as be fo re th e LORD. A n d he

k e p t t h e H o u s e i n r e p a i r .

1 Kings 3

( 1 ) S o l o m o n a l l ie d h i m s e l f b y m a r r i a g ew i t h P h a r a o h k i n g o f E g y p t . H e m a r -

r i e d P h a r a o h ' s d a u g h t e r a n d b r o u g h t

he r to the Ci ty o f David to l ive the re

u n t i l h e h a d f i n i s h e d b u i l d i n g h i s

pa lace , and the House o f the LORD, and

t h e w a l l s a r o u n d J e r u s a l e m . ( 2 ) T h e

p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , c o n t i n u e d t o o f f e r

s a c r i f ic e s a t t h e o p e n s h r i n e s , b e c a u s e

u p t o t h a t t i m e n o h o u s e h a d b e e n

bu i l t fo r th e na m e of th e LORD. (3 ) A n d

S o l o m o n , t h o u g h h e l o v e d t h e L O R D

a n d f o l l o w e d t h e p r a c t i c e s o f h i s f a t h e r

D a v id , a l s o s a c r i f i c e d a n d o f f e r e d a t

t h e s h r i n e s .

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U s i n g t h e s e p a r a l l e l s t o d i v i d e 1 K i n g s 1 - 1 1 i n t o s e c t i o n s , t h e f o l l o w i n g o u t -

l i n e c o m e s i n t o v i e w :

A c c e s s i o n of S o l o m o n t o t h e t h r o n e ( 1 - 2 ) 1 0

S o l o m o n f o l lo w s G o d a n d is b l e s s e d ( 3 : 1 - 9 : 2 3 )

S o l o m o n d o e s n o t fo l l o w G o d a n d is c u r s e d ( 9 : 2 6 - 1 1 : 4 0 )

T yp ic al D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c c o n c l u s i o n f o r m u l a ( 1 1 : 4 1 - 4 3 )

T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t h e o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n c h r o n o l o g i c a l . I n d e e d , it m i r r o r s t h e

s t r u c tu r e o f t h e m a te r i a l a b o u t D a v id i n t h e B o o k o f S a m u e l . T h e r e , D a v id i s

b l e s s e d u p u n t i l t h e t i m e t h a t h e s i n s w i t h B a t h s h e b a i n 2 S a m u e l 1 1 , a f t e r w h i c h

p o i n t a l m o s t n o t h i n g s e e m s t o g o r i g h t f o r D a v i d s f a m il y .

The Laws of the King

T h i s m a te r i a l f r o m K in g s i s p a r t o f t h e D t r H , s o i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t S o l o m o n

a p p e a r s to b e c u r s e d f o r v i o l a t in g t h e l a w s o f D e u t e r o n o m y D e u t e r o n o m y

1 7 : 1 6 - 1 7 , t h e b e g i n n i n g of w h a t is o f t e n c a l l e d " t h e la w s o f t h e k i n g , " n o t e s :

M o r e o v e r , h e s h a l l n o t k e e p m a n y h o r s e s o r s e n d p e o p l e b a c k t o E g y p t

to a d d t o h i s h o r s e s , s i n c e t h e L O R D h a s w a r n e d y o u , "Y ou m u s t n o t g o

b a c k t h a t w a y a g a in . " A n d h e s h a l l n o t h a v e m a n y w iv e s , l e s t h i s h e a r t

g o a s t r a y ; n o r s h a l l h e a m a s s s i l v e r a n d g o ld t o e x c e s s .

1 K i n gs 9 : 2 6 - 1 1 : 4 0 o u t l i n e s h o w S o l o m o n v i o l a t e d a ll t h r e e of t h e s e

p r o h i b i t i o n s :

• I n 9 : 2 8 - 1 0 : 2 5 , S o l o m o n a c c u m u l a t e s e x c es s iv e w e a l t h t h r o u g h h i s c o n -

t a c t w i t h t h e Q u e e n o f S h e b a a n d o t h e r s . V e r s e 1 0 : 1 4 n o t e s t h a t

S o l o m o n a n n u a l l y r e ce i v e d 6 6 6 t a l e n t s of g o l d — o v e r 5 0 , 0 0 0 l b s . a y e ar .

• I n 1 0 : 2 6 - 2 9 , S o l o m o n p r o c u r e s m a n y h o r s e s , a n d m a n y o f t h e m c o m e

f r o m E g y p t .

• I n c h a p t e r 1 1 , S o l o m o n m a r r i e s many f o r e ig n w iv e s , w h o (v. 3 ) " t u r n e d

h i s h e a r t a w a y . "

T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e D t r H , G o d p u n i s h e d S o l o m o n f o r g o o d r e a s o n . ( T h e

p u n i s h m e n t c a m e a f t e r h i s d e a t h ; it c o n s i s t e d o f h i s s o n ' s l o s i n g p a r t of t h e k i n g -

d o m w h e n t h e n o r t h e r n t r i b e s s e c e d e d a f t e r R e h o b o a m d i s m i s s e d th e i r p e t i t i o n

t o l i g h t e n t h e i r c o r v é e b u r d e n . )

R e g a r d i n g t h e t h i r d p r o h i b i t i o n t h a t S o l o m o n v i o l a t e s , t h e i n i t i a l v e r s e s o n

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t h i s t o p i c p r e s e n t t h e ms e lv e s a s a q u o te : " o f wh ic h t h e L O R D had sa id to the

I s r ae l i te s . " I n d e e d , w h a t f o l l o ws , " N o n e o f y o u s h a l l j o in t h e m a n d n o n e o f t h e m

sha l l jo in yo u , l es t they tu rn y ou r hea r t aw ay to fo l low the i r gods" is a pa r a -

p h r a s e o f D e u te r o n o m y 7 . Th a t t e x t h a d c h a r g e d I s r a el w i th p r o s c r i b in g t h e

n a t io n s o f Ca n a a n , h o ld in g t h a t " Yo u s h a l l n o t i n t e r ma r r y w i th t h e m: d o n o t g iv e

y o u r d a u g h te r s t o t h e i r s o n s o r t a k e t h e i r d a u g h te r s f o r y o u r s o n s . F o r t h e y w i ll

t u r n y o u r c h i ld r e n a wa y f r o m M e to wo r s h ip o th e r g o d s , a n d t h e L O R D ' S a n g e r

wi l l b l a z e f o r th a g a in s t y o u a n d He w i l l p r o mp t ly w ip e y o u o u t " ( 7 :3 - 4 ) .

S t r ik ing ly , the tex t in 1 Kings 1 1 : 1 - 2 , w h i ch se em s to be mere ly c i t ing

D e u t e r o n o m y , is a c t u a ll y e x t e n d i n g t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c l aw s . D e u t e r o n o m y 7 p r o -

h ib i t e d i n t e r ma r r i a g e o n ly w i th t h e s e v e n r e s id e n t n a t i o n s o f Ca n a a n ( i n c lu d in gH i t t i t e s ) ; 2 3 : 4 - 7 p r o h i b i t i n t e r m a r r i a g e w i t h t h e n e i g h b o r i n g M o a b i t e s a n d

A m m o n i t e s ; 2 3 : 8 - 9 p e r m i t i n t e r m a r r i a g e w i t h E g y p t i a n s a n d E d o m i t e s t h r e e

g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r M o s e s . Ho w e v e r , 1 K in g s 1 1 :1 s p o t l i g h t s S o lo mo n ' s Eg y p t i a n ,

M o a b i t e , Ammo n i t e , Ed o mi t e , P h o e n ic i a n , a n d H i t t i t e w iv e s . Of t h e s e , De u te r -

o n o m y o u t l a w e d o n l y h i s M o a b i t e , A m m o n i t e , a n d H i t t i t e w i v e s . H e n c e , 1 K i n g s

e x t e n d s t h e i n ju n c t io n s o f De u te r o n o my in t h e i r w id e s t s e n s e , t o i n c lu d e

E g y p t i a n , E d o m i t e , a n d P h o e n i c i a n w o m e n — p e r h a p s e v e n a l l n o n - I s r a e l i t e

w o m e n !

Th i s t y p e o f s t r i n g e n c y o r e x t e n s io n of t h e l a w i s q u i t e c o m m o n in r a b b in i c

t e x t s , wh ic h d e v e lo p t h e n o t io n o f " ma k in g a f e n c e a r o u n d th e To r a h " t o s a f e -

g u a r d i t . 1 1 H o w e v e r , 1 K i n g s 1 1 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h i s w a s n o t a r a b b i n i c

in ve n t io n , bu t tha t i t ex i s ted a l r ead y in the b ib l ica l pe r io d . In fac t , i t i s even

p o s s ib l e t h a t 1 K in g s 1 1 r e p r e s e n t s a t y p e of p r o to r a b b i n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It i s

a s if t h e a u th o r o f t h a t t e x t we r e s a y in g : " D e u te r o n o m y is p r o h ib i t i n g s p e c i f i c

f o r e ig n w iv e s b e c a u s e ' t h e y w i l l t u r n y o u r c h i ld r e n a wa y f r o m [ Go d ] t o wo r -s h i p o t h e r g o d s , a n d t h e L O R D ' S anger wi l l b laze fo r th . . . ' I s i t on ly wives f rom

t h e s e v e n C a n a a n i t e n a t i o n s w h o c a n l e a d I s r a e l i t e m e n a s t r a y ? C e r t a i n l y n o t —

a n y n o n - I s r a e l i t e c a n , t h u s m a r r i a g e w i t h a n y n o n - I s r a e l i t e w o m a n m u s t b e

p r o h i b i t e d . "

S u c h a n e v o lu t i o n i n le g al i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , if m y u n d e r s t a n d in g o f it i s c o r -

rec t , i s r emarkab le in two ways . F i r s t , i t shows the audac i ty o f the b ib l ica l

au thor , who ( jus t l ike the rabb is ) ex tends the law whi le ins i s t ing tha t th i s i s wha t

Go d re a l ly s a id o r m e a n t . S e c o n d , it s h o w s th a t r a b b in i c - t y p e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d id

no t beg in in the rabb in ic pe r iod , bu t had s ign i f ican t roo ts in the b ib l ica l pe r i -

o d . 1 2 Th e f a c t t h a t we f i n d t h i s t y p e o f p r o to r a b b in i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n b ib l i c a l

"h is to r ica l" t ex ts i s an o t he r reason to be cau t io us abo u t us in g thes e tex ts to

recons t ruc t the rea l h i s to ry o f I s rae l .

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Archaeological History

S o m e r e a d e r s m a y o b j e c t t o m y s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t u s i n g 1 K i n g s 1 - 1 1 t o r e c o n -s t ruc t the h i s to ry o f the re ign o f So lomon . They may po in t to the excava t ion o f

So lomon ' s s tab les in Megiddo o r the So lomonic roya l ga tes a t the c i t i e s o f

M e g i d d o , Ha z o r , a n d G e z e r (s e e 1 K in g s 9 :1 5 ) , t o c o r r o b o r a t e t h e b ib l i c a l

a c c o u n t . 1 3 Ho we v e r , mo r e r e c e n t s c h o la r s h ip h a s r a i s e d s ig n i f i c a n t q u e s t i o n s

a b o u t t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y — th e s tu d y of l e v el s a n d t h e i r d a t i n g — a t t h e s e c it i es . I t i s

u n c e r t a in i f t h e r o y a l g a t e s s h o u ld b e d a t e d t o S o lo mo n o r l a t e r ; 1 4 in any case ,

mo s t s c h o la r s a g r e e t h a t t h e S o lo mo n ic S t a b l e s a r e n e i t h e r s t a b l e s ( t h e y a r e s t o r e -

r o o m s ) n o r S o l o m o n i c . 1 5 Th e s e c a s e s t h a t r e min d u s t h a t a r c h a e o lo g y i s n o t

ob je c t ive , an d tha t it i s da ng er ou s to use a rch aeo log y in a c i rcu la r fa sh ion to co n-

f i rm the Bible .

Jerusalem in 701

Ev e n th o u g h w e n e e d to b e c a u t io u s a b o u t r e a d in g t h e B ib le a s h i s to r y , s c h o la r sh a v e r e a c h e d a c o n s e n s u s a b o u t k e y e v e n t s i n t h e y e a r 7 0 1 B.C.E . Th e As s y r i a n

k i n g S e n n a c h e r i b c a m e d o w n th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t, v a n q u i s h e d m a n y c it y -

s t a te s , a n d f o u g h t a g ai n s t K i n g H e z e k i a h o f J u d e a , c o n q u e r i n g m a n y J u d e a n

c i ti e s. T h e As s y r i a n a r m y b e s i e g e d b u t d id n o t c o n q u e r J e r u s a l e m . Th e c o n v e r -

g e n c e o f e v id e n c e f r o m a w i d e r a n g e of s o u r c e s — te x t s f r o m th e B ibl e a n d f r o m

Assyr ia , the Ass yr ian pa lace ' s wa l l - re l ie f de p ic t io ns , an d o th e r a rchae o log ica l

f i n d s ( e s p e c i a l l y a r o u n d th e c o n q u e r e d I s r a e l i t e c i t y o f La c h i s h ) —a l lo ws u s t o

r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h a t c a m p a i g n w i t h c o n f i d e n c e . 1 6

I n f a c t , t h e r e i s r e m a r k a b le a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n th e a c c o u n t of t h e s i eg e

g iv e n in S e n n a c h e r ib ' s An n a l s a b o u t h i s t h i r d c a mp a ig n , a n d t h e s h o r t a c c o u n t

in 2 K in g s 1 8 : 1 3 - 1 6 . T h e a n n a l s , a g e n r e of h i s to r i c a l i n s c r ip t i o n s u p d a t e d y e a r -

ly, we r e o r g a n i z e d c h r o n o lo g i c a l l y a c c o r d in g to ( m i l i t a r y ) c a m p a ig n s . Th e y r e a d :

I n m y t h i r d c a m p a i g n , I m a r c h e d a g a in s t H a t t i [ U p p e r S y r i a ] . . . . A s f o r

H e z e k i a h , 1 7 the Ju d ea n , I bes iege d fo r ty -s ix o f h i s fo r t i f i ed wa l led c i t i e s

a n d s u r r o u n d i n g s m a l l e r t o w n s , w h i c h w e r e w i t h o u t n u m b e r . U s i n g

p a c k e d - d o w n r a m p s a n d b a t t e ri n g r a m s . . . I c o n q u e r e d [ t he m ] . I t o o k

o u t 2 0 0 , 1 5 0 p e o p l e , 1 8 y o u n g a n d o l d , m a l e a n d f e m a l e , h o r s e s , m u l e s ,

. . . a n d s h e e p w i t h o u t n u m b e r a n d c o u n t e d t h e m a s s p o i l. H e h i m s e l f ,

I locked up with in Jerusalem, h is royal c i ty , l ike a b ird in a cage. . . . He,

H e z e k i a h , w a s o v e r w h e l m e d b y t h e a w e s o m e s p l e n d o r of m y l o r d s h i p ,

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a n d h e s e n t m e a f t e r m y d e p a r t u r e t o N i n e v e h , m y r oy a l c i ty . . . 3 0 t a l -

e n t s o f g o l d , 8 0 0 t a l e n t s o f s i l v e r . . . e l e p h a n t h i d e s . . . h i s m a l e a n d

f e m a l e s i n g e r s . 1 g

W h y d o A s s y r i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n a s i eg e o f J e r u s a l e m b u t n o t t h e c it y's

c o n q u e s t ? S u c h i n s c r i p t i o n s t e n d e d n o t t o l ie , a l t h o u g h t h e y d i d t e n d t o o m i t

u n p l e a s a n t f a c t s. T h u s it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e u p s t a r t c it y s u r v i v e d t h e si e ge ( w h i c h

A s s y r i a li f t e d o n l y a f t e r H e z e k i a h a g r e e d t o p a y a l a r g e t r i b u t e t o S e n n a c h e r i b ) .

A s m a l l p a r t o f t h e b i b l i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e e v e n t s r e a d s :

( 2 K i n g s 1 8 : 1 3 ) I n t h e f o u r t e e n t h y e a r o f K i n g H e z e k i a h , K i n g S e n n a -

c h e r i b of A s s y r i a m a r c h e d a g a i n s t a ll t h e f o r t i f i e d t o w n s of J u d a h a n d

s e i z e d t h e m . ( 1 4 ) K i n g H e z e k i a h s e n t t h i s m e s s a g e t o t h e k i n g o f A s s y r i a

a t L a c h i s h : "I h a v e d o n e w r o n g ; w i t h d r a w f r o m m e ; a n d I s h a ll b e a r

w h a t e v e r y o u i m p o s e o n m e . " S o t h e k i n g o f A s s y ri a i m p o s e d u p o n

K i n g H e z e k i a h o f J u d a h a p a y m e n t o f t h r e e h u n d r e d t a l e n t s o f s il v e r

a n d t h i r t y t a l e n t s of g o l d . ( 1 5 ) H e z e k i a h g a v e h i m a ll t h e s il v e r t h a t w a s

o n h a n d i n t h e H o u s e of t h e L O R D a n d i n t h e t r e a s u r i e s o f t h e p a l a c e .

( 1 6 ) A t t h a t t i m e H e z e k i a h c u t d o w n t h e d o o r s a n d t h e d o o r p o s t s of th e

T e m p l e o f t h e LORD, w h i c h K i n g H e z e k i a h h a d o v e r l a i d w i t h g o l d , a n dg a v e t h e m t o t h e k i n g o f A s s y r i a .

T h e p o i n t s o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e v e r s e s a n d t h e A s s y r i a n a n n a l s a r e

r e m a r k a b l e : c i ti e s c o n q u e r e d , J e r u s a l e m s a v e d , a n d t r i b u t e p a i d , e v e n e x a c t

a g r e e m e n t o n t h e n u m b e r o f g o l d t a l e n t s .

T h e B o o k o f K i n g s , h o w e v e r , g o e s o n t o r e c o u n t t h i s e v e n t f o r a n o t h e r t w o

a n d h a l f c h a p t e r s , t h r o u g h c h a p t e r 2 1 . It i s c l e a r t h a t t h i s p a s s a g e i s f r o m a d i f -

f e r e n t s o u r c e t h a n 1 8 : 1 3 - 1 6 . T h o s e f o u r v e r s e s a l w a y s s p e l l t h e n a m e o fH e z e k i a h a s Chizkiyah ( ה י ק ז ח — s i x t i m e s ) , w h i l e t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n s p e l l s it a s

Chizkiyahu ( ו ה י ק ז ח — m o r e t h a n t w e n t y t i m e s ) . S u c h v a ri a t io n w a s c o m m o n i n

n a m e s c o n t a i n i n g G o d s n a m e (YHW H), w h e r e i n t h e l a tt e r m a y b e s p e l l e d e i t h e r

ו ה י ; o r ה י . H o w e v e r , a n y g i v e n a u t h o r w o u l d t e n d t o u s e o n e f o r m o r t h e o t h e r

c o n s i s t e n t l y .2 0 T h e s h i f t i n s p e l l i n g t h e r e f o r e i m p l i e s t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l f o l l o w i n g

2 K i n g s 1 8 : 1 6 i s f r o m a d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e o r s o u r c e s . 2 1

T h i s m a t e r i a l i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n t o n e a n d c o n t e n t . W h a t is m o s t s t r i k i n g i s

t h e w a y in w h i c h it e m p h a s i z e s , e v e n o v e r e m p h a s i z e s , t h e s a l v a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m .

T h e f i r st p a r t o f K i n g s c o n t a i n s a p r o p h e c y f r o m I s a i a h t o t h e k i n g o f A s s y r i a :

( 1 9 : 3 2 ) A s s u r e d l y , t h u s s a i d t h e L O R D c o n c e r n i n g t h e k i n g o f A s s y r ia : /

H e sha l l no t en t e r th i s c ity : / H e sha l l no t sh oo t an a r ro w a t i t , / O r

a d v a n c e u p o n i t w i t h a s h i e l d , / O r p i l e u p a s i e g e m o u n d a g a i n s t it . /

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(33 ) H e sha l l go back / By the w ay he cam e; / He sha l l no t en te r th i s

c i t y — d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D . / ( 3 4 ) I wil l p ro tec t and save th i s c i ty fo r My

sake , / And fo r the sake o f My se rvan t Dav id .

The nex t ve rse no tes , " tha t n igh t an ange l o f the L O R D w e n t o u t a n d s t r u c k

d o w n o n e h u n d r e d a n d e i g h t y -f i v e t h o u s a n d i n t h e A s s y r i a n c a m p , a n d t h e f o l-

l o w i n g m o r n i n g t h e y w e r e a ll d e a d c o r p s e s . " T h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r , b e g i n n i n g

in v e r s e 1 2 , d e s c r ib e s a v i si t b y t h e Ba b y lo n i a n k in g Be r o d a c h - b a l a d a n ( a l so

c a l l e d M e r o d a c h - b a l a d a n ) t o H e z e k ia h . Th a t e p i s o d e i s c l e a r ly o u t o f o r d e r , s i n c e

th e p a s s a g e i s a c tu a l l y d e s c r ib in g a Ba b y lo n i a n v i s it t o J u d e a t o h e lp f o r m a c o a li -

t ion to f igh t aga in s t Assyr ia an d th us is ea r l ie r tha n 7 0 1 . 2 2

M o d e r n s c h o la r s ' a n a ly s i s o f t h i s ma te r i a l a b o u t t h e e v e n t s o f 7 0 1 h a s t a u g h t

u s a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e wr i t i n g o f h i s to r i c a l t e x t s a n d h o w to r e a d t h e m. Th e

t e x t s e m p l o y m u l t i p l e s o u r c e s f o r t h e s a m e e v e n t . Th e y mix f a c t w i th f i c t i o n o r

h ig h ly e mb e l l i s h e d h i s to r y . W e s e e a g a in t h a t c h r o n o lo g y wa s n o t t h e mo s t

i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z i n g f a c t o r f o r t h e s e h i s t o r i a n s w r i t i n g t e x t s a b o u t t h e p a s t . W e

a l s o w i tn e s s h o w th e o lo g y e n t e r s h i s to r y —th e ma in o b j e c t o f t h e t e x t i n i t s f i n a l

f o r m i s t o e m p h a s i z e t h e i n v io l a b i l i t y o f J e r u s a l e m . P e r h a p s w e c a n ma k e o u r

p o i n t t y p o g r a p h i c a l l y , c o m p a r i n g t h r e e v e r s i o n s o f t h e c a m p a i g n . N o w a d a y s a

g o o d h i s t o r i a n r e c o u n t i n g th e e v e n t s w o u l d w r i t e :

T h e A s s y r ia n a r m y d e s t r o y e d m a n y J u d e a n c i t ie s a n d t o w n s b u t d i d n o t c a p -

t u r e J e r u s a l e m .

H o w e v e r , w h a t t h e A s s y r i a n a n n a l s w r o t e a m o u n t s t o :

The Assyrian army destroyed m an y Ju de an cities andtowns but d id not capture J erusal em

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e a c c o u n t i n K in g s im p l i e s a s u m m a r y l i k e t h i s :

T h e A s s y r i a n a r m y des t royed m any Judean c i t i es and to wns but did not captureJerusalem.

I n s h o r t , r e a d e r s w o u l d d o w e l l n o t t o u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e r o l e o f t h i s — o r a n y

o t h e r — h i s t o r i a n i n e m p h a s i z i n g o n e e v e n t a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a n o t h e r .

More Why than What

It s h o u l d n o w b e c l e ar w h y I o p e n e d t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i t h th e s u b h e a d i n g

" Hi s to r y i s t o o im p o r t a n t t o l e av e t o c h a n c e . " W h i l e w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n K in g s c o n -

t a i n s m a n y f a ct s , t h e y w e r e n o t o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e t o i ts a u t h o r . L i k e

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o th e r b ib l ic a l h i s to r i a n s , t h i s a u th o r c a r e d m u c h mo r e a b o u t " wh y " t h a n a b o u t

" wh a t . " He r e wa s a n i n t e r p r e t e r o f t h e c o mmu n i ty ' s f o u n d a t io n a l h i s to r y , n o t a

un ive rs i ty p ro fesso r o f h i s to ry wr i t ing fo r the record . ( In tha t sense , b ib l ica l h i s -

t o r y i s l ik e c o n t e m p o r a r y p o p u l a r h is to r y , o r n e w s c a s t s — a s th e h ig h ly i d e o lo g i -

c a l TV n e w s s t a t i o n s r e p o r t i t. Th e s e m e d ia c a n g iv e u s a m o d e l t o u n d e r s t a n d

b ib l ica l h i s to ry , and v ice ve rsa . ) In some cases , the t rad i t ions as the b ib l ica l

a u t h o r k n e w t h e m d i d n o t m a k e t h e p o i n t h e w a n t e d t o m a k e c l e a r l y e n o u g h ,

a n d s o t h o s e t r a d i t i o n s b e c a me ma l l e a b l e , a n d we r e c h a n g e d ; i n s o me c a s e s , t r a -

d i t i o n s w e r e c o m p l e t e l y m a d e u p . ( T h e t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g S o l o m o n ' s m a n y

wiv e s p r o b a b ly b e lo n g in t h i s c a t e g o r y , s i n c e t h e y a lmo s t e n t i r e ly u s e

De u te r o n o mis t i c p h r a s e o lo g y , a n d t h u s t h e y we r e l i k e ly p r o d u c t s o f t h i s s c h o o l . )We wi l l see the resu l t s o f th i s ed i to r ia l p rocess even more c lea r ly in the nex t

chap te r , a s we exp lo re the la te b ib l ica l book o f Chron ic les .

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14Revis ionis t His tory

R e a d i n g C h r o n i c l e smmwmbbmmbwbwbmbìwmwwmmm̂

Primary Reading: 1 Chronicles 1, 5, 20; 2 Chronicles 7, 33, 35.

An Unpropit ious Beginning

T h e B o o k o f C h r o n i c l e s o p e n s w i t h t h e d u l l e s t m a t e r i a l i m a g i n a b l e , u s e f u l

if y o u a r e e v e r h a v i n g t r o u b l e f a l l in g a s l e e p : " ( 1 : 1 ) A d a m , S e t h , E n o s h ;

( 2 ) K e n a n , M a h a l a l e l , J a r e d ; ( 3 ) E n o c h , M e t h u s e l a h , L a m e c h ; ( 4 ) N o a h , S h e m ,

H a m , a n d J a p h e t h . "1

M o s t o f t h e f ir s t n i n e c h a p t e r s r e a d s im i l a rl y , s o m e t i m e s

c o n t a i n i n g s h o r t i n t e r e s t i n g n o t e s , b u t m o s t l y j u s t o n e g e n e a l o g y a f t e r t h e n e x t .

S o m e o n e m u s t h a v e f o u n d t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g , o r a t l ea s t i m p o r t a n t . I n d e e d , w e

k n o w t h a t in t h e p e r i o d o f C h r o n i c l e s , m o s t li k e ly t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . E . ,

J e w s h i g h l y v a l u e d g e n e a l o g i e s . A l l t w e n t y - o n e b i b l i c a l o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e v e r b

y-ch-s ( ש ח י , " t o b e r e g i s t e r e d b y g e n e a l o g y " ) a p p e a r e i t h e r i n C h r o n i c l e s o r i n t h e

c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s b o o k of E z r a - N e h e m i a h . 2 E z r a 2 : 6 2 m e n t i o n s c e r t a i n p r i e s t s

w h o " s e a r c h e d f o r t h e i r g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s , b u t t h e y c o u l d n o t b e f o u n d , s o

t h e y w e r e d i s q u a l i f i e d fo r t h e p r i e s t h o o d . " P r i e s t h o o d i n a n c i e n t I s r ae l a t t h a t

p o i n t i n t i m e w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e h e r e d i t a r y . R e m a r k a b l y , p r i e s t s k e p t a n d

u p d a t e d s u c h r e c o r d s i n t h e B a b y l o n i a n e x il e a n d b e y o n d .

G e n e a l o g i e s p l a y e d a l e a d i n g ro l e i n l e g i t i m a t i n g v a r i o u s g r o u p s o r i n d i v i d -

u a l s , a s m a y b e s e e n f r o m C h r o n i c l e s . F o r e x a m p l e , w e s a w a b o v e (s e e " T h e

J o s e p h S t o r y " i n c h a p t e r 7 ) t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r o f G e n e s i s d i s p l a c e s J a c o b ' s f i rs t

t h r e e s o n s , R e u b e n , S i m e o n , a n d L e v i, w i t h t w o y o u n g e r s o n s , J u d a h ( a n c e s t o ro f D a v i d ) a n d J o s e p h ( a n c e s t o r o f t h e f i rs t l i n e o f N o r t h e r n k i n g s ) . B y t h e t i m e

t h e C h r o n i c l e r ( t h e a u t h o r of C h r o n i c l e s 3 ) w a s w r i t i n g , t h i s w a s i m p o r t a n t h i s -

t o ry , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e t e n n o r t h e r n t r i b e s w e r e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y "l o s t, " a n d

it w a s la r g el y J u d e a n s , e v e n t u a l l y c a ll e d J e w s , w h o r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e B a b y l o n i a n

e x i l e . 4 T h u s , t h e g e n e a l o g y of J u d a h p r e c e d e s t h a t of a n y of t h e o t h e r c h i l d r e n

o f J a c o b ( 1 C h r o n . 2 : 3 - 4 : 2 5 ) , a n d i t i s t h e l o n g e s t o f s u c h g e n e a l o g i e s . A s n o t e d

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e a r l ie r , t h e f o l l o w in g in t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e g e n e a lo g y o f f i r s t b o r n Re u b e n ma k e s i t

q u i t e c le a r w h y R e u b e n f o l l o w s J u d a h :

( 1 C h r o n . 5 :1 ) Th e s o n s of R e u b e n th e f i r s t - b o r n o f I s ra e l . ( H e w a s t h ef i r s t - b o r n ; b u t wh e n h e d e f i l e d h i s f a th e r' s b e d , h i s b i r t h r ig h t wa s g iv e n

to the so ns o f Jo se ph so n o f I s rae l , so he i s no t re ck on ed as f i r s t -bo rn in

t h e g e n e a l o g y ; ( 2 ) t h o u g h J u d a h b e c a m e m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n h i s b r o t h -

e r s a n d a l e a d e r c a me f r o m h im , y e t t h e b i r t h r ig h t b e lo n g e d to J o s e p h . )

Th i s is a r e t e l l i n g i n m in i a t u r e o f t h e J o s e p h s to r y i n Ge n e s i s .

A Made-up Genealogy

Th e Ch r o n ic l e r a l s o c r e a t e s g e n e a lo g i e s t o s o lv e p r o b l e ms in h i s s o u r c e s . On e

p r o b le m p r e s e n t e d b y S a m u e l a n d K in g s i s t h e c l a im th a t t h e m a in J u d e a n p r i e s t

a t t h e t ime of Da v id wa s Z a d o k , y e t Z a d o k s g e n e a lo g y i s n e v e r g iv e n . S o m e

s c h o la r s p o s i t—f o r t h e t e x t n o wh e r e s t a t e s t h i s —th a t o r ig in a l l y , Za d o k o f f i c i â t -

e d a t a Ca n a a n i t e s h r in e in J e r u s a l e m ; h e w a s " in h e r i t e d " b y Da v id w h o , a s

I s rae l ' s k ing , conquered tha t c i ty .5 F o r t h e Ch r o n ic l e r , h o we v e r , t h e i d e a t h a t a

h ig h p r i e s t h a d n o l e g i t ima te g e n e a lo g y wa s imp o s s ib l e . G iv e n th e imp o r t a n c e

o f h a v in g p r o p e r p r i e s t s in h i s p e r io d , h e h a d t o " f i n d " a p r o p e r g e n e a lo g y f o r

Za d o k , c o n n e c t in g h i m to A a r o n , t h e f ir s t p r i e s t a n d b r o th e r of M o s e s .

A c c o r d i n g to m o s t s c h o l a r s , th e C h r o n i c l e r a c c o m p l i s h e s t h i s b y m a k i n g u p a

g e n e a lo g y , w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t Z a d o k is d i r e c t l y d e s c e n d e d f r o m Aa r o n :

( 5 :2 9 ) Th e c h i ld r e n of A m r a m : Aa r o n , M o s e s , a n d M i r i a m . Th e s o n s of

A a r o n : N a d a b , A b i h u , E l e a z a r , a n d I t h a m a r . ( 3 0 ) E l e a z a r b e g o t

P h i n e h a s , P h i n e h a s b e g o t A b i s h u a , ( 3 1 ) A b i s h u a b e g o t B u k k i , B u k k i

b e g o t Uz z i , ( 3 2 ) Uz z i b e g o t Ze r a h i a h , Ze r a h i a h b e g o t M e r a io th ,

( 3 3 ) M e r a i o t h b e g o t A m a r i a h , A m a r i a h b e g o t A h i t u b , ( 3 4 ) A h i t u b b e g o t

Z ad ok . . .

Th i s f a b r i c a t e d g e n e a lo g y " s o lv e s " t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e e a r l i e r b o o k s o f S a mu e l

a n d K in g s .

The Method of "Historical Probability"

Th e n o t io n t h a t t h e Ch r o n ic l e r ma d e u p g e n e a lo g i e s i s p a r a l l e l e d b y c a s e s wh e r e

h e f a b r i c a t e d h i s to r y. To ma n y , t h i s wa y o f l o o k in g a t S c r i p tu r e m a y b e o f f e n s iv e ,

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bu t w e m us t r e m e m be r t ha t t he r e c o l l e c t i on o f h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i ons i n t h i s pe r i -

od was d i f fe ren t than i t i s now. The re was l i t t l e o r no in te re s t in h i s tory for i t s

ow n s a ke , t ha t is , f o r w ha t it t a u gh t a bo u t t he r e al pa s t . H i s t o r y m a t t e r e d be c a u s e

o f w ha t i t t a ugh t a bou t t he p r e s e n t , i nc l ud i ng t he l e g i t i m a c y o f t he m a i n p r i e s t -

ly c lan .

Mor e ove r , a nc i e n t h i s t o r i a ns m a y no t ha ve r e a l i z e d t ha t t he y w e r e m a n i pu -

la t ing " fac t s . " Th e c la s s ic i s t E l ia s B i ck e rm an us ed th e t e r m "h i s tor ica l p ro bab i l i -

t y " t o d e s c r i b e t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s m e t h o d . 6 T hi s r e f e r s t o t he w a y pe op l e m a ke

s e n s e o f d a t a , b a s e d o n t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w t h e w o r l d f u n c t i o n s . F o r

e x a m pl e , t ho s e w i t h a c e r t a i n no t i on o f "h i s t o r i c a l p r ob a b i l i t y " dou b t t he f i n d -

i n g s o f t h e W a r r e n C o m m i s s i o n t h a t a l o n e g u n m a n a s s a s s i n a t e d J o h n FK e nne dy i n 1963 , de s p i t e t he g r e a t de a l o f e v i de nc e i n s uppor t o f t ha t t he o r y .

I n s t e a d , t h e y m i g h t s a y t h a t K e n n e d y w a s k i l l e d b y a c o m m u n i s t — o r a C I A

p l o t — b a s e d o n t h e i r b e l i e f a b o u t h o w e v e n t s h a p p e n . T h a t u n d e r l y i n g b e l i e f i s

t he i r no t i o n o f "h i s t o r i c a l p r oba b i l i t y . " T h e C h r on i c l e r a s a h i s t o r i a n׳ a l s o ha d

c e r t a i n i de a s a b ou t h o w t h i n gs ha p pe n . Fo r h i m , it w a s c l e a r t ha t Z a do k ha d t o

b e d e s c e n d e d f r o m A a r o n — s o h e s u p p l i e d t h e s c e n a r i o th a t s e e m e d m o s t l ik ely .

When in Doubt, Leave it Out

J us t a s t he C hr on i c l e r a dds m a t e r i a l w he n i t s u i t s h i s pu r pos e s , he a l s o l e a ve s

m a t e r i a l ou t . Som e t i m e s m a t e r i a l i s l e f t ou t s i m p l y be c a us e i t i s no l onge r r e l e -

va n t . Fo r e xa m pl e , w h e n ( t he f ir s t e d i t i o n o f ) t he B ook of K i ngs w a s w r i t t e n ,

e v e r y o n e r e m e m b e r e d t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m ; w h i l e m u c h of i ts p o p u l a c e h a d

go ne i n t o e x i l e i n A s s y r i a , s o m e o f i ts r e f u ge e s ha d f ou n d t he i r w a y t o J u d a h .T h u s , t h e B o o k o f K i n g s r e l a t e s v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m ,

i n pa r t i c u l a r t ho s e t ha t m a k e J u d a h s e e m s u pe r i o r . By t he t i m e t he B ook o f

C h r o n i c l e s w a s w r i t t e n , t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m w a s a d i s t a n t m e m o r y . T h u s

( a l t h o u g h C h r o n i c l e s r et e ll s t h e h i s t o r y f r o m A d a m t h r o u g h t h e B a b y l o n i a n e x il e

a nd t he be g i nn i ng o f t he f o l l ow i ng r e s t o r a t i on ) i t om i t s t he t r a d i t i ons a bou t t he

N o r t h , e x c e p t f o r w h e n t h a t k i n g d o m i n t e r ac t e d w i t h J u d a h . 8 T h u s , t h e c o n f u s -

i n g s h i f t s b a c k a n d f o r t h i n K i n g s c o n c e r n i n g O m r i a n d A h a b a re s i m p l y a b s e n t .

B e c a us e t he N or t h w a s i r r e l e va n t , i l l e g i t i m a t e , o r bo t h , i t s t r a d i t i ons d i d no t be a r

r e pe a t i ng . S i m i l a r l y , C hr on i c l e s doe s no t m e n t i on t he r e i gn o f Sa u l , w ho p r e -

c e d e d D a v i d , fo r o n l y t h e k i n g s h i p of D a v i d a n d h i s d e s c e n d e n t s n o w m a t t e r e d .

A s a na t i on a l s ym bo l , D a v i d p l a ys a m or e i m po r t a n t r o l e i n C h r on i c l e s t h a n

i n t he D e u t e r onom i s t i c H i s t o r y . Fo r t h i s r e a s on t he C hr on i c l e r om i t t e d ne ga t i ve

m a t e r i a l c o nc e r n i ng D a v i d , e s pe c i a l l y h i s a f f a ir w i t h B a t hs h e ba a nd t he pu n i s h -

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m e n t s t h a t f o l l o w e d i t . 9 I n t he boo k o f Sa m ue l , t he "B a t hs he b a a f f a i r" t a ke s p l a c e

du r i n g a w a r a ga ins t t he A m m on i t e s . C hr o n i c l e s r e t a i n s t he f i rs t ve r s e o f t ha t

s ou r c e w i t h m i n o r c h a n ge s ( 2 Sa m . 12 : 1 , pa r a l l e l e d in 1 C hr on . 20 : 1 ) , bu t f o l -

l ow s i t i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h t he a c c oun t a bou t t he e nd o f t he w a r ( 2 Sa m .

1 2 : 3 0 - 3 1 , p a r a l l e le d in 1 C h r o n . 2 0 : 2 - 3 ) . C h r o n i c l e s o m i t s e n t i r e ly D a v id 's

a f fa i r w i t h B a t h s h e b a , t h e m u r d e r o f U r i a h , t h e r e b u k e b y t h e p r o p h e t N a t h a n ,

a n d t he de a t h o f D a v i d a n d B a t hs he b a ' s f i rs t c h i l d ( 2 Sa m . 12 : 2 - 2 9 ) . It s i m p l y

d i d n o t h a p p e n .

C h r o n i c l e s s i m i l a r l y o m i t s t h e u n f l a t t e r i n g s e t o f e v e n t s t h a t h a p p e n e d n e x t

i n Sa m ue l : t he r a pe o f D a v i d ' s da ugh t e r T a m a r by A m non , he r ha l f - b r o t he r ; t he

m u r d e r o f A m n o n b y h i s h a l f - b r o t h e r A b s a l o m ; a n d t h e ( l a r g e l y s u c c e s s f u l )

r e be l l i on by A bs a l om , f o l l ow e d by h i s de a t h . T he s e e ve n t s s ugge s t a m e a s u r e -

f o r - m e a s u r e p u n i s h m e n t o f D a v i d a n d h i s h o u s e . T h e y r ef l ec t b a d l y o n D a v i d ,

s o t h e C h r o n i c l e r o m i t t e d t h e m ( p e r h a p s w i t h t h e h o p e t h a t h i s b o o k w o u l d d i s -

p l a c e Sa m ue l a s a n a u t ho r i t a t i ve ve r s i on o f h i s t o r y ) . I n s t e a d o f D a v i d s pe nd i ng

t he e n d o f h i s l if e i n i gno m i ny , a c c o r d i ng t o C hr o n i c l e s he s p e n ds t he s e ye a r s

p r e p a r i n g f o r S o l o m o n t o b u i l d t h e T e m p l e . T h e C h r o n i c l e r c o m p o s e s a l o n g

s e c t i o n ( 1 C h r o n i c l e s 2 2 - 2 9 ) t o i l lu s t r at e t h i s p o i n t .

T h e C h r o n i c l e r m a y a l s o h a v e v i e w e d a s " u n s e e m l y " t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m

D a v i d t o So l om on i n t he f i r s t t w o c ha p t e r s o f K i ngs . T he r e , D a v i d i s o l d a nd

i m po t e n t ( s e e 1 K i ngs 1 : 4 ) , h i s s on A don i j a h t r i e s t o a s s um e t he t h r one w h i l e

D a v i d i s s ti ll a l ive , a n d t he m a j o r p l a ye r s a re d i v i d e d a bo u t w h o t he ne x t k i n g

s h o u l d b e . U l t im a t e ly , a f t e r s o m e b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e s a c t iv i ty a n d o v e r r e a c h i n g b y

a r i va l , So l om on ' s c l a i m t o t he t h r one i s a s s u r e d . C hr on i c l e s m e n t i ons none o f

th i s . In i t s p lac e , 2 C hr on ic l e s 1 :1 s ta te s : "S ol om on so n of Da vid too k f i rm h ol d

o f h i s k i n g d o m , f o r t h e L O R D h i s G o d w a s w i t h h i m a n d m a d e h i m e x c e e d i n g l yg r e a t. " A c c o r d i n g t o C h r o n i c l e s , t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m D a v i d t o S o l o m o n w a s

s m o o t h a n d u n c o m p l i c a t e d . W h e n i n d o u b t , l e a v e i t o u t !

Rewriting History

C o m p a r i s o n o f C h r o n i c l e s a n d i t s s o u r c e s r e v e a l s h u n d r e d s o f c a s e s w h e r e t h e

C h r o n i c l e r c h a n g e d h i s s o u r c e s i n v a r i o u s w a y s — n o t o n l y m i n o r u p d a t i n g o f

l a n g u a g e a n d s p e l l i n g ( e. g. , f r o m Ύ Π , a s t h e e a rl ie r s p e l l i n g of " D a v i d , " t o Ύ Ύ Τ ),

bu t a l s o s i gn i f i c a n t i de o l og i c a l c ha ng e s . A s w e d i s c us s e d a bo ve , t he no t i o n o f

"h i s t o r i c a l p r o ba b i l i t y " is r e s p on s i b l e f o r m a n y o f t he s e c ha ng e s . T w o e xa m pl e s

wi l l i l lus t r a te th i s in grea te r de ta i l .

A c c o r d i n g t o t he B ook of K i ngs , t he J u d e a n K i ng M a na s s e h w a s t he w or s t of

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a l l k in g s —h e r e v iv e d i d o l a t r y i n t h e Te mp le ( 2 K in g s 2 1 :4 - 5 ) a n d h e " p u t s o

m a n y in n o c e n t p e r s o n s t o d e a th t h a t h e f i ll e d J e r u s a l e m w i th b lo o d f r o m e n d to

e n d " (2 K in g s 2 1 :1 6 ) . Yet, a c c o r d in g t o t h e r e g n a l f o r m u la i n 1 K in g s 2 1 :5 5 , h e

re ig ned fo r 55 yea rs . It se em s no t to hav e d i s tu rb ed the f ina l ed i to r o f Kings th a t

t h e wo r s t k in g o f J u d a h wa s a l s o t h e l o n g e s t r e ig n in g — lo n g e r e v e n th a n Da v id

o r S o lo m o n , w h o e a c h r e ig n e d f o r ty y e a r s ! Bu t it d id b o th e r t h e Ch r o n ic l e r , m o s t

l i k e ly b e c a u s e h e h a d a d i f f e r e n t i d e a o f p e r s o n a l r e t r i b u t io n t h a n t h e

D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c h i s t o r i a n — a n i d e a m o r e l ik e E z e k ie l 1 8 : 4: " T h e p e r s o n w h o

s ins , on ly he sha l l d ie" ( see "R efu t ing Po pu la r B e l ie f s" in ch ap te r 19) .

To th e Ch r o n ic l e r , M a n a s s e h c o u ld b e " e x p la in e d " i n two w a y s — e i th e r h e

r e ig n e d f o r a m u c h s h o r t e r p e r io d , o r K in g s l e f t o u t ma te r i a l th a t w o u ld a c c o u n tf o r s u c h a l o n g r e ig n d e s p i t e a p e r io d o f w i c k e d n e s s . Th e Ch r o n ic l e r c h o s e t h e

l a tt e r o p t i o n , d e p i c t i n g M a n a s s e h a s a m o d e l p e n i t e n t :

( 2 C h r o n . 3 3 :1 1 ) S o th e L O R D b r o u g h t a g a in s t t h e m th e o f f i c e rs of t h e

a r m y of t h e k in g of As s y r i a , w h o to o k M a n a s s e h c a p t iv e i n m a n a c l e s ,

b o u n d h im in fe t te r s , an d led h im of f to Bab y lon . (12 ) In h i s d i s t re ss ,

h e e n t r e a t e d t h e L O R D h i s G o d a n d h u m b l e d h im s e l f g r e a t l y b e f o r e t h e

G o d o f h i s f a th e r s . ( 1 3 ) He p r a y e d to H im , a n d H e g r a n t e d h i s p r a y e r ,h e a r d h i s p l e a , a n d r e t u r n e d h i m t o J e r u s a l e m t o h i s k i n g d o m . T h e n

M a n a s s e h k n e w t h a t t h e L O R D a lo n e wa s Go d . ( 1 4 ) Af t e r wa r d h e b u i l t

the ou te r wa l l o f the Ci ty o f Dav id wes t o f Gihon in the wad i on the way

to the F ish Ga te , and i t enc i rc led Ophe l ; he ra i sed i t ve ry h igh . He a l so

p l a c e d a r m y o f f i c e r s i n a ll t h e f o r t i f i e d t o w n s o f J u d a h . ( 1 5 ) H e r e m o v e d

th e fore i gn god s a n d th e ima ge f ro m th e Ho us e of the LORD, as we l l as

a l l the a l ta r s tha t he had bu i l t on the Mount o f the House o f the L O R D

a n d in J e r u s a l e m , a n d d u m p e d t h e m o u t s id e t h e c ity . ( 1 6 ) He r e b u i l t t h e

altar of the L O R D an d o f fe red on it sac r i f ices o f w e l l - be i ng an d th an ks -

g i v in g , a n d c o m m a n d e d t h e p e o p l e of J u d a h t o w o r s h i p t h e L O R D G o d

of Israel.

Th u s M a n a s s e h d e s e r v e d to b e b l e s s e d w i th t h e l o n g e s t r e ig n o f a l l .

B u t t h e s e e v e n t s n e v e r h a p p e n e d — i n f a ct , t h e y c o u l d n o t h a v e h a p p e n e d .

Manasseh was a vassa l no t o f Baby lon bu t o f Assyr ia ( see "Deu te ronomy as a

Tr e a ty " i n c h a p t e r 1 0 ) ; t h u s h e wo u ld n o t h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t t o Ba b y lo n . On ly

a wr i t e r wo r k in g c e n tu r i e s l a t e r c o u ld s a y t h i s —a wr i t e r wh o w i s h e d to t e a c h

th a t e v e n if y o u a r e a s b a d a s M a n a s s e h a n d h a v e b e e n p u n i s h e d f o r y o u r g r i e v -

ou s s ins , if yo u rep en t , al l wi l l be fo rg ive n an d res t o red . Th i s s to r y w as ma de u p

f o r s u c h a p u r p o s e . U l t ima te ly , s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e p a s t a r e m o r e i n s t r u c t i v e t h a n

the pas t it se lf ; h i s to ry i s too im po r t an t to leave to ch an ce .

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Rewriting Torah

T h e C h r on i c l e r m a k e s a s e c on d t ype of c ha ng e a s w e l l . Fo r t he D e u t e r o no m i s t i cH i s t o r i a n w h o w r o t e K i n g s , t h e b o o k o f D e u t e r o n o m y w a s t h e " c a n o n i c a l " T o r a h

w o r k . T h e n o r m s o r l a w s w e r e a d a b o u t i n K i n g s f o l l o w D e u t e r o n o m y , a n d o n

the ra re occas ion when a source found in the Torah i s c i t ed , i t i s c i t ed f rom

D e u t e r o n o m y T h e s t o r y of K i n g A m a z i a h ( s o n o f K i n g J o a s h ) o f J u d a h i l lu s t r at e s

t h i s po i n t :

( 2 K i ngs 14 : 5 ) O nc e he ha d t he k i n gd om f i r m l y i n h i s g r a s p , he pu t t o

de a t h t he c ou r t i e r s w ho ha d a s s a s s i na t e d h i s f a t he r t he k i ng . ( 6 ) B u t hed i d no t pu t t o de a t h t he c h i l d r e n o f t he a s s a s s i n s , i n a c c o r da nc e w i t h

w ha t i s w r i t t e n i n t he B ook o f t he T e a c h i ng o f M os e s , w he r e t h e L O R D

c o m m a n d e d , " P a r e n t s s h a ll n o t b e p u t t o d e a t h f o r c h i l d r e n , n o r c h i l -

d r e n be pu t t o de a t h f o r pa r e n t s ; a pe r s o n s ha l l be pu t t o de a t h o n l y f o r

h i s o w n c r i m e . "

T h i s q u o t e f o l l o w s t h e l a w i n D e u t e r o n o m y 2 4 : 1 6 : " P a r e n t s s h a ll n o t b e p u t t o

d e a t h f o r c h i l d r e n , n o r c h i l d r e n b e p u t t o d e a t h f o r p a r e n t s : a p e r s o n s h a l l b e

pu t t o de a t h on l y fo r h i s o w n c r i m e . " R e l a t i ve ly s p e a k i n g , K i ngs ha r d l y

a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e Ρ s o u r c e . H o w e v e r , b y t h e t i m e th a t C h r o n i c l e s w a s w r i t t e n ,

bo t h t h e D a n d Ρ s ou r c e s w e r e a u t ho r i t a t i ve . I t i s l i ke ly t ha t t he T or a h ( m or e

o r l e ss a s w e k n o w i t) a l r e a d y h a d a u t h o r i t y i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h i s m e a n t t h a t

Ρ t r a d i t i o n s a s w e l l a s D t r a d i t i o n s n e e d e d t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o C h r o n i c l e s .

S o m e t i m e s t h e C h r o n i c l e r f o u n d t h i s e a s y t o d o , b u t a t o t h e r t i m e s t h e t a s k

p r o v e d q u i t e c h a l l e n g i n g .

A s i m p l e c a s e c o n c e r n s S o l o m o n a n d h i s d e d i c a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e o n t h e

fa ll f e s t iva l o f S uk ko t ( see "F rom the G or in g Ox . . ." in cha pt e r 8) . Acc or d i ng to

D e u t e r o no m y 16 : 1 3 , "you s ha l l ho l d t he Fe a s t o f B o o t hs f o r s e ve n da ys . " T h i s

s e v e n - d a y f e s ti va l i s i nd e e d f u l f i ll e d w h e n t he T e m p l e is de d i c a t e d i n 1 K i ngs

8 : 6 5 . 1 0 H ow e ve r , L e v i t i c us a dds a n e i gh t h da y t o t h i s Sukko t f e s t i va l , du r i ng

w hi c h t he pe op l e a r e t o ho l d "a s o l e m n ga t he r i n g" ( 23 : 3 6 , 39 ) . U n l i ke t h e

D e u t e r onom i s t i c ve r s i on , C hr on i c l e s know s t h i s l a w , a nd s o i t r e v i s e s i t s s ou r c e

(1 King s 8 : 65 ) to say :

( 2 C hr on . 7 : 8 ) A t t ha t t i m e So l om on k e p t t he Fe a s t f o r s e ve n da y s — a l l

I s r a e l w i t h h i m — a g r e a t a s s e m b l a g e f r o m L e b o - h a m a t h t o t h e W a d i o f

E gyp t . ( 9 ) O n t he e i gh t h da y t he y he l d a s o l e m n ga t he r i ng ; t he y

obs e r ve d t he de d i c a t i on o f t he a l t a r s e ve n da ys , a nd t he Fe a s t s e ve n

d a y s . ( 1 0 ) O n t h e t w e n t y - t h i r d d a y o f t h e s e v e n t h m o n t h [ c o u n t i n g

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f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g of s e v e n - d a y f e s ti v a l o n t h e 1 5 t h t o t h e 2 1 s t , f o l-

l o w e d b y a s o l e m n a s s e m b l y o n t h e 2 2 n d ] h e d i s m i s s e d t h e p e o p l e t o

t h e i r h o m e s .

T h e e d i t o r u p d a t e d t h i s t e x t t o i n c l u d e t h e n o r m s d e s c r i b e d i n L e v i t i c u s .

A m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d c a se i n w h i c h t h e C h r o n i c l e r i n c o r p o r a t e d b o t h D a n d

Ρ i s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f J o s i a h s P a s s o v e r o f f e r i n g i n 2 C h r o n i c l e s 3 5 : 1 3 , w h i c h

s h o u l d b e t r a n s l a t e d a s " T h e y b o i l e d 1 1 t h e p a s s o v e r sa c r i f i c e i n f i r e , a s p r e s c r i b e d

. . .." T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s q u i t e o d d . W h a t d o e s t h e l o c u t i o n " b o i l e d i n fi re " m e a n ,

a n d w h y is it f o u n d h e r e ?

T h e a n s w e r i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e C h r o n i c l e r s s o u r c e s . 1 2 A c c o r d i n g t o

D e u t e r o n o m y , " Yo u s h a l l b o i l a n d e a t [ t h e p a s c h a l o f f e r i n g ] a t t h e p l a c e t h a t t h e

L O R D y o u r G o d w i l l c h o o s e " ( 1 6 : 7 ; t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . A c c o r d i n g t o P ' s n o r m s ,

h o w e v e r , " t h e y s h a ll e a t it r o a s t e d o v e r t h e fi r e, w i t h u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d a n d w i t h

b i t t e r h e r b s . D o n o t e a t a n y o f i t r a w , o r b o i l e d i n a n y w a y w i t h w a t e r , b u t r o a s t -

e d — h e a d , le g s, a n d e n t r a i l s — o v e r t h e fi re " ( E x o d . 1 2 : 8 - 9 , t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . 1 3

T h e b o i l i n g - r o a s t i n g d i s t i n c t i o n r e f l e c t s r e g i o n a l a n d / o r c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i f f e r -

e n c e s b e t w e e n D a n d Ρ ( s e e a b o v e , c h a p t e r s 9 - 1 0 ) . G i v e n t h a t b o t h o f t h e s e

s o u r c e s a r e e q u a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e , w h a t c a n t h e C h r o n i c l e r r e c o m m e n d ?

C h r o n i c l e s c o n f l a t e s t h e s e s o u r c e s — t h e b o i l i n g o f D b e c o m e s " T h e y b o i l e d

t h e P a s s o v e r , " w h i l e t h e " r o a s t e d " of Ρ i n E x o d u s b e c o m e " i n f i re " i n C h r o n i c l e s .

W e c a n i l l u s t r a t e t h e g r a f t i n g t y p o g r a p h i c a l l y :

D: "Yo u shall boil and ea t i t a t the p lace tha t the L O R D y o u r G o d w i l l

c h o o s e " ( D e u t . 1 6 : 7 ) .

P : "T he y sha l l ea t i t wasted over the fire, w i t h u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d a n d w i t h

b i t t e r h e r b s . D o n o t e a t a n y o f i t r a w , o r b o i l e d i n a n y w a y w i t h w a t e r ,b u t roasted— head, l e gs , a n d e n t r a i l s — o v e r t h e f i re " ( E x o d . 1 2 : 8 - 9 ) .

C h r o n i c l e s : "T he y b o i le d t h e p a s s o v e r s a c r i f i c e in fire, as p resc r ibed . . . "

( 2 C h r o n . 3 5 : 1 3 ) .

T h e p h r a s e " a s p r e s c r i b e d " m a y b e a n a t t e m p t t o c o v e r u p t h e fa c t t h a t

C h r o n i c l e s is c o m b i n i n g t w o i r r e c o n c i l a b l e t r a d i t i o n s . 1 4

C e n t u r i e s la te r, t h e p r o c e s s j u s t d e l i n e a t e d — w h e r e t w o d i f f e r e n t T o r a h t e x t s

f r o m t w o d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s a r e " r e c o n c i l e d " — b e c o m e s a k e y p r o c e s s i n r a b b i n i c

m i d r a s h . 1 1 T h e r a b b i s d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e T o r a h is c o m p r i s e d o f

s o u r c e s — t o t h e m , it i s a s i n g l e h o l y t e x t , g i v e n b y G o d t o M o s e s . T h u s , t h e y t o o

n e e d t o r e c o n c i l e w h a t w e s e e a s s o u r c e - c r i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s . B u t t h i s p r o c e s s d o e s

n o t s t a r t w i t h t h e r a b b i s . It s t a r t s a s s o o n a s e d i t o r s c o m b i n e t h e T o r a h ' s s o u r c e s

a n d a c o m m u n i t y c a n o n i z e s t h a t t e x t. T h a t p r o c e s s h a s a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e b y

t h e t i m e o f t h e C h r o n i c l e r . 1 6

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How Did He Get Away With It?

A f t e r h e a r i n g a b o u t t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s r a d i ca l r e v i s i o n i s m , m a n y p e o p l e w o n d e rh o w h i s b o o k m a n a g e d t o g e t c a n o n i z e d . T h e a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n h a s s e v e r -

a l pa r t s .

T h e C h r o n i c l e r w a s n o t l iv i n g i n a v a c u u m — h i s n o r m s w e r e t h e n o r m s of

h i s c o m m u n i t y , f o r w h o m h e w a s w r i t i n g . T h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d " s t a n d a r d " h i s -

t o r y o f D t r H no l onge r s poke t o t ha t c om m uni t y . I t d i d no t r e f l e c t t he i r t he o l o -

gy, n o r d i d i t f u l l y a c c o r d w i t h t he i r a u t ho r i t a t i v e t e x t , w h i c h n o w i nc l ud e d Ρ

T h us , i n a s e ns e , t he C h r on i c l e r ' s c o m m u n i t y w a s "w a i t i ng" f o r s u c h a h i s t o r y t o

be w r i t t e n , j u s t a s J . Ε K . c on s p i r a c y t h e o r i s t s w e r e w a i t i ng ne a r l y t h i r t y ye a r s f o r

O l i v e r S t o n e s 1 9 9 1 m o v i e JF K to be re leased .

I n a d d i t i on , t he C h r on i c l e r d i d a w on d e r f u l j o b of " f o o t n o t i n g" h i s h i st o r y ,

g i v i ng it g r e a t e r a u t ho r i t y . C hr o n i c l e s re f e r s t o f i f t e e n bo o ks t ha t s u pp os e d l y

s e r v e d a s s o u r c e s , 1 7 a s i n t h i s e xa m pl e : "T he o t he r e ve n t s o f Ma na s s e h ' s r e i gn ,

a nd h i s p r a ye r t o h i s G od , a nd t he w or ds o f t he s e e r s w ho s poke t o h i m i n t he

n a m e o f t h e L O R D God of I s rae l a re found in the chronic le s of the k ings of I s rae l "

( 2 C hr on . 33 : 1 8 ) . Som e s c h o l a r s be l i e ve t ha t t he s e w e r e r ea l s ou r c e s of on e s o r t

o r a n o t h e r . 1 8 O t h e r s s u g g e s t , m o r e p l a u s i b l y t o m y m i n d , t h a t t h e s e s o u r c e s

ne ve r e x i s t e d , a nd t he y a r e a t ype o f f a ke f oo t no t e , t h r ough w h i c h t he C hr on i c l e r

a s s e r t s t he a u t ho r i t y a nd ve r a c i t y o f h i s c om pos e d t r a d i t i ons . I n e i t he r c a s e ,

t he s e no t i c e s w ou l d ha ve he l pe d t he a l t e r na t i ve ve r s i on o f h i s t o r y i n C hr on i c l e s

ga i n a c c e p t a nc e , a nd u l t i m a t e l y , be c a non i z e d a s s c r i p t u r e .

Is Chronicles Typical?

T h e p i c t u r e d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h o u t o u r d i s c u s s i o n of b i b l ic a l h i s t o r y w r i t i n g m a y

b e d i s t u r b i n g t o s o m e . I h a v e c o n t e n d e d t h a t a u t h o r i t a t i v e w r i t e r s f a b r i ca t e h i s -

t o ry , m a k i n g u p t he i r s ou r c e s . Fu r t he r , I ha ve a r gu e d , it w a s m or e i m po r t a n t t o

t he b i b li c a l w r i t e r s to be r e l e va n t t ha n t o be t r ue . I do no t kn o w h o w t yp i c a l t h e

C h r on i c l e r w a s o f t he o t h e r b i b li c a l a u t ho r s . I ha ve h i gh l i gh t e d C hr o n i c l e s s i m -

p l y be c a us e i t s s ou r c e s a r e e x t a n t , s o t ha t s c ho l a r s c ou l d de ve l op a good s e ns e

o f how i t s a u t ho r r e w or ke d e a r l i e r s ou r c e s , a nd how r a d i c a l he w a s . E ve n i f s om e

of t he e a r l i e r h i s t o r i a ns p r e s e r ve d i n t he B i b l e w e r e m or e c ons e r va t i ve , w e

s h ou l d r e m e m be r t ha t fo r a ll o f t h e m , t he i r g r e a t e s t c o nc e r n w a s no t ge t t i n g t he

pa s t " c o r r e c t . " R a t he r , i t w a s t o c o l l e c t , r e v i s e , a nd c om pos e t r a d i t i ons i n o r de r

t o p r o d u c e t e x t s a b o u t t h e p a s t t h a t w o u l d b e m e a n i n g f u l t o t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s .

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15In t roduc t ion to Prophecy

Primary Reading: 1 Kings 17 through 2 Kings 9.

Difficulties in Studying Prophecy

By " p r o p h e c y " I m e a n th e " t r a n s m is s io n o f a l l e g e d ly d iv in e me s s a g e s b y a

h u m a n i n t e r m e d i a r y t o a t h i r d p a r t y . "1

As a l i t e ra ry genre , p rophecy i se x t r e me ly d i f fi c u l t t o r e a d a n d to u n d e r s t a n d . P r o p h e t s ar e q u i t e a l ie n to c o n -

t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e . W h e n w e s e e s o m e o n e d r e s s e d o d d l y i n p u b l i c , p r o c l a i m i n g

th a t t h e e n d o f t h e wo r ld i s n e a r , we ty p i c a l ly k e e p o u r d i s t a n c e — o r p e r h a p s l is -

t e n b u t l a u g h . M o s t p e o p le i n o u r s o c i e ty n o l o n g e r s h a r e t h e v i e w th a t Go d

c o m m u n i c a t e s m e s s a g e s t o u s t h r o u g h c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s . I n d e e d , m a n y of u s

th i n k t h a t a n y o n e w h o b e l ie v e s t h a t t h e y h a v e r e c e iv e d s u c h a d iv in e me s s a g e i s

d e l u s i o n a l a n d r e q u i r e s p s y c h i a t r i c t r e a t m e n t .

An c ie n t I s r a e li t e s h a d a f u n d a m e n ta l l y d i f f e r e n t v i e w of t h e w o r ld a n d h o w

G o d i s m a n i f e s t in it ; t h e h i s to r i c a l - c ri t i c a l m e t h o d h e lp s u s t o r e c o v e r t h e i r

w o r l d v i e w .

Le t m e h ig h l ig h t s o m e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d b ib -

l ica l wor lds by recas t ing b ib l ica l passages in today ' s id iom. F i r s t , imag ine tha t

yo u a re h i r in g som eo ne to f il l a po s i t i on , an d th e f i rs t s tage is fo r ca nd id a t es to

s e n d in a p r o mo t io n a l v id e o . I n s c e n e two o f o n e i n d iv id u a l ' s v id e o —le t s c a l l

h i m E l i s h a — h e i s wa lk in g a lo n g wh e n a f e w k id s r u n u p a n d to t h e s id e o ft h e r o a d a n d m o c k h i m . H e c u r s e s t h e m ; t h e y p r o m p t l y d r o p d e a d . T h e n E l i s h a

g o e s o n h i s me r r y wa y. A s im p le q u e s t i o n : w o u ld y o u c a ll t h i s p e r s o n in f o r

an in terview? You might hesi ta te , to say the leas t . Yet the Bible re la tes a s imilar

e v e n t a b o u t t h e p r o p h e t E l i s h a — a n d th a t p a s s a g e is i n t e n d e d to r e f le c t p o s i t i v e -

ly o n h im :

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(2 Kings 2 :23) F rom the re he wen t up to Be the l . As he was go ing up the

r o a d , s o m e l it tl e b o y s c a m e o u t o f t h e t o w n a n d j e e r e d a t h im , s a y in g ,

" Go a way , b a l d h e a d ! Go a wa y, b a ld h e a d ! " ( 2 4 ) He tu r n e d a r o u n d a n d

lo o k e d a t t h e m a n d c u r s e d t h e m in t h e n a me o f t h e LORD. Th e r e u p o n ,

two s h e - b e a r s c a me o u t o f t h e wo o d s a n d ma n g le d f o r ty - two o f t h e c h i l -

d r e n . ( 2 5 ) He w e n t o n f r o m th e r e t o M o u n t C a r m e l , a n d f r o m th e r e h e

r e t u r n e d t o S a m a r i a .

No w , l et 's ima g in e a s e c o n d s c e n a r io . On e d a y y o u h a p p e n to b e in N e w

York Ci ty , in a house o f worsh ip , and the p reacher ge t s up and says :

T h u s sa id the LORD: / For th ree t r ans gre ss io ns o f the re s id en ts o fM an ha t ta n , / Fo r four , I wi l l no t revo ke i t: / Because th ey sh o p in ex pe n-

s ive shops and neg lec t the poor , / Ea t in f ive -s ta r re s tau ran ts whi le o th -

e rs s ta rve . / I wi l l se nd d o w n f i re u p o n F i f th Av enue , / A conf lag ra t i on

on 57 th S t. / A nd i t sha l l de vo ur the fan cy pe n t ho us es , / D es t roy the

m an s io ns . / A nd th e peop le o f " the c ity" sha l l be ex i led to C a l i fo rn ia—

sa id the L O R D .

Yo u mig h t wo n d e r h o w i t i s t h a t t h i s p r e a c h e r p r e s u me s t o s p e a k f o r Go d . Yo u

m ig h t a l s o b e p u z z l e d a b o u t w h y th e p r e a c h e r s u d d e n ly d e c id e d t o s p e a k in

p o e t r y r a th e r t h a n p r o s e . Yet t h i s im a g in e d s e r m o n i s a p a r a p h r a s e o f o n e of t h e

p r o p h e t Amo s ' o r a c l e s a g a in s t t h e n a t i o n s —o r a c l e s t h a t g r a b b e d h i s a u d i e n c e ' s

a t t e n t i o n — s u c h a s :

(1 :3 ) T h us sa id the LORD: For th r ee t ran sgr ess ion s o f D am asc us , / For

four , I wi l l no t revo ke i t: / Because they th re sh ed Gi lead / W i th th r esh ing

bo ar ds o f i ron . (4 ) I wi l l se nd d o w n f i re u p o n th e pa la ce of Ha zae l , /

A nd i t sha l l dev ou r the fo r t res ses o f B en -h ad ad . (5 ) I wi l l b re ak th e ga te

b a r s o f Da ma s c u s , / An d w ip e o u t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s f r o m th e Va le o f

Av e n / An d th e s c e p t e r e d r u l e r o f Be th - e d e n ; An d th e p e o p le o f Ar a m

sha l l be ex i led to Ki r—sa id the L O R D .

Final ly , im ag ine th at yo u are t rav el in g o n a pu bl ic bus . In the seat r ight

b e h in d y o u , two p e o p le a r e c o n v e r s in g . Yo u o v e r h e a r o n e o f t h e m t e l l i n g t h e

o th e r a b o u t a r e c e n t i n c id e n t :

( Ze c h . 5 :9 ) I l o o k e d u p a ga in a n d s a w tw o w o m e n c o m e s o a r in g w i th

t h e w i n d i n t h e i r w i n g s — t h e y h a d w i n g s l i k e t h o s e o f a s t o r k — a n d

car ry o ff the tub be tw ee n ea r th an d sky. (10 ) "W he re a re they tak ing the

tu b ? " I a s k e d th e a n g e l wh o t a lk e d w i th m e . ( 1 1 ) A n d h e a n s w e r e d , "To

bui ld a shr ine for i t in the land of Shinar ; a s tand shal l be erected for i t ,

a n d i t s h a l l b e s e t d o wn th e r e u p o n th e s t a n d . "

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W o u l d y o u c h a n g e y o u r s e a t ?

Th e s e t h r e e e x a m p le s g iv e u s a n i d e a 0 1 h o w d i f f e r e n t b ib l i c a l p r o p h e c y i s

f r o m o u r e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e s . W e c a n n o t r e a d t h e p r o p h e t i c t e x t s a s mo d -

e m s — th e y wo u l d c o m e a c r o s s a s t o o we i r d . Be f or e we lo o k a t s u c h t e x t s a g a in ,

w e n e e d m o r e b a c k g r o u n d , s o t h a t w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e m m o r e s y m p a t h e t i -

cal ly , w i th in the i r o r ig in a l c on tex t .

Prophecy and Omens in the Ancient Near East

Th e b ig g e s t c h a l l e n g e i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g b ib l i c a l p r o p h e c y i s t o a p p r e c i a t e a

widespread be l ie f in the anc ien t Near Eas t : the d iv ine wi l l can be apparen t to

p e o p le —if we k n o w wh e r e a n d h o w to p e r c e iv e i t . P r o p h e c y , wh e r e t h e d iv in e

c o m m u n ic a t e s d i r e c t l y w i th a h u m a n , is j u s t o n e ma n i f e s t a t i o n of t h i s b e l i e f. I n

I s r a e l , p r o p h e c y s e r v e d a s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t w a y i n w h i c h p e o p l e d i s c e r n e d t h e

d iv in e w i ll . M e a n w h i l e , t h a t a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f " tu n in g i n " t o d iv in e me s s a g e s

e x i s t e d i n ma n y a r e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t . 2

T h e S h a p e of T h i n g s to C o m e

O u r m o s t e x t e n s i v e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t d i v i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m e s f r o m

a n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a . 3 Ar c h a e o lo g i s t s h a v e e x c a v a t e d m a n y k in d s o f o m e n t e x t s

f r o m v a r i o u s p e r i o d s , s h o w i n g t h a t th e M e s o p o t a m i a n s v a l u e d t h i s g e n r e . T h o s e

o m e n t e x t s s t u d y a w id e v a r ie ty o f p h e n o m e n a f o r s i g n s a s t o wh a t t h e g o d s a r e

in t e n d i n g t o d o . M a n y o m e n s a re b a s e d o n s a c r i f ic e s , t y p i c a ll y f o c u s in g o n t h e

h id d en m ea n i ng o f the sha pe o f a g iven sac r i fic ia l an im al s live r, w h i ch va r ies

g r e a t l y f r o m o n e s p e c ime n to t h e n e x t . T r a in e d s p e c i a l i s t s e v e n in t e r p r e t e d t h e s e

s h a p e s b y c o mp a r in g t h e m to c l a y mo d e l s o f l i v e r f o r ms .

Th e o m e n t e x t s a r e f o r m u la t e d i n two p a r t s : a p a r t i c u l a r o b s e r v a b l e c o n d i -

t ion , and the im pl ic a t io n o f tha t con d i t io n fo r the fu tu re . (Sch o la rs ca l l thes e

p a r t s " p r o t a s i s " a n d " a p o d o s i s , " r e s p e c t iv e ly . ) Th e f o l l o win g f o u r e x a mp le s g iv e

some sense o f the i r va r ie ty :4

I f a man ' s ches t ha i r cu r l s upwards : he wi l l become a s lave .

I f a man has a f lushed face and h is r igh t eye s t icks ou t : he wi l l be devoured

b y d o g s f a r f r o m h i s h o u s e .

If the ga l lb lad de r (of the sac r i f ic ia l sh ee p) i s s t r ip pe d o f the hep a t i c duc t : the

a r m y o f t h e k in g w i l l s u f f e r a t h i r s t d u r in g a m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n .

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If t h e n o r th w in d s w e e p s t h e f a ce o f h e a v e n s u n t i l t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e n e w

m o o n : t h e h a r v e s t w i l l b e a b u n d a n t .

Th e t e x t s i n t e r p r e t s o m e c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e b a s i s o f w o r d a s s o c i a t i o n ; o th e r s , o n

th e b a s i s o f wh e th e r c e r t a in s ig n s s e e me d o min o u s o r p r o p i t i o u s . S t i l l o th e r s u s e

c r i te r ia tha t we have no t been ab le to dec ipher .

I n a n y e v e n t , b o th t h e p e o p le a n d th e i r l e a d e r s i n v e s t e d t ime a n d e f f o r t i n to

i n t e r p r e t i n g o m e n s . T h e y g l e a n e d t h o s e o m e n s f r o m a h u g e ra n g e of p h e n o m e -

n a , b o th c e l e s t i a l a n d t e r r e s t r i a l , b o th n o r ma l a n d u n u s u a l . Th e o me n t e x t s s h o w

th a t t h e p o p u la c e b e l i e v e d th a t t h e y c o u ld d i s c e r n t h e d iv in e w i l l—a l th o u g h i t

migh t t ake an exper t to do so re l iab ly .

P r o p h e c y , M e s o p o t a m i a n S t y l e

Ar c h a e o lo g i s t s h a v e e x c a v a t e d mo r e t h a n 1 3 0 M e s o p o ta m ia n t e x t s t h a t b e a r o n

prop hec y . S t range ly , a ll o f th em co m e f r om ju s t tw o s i te s ou t of the do ze ns in the

r e g i o n : 5 Mari on the Tigr is River (c i rca the e ighteenth century B.C.E.) , and in

A s s yr ia d u r i n g t h e r e i g n s of E s a r h a d d o n ( 6 8 0 - 6 6 9 ) a n d A s h u r b a n i p a l( 6 6 8 - 6 2 7 ) . Th i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e v id e n c e f o r a s o c i al i n s t i t u t i o n i s u n u s u a l . I t

r a i s e s a n o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n : d i d p r o p h e c y e x i s t i n M e s o p o t a m i a t h r o u g h o u t i t s

h i s to r y ( a n d th e r e le v a n t t e x t s s im p ly h a v e b e e n lo s t )? O r wa s p r o p h e c y im p o r -

tan t on ly in these tw o d is t inc t pe r io ds an d loca les? If the la t te r is the case , t he n

M e s o p o t a m i a n p r o p h e c y p r o b a b l y c o u l d n o t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f I s rae l i t e p rophecy .

He r e a r e two e x a mp le s o f a M e s o p o ta mia n p r o p h e c y . Th e f i r s t , f r o m As s y r i a ,

i s a n o r a c l e f r o m th e w o m a n I s h t a r - l a - t a s h i a t o f Ar b e l a . T h e s e c o n d o n e c o m e s

f r o m M a r i :

E s a r h a d d o n , k in g o f l a n d s , f e a r n o t ! Th a t w in d wh ic h b lo w s a g a in s t

y o u — I n e e d o n ly s a y a w o r d a n d I c a n b r in g it t o a n e n d . Yo u r e n e m ie s ,

l ike a [youn g] bo ar in the m o n th o f S i m an u , wi l l f l ee eve n a t yo ur

a p p r o a c h . I a m th e g r e a t Be l e t— I a m th e g o d d e s s I s h t a r of Ar b e l a , s h e

w h o h a s d e s t r o y e d y o u r e n e m i e s a t y o u r m e r e a p p r o a c h . W h a t o r d e r

hav e I g iven you w hi ch y ou d id no t re ly u po n? I am Ish ta r of Arbe la ! I

l ie in wa i t fo r yo ur e ne m ies , I sha l l g ive the m to yo u . I , I sh ta r o f Arb e la ,

wi l l go be fo r e an d be h i nd y ou fea r no t ! You w h o a re pa ra ly zed [ say ing] ,

" O n ly i n c r y in g W o e c a n I e i t h e r g o u p o r s it d o w n . " 6

M oreo ver , th e day I sen t th i s t ab le t of m in e to my lo r d , [an ec ]s ta t ic o f

Da g a n c a m e a n d a d d r e s s e d m e a s f o l l o ws : " Th e g o d s e n t [ me ] . Hu r r y ,

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w r i t e t o t h e k i [ n g ] t h a t t h e y a r e t o o f f e r t h e m o r t u a r y - s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e

s h a [ d e ] o f Y a h d u n - L i [ m ] . " T h i s i s w h a t t h i s e c s t a t i c s a i d to m e , a n d I

h a v e t h e r e f o r e w r i t t e n t o m y l o r d . L et m y l o r d d o w h a t p l e a s e s h i m . '

T h e c o n t e n t a n d p h r a s e o l o g y o f s o m e of t h e s e p r o p h e t i c t e x t s i s m i r r o r e d i n

t h e B i b l e . H o w e v e r , it i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t a n c i e n t Is r a e l b e l i e v e d i n

p r o p h e c y m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r t y p e o f d i v i n a t i o n , s e e i n g it a s t h e b e s t w a y t o

c o m p r e h e n d t h e d i v i n e w il l. W e a r e n o t s u r e w h y . A s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , w e d o n o t

k n o w w h e t h e r M e s o p o t a m i a n p r o p h e c y i n f l u e n c e d Is ra e l a t a n e a r ly s ta g e .

C l o s e r t o h o m e , w e h a v e s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a l s o b e l i e v e d

i n p r o p h e t s . M e a n w h i l e , a c r o s s t h e J o r d a n R i v er , a n e i g h t h - c e n t u r y - B . c . E .

i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d i n t h e c i t y o f D e i r A l i a e v e n t a l k s a b o u t " B a l a a m t h e s e e r , " t h e

s a m e p r o p h e t m e n t i o n e d in N u m b e r s 2 2 - 2 4 . 8 H o w e v e r , w e h a v e s o f e w t e x t s

f r o m I sr ae l' s i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o r s t h a t w e c a n n o t a c c u r a t e l y e v a l u a t e t h e p o t e n -

t ia l e v i d e n c e . W a s I sr a e l u n i q u e i n i ts h e a v y r e li a n c e o n t h e m e d i u m o f p r o p h e -

cy? I t i s hard to say .

The Nature of Prophecy in Israel

T h e m a i n b i b l i c a l t e r m f o r a p r o p h e t i s navi ( א י ב נ ) , u s e d 3 2 5 t i m e s i n t h e

H e b r e w B i b l e. It a p p e a r s e v e n in t h e B o o k o f G e n e s i s . I n t h e m i d d l e w i f e - s i s t e r

s t o r y ( se e " T h e A n c e s t o r s a s S y m b o l s " in c h a p t e r 7 ) , G o d r e f e r s t o A b r a h a m a s a

navi, e x p l a i n i n g t o t h e k i n g t h a t A b r a h a m " w il l i n t e r c e d e f o r y o u — t o s a v e y o u r

l if e " ( 2 0 : 7 ) . T h i s fi r st u s e i s t e l l in g : t h e c o m m o n v i e w t o d a y o f a b i b l i c a l p r o p h e t

a s " s o m e o n e w h o te ll s t h e fu t u r e " w a s n o t t h e o n l y — o r e v e n th e m a i n — f u n c -

t i o n f r o m t h e B i bl e's s t a n d p o i n t . R a t h e r , t h e navi w a s a n i n t e r c e s s o r , 9 a g o -

b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e a n d G o d .

T h e b i b l i c a l p r o p h e t m a y i n t e r c e d e f o r o t h e r s , a s A b r a h a m d o e s f o r

A b i m e l e c h , o r a s m a n y l a te r p r o p h e t s d o f o r t h e p e o p l e I sr a el . H o w e v e r , t h e t e x t s

m o r e c o m m o n l y r e c o u n t t h e p r o p h e t ' s f u n c t i o n a s a m e s s e n g e r f r o m G o d to t h e

p e o p l e ; in t h i s s e n s e , t h e p r o p h e t f u n c t i o n s a s a d i v i n e m e s s e n g e r . T h u s

p r o p h e t s m a y b e e x p l i c i t l y l a b e l e d " t h e L O R D ' S m e s s e n g e r " ( e . g ., H a g . 1 : 1 3 ) , a n d

o n e p r o p h e t is c a ll e d M a l a c h i , w h i c h m e a n s " m y m e s s e n g e r . " T h e p r o p h e t s

e m p l o y t h e f o r m u l a ko amar ( ר מ א Γ 0 , " t h u s s a y s " ) , c a l l e d t h e " m e s s e n g e r f o r -

m u l a " 1 0 b e c a u s e s e c u l a r m e s s e n g e r s a l s o u s e d i t. T h u s , a s a d i v i n e m e s s e n g e r ,

t h e p r o p h e t s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d a s s t a n d i n g s o m e w h e r e o n a d i r e c t li n e

b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e p e o p l e : O n t h i s l i n e , s o m e p r o p h e t s s t a n d c l o s e r t o G o d ,

w h i l e s o m e s t a n d c l o s e r t o t h e p e o p l e . T o s e e h o w t h e p r o p h e t f u n c t i o n s i n b o t h

d i r e c t i o n s o n t h i s l i n e , c o n s i d e r t h i s e x a m p l e f r o m A m o s :

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( 7 : 1 ) T h i s i s w h a t m y L o r d G OD s h o w e d m e : H e w a s c r e a t i n g a p l a g u e

o f l o c u s t s a t t h e t i m e w h e n t h e l a t e - s o w n c r o p s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o

s p r o u t — t h e l a t e - s o w n c r o p s a f t e r t h e k i n g s r e a p i n g . ( 2 ) W h e n it h a d

f i n i s h e d d e v o u r i n g t h e h e r b a g e i n t h e l a n d , I s a i d , Ό L o r d GO D, p r a y

f o r g i v e . H o w w i l l J a c o b s u r v i v e ? H e is s o s m a l l . " ( 3 ) T h e L O R D r e l e n t e d

c o n c e r n i n g t h i s . " I t s h a l l n o t c o m e t o p a s s , " s a i d t h e L O R D .

T h i s p a s s a g e b e g i n s w i t h th e p r o p h e t ' s v i s i o n f r o m G o d ( w . l - 2 a ) , f o l l o w e d b y

t h e p r o p h e t ' s p l e a t o G o d i n r e s p o n s e (v. 2 b ) . It c o n c l u d e s w i t h G o d ' s s t a t e m e n t

t o t h e p r o p h e t (v. 3 ) . H e n c e A m o s n o t o n l y d e l i v e r s m e s s a g e s f r o m G o d b u t a l s o

d e l i v e r s r e q u e s t s o n b e h a l f o f t h e p e o p l e t o G o d . T h e c o n t e n t of t h e c o n c l u d i n g

s t a t e m e n t i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e it s u g g e s t s t h a t G o d h a d a c h a n g e o f

h e a r t . T h i s t e a c h e s u s t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s , p r o p h e t s h a d g r e a t

p o w e r t o t r a n s f o r m t h e d i v i n e d e c r e e . I n s h o r t , t h e B ib le d o e s n o t v i e w p r o p h e t s

p r i m a r i l y a s p r e d i c t o r s o f t h e f u t u r e . 1 1

T h e e t y m o l o g y o f t h e t e r m navi i s u n c e r t a i n . 1 2 M o s t s c h o l a r s r e l a t e i t t o a n

A k k a d i a n ( M e s o p o t a m i a n ) r o o t nabû, " to n a m e , c a ll , " e i t h e r i n t h e s e n s e o f "o n e

w h o c a l ls o u t , " i .e . , a s p e a k e r , o r " o n e w h o h a s b e e n c a l l e d . " S o m e t e r m s f o r

p r o p h e t a r e m u c h l e s s f r e q u e n t , y e t t h e i r o r i g i n s ar e c l e a r e r : chozeh (Π Τ ίΓΙ) a n dro'eh ( ה א ת )b o t h m e a n " a s e e r . " L i k e w i s e , i s h Elohim ( • , ה ל א ש י א )o r ish ha-elo-

him ( ם י ה י ל א ה ש י א )m e a n s " ( t h e ) m a n o f G o d . " T h e b i b l i c a l t e x t t r e a t s t h e s e v a r -

i o u s t e r m s a s s o m e w h a t d i s t i n c t — f o r e x a m p l e , it e m p l o y s ish Elohim t o d e s c r i b e

E l i j a h a n d E l i s h a , b u t n o t o t h e r p r o p h e t s l i k e I s a i a h o r J e r e m i a h .

Two Main Types of Israelite Prophecy

W h y d i d t h e B i bl e u s e m o r e t h a n o n e t e r m f o r a p r o p h e t ? I n p a r t , b e c a u s e t h e r e

w e r e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p r o p h e t s . B i b li c al s c h o l a r s t y p i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

t h o s e w h o t a l k e d a t l e n g t h to t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h o s e w h o t a l k e d p r i -

m a r i l y t o t h e k i n g a n d w h o s e m e s s a g e s a r e b r i e f . U s u a l l y w e r e f e r t o t h e f o r m e r

g r o u p — i n c l u d i n g t h e p r o p h e t s I sa i ah , J e r e m i a h , E z ek i e l, H o s e a , A m o s , a n d

M i c a h , a ll o f w h o m h a v e t h e i r o w n b o o k s — a s " c la s si c al " p r o p h e t s . T h e i r w r i t -

i n g s d a t e f r o m t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . E .

T h e la t t e r g r o u p i s c o m p r i s e d o f i n d i v i d u a l s li k e N a t h a n a n d G a d ( t e n t h

c e n t u r y B .C .E .), a n d E l i j a h a n d E l i s h a ( n i n t h c e n t u r y B .C .E .). S o m e of t h e m

r e m a i n n a m e l e s s , a n d s o m e a r e f e m a l e . M a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e r e f e r r e d t o t h e m a s

" p r e c l a s s i c a l " p r o p h e t s . H o w e v e r , I a v o i d t h a t t e r m f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , w e d o

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n o t k n o w w h e n p r o p h e t s o f t h e c la s si c al t y p e fi rs t d e v e lo p e d . P e r h a p s t h e y e x i s t -

e d i n e a r l i e r e r a s t o o —b u t t h e i r s p e e c h e s we n t u n r e c o r d e d o r we r e l o s t . ( No r d o

w e kn o w w ha t fac to rs in the soc ia l, r e l ig ious , o r ec on om ic l i fe o f anc ien t I s rae l

f i r s t p r o mp te d c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e c y a n d i t s r e c o r d s . ) 1 3 S e c o n d , w e d o k n o w t h a t

p rophe ts o f the type l ike El i jah con t inued to ex is t s ide by s ide wi th the c lass ica l

p r o p h e t s .

For bo th reaso ns , the te r m "prec lassica l" i s mi s lead ing . " Non c lass ica l" i s a

b e t t e r t e r m , t h o u g h it t o o i s s o m e w h a t m i s l e a d in g , si n c e t h e p r o p h e t s w i th in t h i s

g r o u p a r e s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h o th e r . I n d e e d , we c a n s u b d iv id e t h i s g r o u p o f

p r o p h e t s u s e f u ll y , e i t h e r b y w h e th e r t h e y p e r f o r m m a g ic a l a c t s ( e .g . , E l i ja h a n d

El i s h a ) , o r b y wh e th e r t h e y c r i t i q u e t h e mo n a r c h y ( e . g . , E l i s h a ) o r s u p p o r t i t( e . g . , N a t h a n ) . 1 4

Those who suppor t the k ing a re the ea r l ie s t I s rae l i t e p rophe ts tha t the Bib le

wr i t e s a b o u t . Th e y a r e mu c h l i k e o th e r a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t e r n p r o p h e t s . I t i s e a s y

to loca te th em w i th in th i s co n te x t , even if we do no t k no w th e lines o f in f l ue nce

( s e e a b o v e , " P r o p h e c y , M e s o p o ta mia n S ty l e " ) . Bu t we k n o w p r e c io u s l i t t l e a b o u t

h o w p r o p h e c y d e v e lo p e d in I s r a e l .

Th e r e m a in d e r of t h i s c h a p t e r w i ll f o c u s o n t h e ma in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e

non c lass ica l p ro ph e t s . O f t en i t wi l l c la r i fy the i r ro le by co n t ras t in g it w i th tha t

o f the c lass ica l p rophe ts . Each o f the nex t severa l chap te rs wi l l then spo t l igh t a

l e a d in g c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t .

The Nonclassical Prophets

T h o u g h th e n o n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s we r e n o t a ll a l i k e , mo s t o f t h e m h a d — a c c o r d -in g t o t h e B ib l e —s o me c o mb in a t io n o f t h e f o l l o win g t r a i t s :

• t h e y g e n e r a l l y k n e w w h a t wa s h a p p e n in g i n o th e r p l a c e s ;

• they we re co ns u l t ed on f ixed occ as ion s an d o f te n pa id fo r the i r se rv ices ;

• t h e y b a n d e d to g e th e r ;

• t h e i r p r o p h e c y c o u l d b e i n d u c e d ;

• t h e y p e r f o r m e d m i r a c l e s;

• t h e y u s u a l ly p r o p h e s i e d t o t h e k in g , s p e a k in g i n p r o s e ;• t h e y p e r f o r m e d u n u s u a l a c t i o n s; a n d

• t h e y p r e d i c t e d t h e f u tu r e .

W e wi ll n o w e x p lo r e t h e s e q u a l i t i e s in t u r n , g iv in g e x a m p le s f r o m v a r io u s

p r o p h e t s .

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V i e w i n g a n d S e n s i n g R e m o t e l y

T h e n o n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o k n o w w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g i n d i s -t a n t p l a c e s t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t p h y s i c a l l y s e e . T h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h i s

r u l e is 2 K i n g s 4 : 8 - 3 7 . I n t h i s s t o r y t h e o n l y c h i l d of t h e S h u n a m m i t e w o m a n

d i e s , a n d s h e e n t r e a t s t h e p r o p h e t E l i s h a . H i s a s s i s t a n t , G e h a z i , t r i e s t o s h o o

h e r a w a y , b u t E l i s h a s a y s : " L e t h e r a l o n e , f o r s h e i s i n b i t t e r d i s t r e s s ; a n d t h e

L O R D h a s h i d d e n it f r o m m e a n d h a s n o t to l d m e " (v . 2 7 ) . E l i s h a i m p l i e s t h a t

h e n o r m a l l y k n e w t h e d i v i n e w i ll a n d c o u l d p e r c e i v e w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d

e l s e w h e re . I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , i n 2 K i n g s 6 : 1 2 a fo r e i g n o f f i c e r s a y s t o t h e

A r a m e a n k i n g ( w h o h a d f a i l e d i n s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o a m b u s h I s r a e l) : " E l is h a ,

t h a t p ro p h e t i n I s r a e l , t e l l s t h e k i n g o f I s r a e l t h e v e ry w o rd s y o u s p e a k i n y o u r

b e d r o o m . "

S e r v i n g a s F r e e l a n c e C o n s u l t a n t s

P e o p l e w h o n e e d e d t h e s e p r o p h e t s v i s it e d t h e m at t r a d i t i o n a l t im e s . W h e n t h e

s o n of t h e S h u n a m m i t e w o m a n d i e s a n d s h e w a n t s to c o n s u l t E l is h a , h e r h u s -

b a n d a t t e m p t s t o s t o p h e r , s a y i n g : " W h y a r e y o u g o i n g t o h i m t o d a y ? I t i s n e i -

t h e r n e w m o o n n o r s a b b a t h " (2 K i n g s 4 : 2 3 ) . H i s q u e s t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t o n f i x e d

o c c a s i o n s t h e p r o p h e t s m a d e t h e m s e l v e s av a il a bl e f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n — n o t u n l i k e

a c o l l e g e p ro fe s s o r w h o p o s t s a s c h e d u l e o f r e g u l a r o f f i c e h o u r s .

O t h e r t e x t s s u g g e s t th a t t h e p e o p l e p a i d p ro p h e t s f o r a d v i c e g iv e n o n s u c h

d a y s . C o n s i d e r t h e s c e n e i n 1 S a m u e l w h e re S a u l a n d h i s s e r v a n t a r e s e a r c h i n g

f o r s o m e s t r a y d o n k e y s . T h e d i a l o g u e b e g i n s w i t h Sa u l' s u n n a m e d s e r v a n t :

(9 :6 ) . . . "T her e i s a m a n o f G od (ish elohim) i n t h a t t o w n , a n d t h e m a n

i s h i g h l y e s t e e m e d ; e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h e s a y s c o m e s t r u e . L e t u s g o t h e r e ;

p e rh a p s h e w i l l t e l l u s a b o u t t h e e r r a n d o n w h i c h w e s e t o u t . " ( 7 ) " B u t

if w e g o , " S a u l s a id t o h i s s e r v a n t , " w h a t c a n w e b r i n g t h e m a n ? 1 3F o r

t h e fo o d i n o u r b a g s i s a ll g o n e , a n d t h e r e is n o t h i n g w e c a n b r i n g t o t h e

m a n o f G o d a s a p r e s e n t . W h a t h a v e w e g o t? " ( 8 ) T h e s e r v a n t a n s w e r e d

Sau l aga in , "I h a p p e n to have a qu ar t e r - s he ke l o f s i lve r . I ca n g ive th a tt o t h e m a n o f G o d a n d h e w i l l t e ll u s a b o u t o u r e r r a n d . "

T h i s , t h e n , i s r e a l ly a d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e s m a l l e s t p a y m e n t t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e

S a m u e l w i l l a c c e p t i n o rd e r t o t e l l t h e m w h e re t h e d o n k e y s a r e !

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F o r m i n g P r o p h e t i c F e l l o w s h i p s

M a n y o f t h e s e n o n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s b a n d e d t o g e t h e r i n t o g r o u p s w h o li v ed a n d

p r o p h e s i e d t o g e t h e r . T h e s t o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g E l i ja h m e n t i o n t h a t h e i s t h e h e a d

o f s u c h a g r o u p . It a l s o a p p e a r s i n 1 S a m u e l , a s K i n g S au l b e c o m e s a t e m p o r a r y

o r a d h o c p r o p h e t : " h e s a w a b a n d o f p r o p h e t s c o m i n g t o w a r d h i m . T h e r e u p o n

t h e s p i r i t o f G o d g r i p p e d h i m , a n d h e s p o k e i n e c s t a s y a m o n g t h e m " ( 1 0 : 1 0 ) .

T h e t e r m u s u a l l y u s e d f o r t h e s e g r o u p s i s benei ha-nevi'im ( ם י א י ב נ ה ינ ב ), l i t e r a l -

ly " s o n s o f p r o p h e t s , " b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d a s " m e m b e r s of a p r o p h e t i c g r o u p o r

g u i l d . " T h e m a t e r i a l i n K i n g s a b o u t E l i ja h a n d E l i s h a r e f e r s t o s u c h g r o u p s m o r e

t h a n t e n t i m e s .

P r e p a r i n g t o R e c e i v e T h e i r M e s s a g e

F o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s , p r o p h e c y c a n b e i n d u c e d b y t h e r i g h t t e c h n i q u e . F o r

e x a m p l e , E l i s h a s a y s , " N o w t h e n , g e t m e a m u s i c i a n " ( 2 K i n g s 3 : 1 5 ) . T h e r e s u l t

i s d e s c r i b e d t h u s : " A s t h e m u s i c i a n p l a y e d , t h e h a n d o f t h e L O R D [ a t e c h n i c a l

t e r m f o r p r o p h e c y ] c a m e u p o n h i m . " I n v a r i o u s p l a c e s , p r o p h e t s p r o p h e s y a t

n i g h t , s o m e t i m e s i n t e m p l e s . T h i s m a y b e s i m i l a r t o " i n c u b a t i o n d r e a m s , " n a m e -

l y g o i n g t o s l e e p a t a s p e c i a l p l a c e w i t h t h e h o p e t h a t y o u w i l l h a v e a p r o p h e t i c

d r e a m — a p h e n o m e n o n w e l l- a tt e st e d i n m a n y c u l tu r e s .

D o i n g W o n d e r s

O n e s t r i k i n g a s p e c t of t h e s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e s e n o n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s , e s p e c i a l l y

E l i j a h a n d E l i s h a , i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y a r e m i r a c l e w o r k e r s . T h e y f e e d t h e

m a s s e s w i t h a s m a l l a m o u n t o f f o o d , r e v i v e t h e d e a d , f i n d l o s t o b j e c t s , m a k e p o i -

s o n e d f o o d s a f e , h e a l l e p e r s , e t c . T h e B i b le r e c o u n t s m a n y t y p e s o f " m i r a c l e

w o r k e r " s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e s e f i g u r e s . T h e t a l e s a r e o f v a r i e d l i t e r a r y t y p e s , a n d

t h e y e m p h a s i z e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of t h e p r o p h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . T h u s t h e y l ik e ly

o r i g i n a t e d i n v a r i o u s c i r c le s f o r d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . 1 6 Note tha t , a s a k ind o f l i t -

e r a r y f u l f i l l m e n t o f E l i s h a s r e q u e s t o f E l i j a h t h a t " a d o u b l e p o r t i o n o f y o u r s p i r -

it p a s s o n t o m e " ( 2 K i n g s 2 : 9 ) , m i r a c l e a c c o u n t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d b e t w e e n t h e s e

t w o p r o p h e t s , w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f m i r a c l e s p e r f o r m e d b y E l i s h a e q u a l t o a p p r o x -

i m a t e l y d o u b l e t h o s e o f E l i j a h .

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R e s t r i c t i n g T h e i r A u d i e n c e

Th e B ib l e s u g g e s t s t h a t a p r ima r y r o l e o f n o n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s wa s t o p r o p h e s y

to the k ing . Thus , the El i jah un i t opens wi th "El i jah the Tishb i te , an inhab i tan t

o f G i l e a d " s p e a k in g t o Ah a b , k in g o f t h e No r th e r n K in g d o m ( 1 K in g s 1 7 :1 ) . Ev e n

th e f a m o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e tw e e n E l i j ah a n d th e p r i e s t s of Baa l o p e n s : " M u c h

la ter , in the th ird year , the word of the L O R D c a me to E l i j a h : ' Go , a p p e a r b e f o r e

A hab ; th en I wi l l sen d ra in u p o n the ea r th ' " (ch ap . 18) . T he focu s on sp ea k in g

to the k ing con t ras t s sha rp ly wi th c lass ica l p rophecy , which typ ica l ly addresses

i ts el f t o a b r o a d g r o u p of p e o p le , e v e n t h o u g h s o m e t im e s c la s si c al p r o p h e t s

inve igh aga ins t the k ing ; they do so as pa r t o f the i r miss ion to the peop le .Bo th k i n d s o f p r o p h e t s e n g a g e i n r e b u k i n g th e p o w e r f u l , b u t t h e n o n c l a s s i -

c al p r o p h e t s t y p ic a l ly r e b u k e t h e k i n g o n ly u s i n g s h o r t , p r o s a i c c o n d e m n a t i o n s .

F o r e x a m p le , E l i j ah 's f a m o u s r e b u k e o f Ah a b b y E l i ja h , a f t e r A h a b h a s N a b o t h

k i l l e d i n o r d e r t o a p p r o p r i a t e Na b o th ' s v in e y a r d , r e a d s : " Th u s s a id t h e L O R D :

W ou ld yo u m u rd e r an d take posse ss io n? T hu s sa id the LORD: In the ve ry p lace

wh e r e t h e d o g s l a p p e d u p Na b o th ' s b lo o d , t h e d o g s w i l l l a p u p y o u r b lo o d to o "

(1 Kings 21 :19) . Class ica l p rophe ts , on the o the r hand , speak to a l l c la sses , o f ten

in l o n g p o e t i c s p e e c h e s .

D o i n g S t r a n g e D e e d s

N o n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s p e r f o r m u n u s u a l a c t i o n s . R e c a l l E l i s h a ' s d e a d l y

r e s p o n s e — m e n t i o n e d a t t h e s t ar t of t h i s c h a p t e r — t o t h e c h i l d r e n w h o m o c k

h im . E l s e w h e r e , i n a s i n g l e p a s s a g e o f f o r ty - f o u r v e r s e s , E l i s ha p r o d u c e s e x c e s -

s ive a m o u n t s of o il f o r a n e e d y w id o w, p r o m is e s a w o m a n th a t s h e w i l l c o n c e iv e ,

r e v iv e s a d e a d c h i ld , p r o v id e s t h e a n t id o t e t o a p o i s o n o u s s t e w , a n d mu l t i p l i e s a

l im i ted am o u n t of foo d to feed the mas ses (2 Kings 4 ) . T he pu rp os e of su ch ac t s

i s t o g lo r i f y p r o p h e t i c p r e s t i g e . In c o n t r a s t , w h e n c l a s si c a l p r o p h e t s d o s t r a n g e

th in g s , s u c h a c t s t u r n o u t t o h a v e t h e i r o wn me a n in g ; t h e y a r e t e a c h in g t o o l s .

M a k i n g P r e d i c t i o n s

No n c la s s i c a l p r o p h e t s d o p r e d i c t t h e f u tu r e . Ho we v e r , t h e y d o n o t d we l l o n i t .

Ra th e r , t h e y o f f e r s h o r t , f i n al p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , s u c h a s E l ij a h' s w o r d t o K in g

Ahab : "As the L O R D l ives , the G od o f I s rae l w h o m I se rve , the re wi l l be no de w

or ra in excep t a t my b idd ing" (1 Kings 17 :1 ) . Accord ing to Kings , tha t one-

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s e n t e n c e me s s a g e t u r n e d o u t to b e t h e s t a r t o f a t h r e e - y e a r d r o u g h t a n d f a m in e .

I n c o n t r a s t , wh e n th e c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t p r e d i c t s d o o m, mo s t o f t e n i t i s c o n d i -

t i o n a l , f u n c t io n in g a s a c a l l t o r e p e n t .

Summary of Prophetic Types in the Bible

Ac c o r d in g t o t h e B ib l e , t h e p o p u la c e b e l i e v e s t h a t b o th n o n c l a s s i c a l a n d c l a s s i -

c a l p r o p h e t s c a n c o n v e y th e d iv in e w i l l . Bo th t y p e s s e r v e a s i n t e r me d ia r i e s

b e t w e e n th e p e o p le a n d th e i r Go d . Yet t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n th e t y p e s a r e

e n o r m o u s — i n t e r m s of t h e i r a u d i e n c e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ty l e, t h e r e a s o n fo r

th e i r o d d a c t i o n s , a n d t h e i r u s e of p r e d i c t i o n s . G iv e n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s , o n e m a y

r e a s o n a b ly w o n d e r w h e th e r t h e s a m e t it le o f " p r o p h e t " s h o u ld a p p ly t o b o t h

g r o u p s !

Th e f o l l o w in g t a b l e c o m p a r e s a n d c o n t r a s t s t h e c l as s ic a l a n d n o n c l a s s i c a l

p r o p h e t s .

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of N o n c l a s s i c a l V e r s u s C l a s s i c a l P r o p h e t s

Characteristic Nonclassical Classical

K n e w s e c r e t a n d h i d d e n i n f o r m a t i o n Yes N o

Typica l ly co ns u l ted on f ixed occ as io ns Yes N o

W ere pa id to d i sc lose o r in te rce de Yes N o

Ba n d e d to g e th e r Yes N o

I n d u c e d p r o p h e c y Y es N o

W o r k e d m i r a c l e s Yes No

M a i n a u d i e n c e K i n g P e o p le

M a in g e n r e o f s p e e c h P r o s e P o e t r y

Re a s o n f o r s t r a n g e d e e d s Bui ld p res t ige C o n v e y a m e s s a g e

Type o f p red ic t ions S h o r t v e r d i c t s L o n g w a r n i n g s

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16

"Let Ju st i c e W ell U p like W ate r"

R e a d i n g A m o s

Primary Reading: Amos.

Amos as a Typical "Classical Prophet"

Th e w r i t i n g s o f A m o s p r o v i d e a g o o d s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g b o o k s

a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t s . ( A mo s i s s t r u c tu r e d a s a b o o k , a l t h o u g h

u l t ima te ly a la te r ed i to r incorpora ted i t in to a l a rge r b ib l ica l book , The Twelve

[ M in o r ] P r o p h e t s . S e e " N a m e a n d S t r u c tu r e " i n c h a p t e r 2 . ) As a r e la t i ve ly s h o r t

t e x t, A m o s g iv e s u s a w o r k a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o u t l i n e t h e s t r u c t u r e , f u n c t i o n ,

a n d s tyl e o f p r o p h e t i c b o o k s .

T h i s c h a p t e r f i r s t h i g h l i g h t s m i s t a k e s c o m m o n l y m a d e i n r e a d i n g A m o s , d u e

t o c o m m o n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of c la s si ca l p r o p h e c y . T h e n it e x a m i n e s t h e

b o o k s p e r s u a s iv e t a c t i c s a n d th e m e s , s p e c if i c a l l y t h e fi ve m a in p o in t s f o u n d in

c l a ss i ca l p r o p h e c y th a t Am o s e x e m p l i f i e s . It c o n c lu d e s w i th o b s e r v a t io n s o n t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f A m o s i n t o a b o o k . 1

Common Mistakes Made in Reading Amos

If we l a c k t r a in in g i n h o w to r e a d p r o p h e t i c t e x t s , we u s u a l ly t h in k a b o u t t h e m

in te rms o f the types o f t ex ts we a re fami l ia r wi th . Thus , the Book o f Amos i s

o f t e n r e a d a s a p r e d i c t i v e t e x t— a wo r k i n t e n d e d to f o r e te l l t h e f u tu r e . F u r th e r ,w e r e a d h i m l ik e a c o n t e m p o r a r y r a b b i w h o c o n d e m n s l i s t e n e rs f o r n o t f o l l o w -

in g t h e n o r ms o f t h e To r a h . I n a d d i t i o n , we a s s u me th a t t h e p r o p h e t Amo s wr o t e

th e b o o k th a t b e a r s h i s n a m e — ju s t a s we f i n d it i n o u r B ib le .

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N o t a P r e d i c t i o n

T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f c l a ss i ca l p r o p h e c y w a s not t o p r e d i c t t h e f u t u r e . P r o p h e t s

d o s p e n d a l o t o f t i m e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e f u t u r e , b u t t h e y d o s o fo r t w o r e a s o n s .

O n e r e a s o n is t o c o n v i n c e t h e p e o p l e t o r e p e n t . T h e s e c o n d r e a s o n is t h a t if

I s ra e l s u f f e r s , it m e a n s t h a t G o d h a s j u d g e d a n d p u n i s h e d t h e m f o r t h e i r

c o v e n a n t i n f r a c t i o n s . A m o s 5 : 6 i l l u s t ra t e s t h e f ir st p o i n t u n a m b i g u o u s l y : " S e ek

th e LORD, a n d yo u wi l l l ive , / E l se H e wi l l ru sh l ik e f ir e u p o n th e Ho u se o f

J o s e p h / A n d c o n s u m e B e t h e l w i t h n o n e t o q u e n c h it ." E s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e c o n d

p o i n t w a s m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d . R e m e m b e r t h a t i n a p o l y t h e i s t i c so c ie ty , n e a r l y

e v e r y o n e b e l i e v e d t h a t a n y of t h e m a n y g o d s c o u l d p u n i s h a p e r s o n o r a g r o u p .( T h a t is w h y A m o s ' N o r t h e r n c o n t e m p o r a r y H o s e a h a d to c o n t e n d t h a t t h e G o d

o f I s ra e l i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r n a t u r e — r a t h e r t h a n t h e C a n a a n i t e d e i t y B a a l. S e e

e s p e c i a l l y H o s e a 2 .) In a d d i t i o n , m a n y n e i g h b o r i n g p e o p l e s b e l i e v e d t h a t

n a t u r e o r t h e f o rc e s o f n a t u r e w e r e s o m e t i m e s m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n th e g o d s .

A m o s — l i k e t h e o t h e r c la ss ic a l p r o p h e t s — w i s h e d t o c h a l l e n g e b o t h of th e s e

b a s i c v i e w s a b o u t r ea l it y . H e h e l d t h a t t h e G o d of I s r a e l i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r every-

thing t h a t h a p p e n s . I n t h e w o r d s o f 3 : 6 : " C a n m i s f o r t u n e c o m e t o a t o w n / I f t h e

L O R D h a s n o t c a u s e d i t ?" T h i s is n o t a p r e d i c t i o n ; r a t h e r , it i s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f

h o w t h e w o r l d w o r k s .

N o t R e f e r r i n g t o t h e T o r a h

A m o s m a k e s h i s p o i n t s a b o u t t h e n e e d f o r r e p e n t a n c e a n d a b o u t d iv i n e p u n i s h -

m e n t , b u t n o t b y u r g i n g t h e p e o p l e t o f o l l o w t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e T o r a h t e x t . W e c a nb e f a i r l y c e r t a i n t h a t h i s f a i l u r e t o m e n t i o n s u c h a t e x t is b e c a u s e i n h i s d a y ,

n o s u c h T o r a h e x i s t e d . T h i s c l a i m m a y s e e m s u r p r i s i n g . C o n s i d e r , t h e n , w h a t

A m o s m e a n s w h e n h e sa y s : " D i d y o u o f f e r s a c r i f ic e a n d o b l a t i o n t o M e / T h o s e

f o r t y y e a r s i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , / Ο H o u s e o f I s r a e l? " ( 5 : 2 5 ) . I n c o n t e x t , t h i s i s a

r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n w h o s e a n s w e r is c l e a rl y " n o . " W h e n A m o s p o s e d t h i s q u e s -

t i o n , h e w a s t a k i n g f o r g r a n t e d h i s a u d i e n c e ' s b e l i e f t h a t t h e I s r a e l i t e s d i d not

o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s d u r i n g t h e w i l d e r n e s s p e r i o d . Y et a c c o r d i n g t o t h e (P r i e s tl y ) T o r a h

p a s s a g e s i n L e v i t i c u s a n d N u m b e r s , A a r o n t h e h i g h p r i e s t p r e s i d e d o v e r c o u n t -

l e ss s a c r i f i c e s d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d .

L i k e w i s e , A m o s ' w o r d s c a n n o t e a s il y b e r e c o n c i l e d w i t h D e u t e r o n o m y . F o r

e x a m p l e , h e s a y s t h a t o n e o f t h e p u n i s h m e n t s o f I s r a e l w i l l b e " t o n s u r e s o n e v e r y

h e a d " ( 8 : 1 0 ) . T h i s r e f e r s t o p u l l i n g o u t o r s h a v i n g o n e ' s h a i r a s a m o u r n i n g r i t -

u a l . H o w e v e r , t h a t p r a c t i c e is e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t e d i n D e u t e r o n o m y 1 4 : 1 . 2 It

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w o u l d b e o d d f o r a p r o p h e t w h o k n e w D e u t e r o n o m y t o s u g g e s t t h i s a s a d i v i n e

p u n i s h m e n t . I n f ac t, t h e m a j o r t h e m e of D e u t e r o n o m y is t h e p r o p e r w o r s h i p o f

G o d i n o n e c e n t r a l s a n c t u a r y , w h i c h i n h i s d a y c o u l d o n l y h a v e m e a n t J e r u s a l e m .

Y et A m o s n e v e r c o n d e m n s w o r s h i p at n o r t h e r n " h i g h p l a c es . " I n d e e d , h e l e n d s

t h e s h r i n e o f B e t h e l p r e s t i g e b y p r o p h e s y i n g t h e r e !

I d o n o t m e a n t o s u g g e s t t h a t A m o s k n e w nothing o f w h a t i s n o w in t h e

T o r a h . H e s p e a k s o f t h e p e r i o d of w a n d e r i n g in t h e w i l d e r n e s s ( 2 : 1 0 ) , t h e

d e s t r u c t i o n of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ( 4 : 1 1 ) , a n d S a b b a t h a n d N e w M o o n o b s e r -

v a n c e s ( 8 : 5 ) . R a t h e r , A m o s d i d n o t k n o w the T o r a h a s it n o w e x i s t s , c o m p l e t e

a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e , b l e n d i n g t o g e t h e r v a r i o u s s o u r c e s . H e k n e w t r a d i t i o n s t h a t

w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y b e c o m e p a r t of t h e T o r a h , b u t h e d i d n o t k n o w t h e T o r a h a s au n i f i e d b o o k .

3

H o w c o u ld t h i s b e ? R e c al l t h a t t h e T o r a h h a s a l o n g a n d c o m p l e x h i s t o r y o f

c o m p o s i t i o n ( se e c h a p t e r s 6 - 1 0 ) . T h a t i s, it a n d t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s d e v e l o p e d

d u r i n g t h e s a m e p e r i o d . T h u s e v e n t h o u g h t h e T o r a h a p p e a r s fi rs t i n t h e c a n o n ,

a ll T o r a h t e x t s d i d n o t p r e c e d e in t im e a ll p r o p h e t i c t e x t s . N o r d id al l p r o p h e t s

k n o w a l l o f t h e T o r a h .

I n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w , t h e T o r a h e x i s t e d f i r st a n d i n f l u e n c e d t h e p r o p h e t s .

H o w e v e r , w e n e e d t o c o n s i d e r s e r i o u s l y t h e c o n v e r s e p o s s i b i l i t y — t h a t p r o p h e t -

i c n o t i o n s a n d m a t e r i a l i n f l u e n c e d s o m e o f w h a t b e c a m e p a r t of t h e T o r a h .4

A m o s t h e B o o k V e r s u s A m o s t h e P r o p h e t

" A m o s " m a y m e a n t w o t h i n g s — t h e p e r s o n , o r t h e b o o k o f t h a t n a m e . T h e y a r e

n o t i d e n t i c a l . N o t a ll t h a t i s i n t h e B o o k o f A m o s w a s w r i t t e n b y t h e p r o p h e tA m o s h i m s e l f . M a n y s c h o l a r s i m a g i n e s e v e r al s t a g e s o f g r o w t h : t h e w o r d s o f

A m o s ; a d d i t i o n s b y a s c h o o l of A m o s ; a n d m o r e a d d i t i o n s i n a n o t h e r , la t e r s e t -

t i n g ? S c h o l a r s d e b a t e h o w t o d i s c e r n t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , w e c a n

p o i n t t o s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e s t a g e s e x i s t e d . T h i s p i c t u r e m a y b e s t r a n g e t o

u s — w e l iv e a n er a i n w h i c h e d u c a t e d p e o p l e t a k e c a r e t o c i te a n d q u o t e t h e i r

s o u r c e s p r ec i se ly . H o w e v e r , in a n t i q u i t y , e d i t o r s w e r e c o m f o r t a b l e a d d i n g t o t h e i r

p r e d e c e s s o r s ' w o r k s . ( T h u s w a s t h e e n t i r e D s o u r c e a d d e d t o t h e T o r a h ; s e e "A

P i o u s F r a u d " in c h a p t e r 1 0 . ) It w a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t f o r s u c h e d i t o r s to a d d t h e i r

v e r s e s t o a b o o k l ik e A m o s a n d h a v e t h e m b e r e c o g n i z e d a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e , t h a n

t o c l a i m t h e m a s t h e i r o w n c o m p o s i t i o n s . I n s o m e s e n s e t h i s p r o c e s s is l ik e t h a t

o f t h e j o k e s o r a n e c d o t e s t h a t c i r c u l a t e o n t h e I n t e r n e t . T h e y m a y a t t r i b u t e d t o

a p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r , b u t t h e i r r e c i p i e n t s r e v i s e, a d d t o , s u b t r a c t f r o m , a n d u p d a t e

t h e w o r d s b e f o r e s e n d i n g t h e m a l o n g t o o t h e r s . T h i s m e a n s , in t h e c a s e o f b o t h

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A m os an d the In te rn e t , tha t t r a ck ing do w n th e o r ig in a l t ex t i s a d i f f icu l t if no t

i m p o s s i b l e t a s k .

So m e b ib l ica l sch o la rs ex p en d a g rea t dea l of ene rgy t ry i ng to f ind the o r ig -

in a l w o r d s of A m o s a n d o th e r p r o p h e t s . I n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , h o w e v e r , m o r e s c h o l -

a r s h a v e r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h i s i s im p o s s ib l e . 6 W e s imp ly k n o w to o l i t t l e . Ho w d id

th e p r o p h e t Amo s r e c i t e h i s s p e e c h e s ? Th a t i s , d id h e wr i t e t h e m d o wn a n d r e a d

t h e m a l o u d , w o r d f o r w o r d ? D i d h e s p e a k f r o m m e m o r y , a n d w r i t e t h e w o r d s

d o w n l a te r ? D id h e r e v is e h i s w o r d s a f t e r d e l i v e r in g t h e m , p e r h a p s t a k in g i n to

a c c o u n t t h e d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n o r a l a n d w r i t t e n e x p r e s s i o n ? O r d i d s o m e o n e i n

th e a u d i e n c e wr i t e d o w n th e p r o p h e t ' s w o r d s , a n d if s o , wa s i t a n e x a c t r e c o r d ?

D i d a n y o n e c h a n g e o r " i m p r o v e " o n t h e s p e e c h e s w h i l e r e c o p y i n g t h e m ? G i v e nth i s c h a in of u n c e r t a in ty , it i s e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y we n e e d to d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n t h e b o o k a n d t h e w o r d s o f A m o s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e m u s t a d m i t t h a t w e

c a n n e v e r r e c o v e r e x a c t ly wh a t Amo s s a id . Th u s wh e n we s e e k t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e

h is to r ica l cond i t ions o f Amos ' t ime and p lace , we canno t t rea t the book as i f i t

we r e h i s d i r e c t f i r s t - p e r s o n a c c o u n t .

The Rhetoric of Amos

Fe w of us l ike to be to ld in pu b l ic tha t o u r ac t ion s and co re be l ie f s a re b o t h

w r o n g h e a d e d a n d d a n g e r o u s . S o h o w d i d t h e p r o p h e t s g et t h e p e o p l e to li s te n

t o s u c h c o n d e m n a t i o n s ? T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a p p r o a c h — t h a t is , t h e r h e t o r i c —

u s e d b y e a c h p r o p h e t m u s t h a v e ma d e a b ig d i f f e r e n c e t o l i s t en e r s . He r e , t o o ,

n o t a ll p r o p h e t s we r e i d e n t i c a l ; f o r e x a m p le , I s ai a h u s e d f a n c y p o e t r y wh e n h e

p r o p h e s i e d ; b u t A m o s d i d n o t . ' D i f f e re n t p r o p h e t s u s e d r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e s t h a tp r o b a b ly r e f l e c t e d t h e i r o wn s k i l l s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s , a s we l l a s t h e i r d i f f e r e n t

a u d ie n c e s . S in c e t h e d e v i c e s u s e d b y Am o s a r e n o t f a n c y, we m a y g u e s s t h a t h e

wa s n o t s p e a k in g , b y a n d la r g e, t o a h ig h ly e d u c a t e d , p o e t r y - lo v in g a u d ie n c e .

Amo s in d u c e s t h e I s r a e l i t e s t o l i s t e n t o h im wh e n h e b e g in s b y p r o p h e s y in g

a g a in s t a l l o f t h e i r e n e mie s —Da ma s c u s , Ga z a , Ty r e , e t c . On e c a n a lmo s t h e a r t h e

I s r a e li t e s c h e e r in g a s A m o s c o n d e m n s e n e m y a f t e r e n e m y f o r i ts b e h a v io r . H i s

t a r g e t s a l t e r n a t e b e twe e n n o r th a n d s o u th ; t h e y g e t c lo s e r a n d c lo s e r t o h o me ,

u n t i l t h e a u d ie n c e —n o w l i s t e n in g a t t e n t i v e ly —h e a r s : " Th u s s a id t h e LORD: F o r

th re e t ran sgr ess ion s o f Is rae l , / For fou r , I wi l l no t re vok e i t" (2 :6 ) .

I n a d d i t i o n , Amo s a l s o l u r e s h i s a u d i e n c e w i th r h e to r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , e s p e -

d a l l y i n 3 : 3 - 6 :

( 3 ) Ca n two wa lk t o g e th e r / W i th o u t h a v in g me t? ( 4 ) Do e s a l i o n r o a r

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i n t h e f o r e s t / W h e n h e h a s n o p r e y ? / D o e s a g r e a t b e a s t l et o u t a c r y

f r o m it s d e n / W i t h o u t h a v i n g m a d e a c a p t u r e ? ( 5 ) D o e s a b i r d d r o p o n

t h e g r o u n d — i n a t r a p — / W i t h n o s n a r e th e r e ? D o e s a t r a p s p r i n g u p

f r o m t h e g r o u n d / U n l e s s it h a s c a u g h t s o m e t h i n g ? ( 6 ) W h e n a r a m s

h o r n i s s o u n d e d i n a t o w n , / D o t h e p e o p l e n o t t a k e a l a r m ? C a n m i s -

f o r t u n e c o m e t o a t o w n / I f t h e L O R D h a s n o t c a u s e d i t ?

T h e s e q u e s t i o n s c a p t u r e l is t e n e r s b y m a k i n g t h e m w o n d e r : W h a t is t h i s p r o p h e t

A m o s t a l k i n g a b o u t ? W h a t d o e s " t w o w a l k i n g t o g e t h e r " m e a n , a n d w h a t d o e s

t h a t h a v e t o d o w i t h A m o s ' m e s s a g e ? A m o s ' l i s t e n e r s w o u l d h a v e a n s w e r e d " n o "

a f t e r e a c h q u e s t i o n . T h u s w h e n t h e p r o p h e t p o s e d t h e f in a l q u e s t i o n ( " C a n m i s -

f o r t u n e c o m e t o a t o w n / I f t h e L O R D h a s n o t c a u s e d i t ? " ) , t h e y p r o b a b l y w e r e

r e a d y t o a n s w e r " n o " a g a i n — a f f i r m i n g t h a t G o d i s i n c h a r g e o f a l l .

I r o n y a l s o a t t r a c t s l i s t e n e r s . T h u s a t o n e p o i n t , A m o s h a s n o t i c e d t h a t t h e

p e o p l e t h i n k t h e y w i ll n o t b e p u n i s h e d f o r t h e i r m o r a l f a il u r e s b e c a u s e t h e i r s a c -

r i fi c ia l o f f e r i n g s a r e k e e p i n g G o d h a p p y . T h e p r o p h e t w i s h e s t o t e a c h t h a t t h i s

w a y o f t h i n k i n g is w r o n g . H e m a k e s h i s p o i n t b y c a r r y i n g t h e p e o p l e ' s r e a s o n i n g

t o e x t r e m e s . H e s u g g e s t s t h a t if t h e y b e l i e v e o f f e r i n g s w o r k s o w e l l , t h e y o u g h t

t o g o a h e a d a n d s i n m o r e — s o l o n g a s t h e y m a k e s u r e t o b r i n g e x t r a s a c r i f i c e s :

( 4 : 4 ) C o m e t o B e t h e l a n d t r a n s g r e s s ; / T o G i l g a l , a n d t r a n s g r e s s e v e n

m o r e : / P r e s e n t y o u r s a c r i f i c e s t h e n e x t m o r n i n g / A n d y o u r t i t h e s o n

t h e t h i r d d a y ; (5 ) A n d b u r n a t h a n k o f f e r i n g o f l e a v e n e d b r e a d ; / A n d

p r o c l a i m f r e e w i l l o f f e r i n g s l o u d l y . F o r y o u l o v e t h a t s o r t of t h i n g , Ο

I s r a e l i t e s — d e c l a r e s m y L o r d G O D .

T h i s is o f c o u r s e t h e l as t t h i n g t h a t a n a u d i e n c e w o u l d e x p e c t a p r o p h e t — o r

G o d — t o t e l l t h e m . 8 B y g i v i n g s u c h u n e x p e c t e d a d v i c e , A m o s g e ts t h e i r a t t e n t i o n .

A m o s a l s o r e s o r t s t o p u n s , w h i c h h e l p d i s a r m h i s a u d i e n c e . A t t h e s a m e

t i m e , th e w o r d p l a y r e i n f o r c e s h i s m e s s a g e . T h r e e e x a m p l e s w i l l s u f f i c e . F i r s t, h e

p l a y s o n t h e n a m e G i l g a l , l i te r a ll y " a r o u n d o r c i r c u l a r p l a c e , " a n d j u x t a p o s e s i t

w i t h a s i m i l a r - s o u n d i n g r o o t (g-J-h) t h a t m e a n s " t o b e e x i l e d " : ki ha-gilgal galoh

yigleh ( " f o r G i l g a l s h a l l g o i n t o e x i l e " ; 5 : 5 ) . S e c o n d , h e p l a y s o n t h e m e a n i n g o f

t h e o d d p l a c e - n a m e L o - d a b a r , w h i c h l it e ra l ly m e a n s " n o t h i n g " : " A h , t h o s e w h o

a r e s o h a p p y a b o u t L o - d a b a r / n o t h i n g " ( 6 : 1 3 ; t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . Fi n al ly , i n o n e of

h i s v i s i o n s h e s e e s " a b a s k e t o f kayitz ( s u m m e r f r u i t ), " w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s th a t " t h e

h o u r o f ketz ( d o o m ) h a s c o m e f o r M y p e o p l e I s ra e l" ( 8 : 2 ) . ( T h i s p u n w o u l d h a v e

s o u n d e d e v e n s t r o n g e r t o h i s N o r t h e r n a u d i e n c e if t h e y p r o n o u n c e d t h o s e t w o

w o r d s i d e n t ic a l l y , a s s c h o l a r s n o w b e l i e v e t h e y d i d . T h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n r e f l e c t e d

i n o u r c u r r e n t B i b l e s i s a l a te r , J u d e a n H e b r e w . 9 )

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The Five Main Points of Amos and of Classical Prophecy

M o s t o f t h e c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s , i n c lu d in g t h e p r o p h e t Amo s , ma k e th e f o l l o win gf ive po in ts :

• T he G od of Israe l is a lso a un ive rsa l dei ty .

• I s ra e l a n d J u d a h a r e a c c o u n ta b l e to t h i s d e i t y — G o d is n o t g o o d to t h e m

u n c o n d i t i o n a l ly , b u t r a th e r r e wa r d s t h e m o n ly f o r f o l l o w in g th e

c o v e n a n t .

• Th i s c o v e n a n t i n v o lv e s b o th i n t e r p e r s o n a l ( e th i c a l ) a n d r e l i g io u s ( r i t u -

a l ) o b l ig a t i o n s — n o t o n e o r t h e o th e r .• "Th e D ay of the L O R D , " a d a y o f p u n i s h me n t , w i l l a r r i v e i n t h e f u tu r e .

• Even w h e n Is rae l i s pu n is he d , it wi l l no t be de s t ro ye d ; the re wi l l be a

r e m n a n t .

Le ts exp lo re each o f these po in ts , in tu rn .

A U n i v e r s a l G o d

M o s t a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t e r n p e o p le s we r e p o ly th e i s t i c . Ty p ic a l l y t h e y wo r -

s h i p p e d — a m o n g o t h e r m o r e p e r s o n a l o r f a m il ia l d e i t i e s — a h i g h g o d o r g o d d e s s

w h o wa s e s p e c ia l l y r e s p o n s ib l e f o r t h e i r c i t y - s ta t e . Th u s , A s h u r wa s t h e h ig h g o d

o f t h e As s y r i a n s ; M a r d u k , o f t h e Ba b y lo n i a n s ; Ch e mo s h , o f t h e M o a b i t e s ;

M i lco m , o f the A m m on i te s ; an d in p re - I s rae l i t e t imes , Baal ( su pe rce d i ng II o r El)

of t h e C a n a a n i t e s . T h u s t h e M o a b i t e s w o u l d h a v e s h r u g g e d o ff A m o s ' c o n d e m -

n a t io n o f M o a b —" Be c a u s e h e b u r n e d th e b o n e s / Of t h e k in g o f Ed o m to l ime "

( 2 : 1 ) — f o r t h e y wo u l d h a v e s e e n t h i s as a m a t t e r of c o n c e r n f o r t h e i r d e i ty ,

C h e m o s h , o r fo r t h e Ed o m i t e h ig h g o d , Q a u s , b u t n o t f o r t h e g o d o f t h e i r

I s r a e l i t e n e ig h b o r s .

Am o s , h o w e v e r , i n s i s t s t h a t t h e Go d of I s ra e l h a s j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r mo r e t h a n

jus t the land o f I s rae l . Th is de i ty ca res abou t more than wha t the peop le I s rae l

d o — o r wh a t i s d o n e t o t h e m . I n d e e d , G o d i s t h e s o le d e it y , a n d i s u n iv e r s a l ,

p u n i s h in g a ll n a t i o n s e v e r y w h e r e f o r i n f r a c t i o n s o f b a s i c h u m a n d e c e n c y .

A c c o u n t a b i l i t y

Al th o u g h th i s I s r a e l i t e d e i t y h e ld s wa y e v e r y wh e r e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h ip w i th t h e

p e o p le I s r a el wa s a s p e c i a l o n e . Th e y we r e s u p p o s e d to b e f o l l o w in g d iv in e l a ws

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t h a t a p p l y t o t h e m a l o n e . T h u s , a f t e r c o n d e m n i n g o t h e r n a t i o n s i n 1 : 3 - 2 : 3 ,

A m o s i n d i c t s o n l y J u d a h b e c a u s e " t h e y h a v e s p u r n e d t h e T e a c h i n g of t h e L O R D /

A n d h a v e n o t o b s e r v e d H i s l a w s " ( 2 : 4 ) . I n 2 : 6 - 8 , h e c o n d e m n s t h e N o r t h e r n

K i n g d o m f o r v i o l a t i n g n o r m s t h a t t h e I s r a e li t e s t h o u g h t of a s b i n d i n g o n t h e p e o -

p ie I s r ae l spec i f i ca l ly .

A t s o m e p o i n t in h i s to r y , I s r a e l it e s b e g a n to u n d e r s t a n d t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a s

a bent ( ת י ר ב ) , a c o v e n a n t o r c o m p a c t .1 0 B u t t h i s m e t a p h o r w a s a m b i g u o u s , f o r

p o l i t i c a l c o v e n a n t s i n t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t w e r e o f t w o t y p e s . I n a covenant of

grant, o n e p a r t y u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y g a v e s o m e t h i n g t o a n o t h e r p a r t y . I n c o n t r a s t , a

suzerainty treaty r e c o r d e d t h e a g r e e m e n t r e a c h e d b y t w o u n e q u a l p a r t i e s , a v a s -

s al a n d a s u z e r a i n ( o v e r l o r d ) . U s u a l l y t h e s u z e r a i n u n d e r t o o k t o p r o t e c t t h e v a s -s a l , w h i l e t h e v a s s a l h a d t o p a y t r i b u t e t o t h e s u z e r a i n . 1 1

A v a r i e t y of p o l e m i c a l p r o p h e t i c t e x t s t e ll u s t h a t m a n y p e o p l e i n I s ra e l

v i e w e d t h e i r c o v e n a n t w i t h G o d a s a c o v e n a n t of g r a n t : G o d w o u l d p r o t e c t t h e m

u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y . A m o s a n d o t h e r c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s , h o w e v e r , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t

G o d w a s s u z e r a i n , a n d I s r a e l w a s a v a s s a l . T h u s G o d w i ll p r o t e c t I s r a e l o n l y if

t h e y o b s e r v e t h e t r e a t y s t i p u l a t i o n s — t h a t i s, h e e d G o d ' s w o r d . T h i s i s t h e i m p o r t

of 9 :7 : "To Me, Ο I s r a e li t e s , y o u a r e / J u s t l ik e t h e E t h i o p i a n s 1 2 — d e c l a r e s t h e

L O R D — T r u e, I b r o u g h t I s r a e l u p / F r o m t h e l a n d o f E g y p t , / B u t a l s o t h e

P h i l i s ti n e s f r o m C a p h t o r / A n d t h e A r a m e a n s f r o m Kir." G o d h a s m o v e d m a n y

p e o p l e s a r o u n d , n o t o n l y t h i s o n e . Is ra e l's w o n d r o u s l i b e r a t i o n in t h e p a s t d o e s

n o t i m p l y u n c o n d i t i o n a l d i v i n e p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e f u t u r e . F u r t h e r m o r e , to t h e

e x t e n t t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s s p e c i a l , it i s o n e t h a t m a k e s d e m a n d s : " Yo u a l o n e

h a v e I s i n g l e d o u t [ l it e ra l ly : k n o w n ] / O f al l t h e f a m i l i e s o f t h e e a r t h — / T h a t i s

w h y I w i l l c a ll y o u t o a c c o u n t / F o r a ll y o u r i n i q u i t i e s " ( 3 : 2 ) .

B o t h E t h i c a l a n d R i t u a l O b l i g a t i o n s

A g a i n , p r o p h e t i c p o l e m i c i n d i c a t e s t h a t s o m e I s r a e l i t e s b e l i e v e d t h a t r i t u a l a c t i o n

a l o n e w a s e n o u g h t o a s s u r e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e a n d b l e s s i n g . ( R e c a l l t h e i r o n i c

w o r d s o f A m o s , " C o m e t o B e t h e l a n d t r a n s g r e s s . . .." ) A m o s a s s e r t s a n a d d i t i o n a l

d i m e n s i o n t o t h e c o v e n a n t : p r o p e r e t h i c a l, i n t e r p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r . R e l i gi o n

in vo lve s right a s we l l a s r i t e . 1 3 A m o s c l a i m s i n G o d ' s n a m e :

( 5 : 2 1 ) I l o a t h e , I s p u r n y o u r f e s ti v a l s, / I a m n o t a p p e a s e d b y y o u r

s o l e m n a s s e m b l i e s . / ( 2 2 ) If y o u o f f e r M e b u r n t o f f e r i n g s — o r y o u r m e a l

o f f e r i n g s — / I w i l l n o t a c c e p t t h e m ; / I w i l l p a y n o h e e d / T o y o u r g i f t s

o f f a t l i n g s . / ( 2 3 ) S p a r e M e t h e s o u n d o f y o u r h y m n s , / A n d l e t M e n o t

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h e a r t h e m u s i c o f y o u r l u t e s . / ( 2 4 ) B u t l et j u s t i c e w e l l u p l i k e w a t e r , /

R i g h t e o u s n e s s l i k e a n u n f a i l i n g s t r e a m .

T h e s e v e r s e s ( t h e l a st o f w h i c h R ev . M a r t i n L u th e r K in g J r . f e a tu r e d in h i s f a m o u s"I h a v e a d r e a m " s p e e c h ) a r e o p e n t o tw o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . If t a k e n l i te r al ly , t h e y

s u g g e s t t h a t r e l ig i o u s o r c u l t i c r i t e s a r e u n i m p o r t a n t ; o n l y j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t e o u s -

n e s s m a t t e r . T h i s h a s b e e n a f r e q u e n t P r o t e s t a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s ( a n d s i m -

i l a r ) p a s s a g e s ; c l a s s ic a l R e f o r m J u d a i s m a n d t h e S o c i e ty f o r E th i c a l C u l tu r e a l s o

e m p h a s i z e d t h i s r e a d i n g .

A n o t h e r r e a d i n g u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e p r o p h e t i s e x a g g e r a t i n g f o r e f fe c t. H i s

p o in t is t h a t r i t u a l alone i s n o t e f f i c a c io u s . T h i s i s a m o r e t y p i c a l J e w i s h r e a d i n g

o f t h e p a s s a g e . I n c o n d e m n i n g u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , A m o s d w e l l s o n t h e o p -

p r e s s io n o f t h e l o w e r c l a s s b y t h e u p p e r c l a s s , w h o " l i e o n i v o r y b e d s ,1 4

/ L o l l i n g

o n t h e i r c o u c h e s , / F e a s t i n g o n l a m b s f r o m t h e f l o c k / A n d o n c a l v e s f r o m t h e

s t a l l s " ( 6 :4 ) .

T h e D a y W i l l C o m e

T h o s e w h o d e s e r v e p u n i s h m e n t w i ll b e p u n i s h e d d u r i n g t h e " D a y o f t h e L O R D . "

T h e e a r l ie s t m e n t i o n o f t h i s d a y a p p e a r s t o b e in A m o s :

( 5 :1 8 ) A h , y o u w h o w i s h / F o r t h e d a y of t h e LORD! W h y s h o u ld y o u

w an t / T he d ay o f th e LORD? / I t sha l l be da rk ne ss , no t l igh t ! (1 9 )— A s

if a m a n s h o u l d r u n f r o m a l i o n / A n d b e a t t a c k e d b y a b e a r ; / O r if h e

g o t i n d o o r s , / S h o u l d l e a n h i s h a n d o n t h e w a l l / A n d b e b i t t e n b y a

snake ! (20) Sure ly the day o f the L O R D sha l l be / Not l igh t , bu t da rkness , /

B l a c k e s t n i g h t w i t h o u t a g l i m m e r .

T h i s p a s s a g e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e D a y o f t h e L O R D w a s a l r e a d y a p o p u l a r c o n c e p t

b e f o r e A m o s d i s c u s s e d i t1 5

— t h e p e o p l e w e r e w i s h i n g f o r i ts a r r i v al . C l e ar ly , t h e y

b e l i e v e d i t w o u l d b e a g o o d d a y , m o s t li k e l y a d a y in w h i c h G o d w o u l d a p p e a r

a s a w a r r i o r t o s a v e I s r ae l f r o m i t s e n e m ie s . T h e p o in t A m o s m a k e s is t h a t t h e

Day of the L O R D i s d e s t r u c t i v e .

M u c h a b o u t t h is " d a y " is u n c l e a r — w e d o n o t k n o w i ts o r i g i n , w h e t h e r p e o -

p i e t h o u g h t o f i t a s a l i t e ra l d a y o r s o m e lo n g e r p e r i o d o f t im e , o r w h e t h e r i t s

" d a r k n e s s " i s l i t e r a l o r m e t a p h o r i c a l .1 6

I n s o m e t e x t s , a s i n A m o s , t h i s d a y b r i n g s

t h e p u n i s h m e n t of I sr a el , w h i l e o t h e r s m e n t i o n t h e p u n i s h m e n t of i ts e n e m i e s .

T h o u g h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n v a r i e s , t h e D a y o f t h e L O R D i s a w i d e s p r e a d a n d l o n g -

s t a n d i n g c o n c e p t , f r o m A m o s al l t h e w a y t h r o u g h t h e e n d o f c l a ss i ca l p r o p h e c y .

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Al l Is N ot Lo st

G o d w i l l n o t t o t a l l y d e s t r o y I s r a e l o n t h e D a y o f t h e L O R D — n o r a t a n y o t h e r

t i m e , s i n c e w i t h o u t t h e s u b s e r v i e n t p a r t n e r t h e C o v e n a n t w o u l d n o l o n g e r e x is t.

A s t h e c l a ss i ca l p r o p h e t s f r e q u e n t l y p u t it , t h e c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d I sr a el

i m p l i e s a r e m n a n t o f t h e p e o p l e w i ll b e s a v e d — n o m a t t e r w h a t .

A v a r i e t y of b i b l i c a l t e x t s p r e d i c t t h a t t e n p e r c e n t w i l l s u r v i v e v a r i o u s

d e s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e e s p e c i a l l y I s a . 6 : 1 3 , " B u t w h i l e a t e n t h p a r t y e t r e m a i n s i n

it . . . ") , i n c l u d i n g i n A m o s : " F o r t h u s s a i d m y L o r d G O D / A b o u t t h e H o u s e o f

I sr a el : T h e t o w n t h a t m a r c h e s o u t a t h o u s a n d s t r o n g / S h a l l h a v e a h u n d r e d l e f t ,

/ A n d t h e o n e t h a t m a r c h e s o u t a h u n d r e d s t r o n g / S h a l l h a v e b u t t e n l e f t " ( 5 : 3 ) .O r , u s i n g m o r e f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e : " T h u s s a i d t h e L O R D : A S a s h e p h e r d r e s c u e s

f r o m t h e l i o n s j a w s / T w o s h a n k b o n e s o r t h e t i p o f a n e a r , / S o s h a l l t h e I s r a e l i t e s

e s c a p e / W h o d w e l l in S a m a r i a — / W i t h t h e l e g o f a b e d o r t h e h e a d o f a c o u c h "

( 3 : 1 2 ) .

T h e fi v e i d e a s o u t l i n e d a b o v e r e l a t e t o e a c h o t h e r lo o s el y , w h i c h e x p l a i n s

w h y t h e y r e c u r s o o f t e n i n c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e c y . W e c a n r e s t a t e t h e c l u s t e r o f c o n -

c e p t s a s f o l l o w s : Y H W H — a u n i v e r s a l d e i t y — h a s a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h I s r a e l,

w h i c h c a l l s f o r I s r a e l s h e e d i n g b o t h c u l t i c a n d e t h i c a l n o r m s . If I s ra e l d o e s n o t

m e e t th e s e o b l i g a t i o n s , t h e y w i ll b e p u n i s h e d . O n e o f t h e p o s s i b l e p u n i s h m e n t s

w i l l o c c u r o n t h e D a y o f t h e LORD. H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e o f t h e C o v e n a n t , I s r a e l w i l l

n e v e r b e t o ta l ly d e s t r o y e d — a r e m n a n t w i ll a l w a y s r e m a i n .

The Formation of the Book of Amos

A l l f iv e i d e a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n a r e f o u n d in t h e Book o f A m o s .

Y et w e c a n n o t b e s u r e h o w m a n y of t h e m c a m e f r o m t h e p r o p h e t h i m s e l f . L a t e r

r e v i s i o n s a n d a d d i t i o n s p l a y e d a r o l e ( s e e a b o v e , " A m o s t h e B o o k V e r s u s A m o s

t h e P r o p h e t " ) . I w i ll s k e t c h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e b o o k h e r e , w h i c h m u s t r e m a i n

o n l y a s k e t c h , b e c a u s e m u c h o f t h e h i s t o r y of t h e t e x t i s o b s c u r e .

A m o s , t h e e i g h t h - c e n t u r y p r o p h e t , b e l i e v e d t h a t h e h e a r d t h e d i v i n e v o i c e ,

a s h e r e p o r t s : " H e a r t h i s w o r d , Ο p e o p l e o f I s r a e l, / T h a t t h e L O R D has spoken"

( 3 : 1 ; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) . H e s a w v i s i o n s t h a t h e b e l i e v e d w e r e d i v i n e : " T h i s i s

w h a t m y L o r d G O D showed m e " ( 7 : 1 ; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) . H e f el t c o m p e l l e d t o

s h a r e t h e s e w i t h t h e p u b l i c , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e t e m p l e a t B e t h e l ( s e e 7 : 1 0 , 1 3 ) . 1 7

A t s o m e p o i n t , e i t h e r h e o r o n e o f h i s d i s c i p l e s b r o u g h t t h e s e s e p a r a t e o r a c l e s

t o g e t h e r. W h e n t h is h a p p e n e d , s o m e o n e h a d t o d e c i d e h o w t o o r d e r t h e o r a c le s .

M a n y m e t h o d s of o r d e r i n g w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e ( e .g . , c h r o n o l o g i c a l , a s s o -

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c i a t i v e , t o p i c a l ) , b u t t h e B o o k of A m o s s e e m s t o k e e p s im i l a r t y p e s of o r a c l e s

to g e th e r , l i k e t h e v i s i o n s n o w c o l l e c t e d i n c h a p t e r 7 . I n t h i s w a y , t h e f i r s t B o o k

of A m o s w a s p r o d u c e d .

L a te r, t o e x p l a i n a n d u p d a t e t h e m a t e r i a l , s o m e o n e a d d e d s u p e r s c r i p t i o n

a n d n a r r a t i o n . T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e s t o r y a b o u t A m o s a n d A m a z i a h t h e p r i e s t , in

w h a t i s n o w 7 : 1 0 - 1 7 . S u r e l y a n e d i t o r i n s e r t e d t h a t n a r r a t i v e th e r e b e c a u s e it

r e f e r s d i r e c t l y to t h e o r a c l e i n t h e p r e v i o u s v e r s e , e v e n t h o u g h t h i s p l a c e m e n t

i n t e r r u p t s t h e f l o w o f t h e p r o p h e t i c s p e e c h . T h u s t h e b o o k s l o w l y g re w , a n d

p r o b a b l y e x i s t e d i n a f e w c o p i e s o n l y .

T w o e v e n t s h e l p e d t o p o p u l a r i z e t h e b o o k . T h e f ir st w a s t h e e a r t h q u a k e t w o

y e a r s a f t e r A m o s p r o p h e s i e d ( s e e 1 :1 ) ; Z e c h a r i a h 1 4 : 5 a l s o m e n t i o n s " t h e e a r t h -q u a k e i n t h e d a y s of K i n g U z z i a h o f J u d a h , " a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i g s c o n f i r m i ts

o c c u r r e n c e .1 8

A s p a r t of h i s t y p i c a l l a n g u a g e o f d e s t r u c t i o n , A m o s h a d u s e d

e a r t h q u a k e i m a g e r y : " S h a l l n o t t h e e a r t h s h a k e f o r t h i s / A n d a ll t h a t d w e l l o n i t

m o u r n ? / S h a l l i t n o t a ll r i s e l i k e t h e N i l e / A n d s u r g e a n d s u b s id e l i k e t h e N i l e

o f E g y p t ? " ( 8 :8 ) ; " I s a w m y L O R D s t a n d in g b y t h e a l t a r , a n d H e s a id : S t r i k e t h e

c a p i t a l s s o t h a t t h e t h r e s h o l d s q u a k e , a n d m a k e a n e n d o f t h e f ir s t o f t h e m a ll .

A n d I w i l l s l a y t h e l a st o f t h e m w i t h t h e s w o r d ; n o t o n e of t h e m s h a l l e s c a p e , a n d

n o t o n e o f t h e m s h a l l s u r v iv e " ( 9 :1 ) ; a n d " I t i s m y L o r d t h e G OD o f H o s t s / A t

w h o s e t o u c h t h e e a r t h t r e m b l e s / A n d a l l w h o d w e l l o n it m o u r n , / A n d a l l o f it

s w e l l s l i k e t h e N i l e / A n d s u b s id e s l i k e t h e N i l e o f E g y p t " ( 9 : 5 ) . H e h a d p r o b a -

b l y m e a n t t h i s a s g e n e r a l i m a g e r y o f d e s t r u c t i o n — a f i g u r a ti v e e a r t h q u a k e ; b u t

o n c e t h e b i g t e m b l o r h i t , t h e s e v e r s e s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d a s t r u e p r o p h e c y , a u t h e n -

t i c a t i n g t h e b o o k a s a w h o l e .

A f t e r t h i s e a r t h q u a k e c a m e t h e b o o k ' s s u p e r s c r i p t i o n : " T h e w o r d s of A m o s ,

a s h e e p b r e e d e r f r o m T e k o a , w h o p r o p h e s i e d c o n c e r n i n g I s ra e l i n t h e r e i g n s ofK i n g s U z z i a h of J u d a h a n d J e r o b o a m s o n of J o a s h o f I s r ae l , t w o y e a r s b e f o r e t h e

e a r t h q u a k e . " T h i s s u p e r s c r i p t i o n t e l ls u s m o r e t h a n m o s t : A m o s w a s o r i g i n a l ly

J u d e a n ( f r o m T e k o a , a t o w n a b o u t t e n m i l e s s o u t h o f J e r u s a l e m ) ; h e d i r e c t e d h i s

p r o p h e c i e s a t t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m ( " I sr a e l" ) ; a n d h e l i v e d i n t h e e a r l y t o m i d -

e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . E . ( fo r J e r o b o a m II r e i g n e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 8 6 - 7 4 6 ) . M o s t

s i g n i f ic a n t l y , it n o t e s t h e c a l a m i t o u s e a r t h q u a k e . ( T h i s o p e n i n g v e r s e o f A m o s i s

r i ch i n i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t it l e av e s m a n y b a c k g r o u n d q u e s t i o n s u n a n s w e r e d : W h y

d i d A m o s m i g r a t e t o t h e N o r t h ? I n w h a t s o c i a l c i r c le s d i d h e m o v e ? W h o c o m -

p r i s e d h i s f a m i l y ? A n d s o o n . R e a d e r s s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , h a r p o n t h e s e u n c e r -

t a i n t i e s . ) T h e p h r a s e " t w o y e a r s b e f o r e t h e e a r t h q u a k e " s e r v e s t o l e g i t i m a t e t h e

p r o p h e c i e s t h a t f o l l o w .

T h e b o o k r e c e i v e d f u r t h e r a u t h e n t i c a t i o n d e c a d e s l a te r , w i t h t h e d e s t r u c -

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t i o n a n d e x il e of S a m a r i a i n 7 2 2 - 7 2 0 B . C . E . E v e n t s s e e m e d t o b e a r o u t t h e d i r e

w a r n i n g s :

"D o no t s ee k Be the l , / N o r go to Gi lga l , / N o r c ross ove r to Be e r - sh eba ; / F or

G i lg a l s h a l l g o i n to e x i l e, / A n d B e th e l s h a l l b e c o m e a d e lu s io n " ( 5 :5 ) .

"A s I d r i v e y o u i n to e x i l e b e y o n d D a m a s c u s . . ." ( 5 :2 7 )

"A s s u r e d ly , r i g h t s o o n / T h e y s h a l l h e a d t h e c o lu m n o f e x i l e s " ( 6 :7 ) .

A s A m o s (t h e b o o k a n d t h e p e r s o n ) b e c a m e m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s , s c r i b e s p r o d u c e d

m o r e c o p i e s .

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a f t e r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e N o r t h e r n

K i n g d o m , m a n y Is r ae l it e s o r N o r t h e r n e r s m i g r a t e d t o J u d a h i n t h e s o u t h .1 9

A tl e as t o n e o f t h e m b r o u g h t a l o n g t h e B o o k of A m o s , w h i c h w e n t t h r o u g h f u r t h e r

a d a p t a t i o n s t o fit i ts n e w m i l i e u . S p e ci f ic a ll y , s o m e o n e a d d e d r e f e r e n c e s t o Z i o n

a n d t h e D a v i d i c h o u s e a t k e y p o i n t s to m a k e t h e b o o k m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r i ts n e w

a u d i e n c e . B e f o r e t h e o r a c l e s a g a in s t t h e n a t i o n s ( w h i c h a t a n e a r li e r s t a g e h a d

b e g u n t h e b o o k ) , a n e w o p e n i n g t o ld r e a d e r s t h a t A m o s h a d p r o c l a i m e d : " T h e

L O R D r o a r s f r o m Z i o n , / S h o u t s a l o u d f r o m J e r u s a l e m ; / A n d t h e p a s t u r e s of t h e

s h e p h e r d s s h a l l l a n g u i s h , / A n d t h e s u m m i t o f C a r m e l sh a l l w i t h e r " ( 1 : 2 ) . T h i s

v e r s e is a s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e " re a l " A m o s , w h o l e f t T e k o a f o r B e th e l , w o u ld s u r e -

l y n o t h a v e s a id .

S i m i l a r l y i n r e s p o n s e t o J u d e a n c o n c e r n s , t h e b o o k g a i n e d a n e w c l o s i n g :

(9 :1 1) In tha t day , I w i l l s e t up a ga in th e f a l l en b o o th o f Da vid : I w i l l

m e n d i t s b r e a c h e s a n d s e t u p i t s r u in s a n e w . I w i l l b u i l d i t f i r m a s i n t h e

days o f o ld , (12) So tha t they sha l l posse ss the r e s t o f Edom / And a l l

t h e n a t i o n s o n c e a t t a c h e d t o M y n a m e — d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D w h o w i l l

b r i n g t h i s t o p a s s . ( 1 3 ) A t i m e i s c o m i n g — d e c l a r e s t h e LO RD — / W h e n

t h e p l o w m a n s h a l l m e e t t h e r e a p e r , / A n d t h e t r e a d e r of g r a p e s / H i m

w h o h o l d s t h e b a g o f s e e d ; / W h e n t h e m o u n t a i n s s h a l l d r i p w i n e / A n d

a ll th e h i l l s sha l l wav e w i th g ra in . (14 ) I w i l l r e s t o re M y pe op le I s rae l .

T h e y s h a ll r e b u i l d r u i n e d c i ti e s a n d i n h a b i t t h e m ; / T h e y sh a l l p l a n t

v in e y a r d s a n d d r i n k t h e i r w in e ; / T h e y s h a l l t il l g a r d e n s a n d e a t t h e i r

f r u i t s . ( 1 5 ) A n d I w i l l p l a n t t h e m u p o n t h e i r s o i l , / N e v e r m o r e t o b e

u p r o o t e d / F r o m t h e so i l I h a v e g i v e n t h e m — s a i d t h e L O R D y o u r G o d .

W e c a n b e s u r e t h a t t h e p r o p h e t A m o s of t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y c o u l d n o t h a v e s a i d

t h e s e v e r s e s , f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r st , A m o s o t h e r w i s e s h o w s n o c o n c e r n f o r t h e

D a v i d i c h o u s e , y e t s u d d e n l y v e r s e 1 1 m e n t i o n s t h a t d y n a s t y . S e c o n d , i n c o n t r a s t

t o t h e a d j e c t i v e i n t h a t v e r s e ("the fallen b o o t h of D a v i d " ) , d u r i n g A m o s ' t i m e t h e

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David ic house was s t rong . So why i s th i s passage he re? Typ ica l ly the Bib le ' s ed i -

t o r s e n d e d i ts b o o k s o n a p o s i t i v e n o t e . A n d th a t u n d e r s c o r e s my p o in t : O n ly

s o m e o n e i n t h e S o u t h e r n K i n g d o m — n o t t he N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m — w o u l d h av e

p e r c e iv e d t h i s c lo s in g n o t e as u n a b a s h e d l y " p o s it i ve " !

Conclusion: What We Have Learned from Amos

A lth ou gh the la ngu age o f A m os i s no t so d i f f icu l t , r ea d i ng h i s bo ok i s no t easy.

P r op he cy i s a gen re tha t i s fo re ig n to us . As the h i s to r ica l -c r i t i ca l m e th o d ha s

t a u g h t u s , a t e x t l ik e A m o s is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m mo s t b o o k s t h a t we e n c o u n te r .I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e t e x t ma k e s mo r e s e n s e wh e n we g r a n t t h a t t h e wo r d s o f t h e r e a l

p r o p h e t Amo s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e s a me a s t h e wo r d s i n t h e b o o k th a t b e a r s

h i s n a me a n d th a t t h i s b o o k g r e w o v e r t ime .

I n c o n t r a s t t o o th e r p r o p h e t i c b o o k s — in c l u d in g I s a i a h , t h e f o c u s of t h e n e x t

c h a p t e r — A m o s is s i m p l e . In i m a g i n i n g h o w t h i s l it tl e b o o k d e v e l o p e d , a n d h o w

i t s o r a c l e s f u n c t io n e d in v a r io u s s e t t i n g s o v e r t ime , we h a v e t a k e n a s t e p t o wa r d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g m u c h l o n g e r , m o r e c o m p l e x p r o p h e t i c b o o k s .

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17"They Shall Beat Their Swordsin to Plowshares"

Reading (First) Isa iah

Primary Reading: Isaiah 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 20, 31.

The Challenge of Reading Isaiah

Is a i a h i s t h e l o n g e s t o f t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s , c o mp r i s e d o f 6 6 c h a p te r s . 1 I n s o m e

respec ts i t i s the mos t d i f f icu l t to read o f a l l the b ib l ica l books . Th is sec t ion

wi l l touch on each o f the fac to rs tha t make I sa iah such a cha l lenge .

Out of Ma n y, On e

Th e b o o k s h i s to r y i s c o m p le x : it e m b o d ie s t h e w o r k n o t of a s i n g le p r o p h e t , b u t

o f a t l e as t two p r o p h e t s a n d mo r e li k e ly t h r e e — o r m o r e .Th e e a r l i e s t o f t h e s e p o e t s , p r o p h e s y in g d u r in g t h e e ig h th c e n tu r y , i s I s a i a h

s o n of Am o z ( n o t t o b e c o n f u s e d w i th t h e e a r l ie r Am o s ) . S c h o la r s s o m e t im e s

r e f e r t o h i m a s F i r s t I s a ia h ; h i s w o r k c o m p r i s e s m u c h of c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 9 .

T h e s e c o n d p r o p h e t , w h o m s c h o l a r s c a l l D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ( S e c o n d I s a i a h ) ,

p r o p h e s i e d i n Ba b y lo n i a h u n d r e d s of y e a r s l a te r , d u r in g t h e Ba b y lo n i a n e x i l e.

T h a t w o r k h a s b e c o m e c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 i n t h e b o o k a s w e n o w h a v e it .

Th e t h i r d f i g u r e , w h o m s o m e s c h o la r s ca ll T r i t o - Is a i a h ( Th i r d I s a i ah ) ,

p r o p h e s i e d i n I s ra e l s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e r e tu r n f r o m ex i le . Th a t p r o p h e t ' s w o r k

c o m p r i s e s c h a p t e r s 5 6 - 6 6 .

Ho we v e r , d i s t i n g u i s h in g b e tw e e n th e i r o r a c l e s i s n o t s imp ly a m a t t e r of

d iv id in g u p t h e c h a p te r s . J u s t a s n o t al l o f t h e b o o k o f A m o s c a m e f r o m th e

p r o p h e t Amo s ( s e e " Th e F o r ma t io n o f t h e Bo o k o f Amo s " i n c h a p t e r 1 6 ) , s o n o t

a ll o f I sa iah 1 - 3 9 i s by I sa iah so n o f A m oz . D eu t e ro - I sa iah a nd o the r l a te r , ano n-

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y m o u s f ig u r e s a p p a r e n t l y i n s e r t e d s o m e o f t h e i r o w n w o r k t h e r e .2

M a n y s c h o l -

a r s a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t s o m e o n e c o p i e d c h a p t e r s 3 6 - 3 9 f r o m t h e B o o k of K i n g s .3

W o r d s W i t h o u t P e er

A n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t m a k e s t h e f i rs t I s a i a h h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d i s i t s u s e o f m a n y

r a r e w o r d s . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h o s e w o r d s a p p e a r o n l y o n c e i n t h e w h o l e B i b l e.

( S c h o l a r s c a l l s u c h w o r d s hapax legomena, a G r e e k e x p r e s s i o n m e a n i n g " u n i q u e

w o r d s . " W e o f t e n u s e t h e t e r m hapax fo r sh o r t , a s I w i l l be lo w. ) Reca l l tha t co n -

t e x t i s o n e o f o u r m a j o r g u i d e s f o r w h a t w o r d s m e a n ( s ee " T h e A ct o f R e a d i n g "

i n c h a p t e r 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n w o r d s a p p e a r o n l y o n c e — s o t h a t w e h a v e o n l y

o n e e x a m p l e of h o w t h e y a re u s e d — t h e i r m e a n i n g o f t e n r e m a i n s u n c l e a r . T h i s

i s w h y t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n h a s s o m a n y f o o t n o t e s i n Is a i a h s a y i n g " m e a n i n g o f

H e b r e w u n c e r t a i n . "

A m b i g u o u s R e f e r e n c e s a n d U n c l e a r B o u n d a r i e s

B e y o n d t h e p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a p a x w o r d s , t h e p o e t r y of I s ai a h is

u n u s u a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d , a n d i ts f i g u r e s a r e o f t e n o b s c u r e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e

b o o k h a s r u n t o g e t h e r m a n y s e p a r a t e o r a c l e s . ( S o m e o t h e r p r o p h e t s , s u c h a s

A m o s , u s e f o r m u l a s — s u c h a s " T h u s s a i d t h e L o r d " — t o i n d i c a t e t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f a n o r a c l e , o r a m e s s e n g e r f o r m u l a — s u c h a s " d e c l a r e s t h e L o r d " — t o i n d i c a t e

i ts e n d . T h e s e f o r m u l a s — w h i c h s c h o l a r s c all " f o r m - c r i ti c a l m a r k e r s " — a r e

l a r g e l y a b s e n t i n I s a i a h . ) D u e t o t h e l a c k of a c l e a r b r e a k b e t w e e n m a n y o f t h eu n i t s , s c h o l a r s d e b a t e w h e r e t h o s e u n i t s b e g i n a n d e n d . T h i s d e b a t e m a n i f e s t s

i n t h e m a n y d i f f e r e n t l a y o u t s t h a t v a r i o u s t r a n s l a t i o n s h a v e e m p l o y e d f o r t h i s

b o o k .

U n c e r t a i n H i s t o r i c a l C o n t e x t

A s i n A m o s , th i s b o o k o p e n s w i t h a s u p e r s c r i p t i o n t h a t st a te s w h e n t h e p r o p h e t

w a s a c t iv e . F r o m w h a t w e a r e t o l d , I sa i ah ' s p r o p h e c i e s c o v e r e d a l o n g p e r i o d ,

f r o m " th e r e i g n s of U z z i a h , J o t h a m , A h a z , a n d H e z e k i a h , k i n g s o f J u d a h " ( 1 : 1 ) ,

n a m e l y f r o m t h e m i d - t o l a t e - e i g h t h c e n t u r y . M a n y m a j o r e v e n t s t o o k p l a c e

d u r i n g t h i s t i m e : t h e S y r o - E p h r a i m i t e w a r i n t h e 7 3 0 s ( w h e n D a m a s c u s a n d

N o r t h e r n I s r ae l i n v a d e d J u d a h ) ; t h e e n d of t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m a n d t h e e xi le

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o f m u c h of i ts p o p u l a c e in 7 2 2 - 7 2 0 ; t h e d e v a s t a t i o n o f t h e J u d e a n c o u n t r y s i d e

a n d t h e s i e g e o f J e r u s a l e m in 7 0 1 ( s e e " I s ra e l 's H i s to r y a s S e e n f r o m th e I n s id e "

i n c h a p t e r 4 ; " J e r u s a l e m i n 7 0 1 " i n c h a p t e r 1 3 ) ; a n d m o r e . H o w e v e r , I s a i a h t e n d s

t o p r e s e n t i ts i n d i v i d u a l o r a c l es w i t h o u t g i v i n g d a t e s o r o t h e r u n a m b i g u o u s c l u e s

t o t h e s i t u a t i o n s t h a t t h e y r e f e r t o . A s it h a p p e n s , t h e s a m e o r a c l e m a y r e a d v e r y

d i f f e r e n t l y d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t t h a t w e i m a g i n e f o r i t.

If t h e b o o k ' s e d i t o r s h a d p l a c e d I s a i a h s o r a c l e s i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , w e

m i g h t h a v e a n e a s i e r t i m e i n f e r r i n g t h e i r c o n t e x t s . H o w e v e r , t h e b o o k is n o t

a r r a n g e d t h a t w a y. I n d e e d , w h a t m o s t c o n s i d e r t o b e I s ai a h 's d e d i c a t i o n a s a

p r o p h e t d o e s n o t a p p e a r u n t i l c h a p t e r 6 .4

C o n v e r s e ly , s o m e o f t h e m a te r i a l i n

c h a p t e r 1 a p p e a r s t o d a t e f r o m n e a r t h e e n d o f I s ai a h' s m i s s i o n . ( S e e e s p e c i a l l yv e r s e 8 : "F a i r Z io n i s l e f t / L ik e a b o o th i n a v in e y a r d . " T h i s s e e m s t o r e f e r t o

J e r u s a l e m u n d e r s ie g e i n 7 0 1 . )

I n s t e a d o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , t h e b o o k o f t e n p r e s e n t s i t s u n i t s a s s o c i a t i v e -

ly. T h e e d i t o r s h a v e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r o r a c l e s p e r t a i n i n g to s i m i l a r t o p i c s . A t

o t h e r t i m e s t h e y h a v e a r r a n g e d u n i t s b y c a t c h w o r d s , w h e r e u n i t s b e g i n n i n g a n d

e n d i n g w i t h s im i l a r w o r d s ar e p l a c e d a d j a c e n t ly . F o r e x a m p l e , I s a ia h c o m p l a i n s ,5

" M y p e o p l e ' s r u l e r s a r e b a b e s , / I t i s g o v e r n e d b y w o m e n " ( 3 : 1 2 ) . T h i s i s f o l l o w e d

a s so c ia t iv e ly b y a u n i t t h a t c o n d e m n s w o m e n — n a m e l y " t h e d a u g h t e r s of Z i o n "

( 3 : 1 6 ) . T h a t u n i t e n d s w i t h t h e p h r a s e " In t h a t d a y " ( 4 : 1 ) , at w h i c h p o i n t a n e w

u n i t s t a rt s w i t h t h o s e s a m e w o r d s ( 4 : 2 ) .6

The Poetry of Isaiah

R e a d i n g I s ai ah m e a n s u n d e r s t a n d i n g it a s p o e tr y , w h i c h m e a n s u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b i b l i c a l p o e t r y .

7E a r li e r, I n o t e d t h e e r r o r o f i n t e r p r e t i n g

p o e t r y a s if it w e r e p r o s e ( s e e "T h e R u le s o f t h e G a m e " i n c h a p t e r 3 ) . W e w o u ld

b e e q u a l l y w r o n g t o t r e a t b ib l i c a l p o e t r y a s i f i t w e r e modern p o e t r y .8

E v e n

t h o u g h m a n y c u l t u r e s h a v e a g e n r e w e m i g h t c al l p o e t r y , t h o s e w o r k s d o n o t a ll

s h a r e t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , p o e t r y m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a

t y p e o f e l e v a t e d l a n g u a g e t h a t i s n o t p r o s e . H o w e v e r , t h e w a y i n w h i c h it i s " n o t

p r o s e " d i f f e r s f r o m s o c i e t y to s o c i e t y a n d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . C l a s s i c al E n g l i s h

p o e t r y i s m e t r i c a l , t h a t i s, it h a s a p a t t e r n e d n u m b e r of s t r e s s e d a n d u n s t r e s s e d

s y l la b l es . It is o f t e n r h y m e d , f i g u r a ti v e ( m e a n i n g , it u s e s m a n y m e t a p h o r s a n d

s i m i l e s ) a n d u s e s s p e c i a l v o c a b u l a r y . A n y o n e w h o r e a d s b i b l i c a l p o e t r y f r o m

I s a i a h ( o r e l s e w h e r e ) w i l l q u i c k ly r e a l i z e t h a t l ik e E n g l i s h p o e t r y , it i s h ig h ly f i g -

u r a t i v e a n d o f t e n u s e s e l e g a n t w o r d s , b u t u n l i k e E n g l i s h p o e t r y , i t i s n e i t h e r m e t -

r i c a l9

n o r r h y m e d .

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I n s t e a d , t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f b i b l i c a l p o e t r y is " b i n a r y r e p e t i t i o n . " By

t h i s I m e a n t h a t w e c a n d i v i d e m o s t p o e t i c v e r s e s i n t o t w o l i n e s ( b i n a r y ) , w h e r e

t h e s e c o n d l i n e r e p e a t s th e m e a n i n g of t h e f ir st i n s o m e f a s h i o n . F o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e b e g i n n i n g o f I s a i a h 1 : 2 r e a d s : " H e a r , Ο h e a v e n s , a n d g iv e e a r , Ο e a r t h . " T h i s

m a y b e d i v i d e d i n t o " H e a r , Ο h e a v e n s " a n d " a n d gi v e e a r, Ο e a r t h , " w h e r e t h e

l a t t e r p h r a s e la r g e l y r e p e a t s t h e f o r m e r i n t w o w a y s . It r e p e a t s t h e s y n t a x ( i m p e r -

a t i ve + Ό " + n o u n ) . I n a d d i t i o n , it r e p e a t s t h e m e a n i n g ( " h e a r " a n d " gi ve e a r "

a r e r e l a t e d a s s y n o n y m s , a n d " h e a v e n s " a n d " e a r t h " a r e r e l a t e d a s o p p o s i t e s ) .

E a c h p h r a s e i n t h e v e r s e ( s u c h a s " H e a r , Ο h e a v e n s " o r " a n d g iv e e a r , Ο e a r t h " )

i s c a l l e d a " c o l o n . " T h u s , t h e m a j o r f e a t u r e o f b i b l i c a l p o e t r y i s t h a t i t s l i n e s

d i v i d e i n t o " b i c o l a " ( s i n g u l a r " b i c o l o n " ) .1 0

S c h o l a r s c a l l t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p h r a s e s " p a r a l l e l i s m , " s i n c e t h e

s e c o n d c o l o n p a r a l l e l s t h e f ir s t. T h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a r a l l e l i s m h a s b e e n a n i s s u e

o f g r e a t d e b a t e . B i s h o p R o b e r t L o w t h ( 1 7 1 0 - 1 7 8 7 ) in h i s Lectures on the Sacred

Poetry of the Hebrews ( 1 7 5 3 ) s u g g e s t e d t h r e e m a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e t w o

c o l a: s y n o n y m o u s , a n t i th e t i c a l , a n d s y n t h e t i c . I n synonymous parallelism, t h e s e c -

o n d c o l o n r e p e a t s t h e f ir s t i n d i f f e r e n t w o r d s , a s i n P s a l m 2 : 4 , " H e w h o i s

e n t h r o n e d i n h e a v e n l a u g h s ; t h e L o r d m o c k s at t h e m . " I n antithetical parallelism,

t h e s e c o n d c o l o n e x p r e s s e s t h e o p p o s i t e i d e a o f t h e f i rs t , a s i n P r o v e r b s 1 5 : 2 0 ,

"A w i s e s o n m a k e s h i s f a t h e r h a p p y ; A f o o l o f a m a n h u m i l i a t e s h i s m o t h e r . " I n

synthetic parallelism, t h e s e c o n d c o l o n c o m p l e t e s t h e fi r s t, a n d t o g e t h e r ( i. e .,

t h r o u g h a s y n t h e s i s of t h e t w o ) t h e y e x p r e s s a c o m p l e t e t h o u g h t . T h i s c a n b e

s e e n i n P s a l m 2 3 : 1 , " T h e L O R D i s m y s h e p h e r d ; I l a c k n o t h i n g . "

B i b li c al s c h o l a r s a c c e p t e d L o w t h ' s s y s t e m f o r a l o n g t i m e . It r e m a i n s h e l p f u l ,

a l t h o u g h it h a s r i g h t l y c o m e u n d e r a ss a u l t i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s . S o m e o b s e r v e r s

h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e t e r m s a r e i m p r e c i s e — f o r e x a m p l e , " s y n t h e t i c p a r a l l e l i s m " i sa v a g u e , c a t c h a l l t e r m . I n a d d i t i o n , b e c a u s e m o d e r n a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e u n c o v -

e r e d a l a r g e c o r p u s of a n c i e n t S e m i t i c p o e t ry , w e c a n n o w l o o k at p a r a l l e l i s m

m o r e b r o a d l y . It m u s t b e e v e n o l d e r t h a n t h e B i b l e , b e c a u s e i t i s f o u n d i n t h e

l i t e r a t u r e o f m o s t a n c i e n t S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e c u l t u r e s . W e n o w u n d e r s t a n d t h a t

b o t h t h e B ib l e a n d o t h e r S e m i t i c p o e t r y o f t e n c r e a t e t h i s p a r a l l e l i s m t h r o u g h a

c o n v e n t i o n k n o w n a s " w o r d p a i r s. " W o r d s t h a t a r e s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l a t e d ( e .g . ,

g o o d a n d b a d ; d a y a n d n i g h t ; o x a n d a s s ) a p p e a r i n s t a n d a r d c o m b i n a t i o n s . T h a t

i s , t h e a u d i e n c e w h o h e a r s o n e o f t h o s e w o r d s t h e n e x p e c t s t h a t i t s m a t e w i l l b e

n o t f ar b e h i n d — t y p i c a l l y , in t h e n e x t c o l o n . T h u s t h e s e p a i r s h e l p e d t o c r e a t e

p a r a l l e l i s m . 1 1

F i n a l l y , m a n y s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t L o w t h ' s t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s a r e t o o r e s t r i c -

t i v e. T h e y p r e f e r t o e x p l a i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b i c o l o n l i k e t h i s : " A , a n d w h a t ' s

m o r e , B " ( w h e r e " A " a n d " B" s t a n d f o r t h e t w o c o l a ) . I n t h e i r v i e w , " B" h e i g h t e n s

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"A" in a wide range of ways . 1 2 T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b i b l ic a l p o e t r y e n c o u r a g e s

us t o pa y pa r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i on t o t he s e c ond c o l on , f o r i t de f i ne s t he m e a n i ng o f

a l ine more than the f i r s t .

H ow e ve r , i n s om e c a s e s t he s e c ond c o l on i s m e r e l y a f o r m a l r e pe t i t i on o f t he

f i rs t , w he r e t he po e t in s e r t s t he s e c on d w or d o f a w or d - pa i r m e c h a n i c a l l y . 1 3 W e

s a w t h i s , f o r e x a m pl e , in A m os , w h e r e t h e o r a c l e s a ga i ns t t he na t i o ns a ll op e n

w i t h " F o r t h r e e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s . . . I F o r f o u r . . . " T h e r e t h e n u m e r a l s " th r e e " a n d

" f o u r " f o l l o w a c o m m o n p a t t e r n : A is s o m e n u m b e r , a n d Β is t h a t n u m b e r p l u s

one ; the numera l s in these ve r se s a re mere ly f i l l e r s , s ince only one s in i s l i s t ed in

e a c h s e c t i o n . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e m a y b e s e e n i n P s a l m 1 2 1 , w h i c h p o r t r a y s G o d

as pro tec tor . Verse 6 r eads : "By day the sun wi l l no t s t r ike you , / nor the moonby n i gh t . " C o l on A ( "B y da y t he s un w i l l no t s t r i ke you" ) m a ke s s e ns e , g i ve n t he

s t r ong Me d i t e r r a ne a n s un . B u t t o t he be s t o f m y know l e dge , no one ha s e ve r s u f -

f e r e d m o o n b u r n . T h u s c o l o n Β ( " n o r t h e m o o n b y n i g h t " ) re f le c t s a f o r m a l se c -

o n d i n g of A , u s i n g t h e w o r d p a i r s " d a y - n i g h t " a n d " s u n - m o o n . "

T h e c o n f l i c t i n g a n a l y s e s o f t h e p r e v i o u s t w o p a r a g r a p h s c r ea t e a d i l e m m a :

H ow do w e r e a d b i b l i c a l poe t r y? D o w e r e a d t he s e c ond c o l on a s m or e i n t e ns i ve

th an t he f i r s t , o r do we see i t a s s im ply a fi ll e r? O r — to co m pl i ca t e m a t t e r s s t i ll

f u r t h e r — i s it t he c a se (a s I be l i e ve ) t ha t s om e po e t s u s e t he s e c on d c o l on t o

he ig ht en the f i r s t , wh i le o th e r s use it a s f i ll e r? Giv en th a t these po e t s a re n o

l on ge r a r o un d t o i n f o r m us , w e do no t kn o w f o r s u r e ho w t o r e a d m a ny o f t he i r

p o e m s .

N e ve r t he l e s s , t he b i na r y s t r uc t u r e o f b i b l i c a l poe t r y i s e a s i l y v i s i b l e t h r ough-

ou t I sa iah . Fo r ex am pl e , w e can p a r se the f i rs t ch ap te r of I sa iah ac co rd in g to the

t h r e e k i nds o f pa r a l l e l i s m :

b i c o l o n — s y n o n y m o u s p a r a l l e l i s m

m o n o c o l o n 1 4

b i c o l o n — s y n t h e t i c p a r a l l e l i s m

b i c o l o n — s y n o n y m o u s p a r a l l e l i s m

b i c o l o n — s y n o n y m o u s p a r a l l e l i s m

b i c o l o n — s y n o n y m o u s p a r a l l e l i s m

b i c o l o n — s y n o n y m o u s p a r a l l e l i s m

( 1 : 2 ) H e a r , Ο h e a v e n s ,

a n d g ive e a r, Ο e a r t h ,

Fo r t he L O R D h a s s p o k e n :

"I r e a r e d c h i l d r e n a n d b r o u g h t t h e m u p —

A nd t he y ha ve r e be l l e d a ga i ns t Me !

( 3 ) A n ox know s i t s ow ne r ,

An ass i t s master ' s c r ib:

I s r a e l doe s no t know ,

M y p e o p l e t a k e s n o t h o u g h t . "

( 4 ) A h , s i n f u l na t i on !

Pe op l e l a de n w i t h i n i qu i t y !

Brood of ev i ldoe rs !

D e p r a v e d c h i l d r e n !

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T h e y h a v e f o r s a k e n t h e LORD, t r i c o l o n1 5

— s y n o n y m o u s p a r a l l e l i s m

S p u r n e d t h e H o l y O n e o f I s r a e l ,

T u r n e d t h e i r b a c k s o n H i m .

T h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d h a s r e c o v e r e d m a n y o f t h e B i b l e ' s r h e t o r i c a l

a p p r o a c h e s , a l l o w i n g u s r e a d t h e t e x t a s I s r a e l i t e s m i g h t h a v e — u s i n g t h e i r c o n -

v e n t i o n s , n o t o u r s . To b e g i n w i t h , w e l o o k f o r n a t u r a l b r e a k s i n e a c h v e r s e , g u i d -

e d b y t h e b i n a r y s t r u c t u r e t h a t u n d e r g i r d s m o s t v e r s e s . I n s t e a d o f u n d e r s t a n d -

i n g t h e s e c o n d b i c o l o n a s m e r e l y r e p e t i t i v e , w e m a y l o o k f o r w a y s i n w h i c h i t

h e i g h t e n s t h e f i rs t . I c a n n o t o v e r s t a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g I sa i a h a s

biblical p o e t r y .

Isaiah as a Typical Classical Prophet

A l t h o u g h h e i s h i g h l y p o e t i c — a n d t h u s q u i t e d i ff e r e n t i n s ty l e f r o m A m o s —

I s a i a h s h a r e s w i th A m o s t h e f i v e f e a t u r e s o f c l a s si c a l p r o p h e c y li s t e d in o u r

p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r .

1 . T h r o u g h e l e v e n c h a p t e r s o f o r a c l e s a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n s , I s a i ah e m p h a -

s ize s tha t G o d i s a universal G o d ( 1 3 - 2 3 ) . E ls e w h e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o

I s a i a h , G o d f a m o u s ly ca l l s A s s y r i a " r o d of M y a n g e r , / I n w h o s e h a n d ,

a s a s t a f f , i s M y f u r y ! " ( 1 0 :5 ) . I n o th e r w o r d s , G o d ' s w i l l a l o n e i n d u c e s

f ar a w a y A s s y ri a t o c o n q u e r l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f J u d a h .

2 . C h a p t e r 1 e x p l a i n s t h a t t h i s p u n i s h m e n t is t h e r e s u l t o f J u d a h ' s special

relationship w i t h i ts G o d — t h e J u d e a n s a r e G o d ' s c h i l d r e n (v. 2 ) a n d ,

f r o m G o d ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , " M y p e o p l e " ( v . 3 ) .

3 . T h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e c h a p t e r m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t t h e c o v e n a n t a l r e l a -

t i o n s h i p i n c l u d e s i n t e r p e r s o n a l obligations, a n d t h a t f u l f i l l i n g c u l t i c

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t :

( 1 : 1 1 ) "W h a t n e e d h a v e I o f a ll y o u r s a c r i f i c e s ? " / S a y s t h e

LORD. "I a m s a t e d w i th b u r n t o f f e r i n g s o f r a m s , / A n d s u e t o f

f a t l i n g s , / A n d b lo o d o f b u l l s ; / A n d I h a v e n o d e l i g h t / I n l a m b s

a n d h e - g o a t s . ( 1 2 ) T h a t y o u c o m e t o a p p e a r b e f o r e M e — /

W h o a s k e d t h a t of y o u ? / T r a m p l e M y c o u r t s ( 1 3 ) n o m o r e ; /

B r in g in g o b l a t i o n s i s f u t i l e , / I n c e n s e i s o f f e n s iv e t o M e . N e w

m o o n a n d s a b b a t h , / P r o c l a i m i n g of s o l e m n i t i e s , / A s s e m b l i e s

w i t h i n i q u i t y , / I c a n n o t a b i d e . ( 1 4 ) Y o u r n e w m o o n s a n d f i x e d

s e a s o n s / F il l M e w i t h l o a t h i n g ; / T h e y a r e b e c o m e a b u r d e n t o

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M e , / I c a n n o t e n d u r e t h e m . ( 1 5 ) A n d w h e n y o u l if t u p y o u r

h a n d s , / I w i l l t u rn M y e y e s a w a y f r o m y o u ; / T h o u g h y o u p ra y

a t l en g th , / I w i l l no t l i s t en . / Your ha n d s a re s t a ine d w i th

c r i m e -— (1 6 ) W a s h y o u r s e l v e s c l e a n ; / P u t y o u r ev i l d o i n g s /

Away from My sight . / Cease to do evi l ; (17) Learn to do good. /

D e v o t e y o u r s e l v e s t o j u s t i c e ; / A i d t h e w r o n g e d . / U p h o l d t h e

r i g h t s o f t h e o rp h a n ; / D e fe n d t h e c a u s e o f t h e w i d o w ."

4 . I s a i a h d e s c r i b e s a n u l t i m a t e p u n i s h m e n t t h a t w i ll c o m e t h r o u g h th e Day

of the LORD. I s a i a h ' s i m a g e s h a re s t h e " d a rk n e s s " t h a t w e s a w i n A m o s

5 : 1 8 - 2 0 , b u t , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y — g i v e n t h a t I s a i a h l i v e d a f t e r A m o s

d i d — t h e i m a g e is m o r e d e v e l o p e d :

(1 3 : 6 ) H o w l ! F o r t h e d a y o f t h e L O R D i s near ; / I t shal l come l ike

h a v o c f r o m S h a d d a i . / ( 7 ) T h e r e f o r e all h a n d s s h a ll g r o w l i m p , /

A n d a l l m e n ' s h e a r t s s h a l l s i n k ; / ( 8 ) A n d , o v e rc o m e b y t e r ro r , /

T h e y s h a l l b e s e i z e d b y p a n g s a n d t h ro e s , / W r i t h e l i k e a

woman in t rava i l . / They sha l l gaze a t each o the r i n ho r ro r , /

Th e i r faces l i v id w i th f r igh t . / (9 ) Lo! Th e da y o f t he L O R D is

c o m i n g / W i t h p i t i l e s s f u ry a n d w ra t h , / T o m a k e t h e e a r t h a

d e s o l a t i o n , / T o w i p e o u t t h e s i n n e r s u p o n i t. / ( 1 0 ) T h e s t a r s

an d co ns t e l l a t i on s o f he av en / Sha l l no t g ive o f f t he i r li gh t ; /

T h e s u n s h a l l b e d a r k w h e n i t r i s e s, / A n d t h e m o o n s h a l l d i f -

fuse no g low. / ( 1 1 ) "A nd I w i l l requ i t e t o the wo r ld i t s ev i l, / A nd

to the wic ke d the i r i n iqu i ty ; / I w i l l pu t an en d to th e p r id e o f

t h e a r ro g a n t / A n d h u m b l e t h e h a u g h t i n e s s of t y r a n t s . . ."

5 . I s a i a h e m p h a s i z e s t h e i d e a o f a remnant—not al l of Isr ael wil l be

d e s t ro y e d . H e e x p re s s e s t h i s i d e a m o s t c l e a r l y i n c h a p t e r 6 (w h i c h m a n y

s c h o l a r s b e l ie v e r e c o u n t s h i s d e d i c a t i o n a s a p r o p h e t , as m e n t i o n e d

a b o v e ) . T h e c o m i n g d e s t r u c t i o n is i n e v i t a b l e , b u t " w h i l e a t e n t h p a r t y e t

re m ai ns in i t, i t sha l l re pe n t . I t sha l l be rav age d l i ke the t e re b i n t h an d

t h e o a k , o f w h i c h s t u m p s a r e l e f t e v e n w h e n t h e y a r e f e l le d : i ts s t u m p

sha l l be a ho ly seed" (v . 13 ) . 1 6

How Isaiah Differs

T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n I s a i a h a n d A m o s a re m o r e t h a n s t yl is t ic , m o r e t h a n t h e

f a c t t h a t I s a i a h u s e s m o r e d i f f i c u l t v o c a b u l a ry a n d p o e t ry . N o t w o p ro p h e t s ' s t y l e

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a n d c o n c e r n s a r e i d e n t i c a l ; e a c h o n e is u n iq u e t o h i s p a r t i c u l a r t ime p e r io d a n d

a u d i e n c e , a n d e ac h h a s u n i q u e m a n n e r i s m s .

As n o t e d , c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s o f t e n p e r f o r me d o d d s y mb o l i c a c t i o n s ( s e e"D oin g S t ran ge De eds" in ch ap te r 15) . Th is i s qu i te c lea r f r om Isa iah , w ho , fo r

e x a m p le , i s t o ld : " Go , u n t i e t h e s a c k c lo th f r o m y o u r l o in s a n d t a k e y o u r s a n d a l s

o ff yo ur fee t" (20 :2 ) . H ow eve r , in con t r as t to non c las s ica l p ro ph e t s , th i s i s no t a

ma g ic a l a ct i v it y m e a n t t o c a u s e a m i r a c u lo u s o u t c o m e , b u t r a th e r i s a n u n u s u a l

a c t me a n t t o s y mb o l i z e s o me th in g . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p a s s a g e p r o c e e d s t o c l a r i f y

th e a c t i o n ' s s y mb o l i s m:

I t i s a s ign and a por ten t fo r Egyp t and Nubia . Jus t a s My se rvan t I sa iah

has gone naked and ba re foo t fo r th ree yea rs , so sha l l the k ing o f Assyr ia

d r ive o ff the cap t i ves of Eg yp t an d the ex i le s o f N ub ia , y ou ng a nd o ld ,

n a k e d a n d b a r e f o o t a n d w i t h b a r e d b u t t o c k s — t o t h e s h a m e o f E g y p t !

( w . 3 - 4 ) .

Of course , the mos t famous o f I sa iah ' s symbol ic ac t s i s found in 7 :14 :

"Assured ly , my Lord wi l l g ive you a s ign o f His own accord ! Look , the young

w o m a n i s w i th c h i ld a n d a b o u t t o g iv e b i r t h t o a s o n . Le t h e r n a m e h i m

I m m a n u e l . " T h i s J P S t r a n s l a t i o n f o l l o w s t h e H e b r e w c l o s el y a n d p r e s u m e s t h a t

th i s " s ign" i s ab ou t to take p lac e in the nea r fu tu r e . I t d i f fe r s s t r ik in g ly f r om the

f a m o u s ( b u t l es s a c c u r a t e ) K in g J a m e s r e n d e r in g : " Be h o ld , a v i r g in s h a l l c o n -

c e ive , a n d b e a r a s o n , a n d s h a l l c al l h i s n a m e I m m a n u e l , " wh ic h a c c o r d s w i th

M a t t h e w 1 : 2 3 i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t .

I n c o m p a r i s o n w i th Am o s , w h o d e p i c t e d a t o t a l e x il e of t h e N o r th e r n k in g -

d o m , Is a i a h ( a l so a J u d e a n ) c l a ims th a t a l t h o u g h m u c h of J u d a h mig h t b e d e c i -

m a te d , J e r u s a l e m s h a l l n e v e r fa ll . Th i s t h e m e , wh ic h s c h o la r s c al l " t h e i n v io l a -b i l i ty o f Je r us a le m ," d i s t in gu ish es I sa iah' s m essa ge f ro m tha t o f o th e r c lass ica l

p r o p h e t s . G i v e n t h e e v e n t s t h a t I s a ia h w i t n e s s e d in 7 0 1 — w h e n S e n n a c h e r i b

c o n q u e r e d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e b u t n o t J e r u s a l e m ( se e " J e r u sa l e m i n 7 0 1 " i n c h a p t e r

1 3 ) — i t is n o t s u r p r i s in g t h a t h e d we l l s o n t h i s t h e m e . He r e i s o n e e x a m p le :

(3 1: 5) L ike the b ir ds th at f ly , ev en so wil l the L O R D of Hos ts sh ie ld

J e r u s a l e m , s h i e l d i n g a n d s a v in g , p r o t e c t i n g a n d re s c u i n g . . . . ( 8 ) T h e n

Assyr ia sha l l f al l, / N o t by the sw or d o f m an ; / A sw ord n o t o f h u m a n ss h a l l d e v o u r h i m . / He s h a l l s h r iv e l b e f o r e t h e s wo r d , / A n d h i s y o u n g

men p ine away . (9 ) His rock sha l l me l t wi th te r ro r , / And h is o f f ice rs

sha l l co l lap se f r om w ea kn es s— D ec la re s the LORD, w h o ha s a f i re in

Z io n , / W h o h a s a n o v e n in J e r u s a l e m .

W a s th i s I s a i a h p r e d i c t i n g t h e f u tu r e , o r we r e t h e s e wo r d s wr i t t e n l a t e r , a f t e r

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S e n n a c h e r i b h a d le f t J e r u s a l e m a l o n e ? S u re ly , b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s s o m e t i m e s c o m -

p o s e d a n o r a c l e a f t e r t h e e v e n t t h a t i t r e f e r s t o , i n o r d e r t o i n t e r p r e t f o r t h e a u d i -

e n c e w h a t h a d o c c u r r e d . ( S c h o l a r s c a l l t h i s vaticinium ex eventu, " p r o p h e c y a f t e r

t h e e v e n t . " ) T o da y, h o w e v e r , w e h a v e n o w a y t o d i s t i n g u i s h p r o n o u n c e m e n t s

w r i t t e n i n t h a t s i t u a t i o n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e e s c h a t o l o g y d e p i c t e d i n I s a i a h — h i s v i e w o f t h e i d e a l

f u t u r e — i s h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d c o m p a r e d w i t h A m o s ( se e 9 : 1 1 - 1 5 ) . Is a ia h 1 - 3 9

p r e s e n t s n o s in g l e p i c tu r e of t h e u l t im a t e f u tu r e , e i t h e r b e c a u s e I s ai a h 's v i e w s

e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e a p p a r e n t l y l o n g p e r i o d t h a t h e p r o p h e s i e d , o r b e c a u s e s o m e of

th a t m a t e r i a l p o s t d a t e s I s a ia h s o n o f A m o z . T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e s e v i s i o n s is :

( 2 : 1 ) T h e w o r d t h a t I sa ia h s o n of A m o z p r o p h e s i e d c o n c e r n i n g J u d a h

a n d J e r u s a l e m . / ( 2 ) In t h e d a y s t o c o m e ,1 7

/ T h e M o u n t o f t h e L O RD ' S

H o u s e / S h a l l s t a n d f i r m a b o v e t h e m o u n t a i n s / A n d t o w e r a b o v e t h e

h i l l s ; / A nd a ll th e na t io n s / Sha l l gaz e on i t w i th joy . / (3 ) A n d th e m a n y

p e o p l e s s h a l l g o a n d s a y : / "C o m e , / L e t u s g o u p t o t h e M o u n t o f

th e LORD, / To th e H ou se o f th e G o d of Ja co b ; / T ha t H e m ay in s t ru c t u s

in H i s w a y s , / A n d t h a t w e m a y w a lk i n H i s p a th s . " / F o r i n s t r u c t i o n

s h a l l c o m e f o r t h f r o m Z i o n , / T h e w o r d o f t h e L O R D f r o m J e r u s a l e m . /( 4 ) T h u s H e w i ll j u d g e a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s / A n d a r b i t r a t e f o r t h e m a n y

p e o p l e s , / A n d t h e y s h a l l b e a t t h e i r s w o r d s i n t o p l o w s h a r e s / A n d t h e i r

s p e a r s i n t o p r u n i n g h o o k s : / N a t i o n s h a ll n o t t a k e u p / S w o r d a g a i n s t

n a t i o n ; / T h e y s h a l l n e v e r a g a i n k n o w w a r .

T h i s v i s i o n o f t h e e s c h a t o n s p o t l i g h t s t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e ; i ts c e n t r a l i m a g e i s

G o d a s t h e j u s t j u d g e , u s h e r in g i n u n iv e r s a l p e a c e . A s i s t y p i c a l o f t h e B ib l e ,

I s a i a h a s s u m e s t h a t t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d w i l l r e c o g n i z e a s p a r a m o u n t I s r a e l ' sG o d — a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly , H i s l a n d a n d T e m p l e .

W e c a n n o t b e s u r e w h o f ir s t c o n c e iv e d o f t h e e s c h a to n i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r w a y.

M i c a h i n c l u d e s s o m e o f t h e s a m e l i n e s :

( 4 :1 ) I n t h e d a y s t o c o m e , / T h e M o u n t o f t h e L o r d ' s H o u s e s h a l l s t a n d /

F i r m a b o v e t h e m o u n ta in s ; / A n d i t s h a l l t o w e r a b o v e t h e h il l s . / T h e

p e o p l e s s h a l l g a z e o n it w i th j o y , / ( 2 ) A n d t h e m a n y n a t i o n s s h a l l g o

a n d sha l l s ay : / "C om e , / Le t u s go u p to the M o u n t o f th e Lor d , / To th eH o u s e o f t h e G o d o f J a c o b ; / T h a t H e m a y i n s t r u c t u s in H i s w a y s , / A n d

t h a t w e m a y w a l k i n H i s p a t h s . " / F o r i n s t r u c t i o n s h a l l c o m e f o r t h f r o m

Z i o n , / T h e w o r d o f t h e L o r d f r o m J e r u s a l e m . / ( 3 ) T h u s H e w i l l j u d g e

a m o n g t h e m a n y p e o p l e s , / A n d a r b i t r a t e f o r t h e m u l t i t u d e of n a t i o n s , /

H o w e v e r d i s t a n t ; / A n d t h e y s h a l l b e a t t h e i r s w o r d s i n t o p l o w s h a r e s /

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A n d t h e i r s p e a r s i n t o p r u n i n g h o o k s . / N a t i o n s h a l l n o t t a k e u p / S w o r d

a g a i n s t n a t i o n ; / T h e y s h a l l n e v e r a g a i n k n o w w a r .

T h e s e t w o p a s s a g e s a r e s o s i m i l a r t h a t e i t h e r o n e a u t h o r c o p i e d f r o m t h eo t h e r , o r b o t h c o p i e d f r o m t h e s a m e s o u r c e . ( T h i s i s a g o o d i l l u s t r a t i o n o f o n e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m o d e r n a n d a n c i e n t b o o k s . I n a n t i q u it y , e d i t o r s c o p i e d

w o r d s f r o m o n e b o o k t o a n o t h e r w i t h e a s e , b e l i e v i n g p e r h a p s t h a t " t h i s s h o u l d

h a v e b e e n w h a t I s a i a h s a i d . " )

A n o t h e r w e l l - k n o w n t e x t i n I s a i a h a s c r i b e s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o a D a v i d i c

d e s c e n d a n t i n t h i s n e w w o r l d o r d e r :

(11:1) But a shoo t shall grow ou t of the s t u m p of Jesse [Davids father] , / A tw igs h a l l s p r o u t f r o m h i s s t o c k . / ( 2 ) T h e s p i r i t o f t h e L O R D s h a l l a l i g h t u p o n

h i m : / A s p i r i t o f w i s d o m a n d i n s i g h t , / A s p i r i t o f c o u n s e l a n d v a l o r , /

A sp i r i t of de v o t io n an d r e ve re nc e fo r the LORD. / (3 ) He sha l l s e ns e the

t r u t h b y h i s r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e L ORD: / H e s h a l l n o t j u d g e b y w h a t h i s

e y e s b e h o l d , / N o r d e c i d e b y w h a t h i s e a r s p e r c e i v e . / ( 4 ) T h u s h e s h a l l

j u d g e t h e p o o r w i t h e q u i t y / A n d d e c i d e w i t h j u s t i c e f o r t h e l o w l y of

t h e l a n d . / H e s h a l l s t r i k e d o w n a l a n d w i t h t h e r o d of h i s m o u t h / A n d

s l a y t h e w i c k e d w i t h t h e b r e a t h o f h i s l i p s . / ( 5 ) J u s t i c e s h a l l b e t h e g i r -

d i e o f h i s l o i n s , / A n d f a i t h f u l n e s s t h e g i r d l e o f h i s w a i s t . / ( 6 ) T h e w o l f

s h a l l d w e l l w i t h t h e l a m b , / T h e l e o p a r d l ie d o w n w i t h t h e k i d ; / T h e

c a l f , t h e b e a s t o f p r e y , a n d t h e f a i l i n g t o g e t h e r , / W i t h a l i t t l e b o y t o h e r d

t h e m . / ( 7 ) T h e c o w a n d t h e b e a r s h a l l g r a z e , / T h e i r y o u n g s h a l l l i e

d o w n t o g e t h e r ; / A n d t h e l i o n , l i k e t h e o x , s h a l l e a t s t r a w . / ( 8 ) A b a b e

s h a l l p l a y / O v e r a v i p e r s h o l e , / A n d a n i n f a n t p a s s h i s h a n d / O v e r a n

a d d e r ' s d e n . / ( 9 ) I n a l l o f M y s a c r e d m o u n t / N o t h i n g e v i l o r v i l e s h a l lb e d o n e ; / F o r t h e l a n d s h a l l b e f i l l e d w i t h d e v o t i o n t o t h e L O R D / A s

w a t e r c o v e r s t h e s e a .

T h i s p a s s a g e d e p i c t s a n e w o r d e r i n t h e a n i m a l w o r l d . I t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s

D a v i d i c k i n g w i l l b e t h e i d e a l j u d g e , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h c h a p t e r 2 , w h e r e G o d

h a s t h a t r o l e . M a n y w o u l d c a l l t h i s p a s s a g e " m e s s i a n i c , " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t

d e s c r i b e s t h e id e a l f u t u r e k i n g . T h e E n g l i s h w o r d " m e s s i a h " c o m e s f r o m

mashiach ( ח י ש מ , " a n o i n t e d " ) ; a n o i n t i n g w a s t h e r it e t h a t m a d e a p e r s o n i n t o a

k i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e H e b r e w B i b le n e v e r u s e s t h e t e r m mashiach t o d e s c r i b e s u c h

f u t u r e k i n g s ; s t a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y , i n t h e B i b l e , t h e m e s s i a h is n e v e r c a l l e d " m e s s i -

a h . " 1 8 T o b e p r e c i s e , I r e f e r t o t h i s f i g u r e a s t h e " f u t u r e i d e a l D a v i d i c k i n g , "

a l t h o u g h th a t is m o r e c u m b e r s o m e .

A f in a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n I s a ia h a n d A m o s c o n c e r n s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r ol e

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o f t h e p r o p h e t . Am o s o f t e n c a l ls u p o n th e p e o p le t o r e p e n t ; t h i s i s a lm o s t t o t a l -

ly ab se n t in I sa iah . In fac t , G od g ives I sa iah a m os t u n u su a l miss ion : "Du l l tha t

peop le ' s mind , / S top i t s ea rs , / And sea l i t s eyes— / Les t , see ing wi th i t s eyes /

An d h e a r in g w i th i t s e a r s , / I t a l s o g r a s p w i th i t s m in d , / An d r e p e n t a n d s a v e

i t s el f " ( 6 :1 0 ) . I n o th e r wo r d s , Is a i a h i s s u p p o s e d to m a k e s u r e t h e p e o p le d o not

r e p e n t — a n d i n d e e d t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e F i r s t I s a i a h d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a s i n g l e

c a l l t o r e p e n t a n c e , i n c o n t r a s t t o Amo s .

Bringing It All Together

Of a l l the p ro ph e t ic wo rk s , tha t o f F i r s t I sa iah i s the m os t bea u t i fu l ye t a l so the

m o s t a b s t r u s e . G iv e n i t s d i f f ic u l t y , I f i n d it r e m a r k a b le t h a t t h i s b o o k w a s p r e -

s e r v e d a t a ll . C l e ar ly , s o m e g r o u p w i th a f i n e s e n s e o f p o e t r y a n d s y m p a th y to

I s a i a h ' s me s s a g e t o o k r e s p o n s ib i l i t y f o r t h i s .

Th e f a c t t h a t t h e b o o k p r o c l a i m e d th e i n v io l a b i l i t y o f J e r u s a l e m , a n d th a t

S e n n a c h e r ib d id n o t c o n q u e r t h e c i t y , c e r t a in ly h e lp e d i t s p r e s t i g e a t f i r s t . I n t h a t

s e n s e , c h a p t e r s 3 6 - 3 9 , w h i c h d e s c r i b e t h e s e e v e n t s , h a d t h e s a m e i m p a c t a s t h e

v e r s e s i n Amo s a b o u t t h e q u a k in g g r o u n d ( s e e " Th e F o r ma t io n o f t h e Bo o k o f

A m o s " i n c h a p t e r 1 6 ) . S u c h n o t i c e s v i n d i c a t e d t h e p r o p h e t as a t r u e p r o p h e t —

n a m e l y a p r o p h e t w h o s e w o r d s c a m e t r u e ( s ee D e u t . 1 8 : 2 1 - 2 2 ) . Yet a m a i n

th e m e o f I s a i a h , t h e i n v io l a b i li t y o f J e r u s a l e m , wa s d i s p r o v e d w i th t h e d e s t r u c -

t i o n o f t h e Te mp le a n d th e e x i l e o f 5 8 6 . On e mig h t h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t a f t e r t h i s

t u r n of e v e n t s t h e b o o k w o u l d h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d a s f al se p r o p h e c y — a n d c o n -

s ig n e d to o b l iv io n . Ho we v e r , b y t h a t p o in t , I s a i a h h a d p r o b a b ly b e e n a u t h o r i t a -

t iv e f o r m o r e t h a n a c e n tu r y . P r e s u m a b ly i ts s u b l i m e s ty l e a n d e v o c a t iv e m e s s a g ea b o u t a b e t t e r f u t u r e m a i n t a i n e d t h e i n t e r e s t of r e a d e r s a n d s c r i b e s — a n d u l t i-

m a te ly a s s u r e d i t s p l a c e i n t h e c a n o n .

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18

"I Will Make This House l ike Shiloh"

Read in g Jerem iah

Primary Reading: Jeremiah 1,3, 15, 17, 20, 21, 25, 26, 28, 31, 36, 52.

Background

Th e Bo o k o f J e r e m ia h o p e n s w i th t h e l o n g e s t s u p e r s c r ip t i o n o f a n y p r o p h e t -

i c b o o k :

(1 :1 ) Th e w or ds o f Je re m iah so n of H i lk i ah , one o f the p r ie s t s a t

An a th o th i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f Be n ja min . ( 2 ) The word o f the L O R D c a m e

to h i m in the days o f King Jo s ia h son o f A m on o f Ju da h , in the th i r -

t e e n th y e a r o f h i s r e ig n , ( 3 ) a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y s o f K in g J e h o ia k im

so n o f Jos iah o f Ju d ah , an d un t i l the en d o f the e lev en th y ea r of Kin g

Ze d e k ia h s o n o f J o s i a h o f J u d a h , w h e n J e r u s a l e m w e n t i n to ex i le i n t h e

f i f t h m o n t h .

Tr a n s l a t e d i n to m o d e r n t e r m s , it s a y s t h a t J e r e m ia h b e g a n to p r o p h e s y i n

6 2 7 B .C .E . a n d f i n i s h e d a r o u n d th e t ime o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Te mp le i n

5 8 6 — a p e r io d o f m o r e t h a n f o r ty y e a r s . ( Ac c o r d in g t o t h e B ib le a n d o th e r

s o u r c e s a s we l l , th i s wa s a n e v e n t f u l t ime . K in g J o s i a h r e f o r m e d r e l i g io u s p r a c -

t ic e i n J u d a h . Ba b y lo n d e f e a t e d As s yr i a a n d c a m e in to i ts o w n a s a w o r l d p o w e r .

E g y p t b r i e fl y i m p o s e d v a s sa l s t a t u s o n J u d a h — m o r e t h a n o n c e . B a b y l o n d e -

fea ted Egyp t a t the Ba t t le o f Carchemish in 605 . The Baby lon ians ex i led

J u d a h ' s k in g , J e h o ia c h i n , i n 5 9 7 . F in a ll y , t h e y r e t u r n e d to d e s t r o y J e r u s a l e man d ex i le m u c h o f i t s po pu lac e in 586 . ) We a l so lea rn tha t Je re m iah w as a p r ie s t

a n d th a t h e h a i l e d f r o m A n a th o th , a t o w n a b o u t t h r e e mi l e s ( f iv e k m . ) n o r t h o f

J e r u s a l e m .

T h e b o o k is f il le d w i t h o t h e r b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n — s o m u c h s o t h a t

ma n y s c h o la r s i d e n t i f y i n t h e b o o k a s e p a r a t e s t r a n d o r s o u r c e d e v o te d t o b io g -

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r a p h y . 1 T h i s i s u n i q u e a m o n g p r o p h e t i c b o o k s . A s u s u a l , w e c a n n o t b e c e r t a i n

t h a t a n y of t h i s i n fo rm a t i o n is h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u ra t e .2

Y et w e p o s s e s s a n u n u s u a l -

ly r i c h a m o u n t o f b a c k g r o u n d t h a t g i v e s u s a h e a d s t a r t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h eo r a c l e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h i s p r o p h e t .

Reading Jeremiah after Isaiah

F r o m t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n , w e le a r n t h a t J e r e m i a h p r o p h e s i e d a l m o s t a c e n t u r y

a f t e r I s a i a h , d u r i n g a v e ry d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i n I s a i a h 's

t i m e , t h e A s s y r i a n s w e r e t h e e n e m i e s w h o m J u d a h w o u l d o v e r c o m e ; fo r

J e r e m i a h , t h e B a b y l o n i a n s w e r e t h e e n e m i e s w h o w o u l d d e s t r o y t h e J e r u s a l e m

T e m p l e . T h u s i t i s n o t s u rp r i s i n g t h a t t h e B o o k of J e r e m i a h i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f ro m

t h o s e w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n .

C o m p a r e d t o t h e B o o k of I s a i a h , J e r e m i a h i s m u c h e a s i e r t o r e a d . It c o n t a i n s

m o r e p ro s e , a n d i t s p o e t i c s e c t i o n s a r e l e s s c o m p l e x . It h a s f e w e r u n i q u e ( h a p a x )

w o r d s . I t a l s o g i v es d a t e f o r m u l a s a n d o t h e r c l u e s a b o u t w h e r e o n e o r ac l e b e g i n s

a n d a n o t h e r e n d s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e p h r a s e " T h e w o r d w h i c h c a m e t o J e r e m i a h

f ro m t h e LORD" a p p e a r s t e n ti m e s , a l w a y s i n t r o d u c i n g a n o r a c l e .

O r g a n i z i n g P r i n c i p l e s

C o r re l a t i o n o f t h e d a t e fo rm u l a s s h o w s t h a t t h e B o o k of J e r e m i a h is n o t i n

c h r o n o l o g i c a l o rd e r . L i ke Is a i a h , m u c h o f it i s a r r a n g e d a s s o c ia t iv e l y . F o r e x a m -

p i e , J e r e m i a h 2 0 a n d 2 1 a r e a d j a c e n t b e c a u s e t h e y e a c h c o n c e r n a m a n n a m e d

P a s h h u r ( a n E g y p t i a n n a m e ) , a l t h o u g h t w o d i ff e r e n t P a s h h u r s a r e i n v o l v e d .

O t h e r p a s s a g e s a r e o r d e r e d b y c a t c h p h r a s e s . S o m e of t h e p r o p h e c i e s a n e d i t o r

h a s g r o u p e d t o p ic a ll y ; t h u s 2 3 : 9 c o n t a i n s a t i t l e — " C o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p h e t s " —

a n d w h a t f o ll o w s c o n c e r n s J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e t i c ad v e r s a r i e s ( w h o m w e w o u l d

c al l " f al se p r o p h e t s , " t h o u g h t h a t t e r m n e v e r a p p e a r s i n t h e H e b r e w t e x t ) . 3

S im i la r ly , a c o l l e c t i o n of p r o p h e c i e s a g a i n s t t h e J u d e a n k i n g s a p p e a r s u n d e r t h e

t it le "T o t h e H o u s e o f t h e k i n g of J u d a h " (2 1 : 1 1 ) . A se t o f o r a c l e s a g a i n s t o t h e r

p e o p l e s fo l l o w s t h e t i t l e " T h e w o rd o f t h e L O R D t o t h e p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e n a t i o n s " ( 4 6 : 1 ) .

T h e b o o k s o f e a r li e r p r o p h e t s — i n c l u d i n g I s a i a h — d o n o t d i s p l a y t o pi c a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n . A n e d i t o r o f t h e B o o k of J e r e m i a h a p p e a r s to h a v e e x p e r i m e n t e d

w i t h n e w w a y s o f a s s e m b l i n g p r o p h e t i c o r a c l e s i n t o a b o o k .

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C o n t e n t

Th e c o n te n t o f J e r e m ia h s b o o k d i f f e r s f r o m th a t of I sa i ah 's . S c h o la r s a t t r i b u t e

so m e of these d i f fe ren ces to the d i s t inc t h i s to r ica l con tex ts no te d ea r lie r . W e can

a lso po in t to the imp ac t of each f igure ' s o w n pers on a l i t y an d s ty le . Di spa ra te ed i -

t o r i a l p r o c e s s e s m a y a c c o u n t f o r s ti ll o th e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o n t e n t .

Th e b ig g e s t f a c to r , h o we v e r , i s t h a t t h e two b o o k s w i s h t o c o n v e y d i f f e r e n t

m e s s a g e s . A m aj or th em e o f I sa iah is the inv io lab i l i ty of Je rus a le m : " the L O R D of

Ho s t s [ w il l] s h i e ld J e r u s a l e m , s h i e ld in g a n d s a v in g , p r o t e c t i n g a n d r e s c u in g "

( Is a . 3 1 :5 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , J e r e m ia h ' s ma jo r t h e m e is t h e p e n d in g d e s t r u c t i o n of

J e r u s a l e m — a n d o f i ts Te m p le . Th e w o r d s of 2 6 :6 re f e r t o b o th d i s a s t e r s : " t h e n Iwi l l make th i s House l ike Sh i loh [ the sanc tua ry s i te tha t the Ph i l i s t ines had

de s t ro ye d c en tu r ies ea r l ie r ] , an d I wi l l m ak e th i s c ity a cu rs e fo r a ll the na t io ns

o f e a r th . " F u r th e r m o r e , a s t h e p r e v io u s c h a p te r n o t e d , Is a i a h f o c u s e d m o r e o n

e x p la in in g d e v a s t a t i n g e v e n t s t h a n o n c o n v in c in g t h e p e o p le t o r e p e n t . I n c o n -

t r a s t , i n m u c h o f J e r e m ia h , t h e p r o p h e t c a l l s f o r r e p e n t a n c e , a s i n 3 :1 4 : " t u r n

b a c k , r e b e l l i o u s c h i l d r e n — d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D . "4

R e w o r k i n g I s a i a h

I n s o m e c a s e s , J e r e m ia h m a y b e b a s in g h i s o r a c l e s o n e a rl i e r p r o p h e c i e s o f

I sa iah , bu t if so , th en he t ra ns fo rm s th em in a rad ica l fa sh ion . For exa m ple , a s

we saw ea r l ie r , I sa iah had v iewed Assyr ia a s God ' s se rvan t , chosen to pun ish

Israel :

(10:5) Ha! Assyr ia , rod of My anger , / In whose hand, as a s taff , i s My

f u r y ! / ( 6 ) I s e n d h i m a g a in s t a n u n g o d l y n a t i o n [= J u d a h ] , / I c h a r g e

h i m aga ins t a pe op le th a t p ro vo ke s Me, / To take i ts spo i l an d to se ize

i t s boo ty / And to make i t a th ing t rampled / L ike the mire o f the s t ree t s .

(Reca l l tha t c la ss ica l p ro ph ec y saw the G od o f I s rae l a s a un iv e rsa l de ity .) G od ,

h o w e v e r , w o u l d " p u n i s h t h e m a j e s t i c p r i d e a n d o v e r b e a r i n g a r r o g a n c e o f t h e

k i ng of Assyr ia" (v. 12 ) ; the passag e had go ne on to des c r ib e th i s pu n is h m en t in

g rea t de ta i l .

Th a t p r op he sy o f I sa iah ' s m ay se rve as the bas i s o f Je re m ia h 25 , w hi ch

d e s c r ib e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of J u d a h th r o u g h th e a g e n c y of Ba b y lo n , w h ic h h a s

s ince succeeded Assyr ia a s a g rea t power . Je remiah v iews Baby lon as a new

As s y r i a , a s Go d ' s n e w in s t r u me n t . Ho we v e r , Ba b y lo n ' s imp a c t w i l l b e mu c h

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grea te r than Assyr ia ' s ; i t wi l l no t on ly pun ish Judah , i t wi l l a l so des t roy the

Te m p le a n d e x i le m u c h of t h e p o p u la c e .

R e m a r k a b le W o r d s fo r R e m a r k a b l e T i m e s

W h e t h e r o r n o t J e r e m ia h 2 5 wa s b a s e d o n I s a i a h , i t i s a t u r n in g p o in t i n t h e

b o o k — a n d i n J e r e m i a h ' s ca r ee r . A f t e r t w e n t y - t h r e e y e a r s o f a t t e m p t s t o c o n v i n c e

t h e p e o p l e t o r e p e n t , h e a b a n d o n s h is c al l f o r r e p e n t a n c e ( w . 1 - 7 ) . W h y n o w ?

The da te fo rmula g ives us a c lue : " the f i r s t yea r o f King Nebuchadrezza r o f

B a b y l o n " (v. 1). T h a t w a s th e y e a r i n w h i c h N e b u c h a d n e z z a r ( t h e m o r e c o m m o n

b ib l i c a l f o r m o f t h e n a me " Ne b u c h a d r e z z a r " ) d e f e a t e d Eg y p t a t t h e Ba t t l e o f

C ar ch em ish ( 60 5 B.C.E.). Th a t v ic to ry asse r ted Baby lon ' s do m in an ce o f the

a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t . 5 Th e t ex t t h u s c o n n e c t s t h e r a d i c a l s h i f t s i n t h i s c h a p t e r t o t h e

s u d d e n , r e g i o n w i d e p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

Re p e a t e d ly i n e a r l ie r c h a p t e r s , J e r e m ia h i n c lu d e d v a g u e t h r e a t s a b o u t a n

en em y f ro m the no r t h (e .g . , "T hu s sa id the LORD: See , a pe op le co m es f r om the

n o r th l a n d , / A g r e a t n a t i o n i s r o u s e d / F r o m th e r e m o te s t p a r t s of t h e e a r th " ;

6 :2 2) . Th e h i s t o r ic r i se o f Bab y lon no w p ro m p ts ou r tex t to c la r i fy tha t th i s

e m p i r e is t h a t " n o r t h e r n " p o w e r ( 2 5 : 9 ) . 6 ( P r io r t o Ba b y lo n ' s h e g e mo n y ,

J e r e mia h ' s a u d i e n c e wo u ld h a v e f o u n d i t h a r d t o t e l l wh ic h f o r e ig n p o we r h e

m e a n t . )

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t e x t a s s i g n s t h e B a b y l o n i a n s a b s o l u t e w o r l d d o m i n a t i o n

f o r s e v e n t y y e a r s ( w . 1 1 - 1 3 ) ; n e i t h e r J u d e a n r e p e n t a n c e n o r a n y d e e d s b y

B a b y l o n w i ll c h a n g e t h is . ( T h e n u m b e r s e v e n t y m a y b e a r o u n d n u m b e r i n d i -

ea t i ng the l i fe sp an o f a he a l th y pe rs on , a s in Ps . 90 :1 0 , "T he spa n o f ou r l if e i s

s e v e n ty y e a r s . " A l t e r n a t i v e ly , t h e a u th o r o f t h i s t e x t p e r h a p s k n e w a n i n s c r ip t i o n

f r o m th e e a r l i e r As s y r i a n k in g Es a r h a d d o n , wh ic h c l a ims th a t t h e Ba b y lo n i a n

d e i ty M a r d u k d e c r e e d s e v e n ty y e a r s of d e s o l a t i o n f o r Ba b y lo n , a n d r e a p p l i e d it

he re in an I s rae l i t e con tex t . 7 )

C o d e W o r d s

Th e p a s s a g e i n J e r e m ia h 2 5 c o n t in u e s w i th a r e c u r r in g b ib l i c a l ima g e : t h e

" c u p o f wr a th , " 8 f il le d w i t h p o t e n t — a n d u l t i m a t e ly p o i s o n o u s — d r i n k . A ll th e

n a t io n s w i l l d r in k f r o m th i s c u p , r e p r e s e n t in g t h e i r s u b s e r v i e n c e t o Ba b y lo n ( w .

15 -2 6) . Th i s sec t ion en ds wi t h a ve ry d i f f icu l t sen ten ce : "A nd last o f a l l, the k i ng

of Sheshach sha l l d r ink" (v . 26 ) . Desp i te our vas t knowledge o f anc ien t Near

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E a s t e r n p l a c e - n a m e s , w e c a n n o t p o i n t t o a l i k e ly c a n d i d a t e f o r " S h e s h a c h . "

A d d i n g t o t h e p u z z l e i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n o f v e r s e 2 6 i s m i s s i n g f r o m t h e

S e p t u a g i n t o f J e r e m i a h . 9

W e c a n so l v e t h e p u z z l e w i t h t h e h e l p of a n o t h e r a n c i e n t v e r s i o n , t h e

A r a m a i c t r a n s l a t i o n ( T a r g u m ) . 1 0 It r e n d e r s S h e s h a c h a s " B a b y l o n . " T h e m e d i e v a l

J e w i s h c o m m e n t a t o r R a s h i ( 1 0 4 0 - 1 1 0 5 ) e l a b o r a t e s : " S h e s h a c h : t h i s is B a b y l o n

u s i n g atbash." Atbash i s a s y s t e m o f c i p h e r s , i n w h i c h w e s u b s t i t u t e t h e fi r s t l e t -

t e r o f t h e a l p h a b e t (alef, א ) for th e las t (tav , Π ) , t h e s e c o n d (bet, 2) f o r t h e s e c -

ond to l a s t (shin, ש ) , et c . I n E n g l i s h , t h i s w o u l d b e li k e s u b s t i t u t i n g A f o r Ζ ; Β

f o r Y ; C f o r X , e t c . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s c i p h e r i n H e b r e w i s t h a t ( S h e s h a c h ) =

ל ב ב ; ( B a b y l o n ) .R a s h i' s e x p l a n a t i o n f it s t h e e v i d e n c e . T h u s w e l e a r n t h a t w r i t e r s u s e d c o d e s

a l r e a d y i n a n t i q u i t y . H o w e v e r , t h e i r u s e i n t h e B i bl e i s e x t r e m e l y r a r e . 1 1

( C e r t a i n l y t h e e n t i r e t e x t s h o u l d n o t b e r e a d a s a c o d e . ) W h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s

p r o m p t e d th e c o d e h e r e ?

L a t e r C h a n g e s t o t h e B o o k

D u r i n g t h e B a b y l o n i a n e x il e , s o m e m e m b e r s of t h e d e f e a t e d p e o p l e r e s e r v e d

h a r s h j u d g m e n t s f o r t h e v i c t o rs . ( C o m p a r e t h e postexilic P s . 1 3 7 : 8 , i n r e f e r e n c e

t o B a b y l o n : "a b l e s s i n g o n h i m w h o s e iz e s y o u r b a b i e s a n d d a s h e s t h e m a g a i n s t

t h e r o c k s ! " ) P r o b a b l y a t t h a t t i m e , a c o p y i s t of J e r e m i a h a d d e d 2 5 : 2 6 b a s a w a y

t o " v e n t " a g a i n s t t h e B a b y l o n i a n m a s t e r s : t h e y t o o w e r e n o t e x e m p t f r o m d r i n k -

i n g f r o m t h e p r o p h e t ' s p o i s o n o u s " c u p . " P e r h a p s t o a v o i d t h e e y e s o f a

B a b y l o n i a n c e n s o r , t h e c o p y i s t m a d e t h e p o i n t o n l y i n c o d e . B e c a u s e t h i s a d d i -t i o n c a m e r e l a t iv e l y l a t e i n t h e b o o k ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , it d i d n o t f i n d i t s w a y i n t o

a l l v e r s i o n s o f J e r e m i a h .

N o w a d a y s it m a y s e e m a s t o n i s h i n g t o u s t h a t s o m e o n e w o u l d a d d t o

J e r e m i a h ' s d i v i n e p r o p h e c i e s ( " t h u s s a i d t h e LORD, t h e G o d o f I s r a e l , t o m e " ;

2 5 : 1 5 ) . B u t a g a i n , s u c h a l t e r a t i o n s c l e a r l y w e r e t h e n o r m i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f

t e x t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t.

I n d e e d , 2 5 : 2 6 b is n o t t h e o n l y p i e c e o f t h e b o o k t h a t s t a n d s o u t f r o m t h e

r e s t o f i t. M o s t of t h e p r o s e p o r t i o n s o f J e r e m i a h s h o w c l e a r l i n g u i s t i c a n d t h e o -

l o g ic a l a f f i n i t i e s t o D e u t e r o n o m y . 1 2 T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t J e r e m i a h w e n t t h r o u g h a

w h o l e s a l e e d i t i n g b y o n e o r m o r e e d i t o r s a f f il i at e d w i t h t h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c

s c h o o l . ( W h e t h e r t h o s e e d i t o r s w e r e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y D e u t e r o n o m i s t s , o r l a te r

e x i li c o n e s , o r b o t h , is u n c l e a r . 1 3 ) I n t h e p r o c e s s o f m a k i n g t h i s b o o k f it t h e i r

t h e ol o g y , t h o s e e d i t o r s a d d e d m u c h t o t h e " a u t h e n t i c " w o r d s of J e r e m i a h . A g a i n ,

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t h e s e e d i t o r s b e l i e v e d t h a t s u c h is w h a t J e r e m i a h s h o u l d h a v e ( o r m u s t h a v e )

s a i d , s o t h e y i n s e r t e d i t i n t o h i s m o u t h .

Relationship to the Torah

A n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e w o r k o f ( F i r s t) I s a i a h a n d t h e B o o k of J e r e m i a h

i s t h e l a t t e r ' s g r e a t e r u s e o f w h a t w e r e c o g n i z e a s T o r a h m a t e r i a l . ( A s d i s c u s s e d

i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , a l t h o u g h w e m i g h t t e n d t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e c l a s s i c a l

p r o p h e t s i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e f o l l o w t h e T o r a h , i n f a ct i n t h e i r d a y t h e T o r a h

a s a b o o k d i d n o t y e t e x i s t . )

P o i n t s o f S i m i l a r i t y

W e c a n p o i n t t o c l o se c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p a s s a g e s in J e r e m i a h a n d w h a t w e

n o w k n o w a s t h e T o r a h . F o r e x a m p l e , J e r e m i a h p o s e s a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , " W i ll

y o u s t e a l a n d m u r d e r a n d c o m m i t a d u l t e r y a n d s w e a r f al se ly , a n d s a c r i fi c e t oB a a l, a n d f o l l o w o t h e r g o d s w h o m y o u h a v e n o t e x p e r i e n c e d ? " ( 7 : 9 ) . H e r e h e is

a c c u s i n g t h e p e o p l e of v i o l a t i n g t h e D e c a l o g u e , w h i c h h e a l l u d e s t o v i a a d d u c -

i n g i t — b y a n d l a r g e — i n r e v e r s e o r d e r . ( I n t h e B i b l e , s u c h r e v e r s a l i n d i c a t e s t h a t

a l a t e r s o u r c e is c i t i n g a n e a r li e r o n e — i t f u n c t i o n s l ik e q u o t a t i o n m a r k s i n

E n g l i s h . 1 4 )

I n a d d i t i o n , J e r e m i a h i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s t h a t i ns i s t o n p u n c t i l i o u s r i t-

u a l o b s e r v a n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e l o n g p r o p h e c y u r g e s s t ri c t S a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e

( 1 7 : 1 9 - 2 7 ) . I n d e e d , it b l a m e s th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e o n J u d a h ' s l a c k ofr e g a r d f o r t h e S a b b a t h . T h u s t h e b o o k s t r i k e s a d i f f e r e n t b a l a n c e b e t w e e n e t h i -

c a l a n d " r e l i g i o u s " c o n c e r n s f r o m t h a t f o u n d i n I s a i a h ( o r A m o s ) .

O t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h T o r a h t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t e t o t h e B o o k o f D e u t e r o n o m y

s p e c if i ca l ly . T h u s J e r e m i a h 3 : 1 - 3 u s e s a s a p a r a b l e f o r I sr ae l' s b e h a v i o r t h e l e g al

c a s e o f a w o m a n w h o d i v o r c e d , m a r r i e d a n o t h e r m a n , d i v o r c e d h i m , a n d t h e n

w a n t s to r e t u r n t o h e r fi rs t h u s b a n d . T h e T o r a h m e n t i o n s t h i s ( r a t h e r o b s c u r e )

l e ga l c a s e o n l y i n D e u t e r o n o m y 2 4 : 1 - 4 . S i m i la rl y, J e r e m i a h 2 8 c o n c e r n s

H a n a n i a h , w h o f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f J e r e m i a h i s a f al se p r o p h e t . T h e s t o r y

q u o t e s J e r e m i a h a s a c c u s i n g H a n a n i a h o f h a v i n g " u r g e d d i s l o y a l t y " (v. 1 6 ) ,

w h i c h m a t c h e s a k e y t e r m in D e u t e r o n o m y 1 3 : 6 (dibber sarah, Γ Π ζ Γ ~ 0 1 ) .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e fa ls e p r o p h e t d i e s s o o n t h e r e a f t e r ( Je r . 2 8 : 1 7 ) , in a c c o r d w i t h

D e u t e r o n o m y 1 3 :6 a n d 1 8 : 2 0 .

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A c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e S i m i l a r i t i e s

W i t h r e s p e c t t o T o r a h t r a d i t i o n s a n d l i t e r a t u r e , J e r e m i a h d i f f e r s f r o m e a r l i e r

p r o p h e t s i n t h r e e w a y s : ( 1 ) J e r e m i a h h i m s e l f w a s a p r i e s t ; ( 2 ) J e r e m i a h l i ve d

l a t e r ; ( 3 ) s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s of " h i s " b o o k p o s t d a t e t h e l if e o f J e r e m i a h .

A s a p r o p h e t , J e r e m i a h b e l i e v e d h e h a d a c c e s s t o d i v i n e o r a c l e s . B u t a s a

p r i e s t , h e k n e w " i n s t r u c t i o n , " t h a t i s, T o r a h t r a d i t i o n s . T h e b o o k u n d e r s c o r e s t h e

p r i e s t l y r o l e a s r e l i g i o u s t e a c h e r w h e n i t r e c o u n t s w o r d s o f c o n s p i r a c y :

C o m e l et u s d e v i se a p l o t a g a i n s t J e r e m i a h — f o r t or a h [ ה ר ו ת , " i n s t r u c -

t i o n " ] s h a l l n o t fa il f r o m t h e p r i e s t , n o r c o u n s e l f r o m t h e w i s e , n o r o r a -

c le f r o m t h e p r o p h e t . C o m e , le t u s s t r i k e h i m w i t h t h e t o n g u e , a n d w e

s h a l l n o l o n g e r h a v e t o l i s t e n t o a l l t h o s e w o r d s o f h i s ( 1 8 : 1 8 ; t r a n s i .

a d a p t e d ) .

J e r e m i a h s a d v e r s a r i e s a s s o c i a t e torah w i t h p r i e s t s — r a t h e r t h a n w i t h s a g e s o r

p r o p h e t s . If s o , t h e n J e r e m i a h t h e p ri e s t w o u l d n a t u r a l l y b e m o r e c o n c e r n e d

w i t h T o r a h t r a d i t i o n s t h a n t h e c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t s w h o p r e c e d e d h i m .

R e c a l l c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s ' t h e o r y t h a t o v e r t i m e , T o r a h t r a d i t i o n s d e v e l o p e d

s l o w l y i n t o a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e b o o k — o n e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s c o u l d q u o t e , c i te , a n d

i n t e r p r e t . J e r e m i a h l i v e d i n a t i m e c l o s e t o t h e e x i l e ; b y t h e n it i s l i k e l y t h a t J a n d

Ε t r a d i t i o n s w e r e w e l l k n o w n a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e , a n d m a n y D ( b u t n o t P) tr a d i -

t i o n s w e r e b e c o m i n g a u t h o r i t a t i v e . I n a d d i t i o n , f o r t h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c e d i t o r s

o f t h e b o o k w h o l iv e d a f t e r J e r e m i a h , D t r a d i t i o n s w e r e c e r t a i n l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e .

T h e s e f a c t o r s f u r t h e r e x p l a i n w h y J e r e m i a h c i t e s m o r e " T o r a h m a t e r i a l " t h a n d i d

p r i o r p r o p h e t s s u c h a s ( t h e fi r s t) I s a i a h . 1 5

A New Heart and a New Covenant

A n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h J e r e m i a h d e p a r t s f r o m I s a ia h is i n h i s d e p i c t i o n o f

h u m a n k i n d i n t h e f u t u r e . P r i o r b i b l i c a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i s i o n s t y p i c a ll y i m a g i n e d

c h a n g e s o n l y i n t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . F o r e x a m p l e , A m o s h a d p a i n t e d a v e r b a l p i c -

t u r e of g r e a t a g r i c u l t u r a l a b u n d a n c e . T h e p r o d u c e w i ll b e s o b o u n t i f u l t h a t i ts

h a r v e s t w i l l s t i l l b e u n d e r w a y w h e n t h e t i m e c o m e s t o p l a n t a g a i n :

A t i m e is c o m i n g — d e c l a r e s t h e LO RD— / W h e n t h e p l o w m a n s h a l l m e e t

t h e r e a p e r , / A n d t h e t r e a d e r of g r a p e s / H i m w h o h o l d s t h e b a g o f

s e e d ; / W h e n t h e m o u n t a i n s sh a l l d r i p w i n e / A n d a l l t h e h i ll s s h a l l w a v e

w i t h g r a i n ( 9 : 1 3 ) .

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I n t u r n , I s a ia h e n v i s i o n e d d r a m a t i c c h a n g e s i n t h e a n i m a l k i n g d o m :

T h e w o l f s h a l l d w e l l w i t h t h e l a m b . . . . / T h e c o w a n d t h e b e a r s h a l l

g r a z e , / T h e i r y o u n g s h a l l l ie d o w n t o g e t h e r ; / A n d t h e l i o n , li k e t h e o x ,sha l l e a t s t r aw. . . . / A b ab e sha l l p lay ov e r a v ipe r ' s ho le . . . (1 1 :6 - 8 ) .

J e r e m i a h ' s c o n c e p t i o n , h o w e v e r , is e v e n m o r e e x t r e m e . T h e b o o k f o r e s e e s b a s i c

c h a n g e s n o t o n l y i n t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d , b u t a l s o i n h u m a n n a t u r e :

( 3 1 : 3 1 ) S e e, a t i m e is c o m i n g — d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D — w h e n I w i l l m a k e

a n e w c o v e n a n t w i t h t h e H o u s e of I s r a el a n d t h e H o u s e of J u d a h .

( 3 2 ) It w i l l n o t b e li k e t h e c o v e n a n t I m a d e w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s , w h e n I

t o o k t h e m b y t h e h a n d t o l e a d t h e m o u t o f t h e l a n d o f E g y p t , a

c o v e n a n t w h i c h th e y b r o k e , t h o u g h I e s p o u s e d t h e m — d e c l a r e s t h e

LORD. ( 3 3 ) B u t s u c h i s t h e c o v e n a n t I w i l l m a k e w i t h t h e H o u s e o f

I s r a e l a f t e r t h e s e d a y s — d e c l a r e s t h e LORD: I w i l l p u t M y T e a c h i n g i n t o

t h e i r i n m o s t b e i n g a n d i n s c r i b e it u p o n t h e i r h e a r t s . T h e n I w i l l b e

t h e i r G o d , a n d t h e y s h a l l b e M y p e o p l e . ( 3 4 ) N o l o n g e r w i ll t h e y n e e d

t o t e a c h o n e a n o t h e r a n d s a y t o o n e a n o t h e r , " H e e d t h e LORD "; f o r a ll

o f t h e m , f r o m t h e l ea s t o f t h e m t o t h e g r e a t e s t , s h a l l h e e d M e —d e c l a r e s t h e LORD. F o r I w i l l f o r g i v e t h e i r i n i q u i t i e s , A n d r e m e m b e r

t h e i r s i n s n o m o r e .

A s i s t y p i c a l o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e c i e s d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , t h i s o n e d o e s

n o t s p e c i f y t h e s t a r t i n g d a t e o f t h e e s c h a t o n — i t i s a n a m o r p h o u s " c o m i n g " t i m e

(v. 3 1 ) . It d e f i n e s t h a t t i m e o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o v e n a n t m a d e i n t h e w i l d e r -

n e s s (a b i l a t e r a l s u z e r a i n - v a s s a l t r e a t y t h a t p r o m i s e d G o d ' s p r o t e c t i o n o f I s r ae l if

it o b s e r v e d a s e t o f d i v i n e r e g u l a t i o n s ; s e e " A c c o u n t a b i l i t y " in c h a p t e r 1 6 ) . T h i st e x t s a y s t h a t " t h e y b r o k e " t h a t c o v e n a n t (v . 3 2 ) , r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p e o p l e I s r a e l . I t

f u r t h e r p r e s u m e s t h a t e v e n if G o d r e n e w e d o r r e i n s t a t e d i t, t h e n a t i o n w o u l d

b r e a k i t a g a in .

T h i s p r o p h e c y o f f e r s a r a d i c a l s o l u t i o n t o t h i s d i l e m m a : " a n e w c o v e n a n t " (v.

3 1 ) . T h e t e x t g iv e s n o s i g n t h a t t h i s c o v e n a n t w i l l b e n e w in content. R a t h e r , G o d

w i l l n o w " p u t " a n d " i n s c r i b e " i t i n s i d e t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s (v. 3 3 ) . In o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e y w i ll b e p r e p r o g r a m m e d w i t h t h e c o v e n a n t ( a s f i r m w a r e , i n t h e p a r -

l a n c e o f c o m p u t e r s ) , u n a b l e t o b r e a k i t . 1 6 A s a r e s u l t , t h e r e w i l l b e n o m o r e n e e d

f o r p r o p h e t s t o h a r a n g u e t h e p e o p l e (v. 3 4 ) .

S t a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y , G o d w i l l t a k e a w a y f r e e c h o i c e f r o m I s r a e l . T h e y w i l l a u t o -

m a t i c a l l y a b i d e b y G o d ' s w i s h e s , a s s u r i n g d i v i n e b l e s s i n g . T h e e x i l e w i l l n o t

r e c u r b e c a u s e I s r ae l w i l l n o t s i n a g a i n — i t c a n n o t . O n l y i n t h i s w a y w i l l t h e p e o -

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p i es spec ia l r e la t ion sh i p wi th G od be es ta b l i sh ed as a l a s t ing fac t : "T hen I wi l l

be the i r God , and they sha l l be My peop le" (v . 33 ) . w

An Inside Look at Being a Prophet

As n o te d e a r li e r, t h e e d i t i n g o f J e r e m ia h h a s u n iq u e ly p r e s e r v e d a l a rg e n u m b e r

o f b io g r a p h ic a l t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o J e r e m ia h t h e p e r s o n . Th e s e t r a d i t i o n s

in c l u d e s e c t i o n s o f t e n c a l l ed " c o n f e s s io n s , " 1 8 f i r s t - p e r s o n p i e c e s wh e r e t h i s

p r o p h e t s p e a k s d i r e c t l y t o Go d . ( Th e s e p a s s a g e s r e min d u s t h a t p r o p h e t s s e r v e d

a s i n t e r m e d ia r i e s b e t we e n G o d a n d th e p e o p le ; se e " Th e N a tu r e of P r o p h e c y inI s r a e l " i n c h a p t e r 1 5 . A l th o u g h p r o p h e t s u s u a l ly c o n v e y e d th e d iv in e me s s a g e t o

th e n a t i o n , t h e y d id a l s o s p e a k to G o d . ) T h e r e , J e r e m i a h e x p r e s s e s h i s e m o -

t i o n s — e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i f f ic u l t ie s of t h e p r o p h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e — w i t h

in te n s i ty . T h u s h e l a me n t s , "1 h a v e b e c o m e a c o n s t a n t l a u g h in g s to c k " ( 2 0 :7 ) .

So m et i m es the poe t ry use d i s ra t he r f la t : "A ccurse d be the day / Th a t I wa s b or n !

Le t n o t t h e d a y b e b l e s s e d / W h e n my mo th e r b o r e me ! " ( 2 0 :1 4 ) . Th a t o u tb u r s t

c o m p a r e s u n f a v o r a b ly to a s im i l a r s p e e c h in J o b 3 . E l s e w h e r e , h o w e v e r , h e

r e l a t e s o n e o f t h e mo s t p o we r f u l ima g e s o f p r o p h e c y ' s imp a c t o n a p r o p h e t :

I th ou gh t , "I wi l l no t me n t io n H im , / N o mo re wi ll I sp ea k in H is

n a m e " — / But His w or d w as l ike a rag in g f ire in m y hear t , / Sh u t u p in

m y bon es ; / I cou ld n o t ho ld i t in , I wa s he l p les s (20 :9 ) .

Th is i s a h igh ly poe t ic re s ta tement o f the idea found in Amos 3 :8 : "My Lord GOD

h a s s p o k e n , / W h o c a n b u t p r o p h e s y ? "

O f t e n J e r e m i a h i d e n t i f ie s w i t h t h e p e o p l e w h o m h e i s s u p p o s e d t o r e b u k e .

F o r e x a m p l e :

( 4 : 1 9 ) O h , m y s u f f e r i n g , m y s u f f e r i n g ! 1 9 / H o w I wr i the ! / O h , the w a l l s

o f m y hear t ! / My hear t m oa n s wi th in m e , / I ca nn o t b e s i len t ; / For I

hea r the b la re o f horns , / Ala rms o f war . / (20 ) Disas te r over takes d i sas -

te r, / Fo r a ll the land h as been rava ged . / Su dd en ly m y ten ts have be en

r a v a g e d , / I n a m o m e n t , m y t e n t c lo th s . / ( 2 1 ) H o w lo n g mu s t I s e e s t a n -

d a r d s / A n d h e a r t h e b l a re of h o r n s ?

Th e iden t i f ica t ion i s eve n c lea re r in 8 :21 : "Because m y peo p le i s sha t te r ed I am

s h a t t e r e d ; / I a m d e j e c t e d , s e iz e d b y d e s o l a t i o n . "

Typ ica lly, Je re m iah ' s a t t i tud e is on e o f g rea t sym pa th y tow ard the peo p le he

i s c o n d e m n i n g . 2 0 Qu i t e l i k e ly , t h i s a t t i t u d e c o mp r o mis e d h i s a b i l i t y t o f u n c t io n

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a s a p r o p h e t . P e r h a p s th i s i s t h e imp o r t w h e n G o d t e l ls h im : "As s u r ed ly , t h u s

said th e LORD: / If yo u t u rn b ac k, I shal l ta ke yo u ba ck / A nd y o u shal l s t an d

befo re Me; / I f you p roduce wha t i s nob le / Ou t o f the wor th less , / You sha l l be

M y s p o k e s m a n " ( 1 5 : 1 9 ) . T h i s v e r s e s u g g e s t s t h a t J e r e m i a h h a s b e e n ( t e m p o r a r -

i ly ) " d e c o m m i s s i o n e d " a s p r o p h e t a s a r e s u lt of ( u n s p e c i f i e d ) c o n d u c t . H o w e v e r ,

G o d is o f f e r in g h im a s e c o n d c h a n c e t o " s t a n d b e f o r e m e " — n a m e ly , t o h e a r G o d s

w o r d — a n d t h e n t o a ct a s " s p o k e s m a n . " 2 1

I n s h o r t , t h e s e f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e s o f f e r a n a m a z i n g s e n s e of h o w th e

p r o p h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e a f f e c t e d J e r e m ia h . Yet we m u s t b e a r i n m in d th a t t h e s e

r e c o r d e d " c o n f e s s i o n s " a r e u n i q u e . W h y d i d t h o s e w h o c o m p o s e d p r o p h e t i c

b o o k s n o t p r e s e n t s im i l a r i n s ig h t s i n to t h e i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e o f I s a i a h —o r o fAmo s , o r o f o th e r c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s ? W e d o n o t k n o w. Th e r e f o r e we mu s t b e

v e r y c a r e f u l a b o u t g e n e r a l i z i n g f r o m J e r e m i a h t o t h e o t h e r p r o p h e t s . 2 2 W e h a v e

no ev idence tha t they fe l t the same way as he d id .

The Preservation of Jeremiah

J e r e m i a h ' s c e n t r a l p r e d i c t i o n — t h e i m p e n d i n g d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e b y

N e b u c h a d n e z z a r , a n d t h e e x i l e o f m u c h o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o B a b y l o n — c a m e t o

p a s s . P r e s u m a b ly i t wa s fo r t h i s r e a s o n th a t s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n s p r e s e r v e d th e

p r o p h e t ' s w o r d s . I n f a c t, t h e b o o k e n d s w i th a n a r r a t i v e p r o b a b ly c o p ie d f r o m

2 Kin g s , a b o u t t h e la s t d a y s of t h e k in g d o m of J u d a h ( c h a p . 5 2 ) . Th i s p a s s a g e ,

w h i c h i s a n a p p e n d i x ( s ee t h e e n d o f c h a p . 5 1 ) , s e r v e s t o p u n c tu a t e J e r e mia h ' s

c o r e me s s a g e o f d o o m a n d to u n d e r s c o r e h i s s t a tu s a s a " t r u e " p r o p h e t .

W i th r e g a r d t o t h e me c h a n i s m o f t r a n s mis s io n , t h e b o o k i t s e l f d e s c r ib e s t h ec o p y in g o f a n e a r ly f o r m o f t h e wo r k . Ch a p te r 3 6 o p e n s i n t h e f o u r th y e a r o f

K i n g j e h o i a k i m ( 6 0 5 B . C . E . ; V. 1 ) w i th Go d ' s r e q u e s t t h a t J e r e m ia h p r e p a r e a wr i t -

ten reco rd : "Ge t a sc ro l l an d wr i te u p o n i t a ll the wo rd s tha t I hav e sp ok en to

yo u . . . to th i s day" (v. 2 ) . To fu l f i l l th i s req ue s t , Je re m ia h ca l led the sc r ibe

Ba r u c h s o n of Ne r i a h : " Ba r u c h wr o t e d o w n in t h e s c r o l l, a t J e r e m ia h ' s d i c t a t i o n ,

a l l t h e wo r d s wh ic h t h e L O R D h a d s p o k e n to h im" ( v . 4 ) .

T h i s a c c o u n t is r e m a r k a b l e o n s e v er a l g r o u n d s . F i r s t , a n o t h e r p e r s o n b e s i d e s

t h e p r o p h e t t r a n s c r i b e d t h e o r a c l e s . 2 3 S e c o n d , J e r e m i a h r e p o r t e d l y h a d t h e a b i l-

i ty t o r e c i te o r r e c r e a t e a ll h i s e a r l i e r o r a c l e s f r o m me m o r y . T h i r d — a n d m o s t

e x t r a o r d in a r i l y — h e d id t h i s n o t o n c e b u t tw ic e . Af t e r t h e k in g h a d d e s t r o y e d

th a t s c r o ll ( J e h o ia k im h ims e l f h a d b u r n e d i t u p o n h e a r i n g it r e a d a lo u d ; w .

21-25) : " Je remiah go t ano the r sc ro l l and gave i t to the sc r ibe Baruch son o f

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N er ia h . An d a t Je re m ia hs d ic ta t io n , he w ro t e in i t the wh ol e tex t o f the sc ro ll tha t

K i n g J e h o i a k i m of J u d a h h a d b u r n e d " ( v. 3 2 a ) .

F in a l l y , t h e a c c o u n t c o n c lu d e s b y n o t in g t h a t " mo r e o f t h e l i k e wa s a d d e d . "

He re is d i rec t ev i de nce th a t p ro ph e t ic t ex ts ex is te d in a va r ie ty of ve rs ions . Eve n

a f t e r a t e x t wa s c o m p le t e , mo r e c o u ld b e a d d e d l a t e r . 2 4

Reading Jeremiah

I h a v e c o n t r a s t e d J e r e m i a h w i t h I s a ia h , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s

be tw ee n the two . In so do in g , I have be en ab le to su r vey the va r ie ty o f exp er i -

ences o f the c lass ica l p rophe t , and the range o f fo rms o f the i r books .

I n r e a d in g e a c h c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t , k e e p i n m in d th e f i ve a s p e c t s t h a t m a k e

th e m a c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t a n d t h u s s im i l a r t o t h e o th e r s . Bo th I s a i a h a n d J e r e m ia h

championed the v iews tha t I s rae l ' s God i s a un ive rsa l de i ty wi th a spec ia l focus

on the pe op le I s rae l; tha t th i s na t io n i s be in g he ld acc ou n ta b le in regard to b o t h

c u l t i c a n d e th i c a l n o r ms ; a n d s o f o r th ( s e e c h a p te r 1 6 ) .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e , r e m e m b e r t h a t — d u e t o a v a r ie t y o f f a c t o r s — e a c h p r o p h e t

i s d i f f e r e n t . T h u s , J e r e m ia h ' s b o o k i s u n iq u e i n i ts i n c lu d in g a v a s t a m o u n t o f

b io g r a p h y . I t s t a n d s o u t a l s o b y h a v in g b e e n p r e s e r v e d o n ly i n a h ig h ly r e d a c t e d

D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c e d i t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , n o o t h e r p r e s e r v e d p r o p h e t s o e m b o d i e s

th e p a r a d o x o f t h e me s s e n g e r " c a u g h t " b e twe e n th e two c o v e n a n t p a r tn e r s . H i s

m iss ion w as to v iew G od ' s w o rd s "as f i re , / A nd th i s peo p l e sha l l be f i rew oo d"

( 5 :1 4 ) . U l t ima te ly , h o w e v e r , t h e f l a m e s c o n s u m e d n o t o n ly t h e n a t i o n , b u t a l s o

Je re m ia h h im se l f : "Bu t His w or d wa s l ike a rag i ng f ire in m y hear t " (20 :9 ) .

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19"I Will Be for Them a Mini-Temple"

R e a d i n g E z e k i e l

Primary Reading: Ezekiel 1-11, 16, 23, 33-40, 48.

Location, Location, Location

E z e k i e l o p e n s w i t h a s u p e r s c r i p t i o n t h a t te l ls u s e x a c t l y w h e r e a n d w h e n h e

r e c e i v e d h i s p r o p h e c y :

( 1 ) I n t h e t h i r t i e t h y e a r , o n t h e f i f t h d a y o f t h e f o u r t h m o n t h , w h e n I

w a s i n t h e c o m m u n i t y of e x i le s b y t h e C h e b a r C a n a l , t h e h e a v e n s

o p e n e d a n d I s a w v i s i o n s o f G o d . (2 ) O n t h e f i f t h d a y of t h e m o n t h — i t

w a s t h e f i f t h y e a r of t h e e x i le of K i n g J e h o i a c h i n — ( 3 ) t h e w o r d o f t h e

L O R D c a m e t o t h e p r i e s t E z e k i e l s o n o f B u z i , b y t h e C h e b a r C a n a l , i n t h e

l a n d o f t h e C h a l d e a n s . A n d t h e h a n d o f t h e L O R D c a m e u p o n h i m t h e r e .

T h i s s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s e t s E z e k i e l a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r p r o p h e t s w e h a v e e x p l o r e d

i n t w o w a y s : h e b e g i n s t o p r o p h e s y after th e ex i l e of 59 7 B .C .E ., a n d h e i s p ro p h -

e s y i n g o u t s i d e o f I sr a e l i n B a b y l o n . A s t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n ' s n o t e a t v e r s e 1

o b s e r v e s , w e a r e u n s u r e w h i c h y e a r " th e t h i r t i e t h y e a r " t h e r e r e f e r s t o , b u t v e r s e

2 p l a c e s t h i s d e d i c a t i o n o r a c l e in t h e s u m m e r o f 5 9 3 . L i ke J e r e m i a h , E z e k i e l is a

p r i e s t , 1 b u t u n l i k e h i s o l d e r c o n t e m p o r a r y , h e b e g i n s t o p r o p h e s y o n l y " b y t h e

C h e b a r C a n a l , i n t h e l a n d o f t h e C h a l d e a n s . "

I n o t h e r w o r d s , E z e k i e l w a s s t a n d i n g n e a r t h e B a b y l o n i a n c i t y o f N i p p u r .

S o m e o f E z e k i e l' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s m a y h a v e h a d p r o b l e m s w i t h t h i s s e t t i n g . A f t e ra ll , t h e y p r o b a b l y c o n c e i v e d of p r o p h e c y — c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h t h e G o d of

I s r a e l — a s b e i n g b o u n d t o t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l . T h i s w o u l d e x p l a i n w h y t h e b o o k

o f J o n a h t e ll s u s t h a t w h e n t h a t p r o p h e t w i s h e d t o a v o i d h e e d i n g th e d i v i n e w i l l,

he f l ed mi-lifnei YHWH (ΓΠ ΓΡ י נ פ ל מ ) , l i t e r a l ly , " f rom befo re the L O R D " ( 1 : 3 ) .

S i m i la r ly , m a n y I s ra e l i te s t h o u g h t t h a t G o d c o u l d o n l y b e w o r s h i p p e d w i t h i n t h e

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l a n d o f I s r a e l ( " H o w c a n w e s i n g a s o n g o f t h e L O R D on a l ien soi l?" ; Ps . 1 3 7 : 4 ) .

A b e l ie f t h a t p r o p h e c y c o u l d n o t o c c u r in f o r e i g n l a n d s c o n t i n u e d i n l a t e r t i m e s ;

a n e a r l y r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h , t h e M e k h i l t a , s ta tes : "Befo re the l and o f I s r ae l had

b e e n e s p e c i a l l y c h o s e n , al l l a n d s w e r e s u i t a b l e f o r d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n s ; a f t e r t h e

l a n d of I s ra e l h a d b e e n c h o s e n , a ll o t h e r l a n d s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d . " 2 T h o u g h n o t

e v e r y o n e i n E z e k i e l s c o m m u n i t y m a y h a v e b e l i e v e d t h i s , e n o u g h d i d t h a t h e f e l t

t h e n e e d t o p r o v e h i s l e g i t i m a c y a s a n " o f f - s i t e " p r o p h e t .

A u t h e n t i c a t i o n i s t h e m a i n f u n c t i o n o f E z e k i e l s i n a u g u r a l v i s i o n . T h a t

p r o p h e c y is l o n g ( m o r e t h a n 5 3 v e r s e s; l : 3 b - 3 : 1 6 a ) a n d d e t a i l e d , b e c a u s e

E z e k i e l n e e d s t o p r o v e t h a t h i s m i s s i o n i s r e a l . I n t h e b a r o q u e q u a l i t y o f i t s d e t a i l

it r e s e m b l e s t h e b e g i n n i n g of D e u t e r o n o m y ( s ee "A P i o u s F r a u d " i n c h a p t e r 1 0 ) ,t h o u g h it i s e v e n l o n g e r a n d s t r a n g e r . B o t h b o o k s , f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , n e e d e d

t o o v e r c o m e o b s t a c l e s t o t h e i r b e i n g s e e n a s l e g i t i m a t e .

E z e k i e l s i n a u g u r a l p r o p h e c y , l ik e Is a i a h 6 a n d J e r e m i a h 1 , f o l l o w s t h e t y p i -

c a l f o r m o f a p r o p h e t i c i n i t i a t i o n o r d e d i c a t i o n . 3 A s w i t h I s a i a h a n d J e r e m i a h ,

E z e k i e l s c a l l t o p r o p h e c y c o n t a i n s t h e r o o t sh-l-ch ( , ח ל ש , "t o s e n d " ) , r e f l e c t i n g t h e

v i e w t h a t t h e p r o p h e t i s a m e s s e n g e r o f t h e d i v i n e ( I s a . 6 : 8 ; J e r . 1 : 7 ; E z e k . 2 : 3 ) .

L i k e t h e m , E z e k i e l p e r f o r m s a s y m b o l i c a c t i o n w i t h h i s m o u t h ( I sa . 6 : 7 : J e r . 1 : 9 ;

E z e k . 3 : 2 ) . J u s t l i k e J e r e m i a h , E z e k i e l i s t o l d , " D o n o t f e a r " ( J e r . 1 : 8 ; E z e k . 2 : 6

I t h r e e t i m e s ] , 3 : 9 ) . B y f o l l o w i n g t h e s a m e s c r i p t , E z e k i e l is c l a i m i n g to b e a t r u e

p r o p h e t l i k e I s a i a h a n d J e r e m i a h .

Y e t E z e k i e l e x c e e d s t h e s c r i p t w h e n h e s e e s " v i s i o n s o f G o d " ( 1 : 1 ) . J e r e m i a h ' s

i n a u g u r a t i o n h a d b e e n a u r a l o n l y ( 1 : 4 - 1 0 ) , t h o u g h it h a d b e e n f o l l o w e d b y a s et

o f v i s i o n s . Is a i a h ' s h a d b e e n b o t h a u r a l a n d v i s u a l ; h e h a d s e e n " m y L o r d s e a t e d

o n a h i g h a n d l o f t y t h r o n e ; a n d t h e s k i r t s o f H i s r o b e f il l e d t h e T e m p l e " ( 6 : 1 ) .

Y e t , I s a i a h h a d d e s c r i b e d l i t t l e a b o u t G o d ' s a p p e a r a n c e o t h e r t h a n l a r g e s i z e4

a n db e i n g c l o t h e d . I s a ia h h a d g o n e o n t o t e r se l y d e s c r i b e s e r a p h i m — a n g e l s o f

s o r t s — a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t , E z e k ie l 1 d e s c r i b e s G o d ' s h e a v e n l y c o u r t

i n g r e a t d e t a i l — o f t h e t y p e t h a t o n l y s o m e o n e " w h o w a s r e a l l y t h e r e " m i g h t o f f e r .

M o r e t h a n t h a t , h e d e s c r i b e s w h a t G o d l o o k s l i k e . E z e k i e l t h e p r i e s t , u s i n g

p r i e s t l y l a n g u a g e , s e e s " t h e P r e s e n c e o f t h e L O R D " :

( 1 : 2 6 ) A b o v e t h e e x p a n s e o v e r t h e i r h e a d s w a s t h e s e m b l a n c e o f a

t h r o n e , i n a p p e a r a n c e l i k e s a p p h i r e ; a n d o n t o p , u p o n t h i s s e m b l a n c eo f a t h r o n e , t h e r e w a s t h e s e m b l a n c e o f a h u m a n f o r m . ( 2 7 ) F r o m w h a t

a p p e a r e d a s h i s l o i n s u p , I s a w a g l e a m a s o f a m b e r — w h a t l o o k e d l ik e

a f i re e n c a s e d i n a f r a m e ; a n d f r o m w h a t a p p e a r e d a s h i s l o i n s d o w n , I

s a w w h a t l o o k e d l i k e f ir e . T h e r e w a s a r a d i a n c e a ll a b o u t h i m . ( 2 8 ) L i k e

t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e b o w w h i c h s h i n e s i n t h e c l o u d s o n a d a y o f r a i n ,

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s u c h w a s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r a d i a n c e . T h a t w a s t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e P r e s e n c e o f t h e L O R D .

G o d is d e p i c t e d i n d i r e c t l y : u n l i k e t h e e l d e r s w h o m E x o d u s 2 4 : 1 0 p o r t r a y s a ss e e i n g " t h e G o d o f I s r a e l " ( s e e " I n t h e I m a g e o f G o d " i n c h a p t e r 6 ) , E z e k i e l s e e s

o n l y t h e " a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e P r e s e n c e o f t h e LO RD ," w h i c h i n

t u r n t a k e s " t h e s e m b l a n c e o f a h u m a n f o r m . " C l e a r l y E z e k i e l a c c e p t s t h e c o m -

m o n b i b l i c a l i d e a t h a t s e e i n g G o d d i r e c t l y is d e a d l y ( se e , e . g . , J u d g . 1 3 : 2 2 ; c o n -

t r a E x o d u s 2 4 ) . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h e d o e s n o t s e e m t o a c c e p t w h a t i s i m p l i e d i n

D e u t e r o n o m y 4 : 1 2 , 1 5 , a n d e l s e w h e r e , t h a t G o d i s i n c o r p o r e a l . ( T h e la t te r v i e w

w o u l d b e c o m e s t a n d a r d in m e d i e v a l J u d a i s m , 5 b u t it w a s n o t s t a n d a r d y e t i n

E z e k i e l s t i m e . ) B y s e e i n g G o d , E z e k i e l p r o v e s t h a t h e h a s " s t o o d in [ G o d s ] c o u n -

c il " ( J e r. 2 3 : 2 2 ) — a n d i s a t r u e p r o p h e t .

In the Shadow of Exile

W e h a v e e x p l a i n e d t h e s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h e b o o k ' s o p e n i n g p a s s a g e b y t h e u n u s u -

a l , e x i l i c s e t t i n g o f E z e k i e l h i m s e l f : h e n e e d e d t o c o n v i n c e t h e p e o p l e o f h i s l e g i t -i m a c y a s a p r o p h e t i n e x i l e . 6 A n o t h e r p a s s a g e — a f r e q u e n tl y m i s u n d e r s t o o d

t e x t — s u p p o r t s t h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n , w e r e a d :

( 1 1 : 1 5 ) Ο m o r t a l , I w i ll s a ve y o u r b r o t h e r s , y o u r b r o t h e r s , t h e m e n o f

y o u r k i n d r e d , a ll o f t h a t v e r y H o u s e of I s ra e l t o w h o m t h e i n h a b i t a n t s

o f J e ru sa le m say , "K ee p f a r f r o m th e LORD; the l a nd h as be en g ive n as a

h e r i t a g e t o u s . " ( 1 6 ) S a y t h e n : T h u s s a i d t h e L o r d G O D: I h a v e i n d e e d

r e m o v e d t h e m f ar a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s a n d h a v e s c a tt e r ed t h e m a m o n gt h e c o u n t r i e s , a n d I h a v e b e c o m e t o t h e m a d i m i n i s h e d s a n c t i t y i n t h e

c o u n t r i e s w h i t h e r t h e y h a v e g o n e .

Th is s ec t ion ' s s ty le i s typ ica l o f Ezek ie l . I t beg ins w i th "O mor ta l , " ben adam

( . ם ך א ך ב ) , l i te r a l ly " s o n o f m a n " b u t b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d a s " m e m b e r o f

h u m a n k i n d , " a n d t h u s " m o r t a l . " 7 T h e t e x t c o n t i n u e s b y q u o t i n g a p o p u l a r

p r o v e r b t h a t t h e p e o p l e a r e f o n d of s a y i n g — t h i s is a l s o t y p i c a l f o r E z e k i e l .

H o w e v e r , t h e e n d o f v e r s e 1 6 i s q u i t e o d d : "I h a v e b e c o m e t o t h e m a d i m i n i s h e d

s a n c t i t y i n t h e c o u n t r i e s w h i t h e r t h e y h a v e g o n e . "

T h e p h r a s e "a d i m i n i s h e d s a n c t i ty " r e n d e r s m ikd ash m e'at ט) ע מ ש ד ק מ ).

G i v e n t h a t t h e B ib le f r e q u e n t l y u s e s t h e t e r m mikdash f o r t h e T e m p l e i n

J e r u s a l e m , m a n y s c h o l a r s o n c e t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s v e r s e r e f e r r e d t o t h e o r i g i n s o f

t h e s y n a g o g u e a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n . I n s t e a d of w o r s h i p p i n g a t t h e fu l l - s c a l e T e m p l e

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i n J e r u s a l e m , t h e y s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n Ba b y lo n , Ez e k ie l i n s t i t u t e d t h e s y n a g o g u e a s

a k i n d o f m i n i - T e m p l e . 8 T he ve rse , ho w ev er , i s be t te r t r ans la ted : " I [God] wi l l be

f o r t h e m a m i n i - T e m p l e i n t h e c o u n t r i e s w h i t h e r t h e y h a v e g o n e . " T h e s e n t i m e n t

is s t r ik i n g : w e d o n o t n e e d a p h y s i c a l b u i l d i n g — a T e m p l e — b e c a u s e t h e d i v i n e

pre sen ce i s w i th us , even if tha t p r ese nc e is no t ho us ed in a bu i ld ing . (Th is s en -

t ime n t c o n t r a s t s s t r o n g ly w i th Ex o d . 2 5 :8 , " An d l e t t h e m ma k e M e a s a n c tu a r y

tha t I m ay dw el l am o n g them ." ) S imi la r ly , G od sa id to Ja co b wh e n he le f t I s rae l

fo r Eg yp t , " I Myse lf wi ll go do w n w i th y ou to Eg yp t , a nd I Myse lf wi ll a l so b r in g

y o u b a c k " ( Ge n . 4 6 :4 ) .

The h i s to r ica l and geograph ica l se t t ing o f Ezek ie l a l so exp la ins a g rea t dea l

abou t the chap te rs tha t fo l low Ezek ie l ' s in i t i a t ion . Mos t c lass ica l p rophe ts wen tou t to the peop le , bu t in Ezek ie l ' s case i t seems tha t the peop le came to h im:

"Cer ta in e lde rs o f I s rae l came to me and sa t down befo re me" (14 :1 ; c f . 20 :1 ) .

Co n s i d e r t o o h i s h a b i t of m a k in g o d d s y m b o l i c g e s tu r e s ( s ee e s p e c i a l ly c h a p t e r s

4 - 5 ) : s u c h a c t i o n s w o u ld h a v e c o n v e y e d th e i r me s s a g e o n ly if p e o p le we r e c o m -

ing to h i s h o us e— so as to he a r h i s n ew o rac les an d to w a t ch h i s la te st w e i rd

activity.

Because Ezek ie l began h is ca ree r a f te r the ex i le o f 597 in Baby lon , much o f

h i s a u d i e n c e b e l i e v e d in t h e t r u th o f t h e p r o p h e c i e s o f r e t r i b u t io n b y J e r e mia h

a n d o th e r s ( t h a t t h e Te mp le wa s a b o u t t o b e d e s t r o y e d a n d th a t a n o th e r e x i l e

wa s i n e v i t a b l e ) . Th u s , Ez e k iel h a d a c e r t a in c a c h e t a s a p o s t - 5 9 7 p r o p h e t - i n -

e x il e, s o m e t h i n g t h a t J e r e m i a h l a c k e d in I s r a e l — w h e r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n s e e m e d

m o r e b l i t h e ( s e e , e . g ., J e r e m ia h 2 8 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e e x il e s p r o b a b ly we r e f e e l i n g

cu t o f f f rom God . Thus they would go v i s i t Ezek ie l to hea r the la te s t d iv ine news .

T h i s " n ew s " h e t y p ic a l ly c o m m u n i c a t e d i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , m o s t l y p r o s a i c

f a s h io n . Ez e k ie l s c o mmu n ic a t i o n s ty l e a g a in s u g g e s t s t h a t h e d id n o t f a c e t h ec h a l l e n g e o f t h e e a r l i e r p r o p h e t s , wh o h a d to g o o u t t o t h e p e o p le a n d w in t h e m

o v e r w i th c l e v e r r h e to r i c .

I n s u m , ma n y u n i q u e f e a tu r e s o f Ez e k ie l 's p r o p h e c i e s m a k e s e n s e if we r e a d

t h e m w i t h t h e p r o p e r h i s t o r i c a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d . T h u s , t h e o p e n -

in g p a s s a g e i s n o t a mo d e l o f a n a l i e n s p a c e c r a f t , a s s o me h a v e s u g g e s t e d . 9 N o r

d o e s it p o in t t o t h e l i n g e r in g af f ec t o f c h i l d h o o d p s y c h o lo g i c a l t r a u m a . 1 0 Ra th e r ,

it r e f lec t s Ezek ie l 's suc ces s fu l ca m pa ig n to sh ow th a t he wa s a t rue p r op he t ev en

though he was ou ts ide the land o f I s rae l .

Refuting Popular Beliefs

O n e w a y th a t Ez e k ie l w o u ld g e t t h e J u d e a n s i n e x i le t o l i s t e n wa s b y b e in g a

ca r e fu l l i s tene r h im se l f , r ep ea t ing w ha t they sa id bu t the n co r r ec t ing it . Ea r l ie r I

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c i t e d a n i n s t a nc e w he r e E z e k i e l quo t e s a popu l a r s a y i ng i n o r de r t o s how t ha t i t

i s f al se ( 1 1 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . E z e k i el o f f e re d J u d e a n s s o m e t h i n g h o p e f u l t o r e p l a c e t h e i r

pe s s i m i s t i c be l i e f s . T he f a m ous d r y bone s un i t ( c ha p . 37 ) f e a t u r e s t he s a m e t a c -

t ic , qu o t i n g t he pe op l e a s s a y i ng : "O u r bon e s a re d r i e d up , ou r hop e i s gon e ; w e

a r e doom e d" ( v . 11 ) . 1 1 In anothe r passage he g ives a s l igh t ly longe r r ebut ta l o f a

p r o v e r b :

( 12 : 22 ) Ο m or t a l , w ha t i s t h i s p r o ve r b t ha t yo u ha ve in the l a nd o f

I s rae l , tha t you say , "The days grow many and eve ry v i s ion comes to

na ug ht ?" (23 ) Assuredly , s ay to th em , Th u s sa id the Lord GOD: I w i l l p u t

an end to th i s p rove rb ; i t sha l l no t be used in I s rae l any more . Speak

r a t h e r t o t he m : T h e da ys d r a w ne a r , a n d t he f u l f i l l m e n t o f e ve r y v i s i on .

( 24 ) Fo r t he r e sha l l no l o nge r be a ny f a ls e v i s i on o r s o o t h i ng d i v i na t i o n

in the H ou se of I s rae l. (2 5) But w he ne v e r I the L O R D s p e a k w h a t I s p e a k ,

t ha t w or d s ha l l be fu l f i l l e d w i t h ou t a ny de l a y ; i n yo u r da ys , Ο r e be l l i ou s

b r e e d , I w i l l f u l fi l l e ve r y w o r d I s p e a k— de c l a r e s t he L or d G OD .

T he s a m e pa t t e r n w e s a w i n c ha p t e r 11 a ppe a r s he r e : "O m or t a l , " f o l l ow e d by

t h e p r o v e r b , a n d t h e n b y t h e r e b u t t a l . T h i s u n i t l i k e w i s e e n d s w i t h t h e c o m m o n

pr o ph e t i c f o r m ul a "de c l a r e s t he L or d G OD ," w h i c h t yp i c a l l y c o nc l ud e s a n o r a c l e .

M uc h m or e s i gn i f i c a n t i s t he p r ov e r b t ha t he r e b u t s in c h a p t e r 18 . T h e r e w e

r e a d :

( 18 : 1 ) T he w or d o f t he L O R D c a m e t o m e : ( 2 ) W h a t d o y o u m e a n b y

quo t i ng t h i s p r ove r b upon t he s o i l o f I s r a e l , "Pa r e n t s e a t s ou r g r a pe s a nd

the i r ch i ldre n ' s t ee th a re b l un ted "? (3) As I l ive — dec la re s the Lord

G O D — t h i s p r ove r b s ha l l no l onge r be c u r r e n t a m ong you i n I s r a e l .

(4) Consider , a l l l ives a re Mine; the l i fe of the parent and the l i fe of thec h i l d a r e bo t h Mi ne . T he pe r s on w ho s i n s , on l y he s ha l l d i e .

T he p r ove r b "Pa r e n t s e a t s ou r g r a pe s a nd t he i r c h i l d r e n ' s t e e t h a r e b l un t e d"

m i g h t b e r e n d e r e d i n t o m o d e r n E n g l i s h a s " T h e p a r e n t s e a t S n i c k e r s ® a n d t h e

chi ldren ge t cav i t i e s . " I t mus t have been popula r , s ince i t appea rs a l so in

J e r e m i a h 3 1 : 2 9 : " I n t hos e da y s , t he y s ha l l no l o ng e r s ay , ' Pa r e n t s ha ve e a t e n s o u r

g r a p e s a n d c h i l d r e n ' s t e e t h a r e b l u n t e d . ' " T h e t w o p r o p h e t i c b o o k s , h o w e v e r ,

g i ve a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i ng t o t h i s p r ove r b ' s d i s us e . I n J e r e m i a h , t he p r ov e r b w i llon l y be c om e f a l s e i n t he f u t u r e — i n t he i de a l i z e d t i m e o f t he e s c ha t on . B u t

a c c o r d i ng t o E z e k i e l , t he p r o ve r b i s a l r e a d y f al se ; he un de r s t oo d G o d t o s a y t ha t

now , in h i s o w n t im e , "a ll l ives a re M ine [and wi l l be ju d g ed so ind iv id ua l ly] ; the

l if e of the pa r en t an d th e l i fe of the ch i ld a re bo th M ine [as ind iv id ua l s ] . T he pe r -

son who s ins , on ly he sha l l d ie " (v . 4 ) .

Ezekie l the re fore r e fu te s the prove rb a t l ength . F i r s t , he t r ea t s the case of a

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r i g h t e o u s m a n w h o b e g e t s a w i c k e d s o n , w h o i n t u r n b e g e t s a r i g h t e o u s m a n

( 1 8 :5 - 2 0 ) . F r o m th i s c a s e h e c o n c lu d e s : " Th e p e r s o n wh o s in s , h e a lo n e s h a l l

d ie . A ch i ld sha l l no t sha re the burden o f a pa ren t ' s gu i l t , no r sha l l a pa ren t sha re

th e b u r d e n o f a c h i l d ' s g u i l t ; t h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f t h e r i g h t e o u s s h a l l b e a c c o u n t -

e d t o h im a lo n e , a n d t h e w ic k e d n e s s o f t h e w ic k e d s h a l l b e a c c o u n te d t o h im

a lo n e " ( 1 8 :2 0 ) . Th e n , h e p r o c e e d s t o t e l e s c o p e t h e s e t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s i n to o n e ,

t e a c h i n g t h a t w h e n w i c k e d p e o p l e r e p e n t , o r r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e b e c o m e w i c k e d ,

G o d w i l l j u d g e t h e m a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r l a t e r b e h a v io r . Th i s is a n o th e r wa y of s a y -

ing : Eve n th ou g h you h ave be en ex i led fo r yo ur s ins , a l l i s no t los t . In de ed , "it

i s no t My des i re tha t a ny on e sha l l d ie— de c l a r es th e Lord GOD" (V. 32) . Th is l e ads

to t h e u n i t ' s g r a n d c o n c lu s io n : " Re p e n t , t h e r e f o r e , a n d l i v e ! " ( i b id . ) .W e c a n ima g in e t h a t t h e e x i le c o m m u n i t y wa s f e e l i n g a h u g e b u r d e n o f g u i l t.

If so , th i s un i t ( ch ap . 18 ) m us t have m ea n t a lo t to th em .

Ez e k ie l s a d d r e s s i s s o l o n g , d e t a i l e d , a n d r e p e t i t i v e b e c a u s e h e i s r e f u t i n g

n o t o n ly a p o p u la r p r o v e r b , b u t a l s o a n a u th o r i t a t i v e s e t o f b e l i e f s . 1 2 W e s a w e a r -

l i e r t h a t t h e D e c a l o g u e p r e s u m e s i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l p u n i s h m e n t , d e s c r i b i n g G o d

a s " a n imp a s s io n e d Go d , v i s i t i n g t h e g u i l t o f t h e p a r e n t s u p o n th e c h i ld r e n , u p o n

th e t h i r d a n d u p o n th e f o u r th g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h o s e w h o r e je c t M e " ( Ex o d . 2 0 :5 ;

s e e " Th e De c a lo g u e " i n c h a p t e r 8 ) . O th e r b ib l i c a l t e x t s s u g g e s t t h a t r e t r i b u t io n

f u n c t io n s o n a c o r p o r a t e l e v e l , s o t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y a s a w h o le r e c e iv e s

r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s ( e. g ., D e u t . 1 1 : 1 3 - 2 1 ; s e e " D e u t e r o n o m y as a T r ea ty "

i n c h a p t e r 1 0 ). G e n e s i s a d o p t s s u c h a v i e w c o n c e r n i n g S o d o m , w h e r e t h e i s s ue

is not wh e th e r t h e r i g h t e o u s p e o p le w i l l b e s a v e d , b u t h o w ma n y a r e n e e d e d to

s a v e t h e c i t y ( 1 8 :2 2 - 3 3 ) . Ac c o r d in g t o t h e s e v i e ws , i n d iv id u a l s c a n n o t c h a n g e

the i r de s t in y in the face o f fam i ly o r co m m u ni ty ev i l . T hu s , Ezek ie l i s a rg u in g

a g a in s t two b e l ie f s f o u n d in a v a r i e ty o f b ib l i c a l t e x t s — in te r g e n e r a t i o n a l p u n -i s h m e n t , a n d c o r p o r a t e ( c o m m u n a l ) r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d r e t r i b u t i o n . T h a t i s w h y

he needs to make h is po in t so fo rce fu l ly .

L ik e wi s e , a n o r a c l e i n Ez e k ie l 1 4 :1 2 - 2 3 ma k e s t h i s p o in t r e p e a t e d ly , s t a t i n g

tha t i f a c i ty were wicked , " shou ld Noah , Dan ie l , and Job be in i t , a s I l ive—

d e c l a r e s t h e L o r d G O D — t h e y w o u l d s a v e n e i t h e r s o n n o r d a u g h t e r ; t h e y w o u l d

sav e th em se lv es al on e by th eir r ighteousness" (v. 20 ; cf . w . 14, 18). T he D an iel

m e n t io n e d h e r e is n o t t h e s a me a s t h e o n e in t h e b ib l i c a l b o o k o f t h a t n a m e —

the na m e s a re spe l le d d i f fe r en t ly ; the D an ie l the re i s l a te r th an th e Dan ie l o f

Ez e k ie l . He r e t h e r e f e r e n c e i s t o Da n e l , a r i g h t e o u s Ca n a a n i t e w h o f e a tu r e s i n a n

U g a r i t i c e p i c . 1 3 T hu s , "N oa h , Dan[ i ]e1 , an d Jo b" rep res en t th ree righteous n o n -

I s r a e l i t e s wh o l i v e d l o n g b e f o r e Ez e k ie l . F o l lo win g th e p r in c ip l e e x p r e s s e d i n

ch ap te r 18 , " the y w o u ld save th em se lv es a lo ne b y the ir r ighteousness." Bec ause

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r e t r i b u t i o n is p e r s o n a l a n d n o t c o r p o r a t e , t h e i r m e r i t o r i o u s d e e d s w o u l d n o t

b e n e f i t t h e c o m m u n i t y a s a w h o l e .

A Good Listener and a Crude Speaker

Ez e k ie l d id n o t n e e d t o u s e l o f ty p o e t r y o r r h e to r i c , b e c a u s e ( a s n o t e d e a r l i e r )

p e o p l e w a n t e d t o h e a r h i m : h e w a s t h e i r p r i m a r y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G o d i n a s o c i -

e ty w i th o u t a Te m p le . He l i s t e n e d to p e o p le ' s b e li e f t h a t Go d h a d a b a n d o n e d

them; then he rep l ied so as to con t rad ic t the i r despa i r . Ye t to sugges t tha t i t was

h i s t h e o lo g i c a l me s s a g e a lo n e t h a t a t t r a c t e d p e o p le wo u ld b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n . I n

33 :3 2 , G od i s po r t r ay ed as say ing to Ezek ie l : "To th em y ou a re ju s t a s in ge r of

b a w d y s o n g s , wh o h a s a s we e t v o i c e a n d p l a y s sk i l lf u l ly . " Th i s s u g g e s t s t h a t

Ez e k ie l a t t r a c t e d l i s t e n e r s a s mu c h b e c a u s e o f h i s s t y l e a s b e c a u s e o f h i s me s s a g e .

Ca l l ing Ezek ie l a "bawdy" (o r "e ro t ic" ) poe t i s s t r ik ing , bu t i t does f i t the

c o n te n t o f Ez e k ie l 1 6 a n d 2 3 . 1 4 M a n y s c h o l a r s a c t u a l l y c o n s i d e r t h e s e c h a p t e r s

t o b e p o r n o g r a p h i c — a l t h o u g h t h is t e r m i s d i ff i cu l t e n o u g h t o d e f i n e i n m o d e r n

t im es , l e t a lo ne fo r an c ie n t t ex ts f ro m d i f f e re n t cu l tu r es . In an y case , the se tw o

c h a p te r s a r e s e x u a l ly e x p l i c i t . C h a p t e r 1 6 u s e s t h e r o o t z-n-h (HJT), " to whore,f o r n i c a t e , " t h i r t e e n t im e s ; c h a p t e r 2 3 , s e v e n t im e s . On e p a s s a g e c l a ims , " At e v e r y

c r o s s r o a d y o u b u i l t y o u r h e i g h t a n d y o u m a d e y o u r b e a u t y a b o m i n a b l e b y o p e n -

in g y o u r l e g s t o a n y o n e w h o p a s s e d b y. I n c r e a s i n g y o u r h a r lo t r y , y o u h a r lo t e d

w i t h t h e E g y p t ia n s , y o u r b i g - m e m b e r e d n e i g h b o r s . . ." ( 1 6 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) 1 5 w h i l e

a n o t h e r d e s c r i b e s th e J u d e a n s ' b e h a v i o r in t h i s m a n n e r : " T h e y h a r l o t e d i n E g y p t ,

i n t h e i r y o u th t h e y h a r lo t e d ; t h e r e t h e i r b r e a s t s we r e s q u e e z e d , t h e r e t h e y

p r e s s e d t h e i r v i r g in n ip p l e s " ( 2 3 :3 ) . S u c h " b a wd y " t a lk p r o b a b ly a t t r a c t e d s o me

of Ezek ie l ' s aud ience .

The Structure of Ezekiel

Th e Bo o k o f Ez e k ie l is m u c h m o r e o r d e r ly t h a n t h e tw o o th e r la r ge p r o p h e t i c

b o o k s . It s c h r o n o lo g i c a l s e t t i n g d u r i n g t h e Ba b y lo n i a n e x i le m a y h a v e c o n -

t r i b u t e d t o t h i s . I n a d d i t i o n , i t s e d i t o r m a y h a v e b e e n b e t t e r , o r t h a t p e r s o n

red ac t ed m or e ligh tly , so tha t it co n t a i ns few er in se r t io ns tha t d i s r up t ea r l ie r l i t-

e r a r y u n i t s . Two o r d e r in g p r in c ip l e s a r e e v id e n t i n t h e b o o k : a c h r o n o lo g i c a l

s t r uc tu re , an d a co l la t ion o f m a te r i a l in to la rge the m at i c un i t s tha t f it the

c h r o n o l o g y .

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T h e o r a c l e s o f E z e k i e l a r e a r r a n g e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y ( w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n )

a nd c a n be da t e d i n t h i s w a y : 1 6

C h a r i o t V i s i o n 1 :1 J u n e 5 9 3 B . C . E .

C a ll to B e a W a t c h m a n 3 : 1 6 b J u n e 5 9 3

T e m p l e V i s i o n 8 : 1 A u g u s t / S e p t e m b e r 5 9 2

D i s c o u r s e w i t h E l d e r s 2 0 : 1 A u g u s t 5 9 1

S e c o n d S i e g e o f J e r u s a l e m 2 4 : 1 J a n u a r y 5 8 8

J u d g m e n t o n T y r e 2 6 : 1 M a r c h / A p r i l 5 8 7 / 5 8 6

J u d g m e n t o n E g y p t 2 9 : 1 J a n u a r y 5 8 7

J u d g m e n t o n E g y p t 2 9 : 1 7 A p r i l 5 7 1J u d g m e n t o n E g y p t 3 0 : 2 0 A p r i l 5 8 7

J u d g m e n t o n E g y p t 3 1 : 1 J u n e 5 8 7

L a m e n t o v e r P h a r a o h 3 2 : 1 M a r c h 5 8 5

L a m e n t o v e r E g y p t 3 2 : 1 7 A p r i l 5 8 6

Fa l l o f J e r us a l e m 3 3 : 2 1 D e c e m b e r / J a n u a r y 5 8 6 / 5 8 5

N e w T e m p l e V i s i o n 4 0 : 1 A p r i l 5 7 3

A s e c o n d p a t t e r n o v e r l a p s w i t h t h i s f ir st o n e : t w o " w a t c h m a n " o r a c le s f r a m e

a l a r ge s e c t i on o f t he book be t w e e n t he m . B o t h o f t he m c ha r ge E z e k i e l w i t h

f o r e w a r n i n g b o t h t h e w i c k e d a n d t h e r i g h t e o u s a m o n g t h e p e o p l e . T h e f i r s t o r a -

c le r eads :

( 3 : 1 7 ) Ο m o r t a l , 1 a p p o i n t y o u w a t c h m a n f o r t h e H o u s e of I sr ae l; a n d

w h e n y o u h e a r a w o r d f r o m M y m o u t h , y o u m u s t w a r n t h e m f o r M e .

( 18 ) If I s a y t o a w i c ke d m a n , "Y ou s ha l l d i e , " a n d yo u d o no t w a r n

h i m — y o u d o n o t s p e a k to w a r n t h e w i c k e d m a n of h i s w i c k e d c o u r s e

i n o r d e r t o s a v e h i s l i f e — h e , t h e w i c k e d m a n , s h a l l d i e f o r h i s i n i q u i -

ty , b u t I w i l l r e qu i r e a r e c k on i n g f o r h i s b l o o d f r o m yo u . ( 1 9 ) B u t if

y o u d o w a r n t h e w i c k e d m a n , a n d h e d o e s n o t t u r n b a c k f r o m h i s

w i c k e d n e s s a n d h i s w i c k e d c o u r s e , h e s h a l l d i e fo r h i s i n i q u i t y , b u t

y o u w i l l h a v e s a v e d y o u r o w n l if e . ( 2 0 ) A g a i n , if a r i g h t e o u s m a n a b a n -

d o n s h is r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d d o e s w r o n g , w h e n I p u t a s t u m b l i n g b l o c k

be f o r e h i m , he s ha l l d i e . H e s ha l l d i e f o r h i s s i n s ; t he r i g h t e o us de e d s

t h a t h e d i d s h a l l n o t b e r e m e m b e r e d ; b u t b e c a u s e y o u d i d n o t w a r n

h i m , I w i l l r e q u i r e a r e c k o n i n g f o r h i s b l o o d f r o m y o u . ( 2 1 ) If , h o w -

e v e r , y o u w a r n t h e r i g h t e o u s m a n n o t t o s i n , a n d h e , t h e r i g h t e o u s ,

d o e s n o t s i n , h e s h a l l l i v e b e c a u s e h e t o o k w a r n i n g , a n d y o u w i l l h a v e

s a v e d y o u r o w n l i f e .

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T he s e c ond s uc h o r a c l e r e a ds :

( 3 3 : 7 ) N o w , Ο m o r t a l , 1 h a v e a p p o i n t e d y o u a w a t c h m a n f o r t h e H o u s e

o f I s r a e l ; a n d w h e n e v e r y o u h e a r a m e s s a g e f r o m M y m o u t h , y o u m u s tt r a n s m i t M y w a r n i n g t o t h e m . ( 8 ) W h e n I s a y t o t h e w i c k e d , " W i c k e d

m a n , y o u s h a l l d i e ," b u t y o u h a v e n o t s p o k e n t o w a r n t h e w i c k e d m a n

aga ins t h i s way, he , tha t w icked man, sha l l d ie for h i s s ins , bu t I w i l l

d e m a n d a r e c k o n i n g f o r h i s b l o o d f r o m y o u . ( 9 ) B u t if y o u h a v e w a r n e d

t h e w i c k e d m a n t o t u r n b a c k f r o m h i s w a y, a n d h e h a s n o t t u r n e d f r o m

his way, he sha l l d ie for h i s own s ins , bu t you wi l l have saved your l i f e .

T he s e s a m e t w o c ha p t e r s a l s o de a l w i t h E z e k i e l ' s s i l e nc e — a n i s s ue t ha t b i b -l ic a l s c ho l a r s d o no t f u l l y u nd e r s t a n d , s inc e t he vo l ub l e E z e k i e l i s no w he r e

d i r e c t l y de p i c t e d a s be i ng s i l e n t ! 1 7 Y e t G od s ugge s t s a s m uc h i n t e l l i ng h i m : "A nd

I w i l l m a k e you r t ong ue c l e ave to yo u r pa l a t e , a n d you s ha l l be du m b ; yo u s ha l l

no t be a r e p r ove r t o t he m , f o r t he y a r e a r e be l l i ous b r e e d" ( 3 : 26 ) , w h i l e t he o t he r

p a s s a g e n o t e s :

( 3 3 : 2 1 ) In the twe l f th yea r of o u r ex i le , o n th e f i f th da y of the t en th

m o n t h , a f u g i ti v e c a m e t o m e f r o m J e r u s a l e m a n d r e p o r t e d , " T h e c i t yhas f a l l en . " ( 2 2 ) N o w t h e h a n d o f t h e L O R D h a d c o m e u p o n m e t h e

e v e n i n g b e f o r e t h e fu g i t iv e a r r i v e d , a n d H e o p e n e d m y m o u t h b e f o r e h e

c a m e to m e i n t h e m o r n i n g ; t h u s m y m o u t h w a s o p e n e d a n d I w a s n o

T hus , E z e k i e l ' s he a r i ng o f t he de s t r uc t i on o f t he c i t y a nd t he T e m pl e i n 586 r e p -

r e s e n t s a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e b o o k .

T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s e f a c t o r s — t h e " w a t c h m a n " f r a m e a n d t h e t r o p e ofs i l e nc e — w e c a n ou t l i ne t he book ' s s t r uc t u r e a s f o l l ow s :

T h i s ou t l i ne c a p t u r e s t he i r on i c a r c o f t he book : un t i l t he T e m pl e w a s de s t r oye d ,

E z e k i e l w a s a p r ophe t o f r e t r i bu t i on , e xp l a i n i ng t o t he e x i l e s w hy t he de s t r uc -

t i o n w a s a b o u t t o t r a n s p i r e , e v e n t h o u g h h e s t r e s s e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e p e n t

( i n c on t r a s t w i t h J e r e m i a h 25 ) . O nc e t he ne w s o f t he de s t r u c t i o n a r r i ve d , E z e k i e l

l o n g e r s p e e c h l e s s .

D e d i c a t i o n a s p r o p h e t

O r a c l e s o f r e t r i bu t i on a ga i ns t I s r a e l

O r a c l e s a ga i ns t t he na t i ons

O r a c l e s o f c ons o l a t i on ( a f t e r t he f a l l o f J e r us a l e m

i n 5 8 6 )

I . 1 : 1 - 3 : 1 5

Π . 3 : 1 6 - 2 4 : 2 7

I I I . 2 5 - 3 2

I V 3 3 - 4 8

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c h a n g e d c o u r s e ; i n d e e d , h e s h i f t e d h i s t a c k b y 1 8 0 d e g r e e s . He b e c a me a

p r o p h e t o f c o n s o l a t i o n .

Ne x t we w i l l e x a min e Ez e k ie l ' s t r a n s f o r ma t io n , h ig h l ig h t in g t h e c o n t r a s t i n g

t h e m e s b e t w e e n se c t i o n s I I -I I I a n d s e c ti o n IV A l t h o u g h 3 : 1 6 - 2 4 : 2 7 a n d 3 3 - 4 8

a r e d i s t i n c t p a r t s o f t h e b o o k , t h e y a r e b e s t r e a d a n d u n d e r s to o d ju x t a p o s e d t o

o n e a n o t h e r .

From Divine Abandonment to "The L O R D I S There"

Ac c o r d in g t o a n c i e n t Ne a r Ea s t e r n c o n c e p t io n s , d e i t i e s r e s id e d i n t h e i r t e mp le s ,

p r o t e c t i n g t h e i r p e o p le a n d th e i r t e mp le s wh i l e p r e s e n t a t t h e s e h o ly s i t e s . Th e

b ib l i c a l v e r s e q u o te d e a r l i e r e x e mp l i f i e s t h i s v i e w: " Le t t h e m ma k e M e a s a n c tu -

a r y t h a t I m a y d we l l a m o n g th e m " ( Ex o d . 2 5 :8 ) . As we o b s e r v e d e a r l i e r i n d i s -

c u s s in g Le v i t i c u s ( c h a p te r 9 ) , s o me I s r a e l i t e s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n e n s u r in g t h a t Go d

r e m a i n e d a t t h e T e m p l e — p r o t e c t i n g i t a n d t h e p e o p l e o f t h e c o v e n a n t . V a r i o u s

a c t i o n s t h a t g a v e o f f e n s e c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly c a u s e t h e d e i t y t o d e p a r t .

So m e sch o la rs hav e ca l led th i s m ot i f of a go d leav ing a te m pl e "d iv ine ab an -

d o n me n t . " I t ma y b e s e e n i n t h e f o l l o win g in s c r ip t i o n o f t h e As s y r i a n k in gE s a r h a d d o n ( 6 8 1 - 6 6 9 ) : " T h e l o r d o f t h e g o d s , M a r d u k , w a s a n g r y . H e p l a n n e d

ev i l; to w ipe ou t the land , to des t roy i t s in ha b i ta n t s . . . a n ev il cu r se w as on h i s

l ips . " The gods and goddesses who dwel l in i t ( i . e . , the temple Esag i la ) f l ed l ike

b i r d s a n d we n t u p t o h e a v e n . Th e p r o t e c t i v e g o d s [. . . r a n ] o ff a n d w i th d r e w . 1 8

Ez e k ie l , l i v in g i n Ba b y lo n , k n e w a n d a d o p te d t h i s mo t i f . He d e s c r ib e d t h e g r a d -

u a l d e p a r tu r e o f t h e P r e s e n c e i n s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t e l e v e n

c h a p t e r s :

(8 :3 ) He s t re tched ou t the fo rm of a hand , and took me by the ha i r o f

m y h e a d . A s p i r i t l i f t e d m e u p b e tw e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r th a n d b r o u g h t

m e in v i s io n s of Go d to J e r u s a l e m , t o t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e P e n im i th Ga te

tha t faces no r t h ; tha t was the s i te o f the in fu r ia t in g im age tha t p r ov ok es

fu ry . (4 ) A nd the P re senc e o f the G od o f I s rae l ap pe ar ed the re , l ike th e

vis ion th at I h ad see n in the valley.

( 1 0 :4 ) Bu t wh e n th e P r e s e n c e o f t h e L O R D m o v e d f r o m t h e c h e r u b s t oth e p l a t f o r m o f t h e Ho u s e , t h e H o u s e wa s f il l ed w i th t h e c lo u d , a n d t h e

cour t was f i l l ed wi th the rad iance o f the P resence o f the L O R D .

( 1 1 :2 2 ) Th e n th e c h e r u b s , w i th t h e wh e e l s b e s id e t h e m, l i f t e d t h e i r

wings , wh i le the P resence o f the God o f I s rae l re s ted above them.

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( 2 3 ) The Presence o f the L O R D a s c e n d e d f r o m th e mid s t o f t h e c i t y a n d

stood on the hill east of the city.

O n c e t h e P r e s e n c e h a d le f t t h e Te mp le , t h e Ba b y lo n i a n s c o u ld d e s t r o y i t.T h e s e c h a p t e r s , h o w e v e r , n o t o n l y d e s c r i b e " d i vi n e a b a n d o n m e n t , " b u t a l so

jus t i fy in de ta i l why God i s l eav ing . God i s fu r ious , a l though the focus o f d iv ine

a n g e r — u n l i k e in A m o s a n d I s a i a h — i s n o t et h i c a l c o n c e r n s . T r u e , s o m e m o r a l

c o n s id e r a t i o n s a r e h ig h l ig h t e d : " Th e i n iq u i ty o f t h e Ho u s e s of J u d a h a n d I s ra e l

i s ve ry ve ry g rea t , the l and i s fu l l o f c r im e a nd the c i ty i s fu l l o f co r r up t i on " (9 :9 ;

see a l so chap . 22) . More typ ica l , however , a re tex ts such as th i s one :

(8 :6 ) And He sa id to me , "Mor ta l , do you see wha t they a re do ing , thet e r r i b l e a b o m in a t io n s t h a t t h e Ho u s e o f I s ra e l i s p r a c t i c in g h e r e , t o d r iv e

Me fa r f rom My Sanc tua ry? You sha l l ye t see even g rea te r abomina-

t i o n s ! " ( 7 ) Th e n He b r o u g h t me to t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e c o u r t ; a n d I

looked , and the re was a ho le in the wa l l . (8 ) He sa id to me , "Mor ta l ,

b r e a k t h r o u g h th e wa l l "; s o I b r o k e t h r o u g h th e wa l l a n d f o u n d a n

e n t r a n c e . ( 9 ) An d He s a id t o me , " En te r a n d s e e t h e v i l e a b o min a t io n s

tha t the y a re p ra c t ic ing he re . " (10 ) I en te re d and lo ok ed , an d the re a ll

de tes tab le fo rms o f c reep ing th ings and beas t s and a l l the fe t i shes o f the

House o f I s rae l were dep ic ted over the en t i re wa l l . (11 ) Befo re them

sto od sev en ty m en , e ld e rs of the H ou se o f I s rae l , w i th Jaa zan iah so n of

S h a p h a n s t a n d in g in t h e i r m id s t . Ev e r y o n e h a d a c e n s e r i n h i s h a n d ,

a n d a t h i c k c lo u d of i n c e n s e s m o k e a s c e n d e d .

W e d o n o t k n o w w h e t h e r t h e a c t i v i t i e s d e s c r i b e d h e r e r e a l l y h a p p e n e d . 1 9 E i t h e r

way , the po in t he re i s tha t Ezek ie l imag ines tha t God i s l e t t ing the Temple be

de s t r oy ed fo r cu l t i c in f rac t ion s , no t fo r e th ica l v io la t io ns . I ron ica l ly , wh i le c om -

mi t t ing these cu l t ic s ins , the peop le o f I s rae l th ink : "The L O R D does no t see us ;

t h e L O R D h a s a b a n d o n e d t h e c o u n t r y " ( 8 : 1 2 ) . T h e y a r e d e a d w r o n g : G o d d o e s

s e e t h e m a n d h a s n o t y e t a b a n d o n e d th e c o u n t r y , b u t— a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r

" a b o m i n a t i o n s " — i s a b o u t t o d o s o .

If a m a in t h e m e of t h e r e t r i b u t io n s e c t i o n i s d iv in e a b a n d o n m e n t , i t s h o u ld

n o t s u r p r i s e u s t h a t t h e ma in t h e me o f t h e c o n s o l a t i o n s e c t i o n i s t h e r e tu r n o f

th e d iv in e P r e s e n c e . Ch a p te r s 4 0 - 4 8 desc r ibe I s rae l a f te r i t s fu tu re res to ra t ion

a n d r e t u r n f r o m e x i le . Th e s e c h a p te r s f o c u s o n t h e n e w T e m p le t o b e b u i l t i n

J e r u s a l e m . 2 0 Th i s u n i t e n d s b y d e c l a r in g t h a t t h e c i t y w i l l e v e n tu a l l y b e r e n a me d

" T h e L O R D I S T h e r e " ( 4 8 : 3 5 ) . Je rusa lem' s new name wi l l be a reversa l o f the

d i v i n e a b a n d o n m e n t d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r i n t h e b o o k .

The la s t sec t ion reverses o the r ea r l ie r mot i f s a s we l l . Ins tead o f I s rae l ' s be ing

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v i c t i m o f t h e Da y of t h e LORD, c h a p t e r s 3 8 - 3 9 f a m o u s l y r e c o u n t t h e w a r o f

G o g 2 1 a n d M a g o g , wh e r e I s r a e l ' s e n e m i e s w i l l f a l l . I n 3 6 : 2 , E z e k i e l p r o p h e s i e s " t o

t h e m o u n t a i n s o f I s r a e l , " o v e r t u r n i n g h i s e a r l i e r p r o p h e c y o f r e b u k e o f 6 : 2 , a l s o

a d d r e s s e d " t o t h e m o u n t a i n s of I s r a e l ." C h a p t e r 3 4 i s e s p e c i a l l y c le v e r in i ts

r e v e r s al . It b e g i n s l ik e a p r o p h e c y o f r e t r i b u t i o n : Ό m o r t a l , p r o p h e s y a g a i n s t t h e

sh e p h e rd s [ i .e . , k ing s ] o f I s rae l . . . . T h u s sa id t he Lo rd GOD: I a m g o in g to dea l

w i t h t h e s h e p h e r d s ! " ( w . 2 - 1 0 ) . H o w e v e r , it m o v e s f r o m r e t r i b u t i o n t o c o n s o l a -

t i o n , n o t i n g t h a t t h e s e d e r e l i c t k i n g s w i l l b e r e p l a c e d b y Go d a s k i n g and b y a n

i d e a l Da v i d i c k i n g : " T h e n I w i l l a p p o i n t a s i n g l e s h e p h e r d o v e r t h e m t o t e n d

t h e m — M y s e r v a n t D a v i d . H e s h a l l t e n d t h e m , h e s h a l l b e a s h e p h e r d t o t h e m . I

t h e L O R D w i ll b e th e i r G o d , a n d M y s e r v a n t D a v i d s h a ll b e a r u l e r a m o n g t h e m —I the L O R D h a v e s p o k e n " ( w . 2 3 - 2 4 ) . 2 2

O n e c a n i m a g i n e t h e J u d e a n s in e x i l e, f e e l in g t h e i r o w n g u i lt ( a n d t h e g u i l t

o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , d e s p i t e h i s r e a s s u r a n c e s i n c h a p t e r s 1 4 a n d 1 8 ). T h e y m u s t

h a v e wo n d e r e d : " Do we r e a l l y d e s e r v e t o b e f o r g i v e n a n d r e s t o r e d ? " A p h r a s e

a p p e a r i n g i n t h e b o o k f i f t y - e i g h t t i m e s ( o u t of s e v e n t y - t w o t i m e s i n t h e B i b l e)

r e l a t e s w h y I s r a el w i l l b e r e d e e m e d : it i s n o t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r m e r i t , b u t s o t h a t

" the y sha l l k n o w th a t I am the LORD."23 T h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n f r o m t h e p r o p h e -

c i e s o f c o n s o l a t i o n m a k e s c l e a r w h a t t h i s u b i q u i t o u s p h r a s e m e a n s :

( 3 6 : 2 1 ) T h e r e f o r e I a m c o n c e r n e d f o r M y h o l y n a m e , w h i c h t h e H o u s e

o f I s ra e l h a v e c a u s e d t o b e p r o f a n e d a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e y

have come . (22 ) Say to t he House o f I s rae l : Thus sa id t he Lo rd GOD: No t

f o r y o u r s a k e w i l l I a c t , Ο H o u s e o f I s r a e l , b u t f o r M y h o l y n a m e , w h i c h

y o u h a v e c a u s e d t o b e p r o f a n e d a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s t o w h i c h y o u h a v e

c o m e . ( 2 3 ) I w i ll s a n c t i f y M y g r e a t n a m e w h i c h h a s b e e n p r o f a n e d

a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s — a m o n g w h o m y o u h a v e c a u s e d it t o b e p r o f a n e d .

A n d t h e n a t i o n s s h a ll k n o w t h a t I a m t h e L OR D — d e c la r e s t h e L o r d

G O D — w h e n I m a n i f e s t M y h o l i n e s s b e f o r e t h e i r e ye s t h r o u g h y o u . . . .

( 3 2 ) N o t f o r y o u r s a k e w il l 1 a c t — d e c l a r e s t h e L o r d G O D — t a k e g o o d

n o t e ! B e a s h a m e d a n d h u m i l i a t e d b e c a u s e of y o u r w a y s , Ο H o u s e of

I s r ae l ! . . . ( 3 6 ) An d t h e n a t i o n s t h a t a r e l e f t a r o u n d y o u s h a l l k n o w t h a t

I t he L O R D h a v e r e b u i l t t h e r a v a g e d p l a c e s a n d r e p l a n t e d t h e d e s o l a t e

l a n d . I t h e L O R D h a v e s p o k e n a n d w i l l a c t .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , Is r a el i s Go d ' s p e o p l e ; a n d n o w t h a t Go d h a s p u n i s h e d I s r a el

b e c a u s e it b r o k e th e c o v e n a n t , t h at p u n i s h m e n t — t h e i r d o w n t r o d d e n s t a t e —

c o u l d b e m i s t a k e n a s a s i g n o f H i s w e a k n e s s . T h u s , Go d w i ll r e s t o r e I s r a el n o t

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d e s e r v i n g , b u t b e c a u s e t h e i r c o n t i n u e d p u n i s h m e n t is l ia b le t o

r e f l e c t p o o r l y o n H i m .

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Th e v a r i o u s p r o p h e c i e s of c o n s o l a t i o n f i t t o g e th e r q u i t e t ig h tly , a n d a d d r e s s

the sam e th em es as the res t o f the bo ok . S ince G od i s w i th th i s peo p l e in ex i le ,

f u n c t io n in g a s a m in i - Te m p le , I s r a e l n e e d n o t f e el h o p e l e s s . L ik e w i s e , s i n c e G o d

wi l l no t p lace the s ins o f the pa ren ts on the ch i ld ren , I s rae l need no t fee l gu i l ty .

God wi l l over tu rn ea r l ie r p rophec ies o f doom. God wi l l fo rg ive I s rae l , no t fo r

th e i r s a k e , b u t f o r t h e s a k e o f G o d s "h o ly n a m e . " Th u s , l i k e c o n t e m p o r a r y b o o k s

wr i t ten by a s ing le au thor , the pa r t s o f the Book o f Ezek ie l f i t toge the r . Th is

c o h e r e n c e , h o we v e r , i s mo s t e v id e n t wh e n th e b o o k i s r e a d a s a p r o d u c t o f i t s

t ime a n d p l a c e : a n a n c i e n t Ba b y lo n i a n t e x t , wr i t t e n i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e t r i b u l a -

t i o n s o f t h e Ba b y lo n i a n J e w i s h c o m m u n i ty .

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20"Comfor t , Oh Comfor t My People"

The Exi le and BeyondMBBgBMMInnBBHIHIMMM

Primary Reading: Isaiah 40 , 41, 44, 45, 49, 51, 53, 55, 63; Haggai 2; Ezra

9-10; Nehemiah 8, 13.

Historical Background

N

a b u n a i d , o r N a b o n i d u s , t h e l as t k i n g o f B a b y l o n , r e i g n e d f r o m 5 5 6 - 5 3 9

B .C .E.; h e d i r e c t e d t h a t t h e m o o n g o d , S in , b e e l e v a t e d o v e r M a r d u k , t h e t r a -d i t i o n a l h i g h g o d of t h e B a b y l o n i a n s . P r o b a b l y t h i s a c t i o n s t r u c k m a n y of h i s

s u b j e c t s a s o d d ; s u r e l y it o f f e n d e d t h e p r i e s t s o f M a r d u k . W h e n t h e P e r s i a n k i n g ,

C y r u s t h e G r e a t , a t t a c k e d B a b y l o n in O c t o b e r 5 3 9 , h e w a s a b l e t o c o n q u e r t h e

c i t y b l o o d l e s s l y w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e p o p u l a c e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e d i s p l a c e d p r i e s t s o f

M a r d u k . T h u s C y r u s , w h o r e i g n e d u n t i l 5 3 0 , e s t a b l i s h e d t h e A c h a e m e n i d P e r s-

i a n e m p i r e t h a t w o u l d l a st f o r t w o c e n t u r i e s , u n t i l A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t s v i c t o r y

o v e r P e r s ia . H i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i v i d e d t h e e m p i r e i n t o p r o v i n c e s ; t h e t e r r i t o r y

of t h e e r s t w h i l e k i n g d o m of J u d a h w a s n o w k n o w n a s t h e p r o v i n c e of Y e h u d .

T h e p r o p h e c i e s of I s a ia h 4 0 - 6 6 a n d o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e la te e x i li c a n d

e a r l y p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d s c o n n e c t d e e p l y to t h i s b a c k g r o u n d . T h e P e r s i a n s t o l e r -

a t e d o t h e r r e l i g i o n s , a n d t h e y a l l o w e d v a r i o u s p e o p l e s e x i l e d b y t h e B a b y l o n i a n s

t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r h o m e l a n d s . T h e n e w r u l e r s e v e n r e t u r n e d t h e s t a t u e s a n d o t h e r

r e l i g i o u s i t e m s t h a t t h e B a b y l o n i a n s h a d c a p t u r e d a n d p u t in s t o r a g e . In 5 3 8 , t h e

J u d e a n s r e c e i v e d t h e i r T e m p l e v e s s e l s a n d w e r e e n c o u r a g e d t o r e t u r n t o Y e h u d .

A t f ir s t, m o s t J u d e a n s m u s t h a v e v i e w e d t h i s d r a m a t i c t u r n a r o u n d a s f u l f i l l m e n tof t h e p r o p h e c y o f J e r e m i a h 2 5 , w h i c h p r o m i s e d r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e k i n g d o m a f t e r

a p e r i o d of s e v e n t y y e a r s o f d o m i n a t i o n b y B a b y l o n .

A t t h i s t i m e , Y e h u d w a s a n u n d e r d e v e l o p e d , b a c k w a t e r p r o v i n c e . R a t h e r

t h a n " r e t u r n " t h e r e , m a n y J u d e a n s p r e f e r r e d t o s t ay i n t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n c i ti e s

w h e r e t h e y h a d b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e s e p e o p l e — c a l l e d yehudim ( "Jews" ; s ee

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n . 4 i n c h a p t e r 1 4 ) — c r e a t e d a v o l u n t a r y d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t y i n B a b y l o n . S u c h

c o m m u n i t i e s a l s o f o r m e d i n o t h e r c i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e e m p i r e .

M e a n w h i l e , b a c k i n J e r u s a l e m , t h e J e w s w h o d id r e s e t t le t h e r e d id n o t s u e -

c e e d i n r e b u i ld in g t h e Te mp le imme d ia t e ly . Th e y d id n o t b e g in wo r k u n t i l 5 2 0 ,

c o m p le t i n g it f o u r y e a r s l a te r . Th i s S e c o n d Te m p le wa s s ma l l e r a n d m u c h l e ss

m ag n i f i cen t th an the F i rs t Te mp le . In gen era l , the t iny p ro v in ce o f Ye hud , ce n-

t e r e d o n J e r u s a l e m , r e m a i n e d i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d w e a k t h r o u g h o u t t h e P e rs i a n

per iod , bo th po l i t i ca l ly and mi l i t a r i ly . 1

Who Saved Babylon?

A document ca l led the Cyrus Cy l inder sheds a g rea t dea l o f l igh t on the r i se o f

C y r u s . 2 It i s w r i t t en in A kk ad ian , the lan gu age o f the Baby lon ian s . It desc r ibe s

t h e fa i li n g o f K i n g N a b u n a i d ( N a b o n i d u s ) , "[ an ] i n c o m p e t e n t p e r s o n " w h o " d id

a wa y w i th t h e wo r s h ip o f M a r d u k , t h e k in g o f g o d s ; h e c o n t in u a l ly d id e v i l

a g a in s t h i s [ M a r d u k s ] c it y." Th e c y l in d e r g o e s o n t o d e s c r ib e h o w M a r d u k

r e s p o n d e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n :

Up o n [ h e a r in g ] t h e i r c r i e s , t h e l o r d o f t h e g o d s [ M a r d u k ] b e c a me f u r i -

ous ly ang ry [and he le ft ] the i r bo rd ers . . . . M ar du k [ ] tu rn ed [?] to w ard

a ll t h e h a b i t a t i o n s t h a t we r e a b a n d o n e d a n d al l t h e p e o p le of S u m e r a n d

A k k a d w h o h a d b e c o m e c o r p s e s ; [h e w a s r e c o n c i l e d a n d h a d m e r c y

[ u p o n t h e m ] . H e s u r v e y e d a n d l o o k e d t h r o u g h o u t all t h e l a n d s , s e a r c h -

in g fo r a r i g h t e o u s k in g w h o m h e c o u ld s u p p o r t . H e c a l le d o u t h i s

n a m e : Cy r u s , k in g o f A n s h a n ; h e p r o c l a im e d h i s n a m e to b e k in g o v e r

a ll [ t he wo r ld ] , . . . He [ M a r d u k ] o r d e r e d h i m to m a r c h t o h i s c i tyB a b y l o n . . . . H e m a d e h i m e n t e r h i s c i ty B a b y l o n w i t h o u t f i g h t i n g o r

b a t t l e ; h e s a v e d Ba b y lo n f r o m h a r d s h ip . He d e l i v e r e d Na b o n i d u s , t h e

k in g wh o d id n o t r e v e r e h im , i n to h i s h a n d s .

Th i s is a r e m a r k a b l e p i e c e of p r o p a g a n d a f r o m th e p r i e s t s of M a r d u k , w h o we r e

e x t r e m e ly p o w e r f u l . Th i s c o n t e x t g iv e s u s a wa y to u n d e r s t a n d s o m e of De u te r o -

I sa iah ' s p rophec ies . I t a l so shows how use fu l i t i s to read b ib l ica l works aga ins t

t h e i r a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n b a c k g r o u n d , w h i c h m o d e r n a r c h a e o l o g y a n d b i b l i c a l

s t u d i e s h a v e m a d e p o s s i b l e .

F o r Ba b y lo n i a n J e w s w h o r e m a in e d s t e a d f a s t t o t h e i r r e li g io n , t h e c o n c e p t

t h a t M a r d u k c h o s e C y r u s w a s u n t h i n k a b l e , s o t h e y d e v e l o p e d a c o u n t e r - t h e o l o -

gy . Severa l un i t s in I sa iah f rom chap te r 40 on read as i f they respond d i rec t ly to

( tha t i s , a re po lemics aga ins t ) the ideas found in the Cyrus cy l inder . Here a re two

e x a m p l e s :

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( 4 1 :1 ) S t a n d s i l e n t b e f o r e M e , c o a s t l a n d s , / An d l e t n a t i o n s r e n e w th e i r

s t r en g th . / Le t th em a pp ro ac h to s ta te the i r case ; / Le t us com e fo r w ard

to g e th e r f o r a r g u m e n t . / ( 2 ) W h o h a s r o u s e d a v i c to r f r o m th e Ea s t, /

S u mmo n e d h im to H i s s e r v i c e ? / Ha s d e l i v e r e d u p n a t i o n s t o h im , / An d

t r o d d e n s o v e r e ig n s d o w n ? / Ha s r e n d e r e d t h e i r s wo r d s li k e d u s t , / Th e i r

b o ws l i k e w in d - b lo wn s t r a w? / ( 3 ) He p u r s u e s t h e m, h e g o e s o n

u n s c a th e d ; / N o s h a c k l e is p l a c e d o n h i s f e e t. / ( 4 ) W h o h a s w r o u g h t

a n d a c h i e v e d th is ? / H e w h o a n n o u n c e d t h e g e n e r a t i o n s f r o m t h e

st ar t— / I , the LORD, w h o w as f i rs t / A nd wil l be w ith the las t as wel l .

( 4 5 :1 ) Th u s s a id t h e L O R D t o C y r u s , / H i s a n o i n t e d o n e [ " m e s s i a h " ] — /W h o s e r i g h t h a n d H e h a s g r a s p e d , / T r e a d i n g d o w n n a t i o n s b e f o r e

h im , / Un g i r d in g t h e l o in s o f k in g s , / Op e n in g d o o r s b e f o r e h im / An d

le t t ing no ga te s tay sh u t : / (2 ) I wi l l ma rc h b e fo re you / And leve l the

h i l l s tha t loom up ; / 1wi l l s h a t t e r d o o r s of b r o n z e / A n d c u t d o w n i r o n

bars . / (3 ) I wi l l g ive yo u t rea su r es con cea led in the d a r k / A nd sec re t

h o ar d s— / So tha t yo u m ay k n o w t ha t i t i s I the LORD, / Th e G od o f

I s rae l , w h o ca l l you b y na m e. / (4 ) For the sake o f My se rva n t Ja co b , /

I s rae l My ch os en on e , / I ca l l yo u by n am e, / I ha i l yo u by t i t l e , th ou gh

y o u h a v e n o t k n o w n M e . / ( 5 ) I a m th e L O R D an d the re is n on e e l se ; /

Be s ide M e , t h e r e is n o g o d . / I e n g i r d y o u , t h o u g h y o u h a v e n o t k n o w n

Me, / (6 ) So tha t they may know, f rom eas t to wes t , / Tha t the re i s none

bu t M e. / I am the L O R D an d the r e i s n o n e e l se .

T he ph ra se " I ca ll yo u by na m e" (v . 4 ) is e spec ia l ly evoca t ive , ma tc h i ng exac t ly

th e s t a t e m e n t i n t h e Cy r u s Cy l in d e r : " He [ M a r d u k ] c a ll e d o u t h i s n a m e : Cy r u s ,

k in g of A n s h a n ; h e p r o c l a im e d h i s n a m e . " As we s h a l l s e e , t h e p o l e m ic b e tw e e n

th o s e b a c k in g M a r d u k th e h ig h - g o d o f t h e Ba b y lo n i a n s , a n d t h o s e b a c k in g t h e

Go d of t h e J e w s , e x t e n d e d f a r b e y o n d th e s e two p a s s a g e s .

T h e t w o p r o p h e c i e s c i t ed a b o v e d e r i v e f r o m a n a n o n y m o u s p r o p h e t w h o s e

o r a c l es h a v e b e e n a p p e n d e d t o I s ai a h 1 - 3 9 . W e d o n o t k n o w if I s ai a h 4 0 - 6 6

r e p r e s e n t s t h e w o r k of a s i n g le p r o p h e t o r o f m o r e t h a n o n e . M o s t s c h o la r s s u p -

p o s e t h a t two a u th o r s c o mp o s e d th i s s e c t i o n ; t h e y c a l l t h e a u th o r o f c h a p t e r s

4 0 - 5 5 " D e u t e r o - I s a ia h , " a n d t h e a u t h o r of c h a p t e r s 5 6 - 6 6 " T r it o -I s a ia h ." 3 (See

" Ou t o f M a n y , On e " i n c h a p t e r 1 7 . ) S c h o la r s h a v e r e a c h e d th i s c o n c lu s io n i n p a r t

b e c a u s e 4 0 - 5 5 i s a lmo s t e n t i r e ly c o n s o l a t i o n , a n d d o e s n o t re f le c t t h e r e tu r n t o

I s r a e l , wh e r e a s 5 6 - 6 6 d o e s r e f l e c t t h i s r e tu r n a n d in c lu d e s s u b s t a n t i a l r e b u k e .

Ex a c t ly h o w a n d wh y s o me o n e a t t a c h e d th e s e o r a c l e s t o t h o s e o f a n e a r l i e r

p r o p h e t is u n k n o w n ; 4 s c h o la r s a r e c e r t a in , h o we v e r , t h a t 4 0 - 6 6 d o e s n o t r e f l e c t

t h e wo r k o f t h e e ig h th - c e n tu r y I s a i a h s o n o f Amo z .

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Th e f o l l o win g s e c t i o n s w i l l t r e a t I s a i a h 4 0 - 6 6 a s o n e u n i t , e v e n t h o u g h th e

s a me h a n d ma y n o t h a v e wr i t t e n a l l o f t h a t s e c t i o n .

The Message of Deutero-Isaiah

C o m p a r e d t o p r e v i o u s p r o p h e t s , I s a i a h 4 0 - 6 6 p r e s e n t s m a n y n e w t h e m e s . S o m e

o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e d u e t o t h e u n iq u e h i s to r i c a l s e t t i n g of t h e p r o p h e c i e s ,

whi le o the r a spec ts re f lec t the ongo ing evo lu t ion o f I s rae l i t e re l ig ion . These pas -

s a g e s p l a c e t r e m e n d o u s e m p h a s i s o n " r a d i c a l m o n o t h e i s m " ( s e e n . 3 0 i n c h a p t e r

1 0 ) , wh ic h l i k e ly b e lo n g s t o t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y . W h e r e a s t h e s e n t ime n t s o f

D e u te r o n o m y 4 :3 5 ( "I t h a s b e e n c le a r ly d e m o n s t r a t e d t o y o u th a t t h e L O R D a l o n e

is God ; the re i s none bes ide Him") a re ra re in p reex i l ic t ex ts , 5 t h e y s u f f u s e t h i s

pa r t o f I sa iah . For ex am pl e , I sa iah 45 : 6 s imi la r ly no tes : " I am the L O R D a n d th e r e

i s n o n e e l s e ." Th e p r o p h e t a g a in a n d a g a in e q u a t e s p o ly th e i s t i c g o d s w i th t h e i r

i d o l s , d e p i c t i n g b o th a s p o we r l e s s f e t i s h e s . 6 T he fo l lo w ing sa rcas t ic passage i s

typ ica l :

( 4 4 :9 ) Th e m a k e r s o f i d o l s / A ll w o r k t o n o p u r p o s e ; / A n d th e t h in g s

they t rea su re / Can d o no g oo d , / As the y them se l ve s can te st ify . / Th ey

n e i th e r l o o k n o r t h i n k , / A n d s o t h e y s h a ll b e s h a m e d . / ( 1 0 ) W h o

w o u ld f a s h io n a g o d / O r c as t a s t a tu e / Th a t c a n d o n o g o o d ? / ( 1 1 ) Lo ,

a l l i t s a d h e r e n t s s h a l l b e s h a me d ; / Th e y a r e c r a f t s me n , a r e me r e ly

h u ma n . / Le t t h e m a l l a s s e mb le a n d s t a n d u p ! / Th e y s h a l l b e c o we d ,

and they sha l l be shamed . / (12 ) The c ra f t sman in i ron , wi th h i s too ls , /

W o r k s i t o v e r c h a r c o a l / An d f a s h io n s i t b y h a mme r in g , / W o r k in g w i th

the s t reng th o f h i s a rm. / Shou ld he go hungry , h i s s t reng th would ebb ; /S h o u l d h e d r i n k n o w a t e r, h e w o u l d g r o w f a i n t. / 1 3 ) T h e c r a f t s m a n i n

w o o d m e a s u r e s w i th a l i n e / A n d m a r k s o u t a s h a p e w i t h a s t y lu s ; / He

fo rms i t wi th sc rap ing too ls , / Mark ing i t ou t wi th a compass . / He g ives

it a h u m a n fo rm , / Th e bea u t y o f a m an , to dw el l in a sh r ine . / (14 ) F or

h is use he cu ts down cedars ; / He chooses p lane t rees and oaks . / He

se ts a s id e t rees o f the fo re s t ; / Or p l an ts f i rs , an d th e ra in ma ke s th em

grow. / (15 ) Al l th i s se rves m a n fo r fue l : / He tak es so m e to w ar m h i m -

se l f, / A nd he b u i ld s a f i re an d ba ke s b re ad . / He a l so ma ke s a god o f i t

an d w or sh ip s it , / Fa sh ion s an ido l an d bo w s do w n to it ! / (16 ) Pa r t o f

i t he b u r n s in a f i re : / O n th at p ar t he roas ts m ea t , / H e eats the roast

and i s sa ted ; / He a l so warms h imse l f and c r ie s , "Ah , / 1 a m w a r m ! I c a n

feel the hea t ! " / (17 ) Of the res t he m ak es a g o d — h is o w n ca rv ing ! / H e

bo w s do w n to it , w or sh ip s i t; / He p ra ys to i t an d c r ie s , / "Save m e , fo r

y o u a r e my g o d ! " / ( 1 8 ) Th e y h a v e n o w i t o r j u d g m e n t : / Th e i r e y e s a re

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b e s m e a r e d , a n d t h e y se e n o t ; / T h e i r m i n d s , a n d t h e y c a n n o t t h i n k . /

(19) They do not g ive thought , / They lack the wi t and judgment to say : /

"Par t of i t I b u r n e d in a f i re ; / I a lso ba k ed b re ad on th e coa ls , / I roa s t -

e d m e a t a nd a t e i t — / Sh ou l d 1 m a k e t he r e s t a n a bh or r e nc e ? / Sh ou l d

1 b o w t o a b l o c k o f w oo d? " / ( 20 ) H e pu r s u e s a s he s ! / A de l u de d m i n d

has l ed h im as t ray , / And he cannot save h imse l f ; / He neve r says to h im-

se l f , / "The th ing in my hand i s a f r aud!"

T h i s pa s s a ge , l i ke o t he r s i n t he book , i s un f a i r — i t c on f us e s t he de i t y w i t h t he

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e i t y . T h e M e s o p o t a m i a n s w h o w o r s h i p p e d t h e s t a t u e o f

Ma r duk d i d no t be l i e ve i t w a s r e a l l y Ma r duk . I n t he i r e ye s , t he s t a t ue s t ood f o r

M a r d u k , a n d M a r d u k m i g h t h a v e b e e n e s p e c i a l l y p r e s e n t i n i t , b u t t h e g o d w a s

n o t c o n f i n e d to t h e s t a tu e , a n d t h e st a t u e w a s n o t t h e g o d . ׳ N o n e t h e l e s s ,

D e u t e r o - I s a i a h de p i c t s o t he r gods i n t h i s po l e m i c a l f a s h i on i n o r de r t o a r gue

aga ins t the ex i s tence of a l l o the r de i t i e s .

D e u t e r o - I s a i a h a ls o e m p h a s i z e d t h a t th e G o d of I s r a e l — t h e o n l y G o d — i s

e x t r e m e l y p o w e r f u l . O n e o r a c l e u s e s t h e c o m p l e x i m a g e o f G o d t h e w a r r i o r , w h o

t r a m p l e s e n e m i e s a s f a r m e r s t r a m p l e g r a p e s t o m a k e w i n e :

(63 :3) I t rod o ut a v in tage a lon e ; / Of the pe op le s no m an w as w i th M e . /

I t r od t h e m d o w n i n My a nge r , / T r a m pl e d t he m i n My r a ge ; / T h e i r li f e-

b l ood be s pa t t e r e d My ga r m e n t s , / A nd a l l My c l o t h i ng w a s s t a i ne d . /

( 4 ) Fo r 1 h a d p l a n n e d a d a y o f v e n g e a n c e , / A n d M y y e a r o f r e d e m p t i o n

a r r i ve d . / ( 5 ) T he n I l oo ke d , bu t t he r e w a s n o n e t o he l p ; / I s t a r e d , b u t

t h e r e w a s n o n e t o a i d — / S o M y o w n a r m w r o u g h t t h e t r i u m p h , /

A nd My ow n r a ge w a s My a id . / ( 6 ) I t r a m pl e d pe op l e s i n My a nge r , / I

m a d e t h e m d r u n k w i t h M y r a ge , / A nd I hu r l e d t he i r g l o r y t o t heg r o u n d .

T i m e a nd a ga i n t he p r ophe t r e pe a t s t he t he m e o f Y H W H ' S pow e r , i n o r de r t o

c onv i nc e t he pe op l e t ha t G od doe s ha ve t he a b i l i t y t o r e t u r n t he m t o t he l a nd o f

I s r a e l . O t he r t e x t s r e c a l l G ods pa s t a c c om pl i s hm e n t s , a s a p r e l ude t o t he i r r e pe -

t i t i on i n t he ne a r f u t u r e :

( 51 : 9 ) A w a ke , a w a ke , c l o t he you r s e l f w i t h s p l e ndor . / Ο a r m of t h e

LORD! / Awak e as in d ay s of ol d, / As in f o rm er ages! / I t w as yo u th a t

ha c ke d R a ha b i n p i e c e s , / T ha t p i e r c e d t he D r a gon . / ( 10 ) I t w a s you

tha t d r ied u p the Sea , / Th e w a te r s of the grea t de ep ; / Th a t m ad e the

abysses of the Sea / A road the redeemed might wa lk . / (11) So le t the

r a n s o m e d o f t h e L O R D r e t u r n , / A n d c o m e w i t h s h o u t i n g t o Z i o n , /

C r o w ne d w i t h j oy e ve r l a s t i ng . / L et t h e m a t t a i n j o y a nd g l a d ne s s , /

W h i l e s o r r o w a n d s i g h i n g f l e e .

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This passage reca l l s an anc ien t I s rae l i t e myth , in which God c rea tes the wor ld

a n d b e c o m e s k i n g b y q u e l l i n g t h e w a t e r d e i t i e s . 8 Af te r s t a t i n g t h a t Go d w i l l s o o n

r e e n a c t t h i s a c t o f p r o we s s , t h e p r o p h e t a l l u d e s t o t h e E x o d u s ( w . 1 0 - 1 1 ) .

I n d e e d , t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e r e tu r n t o Z io n a s a n e w E x o d u s r u n s li ke a t h r e a d

th r o u g h th e f a b r i c o f D e u te r o - I s a i a h . 9 T h e G o d w h o h a s s h o w n u n m a t c h e d

p o w e r i n t h e s e t w o m o m e n t s — i n f o r m i n g t h e w o r l d a n d i n f o r m i n g I s r a e l — c a n

surely do i t again .

Not on ly God , bu t a l so I s rae l has a ma jo r ro le to p lay in the peop le ' s redemp-

t ion . G od i s s t r on g en ou g h to fu l f il l the pa r t o f red ee m er , bu t i s I s rae l dese rv ing ?

Like Ezek ie l ( see chap te r 19) , th i s p rophe t dea ls wi th the gu i l t tha t the ex i le s

m u s t h a v e f el t. Th i s p r o p h e t , t o o , a s s u a g e s t h e i r g u i l t , c o n v in c in g t h e m th a t t h e y

a r e wo r th y t o r e tu r n . A l r e a d y in t h e i n i t i a l p r o p h e c y , De u te r o - I s a i a h s u g g e s t s

tha t I s rael 's " te rm of se rv ice i s ove r . . . I he r in i qu i ty i s exp ia te d ; / For she ha s

rece ived a t the hand o f the L O R D / Doub le fo r a l l he r s ins" (40 :2 ) . Theo log ica l ly ,

t h i s is a n a u d a c i o u s a n d e v e n d i s t u r b i n g n o t i o n — J u d a h h a s b e e n " o v e r - p u n -

i shed" ! Sure ly , however , i t cou ld he lp a g roup wracked by gu i l t .

A n o th e r wa y th a t De u te r o - I s a i a h b o l s t e r s t h e c o n f i d e n c e o f t h e J u d e a n s i n

e x i le i s b y wr i t i n g t h e m in to t h e e t e r n a l , u n c o n d i t i o n a l c o v e n a n t g r a n t e d t o

Da v id : " Inc l ine yo ur ea r an d co m e to Me; / H ea rk en , and yo u sha l l be rev ived . /

A nd I wi l l m ak e wi th you [p lu ra l , me an in g , I s rae l a s a w ho le ] an ever las t ing

c o v e n a n t , / T h e e n d u r i n g lo y a lt y p r o m i s e d t o D a v i d " ( 5 5 : 3 ) . I s r a e l — r a t h e r t h a n

o n l y D a v i d ' s d e s c e n d a n t s — b e c o m e s t h e b e n e f i c i a r y o f D a v i d ' s c o v e n a n t . 1 0 T h e

p r o p h e t r e v a lu e s t h e Da v id i c c o v e n a n t b y d e mo c r a t i z in g i t t o a l l I s r a e l . No t s u r -

p r i si n g ly , t h e r e f o r e , D e u t e r o - I s a i a h — i n c o n t r a s t t o m o s t e a r l ie r c l as s ic a l

p r o p h e t s — n o w h e r e d e p i c t s a D a v i d i c d e s c e n d a n t a s t h e f u t u r e i d ea l k i n g .

I n s o me p l a c e s , I s a i a h 4 0 - 6 6 d e p i c t s a " k in d e r , g e n t l e r " d e i t y b y d e p i c t i n gG o d a s f e m a l e . 1 1 Th i s n e w im a g e r y h e lp e d c o n v in c e t h e J u d e a n s t h a t G o d , l i k e

a m o t h e r , w o u l d a i d t h e m , b y r e s t o r i n g t h e m t o t h e i r h o m e l a n d . T h e p r o p h e t

a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e c h a n g e n o t b y u s i n g f e m i n i n e v e r b s o r p r o n o u n s o f G o d

( w h i c h t h e Bi ble n e v e r e m p l o y s ) b u t b y u s i n g f e m i n i n e m e t a p h o r s a n d s i m i l e s

a s ima g e s o f Go d . F o r e x a mp le :

(49 :14) Zion says , / "The L O R D h a s f o r s a k e n me , / M y Lo r d h a s f o r g o t -

ten me ." / (15 ) Can a w o m a n fo rge t he r baby , / O r d i so w n the ch i ldo f h e r w o m b ? / T h o u g h s h e mig h t f o r g e t , / I n e v e r c o u l d f o r g e t y o u . /

(16 ) See, I hav e engra ved y ou / O n th e pa lm s of My ha nd s , / Your wa l l s

a re ever be fo re Me.

He r e Go d i s " Th e Ex c e l l e n t M o th e r " w h o c a r e s f o r h e r c h i l d r e n s o m u c h th a t

t h e i r p i c tu r e i s e n g r a v e d o r t a t t o o e d o n h e r p a lms . Ce r t ain ly , s u c h a d e v o te d

m o t h e r d e s e r v e s g r e a t tr u s t !

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Som e o f t he m os t r e m a r ka b l e pa s s a ge s i n D e u t e r o - I s a i a h he l p I s r a e l t o

u n d e r s t a n d w h y i t d e s e r v e s t o b e r e d e e m e d , e s p e c i a l l y p a s s a g e s c o n c e r n i n g a

" s u f f e r i n g s e r va n t . " T h a t s e r va n t ' s i de n t i t y m a y no t be c ons i s t e n t i n a ll o f t he pa s -

s a ge s t ha t i nvoke t h i s i m a ge . T he l onge s t s uc h pa s s a ge w ou l d l a t e r p l a y a s i gn i f -

i c a n t ro l e i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d ha s be e n a pa r t o f J e w i s h - C hr i s t i a n po l e m i c s

t h r oughou t t he a ge s . I t r e a ds :

( 5 3 : 1 ) " W h o c a n b el ie v e w h a t w e h a v e h e a r d ? / U p o n w h o m h a s t h e

a rm of the L O R D been revea led? / (2 ) For he has grown, by His f avor , l ike

a t r ee c rown, / L ike a t r ee t runk out of a r id ground. / He had no form

or be a u t y , t ha t w e s hou l d l ook a t h i m : / N o c ha r m , t ha t w e s hou l d f i nd

h i m p l e a s i ng . / ( 3 ) H e w a s de s p i s e d , s h u n n e d by m e n , / A m a n o f s u f -

fe r ing , f ami l i a r wi th d i sease . / As one who h id h i s f ace f rom us , / He was

de s p i s e d , w e he l d h i m o f no a c c oun t . / ( 4 ) Y e t i t w a s ou r s i c kne s s t ha t

h e w a s b e a r i n g , / O u r s u f f e r i n g t h a t h e e n d u r e d . / W e a c c o u n t e d h i m

p l a gu e d , / Sm i t t e n a n d a f f li c t e d by G o d ; / ( 5 ) B u t he w a s w o u n d e d

be c a us e o f ou r s i n s , / C r us he d be c a us e o f ou r i n i qu i t i e s . / H e bo r e t he

c ha s t i s e m e n t t ha t m a de us w ho l e , / A nd by h i s b r u i s e s w e w e r e he a l e d . /

( 6 ) W e a l l w e n t a s t r a y l i ke s he e p , / E a c h go i ng h i s ow n w a y ; / A nd t heL O R D vis i t ed u p o n h im / Th e gui l t of a ll o f us . " / (7 ) He w as m a l t r ea ted ,

ye t he w a s s ubm i s s i ve , / H e d i d no t ope n h i s m ou t h ; / L i ke a s he e p

be i ng l e d t o s l a ugh t e r , / L i ke a e w e , dum b be f o r e t hos e w ho s he a r he r , /

H e d i d n o t o p e n h i s m o u t h . / ( 8 ) By o p p r e s s i v e j u d g m e n t h e w a s t a k e n

a w a y , / W h o c ou l d d e s c r i be h i s a bo de ? / Fo r he w a s c u t o ff f r o m t he l a n d

o f t h e li v in g / T h r o u g h t h e s i n o f m y p e o p l e , w h o d e s e r v e d t h e p u n i s h -

m e n t . / ( 9 ) A nd h i s g r a ve w a s s e t a m ong t he w i c ke d , / A nd w i t h t he

r i c h , i n h i s d e a t h — / T h o u g h h e h a d d o n e n o i n j u s t i c e / A n d h a d s p o -

ke n no f a l s e hood . / ( 10 ) B u t t he L O R D c hos e t o c r us h h i m by d i s e a s e , /

Th a t , if he m ad e h im se l f an of f e r in g for gu i l t , / He mi gh t see of f sp r in g

a n d ha v e l on g l if e , / A nd t h a t t h r o ug h h i m t he L O R D ' S p u r p o s e m i g h t

pro sp e r . / (1 1) O u t of h i s ang ui sh h e sha l l s ee i t; / H e sha l l en jo y i t to

t h e f u l l t h r o u g h h i s d e v o t i o n . / " M y r ig h t e o u s s e r v a n t m a k e s t h e m a n y

r i gh t e ous , / I t i s t he i r pun i s hm e n t t ha t he be a r s ; / ( 12 ) A s s u r e d l y , I w i l l

g i ve h i m t he m a ny a s h i s po r t i on , / H e s ha l l r e c e i ve t he m u l t i t ude a s h i s

s p o i l. / F o r h e e x p o s e d h i m s e l f t o d e a t h / A n d w a s n u m b e r e d a m o n g t h e

s i nn e r s , / W he r e a s he bo r e t he gu il t o f t he m a n y / A nd m a d e i n t e r c e s -

s i on f o r s i nne r s . "

H e r e t he p r o ph e t d oe s no t s pe c i f y t he i de n t i t y o f t he s e r va n t . G i ve n t ha t

D e u t e r o - I s a i a h o f t e n ca l ls I s ra e l "m y s e r va n t " ( e . g ., "B u t he a r , now , Ο J a c o b My

s e r va n t , / I s r a e l w hom I ha ve c hos e n ! " i n 44 : 1 ) , t he s e r va n t m i gh t be I s r a e l a s a

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w h o l e . 1 2 B ut o t he r r e a d i ngs a r e a l s o p l a us i b l e . I s t he p r ophe t r e f e r r i ng t o a pa s t ,

p r e s e n t , o r f u t u r e f i gu r e? I s a n i nd i v i d ua l m e a n t , o r a c o l l ec t ive ? T h e s e qu e s t i on s

ha ve be e n t he s ub j e c t o f he a t e d de ba t e f o r c e n t u r i e s . D e f i n i t i ve a ns w e r s s e e m t ob e b e y o n d o u r r e a c h .

I n a n y c a s e, t h e te x t n e w l y e m p h a s i z e s a t y p e of v i c a r i o u s p u n i s h m e n t . T h a t

t he unna m e d s e r va n t s u f f e r e d f o r t he s a ke o f o t he r s ( 53 : 4 ) a nd w a s i n j u r e d ( v .

5 ) i n p u n i s h m e n t f o r t he i r gu i l t ( w . 6 , 11 - 1 2 ) is a n e x t r e m e ve r s i o n of t he c on -

cep t tha t Ezek ie l so f i rm ly re je c ted ( see "R efu t ing P op ul a r Be l ie f s" in ch ap te r 19) .

From a h i s tor ica l pe r spec t ive , i t i s l ike ly tha t the ex i le s ' excess ive gui l t i s wha t

e vo ke d t h i s the o l o g i c a l i de a . A s w i t h t he a n nu a l s c a pe go a t ritual i n t he no w - v a n -

i s he d T e m pl e ( s e e L e v i t i c us 16 ) , t he y c ou l d unde r s t a nd t he i r gu i l t a s ha v i ngb e e n t r a n s f e r r e d o n t o a n o t h e r p a r t y .

Cognit ive Dissonance

A s w e h a v e s e e n , s o m e of t h e p r o p h e c i e s in Is a ia h 4 0 - 6 6 d i d c o m e t r u e , e s p e -

d a l l y t h o s e c o n c e r n i n g C y r u s , t h e c o n q u e r o r o f B a b y l o n w h o r e d e e m e d t h e

e x i le d J u d e a n s . H o w e v e r , m a n y o r a c l e s d i d n o t c o m e t r u e . F o r e x a m p l e , m o s t o f

t h e J u d e a n s d i d n o t r e t u r n t o t h e i r a n c e s t r a l l a n d . T h o s e w h o d i d o f t e n d i d n o t

e n j o y t h e e a s y j o u r n e y t h a t t h e p r o p h e t p r e d i c t e d :

(40:3) A voice r ings ou t : "Clea r in the dese r t / A road for the L O R D ! /

Leve l in the wi lde rness / A h ighway for our God! / (4 ) Le t eve ry va l l ey

be r a i s e d , / E ve r y h il l a n d m o u n t m a d e low . / L e t t he r ug ge d g r ou nd

be c o m e l e vel / A nd t he r i dge s be c o m e a p l a i n . / ( 5 ) T h e P r e s e nc e o f t he

L O R D s ha l l a ppe a r , / A nd a l l f l e s h , a s one , s ha l l be ho l d— / Fo r t he L O R D

H i m s e l f ha s s p ok e n . " . . . / ( 9 ) A s c e n d a l o f t y m o u n t a i n , / Ο he r a l d o f

j o y t o Z i on ; / R ai se yo u r vo i c e w i t h p ow e r , / Ο he r a l d o f j oy t o

J e r u s a l e m — / R a is e i t, ha v e no f e a r ; / A nn ou n c e t o t he c i ti e s o f J u da h : /

B e h o l d yo u r G od! / ( 10 ) B e h o l d , t he L or d G OD c o m e s i n m i gh t , / A n d

H i s a r m w i ns t r i um ph f o r H i m ; / Se e , H i s r e w a r d i s w i t h H i m , / H i s r e c -

o m p e n s e b e f o r e H i m . / (1 1 ) L i ke a s h e p h e r d H e p a s t u r e s H i s f l o c k : / H e

ga t h e r s t he l a m bs i n H i s a r m s / A nd c a r r i e s t h e m i n H i s bo s o m ; / G e n t l yH e d r i v e s t h e m o t h e r s h e e p .

F o r t h e h a r d - p r e s s e d r e t u r n e e s , t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h a t p r o p h e c y a n d t h e i r r e a l i t y

m u s t h a v e b e e n u n s e t t l i n g , p r o m p t i n g n o t o n l y d i s a p p o i n t m e n t b u t c o g n i t i v e

d i s s o n a n c e .1 3

T h e p r o p h e t i c t e x t s w e w i l l n o w c o n s i d e r u s e s e v e r a l a p p r o a c h e s t o c o m b a t

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t h e p e r c e iv e d d i s s o n a n c e . On e a p p r o a c h is t o r e in t e r p r e t t h e p r o p h e c i e s o f c o n -

so l a t io n so tha t they rem ain t ru e . A s im ple in s tan ce o f th i s ap pe ar s in the sec -

ond chap te r o f Hagga i , one o f the "minor" ( tha t i s , shor t ) p rophe t ic t ex ts ( see n .

18 in ch ap te r 2 ) . He exp l ic i t ly reco gn iz es the fa i lu res o f the res to ra t io n : "W ho i s

th e r e le f t a m o n g y o u w h o s a w th i s H o u s e i n i ts f o r m e r s p l e n d o r ? H o w d o e s i t

l o o k to y o u n o w? I t mu s t s e e m l i k e n o th in g t o y o u " ( 2 :3 ) . Ye t , h e c o n t in u e s b y

g iv in g a p r o mis e :

(2 :6 ) For thus sa id the L O R D of H ost s : In ju s t a l it t le w hile l on ge r I wil l

sh ak e the heav en s an d the ea r th , the sea an d the d ry land ; (7 ) I wi l l

shake a l l the na t ions . And the p rec ious th ings o f a l l the na t ions sha l l

co m e he re , an d I wi l l fi ll th i s H ou se w i th g lo ry , sa id the L O R D of Hos ts .

(8 ) S i lve r i s Mine and go ld i s Mine—says the L O R D of Hos ts . (9 ) The

g lo ry o f th i s l a t te r House sha l l be g rea te r than tha t o f the fo rmer one ,

sa id the L O R D of Hos ts ; and in th i s p lace 1 wi l l g r a n t p r o s p e r i t y —

d e c la r e s t h e L O R D of Hos ts .

Th e k e y p h r a s e h e r e i s " In j u s t a l it tl e wh i l e l o n g e r " — th e i d e a l f u tu r e h a s c l e a r -

ly no t a r r ived , bu t i t i s a round the co rner . 1 4 Ha g g a i ' s e a r ly p r o p h e c i e s s e e m to

h a v e b e e n i n s t r u me n ta l i n s p u r r in g t h e r e b u i ld in g t h e S e c o n d Te mp le . ( W e wi l l

e x a min e mo r e e x a mp le s o f t h e r e in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e a r l i e r o r a c l e s i n t h e n e x t

c h a p te r o n Da n ie l a n d a p o c a ly p t i c l i t e r a tu r e . )

A s e c o n d a p p r o a c h to r e li e v e c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e is t o i g n o r e t h e d i s c r e p -

a n c i e s , f o c u s in g i n s t e a d o n t h e t h e m e of r e t r i b u t io n . Th i s is e s p e c i a l ly o b v io u s

i n E z r a - N e h e m i a h . ^ F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n N e h e m i a h s a w t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e n o t

p r o p e r ly o b s e r v in g t h e S a b b a th , h e " c e n s u r e d t h e n o b le s o f J u d a h , s a y in g t o

th e m , W h a t e v i l t h in g is t h i s t h a t y o u a r e d o i n g , p r o f a n in g t h e s a b b a t h d a y ! Th i si s j u s t w h a t y o u r a n c e s to r s d id , a n d f o r it G o d b r o u g h t a ll t h i s m i s f o r t u n e o n t h i s

c i ty ; a n d n o w y o u g iv e c a u s e f o r f u r th e r w r a th a g a in s t I s r ae l b y p r o f a n in g t h e

s a b b a th ! ' " ( N e h . 1 3 :1 7 - 1 8 ) . Th e s e v e r s e s m o s t l i ke ly a l l u d e to J e r e m ia h 1 7 :2 7 :

" Bu t if y o u d o n o t o b e y M y c o m m a n d to h a l l o w th e s a b b a th d a y a n d to c a r r y i n

n o b u rd en s th ro ug h the ga tes o f Je ru sa le m o n the sab ba th day, th en I wi l l se t f i re

to it s ga tes ; i t sha l l co n su m e th e fo r t re sses o f Je ru sa le m an d i t sha l l no t be ex t in -

g u i s h e d . " E z r a - N e h e m i a h s e m p h a s i s is n o t o n th e c o n s o l a t i o n s b u t o n t h e

p r o p h e c i e s of r e t r i b u t i o n o f p r e v i o u s p r o p h e t s , a n d i ts m a i n c o n c e r n i s m a k i n g

sure tha t a l rea dy fu l f i l l ed p r op he c i es wi l l no t hav e a rea son to be fu l f i l l ed aga in .

I n t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h r e t r i b u t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s o f E z r a - N e h e m i a h w e r e s o m e -

t ime s s t r i n g e n t , " ma k in g a f e n c e a r o u n d th e To r a h " ( s e e " S o lo mo n " i n c h a p te r

1 3 ) . Ez ra 's b l a n k e t p r o s c r i p t i o n o f i n t e r ma r r i a g e i s a s t r o n g e x a m p le o f th i s .

Ea r l ie r s o u r c e s h a d f o r b i d d e n v a r io u s s p e c i f i c g r o u p s a s ma r r i a g e p a r tn e r s

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( i b id . ) ; n o s u c h te x t h a d a d v o c a t e d e x p e l l i n g t h e c h i l d r e n o f a n i n t e r m a r r i e d

c o u p le f r o m th e c o m m u n i ty . Bu t Ez r a 9 :2 n o t e s : " Th e y h a v e t a k e n th e i r d a u g h -

te r s a s wiv es fo r the m se l ve s and fo r the i r son s , so tha t the ho ly seed has b ec om ein t e r min g le d w i th t h e p e o p le s o f t h e l a n d . " 1 6 Ac c o r d in g t o t h a t b o o k , t h e J e ws

ma d e a c o v e n a n t t o e x p e l n o t o n ly t h e s e f o r e ig n w iv e s , b u t a l s o " th o s e wh o h a v e

be en b o rn to th em " (Ezra 10 :3 ) . Th is dec is ion g rew ou t o f a c lose s tu dy o f Tora h

a n d p r o p h e t i c t e x t s , 1 7 c o m b i n e d w i th a g r e a t c o n c e r n b y s o m e th a t t h e e x il e a n d

th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Te mp le n o t b e r e p e a t e d .

One Important Implication

This su rvey o f pos tex i l ic l i t e ra tu re sugges t s tha t the peop le in tha t pe r iod s tud-

ied Torah an d o th e r t ex ts c lose ly . Th is ima ge is co r ro bo ra t ed b y the de sc r ip t io n

i n N e h e m i a h o f t h e g r e at c o v e n a n t m a d e in J e r u s a l e m , w h e r e

( 8 :1 ) t h e e n t i r e p e o p le a s s e mb le d a s o n e ma n in t h e s q u a r e b e f o r e t h e

Wate r Ga te , and they asked Ezra the sc r ibe to b r ing the sc ro l l o f the

Te a c h in g o f M o s e s w i th wh ic h t h e L O R D h a d c h a r g e d I sr a el . . . . ( 5 ) Ezraopened the sc ro l l in the s igh t o f a l l the peop le , fo r he was above a l l the

p e o p le ; a s h e o p e n e d i t , a ll t h e p e o p le s to o d u p . . . . ( 8 ) Th e y r e a d f r o m

the sc ro l l o f the Teach ing o f God , t rans la t ing i t and g iv ing the sense ; so

t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e r e a d i n g .

As the passag e co n t in ue s , we lea rn tha t spec i f ic sec t ion s we re read an d l i s-

t e n e d to c a r e fu l l y , a n d t h e n im p l e m e n te d . F o r e x a m p le , t h e p e o p le c e l e b r a t e d

d w e l l i n g i n b o o t h s d u r i n g S u k k o t , a f t e r t h e s c r ib e s r e a d a lo u d th e s e c t i o n a b o u tthe re levan t r i t e s : "They found wr i t t en in the Teach ing tha t the L O R D h a d c o m -

ma n d e d M o s e s t h a t t h e I s r a e l i t e s mu s t d we l l i n b o o th s d u r in g t h e f e s t i v a l o f t h e

s e v e n th mo n th " ( v . 1 4 ) .

To u n d e r s t a n d th e d iv in e w i l l , s u c h t e x t s s u g g e s t , p r o p h e c y wa s n o l o n g e r

n e c e s s a r y . O l d , a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e x t s — t h e T o r a h a n d t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s , w h i c h

b e c a m e s o i m p o r t a n t in t h e e x il ic p e r i o d — r e t a i n e d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e a n d c o u l d

b e s tu d i e d t o d e t e r m in e t h e d iv in e w il l a s i t a p p l i e d t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a -

t i o n . Th e p r o p h e t i c imp u l s e d id n o t s t o p a t t h a t p o in t , 1 8 but , as we wil l see in

t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , p r o p h e c y w e n t t h r o u g h r e m a r k a b l e c h a n g e s .

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21"Those That Sleep in the Dust . . .Wil l Awake"

Zechar iah , Apoca lypt ic Li terature , and Danie l

Primary Reading: Zechariah 1,2, 5, 7, 8; Daniel 1-6, 8, 9, 12.

Zechariah Stands on a Cusp

Z e c h a r i a h a n d t he C l a s s i c a l P r o p h e t s

Th e f i r st p a r t of Z e c h a r i a h ( c h a p s . 1 - 8 ) f o r m s a l i t e r a r y u n i t c o m p o s e d a l it -

t i e m o r e t h a n 2 5 0 0 y e a r s a g o , i n t h e l a t e s i x th c e n tu r y B. C. E . The re s t o f the

b o o k s e e m s u n r e l a t e d t o t h i s fi rs t p a r t ; o n t h o s e g r o u n d s , it s e e m s t h a t a l at e r

e d i t o r a d d e d t h e l a t t er p a r t ( j u s t a s s o m e o n e a f f i x e d I s ai a h 4 0 - 6 6 t o o r a c l e s b y

th e e a r l i e r p r o p h e t I s a i a h s o n o f A m o z ; s e e "O u t o f M a n y , O n e " i n c h a p t e r 1 7 ) .1

I n t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l f o c u s o n ly o n t h e f i rs t p o r t i o n o f t h e b o o k .

Z e c h a r i a h 1 - 8 s h a r e m a n y f e a t u r e s w i t h t h e c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t i c b o o k s ( s e ea b o v e , c h a p t e r s 1 5 - 1 9 , e s p . c h a p t e r 1 6 ) . Z e c h a r i a h e m p l o y s m a n y o f c l as s ic a l

p r o p h e c y ' s t y p i c a l f o r m u l a s , s u c h a s ne'um YHWH ( " — d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D " ) a n d ko

amar YHWH ( " T h u s s a i d t h e L O R D : " ) . L i k e t h e c l as s ic a l p r o p h e t s , Z e c h a r i a h

d e p i c t s G o d a s u n i v e r s a l ( " T h e m a n y p e o p l e s a n d t h e m u l t i t u d e of n a t i o n s s h a ll

c o m e t o s e e k t h e L O R D o f H o s t s in J e r u s a l e m a n d t o e n t r e a t t h e f a v o r o f t h e

LORD"; 8 : 2 2 ) . T h e s e p r o p h e c i e s p r e s u m e a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n I s ra e l

a n d it s G o d t h a t e n t a i l s o b l i g a t i o n s o n t h e p a r t o f e a c h p a r t y ( "T u r n b a c k t o

m e — s a y s t h e L O R D o f H o s t s — a n d I w i l l t u r n b a c k t o y o u " ; 1 :3 ) . I s ra e l' s o b l i g a -

t i o n s i n c lu d e e th i c a l a s w e l l a s c u l t i c r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s ( "T h e s e a r e t h e t h in g s y o u

a r e t o d o : S p e a k t h e t r u t h t o o n e a n o t h e r , r e n d e r t r u e a n d p e r f e c t j u s t i c e i n y o u r

g a t e s . A n d d o n o t c o n t r i v e e v il a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r , a n d d o n o t l o v e p e r j u r y ,

b e c a u s e al l t h o s e a r e t h i n g s t h a t I h a t e — d e c l a r e s t h e LORD"; 8 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) . A l t h o u g h

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Z e c h a r i a h n e v e r u s e s t h e cl a s s i c al p r o p h e t ' s p h r a s e "D a y of t h e LO RD ," h e s e e m s

t o h a v e t h a t n o t i o n i n m i n d ( " I n t h a t d a y m a n y n a t i o n s w i l l a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s t o

t h e L O R D a n d b e c o m e H i s p e o p l e , a n d H e w i l l d w e l l i n y o u r m i d s t . T h e n y o u

w i l l k n o w th a t I w a s s e n t t o y o u b y t h e L O R D o f H o s t s " ; 2 : 1 5 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o

Z e c h a r i a h , t h i s d a y w i ll b e a r a t h e r p e a c e f u l , p r o - I s r a e l o c c a s i o n .

T h u s Z e c h a r i a h s u b s c r i b e s t o f o u r o f t h e f iv e m a i n i d e a s o f c l as s ic a l p r o p h e -

cy . A t t h e s a m e t im e , h e s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r s t h e f i f t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i d e a — a b o u t a

" r e m n a n t . " E a rl ie r p r o p h e t s h a d p r e d i c t e d t h e r e t u r n of a r e m n a n t , b u t

Z e c h a r i a h n e v e r d o e s s o . W h y n o t ? B e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s g e n e r a t i o n ,

w h i c h h a s e x p e r i e n c e d b o t h e x il e a n d r e t u r n , is the remnant. T h i s i d e a a p p e a r s

s e v e r a l t im e s :

( 8 : 6 ) T h u s s a i d t h e L O R D o f H o s t s : T h o u g h i t w i l l s e e m i m p o s s i b l e t o

th e r e m n a n t o f t h i s p e o p l e i n t h o s e d a y s , s h a l l it a l s o b e im p o s s ib l e t o

M e ? — d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D o f H o s t s .

( 8 : 1 1 ) B u t n o w I w i l l n o t t r e a t t h e r e m n a n t o f t h i s p e o p l e a s b e f o r e —

d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D of H o s t s — ( 1 2 ) b u t w h a t it s o w s s h a l l p r o s p e r : T h e

v i n e s h a l l p r o d u c e i ts f r u i t , t h e g r o u n d s h a l l p r o d u c e i ts y i e l d , a n d t h e

s k i e s s h a l l p r o v i d e t h e i r m o i s t u r e . 1 w i l l b e s t o w a ll t h e s e t h i n g s u p o n

t h e r e m n a n t o f t h i s p e o p l e .

F o r Z e c h a r i a h , t h e r e i s n o f u t u r e r e m n a n t b e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e s t h a t h e i s a l r e a d y

l i v in g i n t h a t f u tu r e .

B e c a u s e Z e c h a r i a h h a s i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f as p a r t o f t h e r e m n a n t t h a t o t h e r s

p r o p h e s i e d a b o u t , h e u s e s p h r a s e s t h a t s et h i m a p a r t f r o m e a r l ie r p r o p h e t s . K e y

a m o n g t h e s e is t h e i d e a o f " t h e e a r l ie r p r o p h e t s " — f o u n d o n l y i n t h i s b o o k —

w h i c h Z e c h a r i a h u s e s t h r e e t i m e s :

( 1 : 4 ) D o n o t b e l i k e y o u r f a t h e r s ! F o r w h e n t h e e a r l i e r p r o p h e t s c a l l e d

t o t h e m , " T h u s s a i d t h e L O R D o f H o s t s : C o m e , t u r n b a c k f r o m y o u r e v il

w a y s a n d y o u r e vi l d e e d s , " t h e y d i d n o t o b e y o r g i ve h e e d t o M e —

d e c l a r e s t h e L O R D .

( 7 :7 ) L o o k , t h i s i s t h e m e s s a g e t h a t t h e L O R D p r o c l a i m e d t h r o u g h t h e

e a rl i er p r o p h e t s , w h e n J e r u s a l e m a n d th e t o w n s a b o u t h e r w e r e p e o p l e da n d t r a n q u i l , w h e n t h e N e g e b a n d t h e S h e p h e l a h w e r e p e o p l e d .

( 7 : 1 2 ) T h e y h a r d e n e d t h e i r h e a r t s li k e a d a m a n t a g a i n st h e e d i n g t h e

i n s t r u c t i o n a n d a d m o n i t i o n t h a t t h e L O R D o f H o s t s s e n t t o t h e m b y H i s

s p i r i t t h r o u g h t h e e a r l i er p r o p h e t s ; a n d a t e r r i b l e w r a t h i s s u e d f r o m t h e

L O R D o f H o s t s .

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G i v e n t h a t c l a s si c a l , p r e e x i l i c p r o p h e c y la s t e d a l o n g w h i l e — a t l e a s t t w o

h u n d r e d y e a r s — i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t n o n e o f t h e p r o p h e t s p r i o r to Z e c h a r i a h e v e r

r e f e r r e d t o h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s a s a g r o u p . H e i s t h e f i r s t p r o p h e t w e s e e l o o k i n g

b a c k a n d s t u d y i n g e a r li e r o r a c l e s , a n d v i e w i n g t h e s e o r a c l e s a s a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e

b o d y o f w o r k c o m i n g f r o m a c o l le c t iv e s o u r c e .

A n o t h e r si g n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n Z e c h a r i a h a n d e a r li e r p r o p h e t s is t h a t

a n a n g e l m e d i a t e s h i s v i s i o n s . V i s i o n s t y p i f y c l a s si c a l p r o p h e c y , b u t t h e s e u s u a l -

l y o r i g i n a t e w i t h G o d , a s i n A m o s ( " T h i s i s w h a t m y L o r d G OD s h o w e d m e " ; 7 : 1 )

a n d J e r e m i a h ( " T h e w o r d o f t h e L O R D c a m e t o m e : W h a t d o y o u s e e , J e r e m i a h ?

I r e p l i e d : I s e e a b r a n c h o f a n a l m o n d t r e e" ; 1 : 1 1 ) . Z e c h a r i a h s v i s i o n s a r e q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t ; t h e p r o p h e t r e c o u n t s t h a t " t h e a n g e l w h o t a l k e d w i t h m e " ( 5 : 5 a n de l s e w h e r e ) w h o e x p l a i n e d w h a t h e w a s s e e i n g a n d c o n v e y e d d i v i n e w o r d s t o

h i m . 2 P e r h a p s s u c h m e d i a t i o n e x p r e s s e s a m o r e d i s t a n t s e n s e of G o d . M o r e o v e r ,

u n l i k e t h e v i s i o n s o f t h e cl a s si c a l p r o p h e t s , w h i c h h a d t e n d e d t o i n v o l v e e v e r y -

d a y i t e m s w h o s e s y m b o l i s m is f a ir ly t r a n s p a r e n t , Z e c h a r i a h s v i s io n s a r e o f t e n

s t r a n g e : "I l o o k e d u p a g a in a n d s a w t w o w o m e n c o m e s o a r i n g w i t h t h e w i n d i n

t h e i r w i n g s — t h e y h a d w i n g s l ik e t h o s e of a s t o r k — a n d c a r r y o ff t h e t u b b e t w e e n

e a r t h a n d s k y " ( 5 : 9 ) .

Z e c h a r i a h a n d t h e B e g i n n i n g s o f A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e

S o m e o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h Z e c h a r i a h f r o m c l a ss i ca l p r o p h e c y t y p i f y

a p o c a l y p t i c l it e r a t u r e , a g e n r e t h a t p r o b a b l y d e v e l o p e d s o o n a f te r Z e c h a r i a h s

l i f e t i m e — t h a t i s, i n t h e e a r l y S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . ( T h e a d j e c t i v e " a p o c a l y p -

t ic " a n d t h e n o u n " a p o c a l y p s e " d e r i v e f r o m t h e G r e e k apokalypsis, " to u n c o v e r o rr e v e a l . " ) S i n c e t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s c h o l a r s h a v e u s e d " a p o c a l y p t i c " a s

a g e n r e l a b e l i n v a r i o u s o v e r l a p p i n g w a y s . I p r e f e r t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n :

A g e n r e of r e v e l a t o r y l it e r a t u r e w i t h a n a r r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , i n w h i c h a

r e v e l a t io n is m e d i a t e d b y a n o t h e r w o r l d l y b e i n g to a h u m a n r e c i p i e n t ,

d i s c l o s i n g a t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l it y w h i c h i s b o t h t e m p o r a l , i n s o f a r a s it

e n v i s a g e s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n , a n d s p a t i a l , i n s o f a r a s it i n v o l v e s

a n o t h e r , s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d .ן

M a n y p a r t s o f Z e c h a r i a h 1 - 8 fi t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n : 4 t h e s e p r o p h e c i e s a r e r e v e l a t o r y ;

t h e y te ll a s t o r y ; t h e y f e a t u r e a n a n o n y m o u s a n g e l a s m e d i a t o r ; a n d t h e y d i v u l g e

t h e i r r e v e l a t i o n s t o t h e v e r y h u m a n Z e c h a r i a h . T h e i r " t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t y e n v i s -

a g e s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n , " e s p e c i a l l y i n c h a p t e r 8 , w h i c h i m a g i n e s a n e w

J e r u s a l e m ( " J e r u s a l e m w i l l b e c a l l e d t h e C i t y o f F a i t h f u l n e s s , a n d t h e m o u n t o f

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t h e L O R D o f H o s t s t h e H o l y M o u n t " ; v . 3 ) . H o w e v e r , Z e c h a r i a h d o e s n o t c le a r ly

i m a g i n e " a n o t h e r , s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s o t h e r a p o c a l y p t i c

t e x t s l i k e E n o c h , D a n i e l , 4 E z r a , a n d 2 B a r u c h .5

T h e o r ig in s o f t h i s g e n r e , a l o n g w i th i t s a u th o r s ' p l a c e i n s o c i e ty , a r e o b s c u r e .

A p o c a l y p s e m a y h a v e it s r o o t s i n e a r l i e r C a n a a n i t e a n d I s ra e l it e m y t h i c a l t r a d i -

t i o n s , a n d i n p r e e x i l i c p r o p h e c y . P e r s i a n m o t i f s p r o b a b l y al s o i n f l u e n c e d t h e

g e n r e .6

A t a n y r a t e , a p o c a l y p t i c i d e a s w e n t o n t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e i n J u d a i s m

d u r i n g t h e P e r s i a n a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s . T h e y a l s o h a d a m a j o r i m p a c t o n

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .7

Daniel

D a n i e l i s a s h o r t b o o k t h a t b o a s t s s o m e u n u s u a l f e a t u r e s . A l t h o u g h m u c h o f i t i s

i n H e b r e w , t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n ( 2 : 4 b t h o u g h e n d o f c h a p . 8 ) i s i n t h e r e la t e d l a n -

g u a g e of A r a m a i c — t h e l i n g u a f ra n c a o f t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t — w h i c h w a s w i d e -

l y s p o k e n i n I s ra e l d u r i n g t h i s t i m e p e r i o d . ( W e d o n o t k n o w w h y t h e b o o k i s

w r i t t e n i n t w o l a n g u a g e s . ) M o r e o v e r , i t i s c o m p o s e d o f t w o f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f -

f e r e n t g e n r e s t h a t o v e r l a p t h e l a n g u a g e t r a n s i t i o n s : s t o r i e s ( c h a p s . 1 - 6 ) a n d

a p o c a l y p s e s ( c h a p s . 7 - 1 2 ) .

T h e H i s t o r i c a l S e t t i n g

S o m e o f t h e b o o k ' s c l a im s a r e a t o d d s w i th h i s t o r i c a l f a c t :

• D a n i e l d e p i c t s t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , M e d e s , P e r s i a n s , a n d G r e e k s a s f o u r

c o n s e c u t i v e e m p i r e s ( c h a p . 2 ) ; h o w e v e r , s o m e of t h o s e s t a t e s e x i s t e d

c o n c u r r e n t l y .

• It t a l k s a b o u t N e b u c h a d n e z z a r ' s b e i n g e x i le d f r o m h i s k i n g d o m ( c h a p .

4 ) ; t h i s p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s e v e n t s i n v o l v i n g t h e la s t k i n g o f B a b y l o n ,

N a b o n i d u s , w h o t o o k a " le a ve o f a b s e n c e " f r o m b e i n g k i n g a n d l iv e d i n

a n o a s i s o n t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a .

• I t de p i c t s Be ls hazza r a s the l a s t k in g o f Ba byl on (cha p . 5 ) ; th i s i s an e r ro r .

S o m e o n e l i v i n g i n t h e B a b y l o n i a n ex i l e w o u l d n o t h a v e m a d e t h e s e k i n d o f m i s -

t a k e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , D a n i e l ' s p u r p o r t e d s e t t i n g d u r i n g t h e B a b y l o n i a n e x i l e ( s e e

c h a p . 4 ) i s n o t p l a u s ib l e ; t h e b o o k m u s t b e f r o m a l a t e r e r a . I n f a c t, it e m p l o y s

G r e e k l o a n w o r d s ( e . g . , sumfoniah o r " b a g p i p e s , " r e l a t e d t o t h e E n g l i s h w o r d

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" s y m p h o n y , " a p p e a r s i n 3 : 5 ) , w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t s o m e o n e w r o t e it d u r i n g t h e

G r e e k p e r i o d . 8

W h a t t h e V i s i o n s A d d r e s s

T h u s f a r w e h a v e s e e n t h a t D a n i e l is a c o m p o s i t e t e x t o f d u b i o u s h i s t o r i c i t y f r o m

d i f f e r e n t g e n r e s .

A s n o t e d a b o v e , t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f D a n i e l c o m p r i s e s a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n s .

C h a p t e r 8 i s a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e o f t h a t g e n r e : " r e v e l a t o r y l it e r a t u r e . . . i n w h i c h

a r e v e l a t i o n is m e d i a t e d b y a n o t h e r w o r l d l y b e i n g . "9

H e r e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h ea p o c a l y p s e i n Z e c h a r i a h , t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y i s a c t u a l l y n a m e d : t h e a n g e l G a b r i e l

(v. 1 6 ) . T h i s p a s s a g e r e v e a l s a " t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t y" th a t is b o t h " t e m p o r a l " a n d

" s p a t i a l l y " d i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r w o r l d . W e c a n e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t s o m e p a r t s o f t h e

v i s i o n — f o r e x a m p l e , s c h o l a r s a g r e e o n t h e m e a n i n g of v e r s e 8 , " T h e n t h e h e -

g o a t g r e w v e r y g r e a t , b u t a t t h e p e a k o f h i s p o w e r h i s b i g h o r n w a s b r o k e n . I n

i ts p l a c e , f o u r c o n s p i c u o u s h o r n s s p r o u t e d t o w a r d t h e f o u r w i n d s of h e a v e n " : t h e

" h e - g o a t " is A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t , a n d t h e " f o u r c o n s p i c u o u s h o r n s " r e p r e s e n t t h e

f o u r g e n e r a l s w h o s u c c e e d e d h i m . 1 0

T h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e p a s s a g e d e a l s , i n n o t - s o - v e i l e d l a n g u a g e , w i t h

A n t i o c h u s IV E p i p h a n e s , th e G r e e k k i n g w h o i n 1 6 7 B.C .E . t o o k t h e u n p r e c e -

d e n t e d s t e p of c o n v e r t i n g t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e i n t o a t e m p l e f o r Z e u s , w h i l e

p r o h i b i t i n g c e n t r a l J e w i s h p r a c t i c e s . ( W e k n o w li t tl e a b o u t w h y h e d i d s o . M o s t

G r e e k k i n g s , l i k e t h e i r P e r s i a n p r e d e c e s s o r s , w e r e q u i t e t o l e r a n t o f l o c a l r e l i -

g i o n s . ) O t h e r s o u r c e s t e l l u s t h a t h e s u s p e n d e d t h e r e g u l a r T e m p l e o f f e r i n g s ; t h i s

i s r e f l e c t e d w h e n D a n i e l h e a r s m e n t i o n o f a c u r r e n t c r i s is , " t h e r e g u l a r o f f e r i n g .. . f o r s a k e n b e c a u s e of t r a n s g r e s s i o n " (v. 13 ) . T h u s , s o m e o n e w r o t e d o w n t h i s

v i s i o n a f t e r 1 6 7 ( w h e n A n t i o c h u s t o o k c o n t r o l o f t h e T e m p l e ) b u t b e f o r e 1 6 4

( w h e n th e H a s m o n e a n s r e s t o r e d t h e T e m p l e f o l l o w i n g t h e M a c c a b e a n v i c t o r y ) .

P r o b a b l y m u c h — i f n o t a l l — o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c m a t e r i a l i n D a n i e l w a s w r i t t e n

a r o u n d t h a t t i m e .

I n v e r s e 1 9 o f t h a t c h a p t e r , a n a n g e l i c f i g u r e t e l l s D a n i e l : "I a m g o i n g t o

i n f o r m y o u o f w h a t w il l h a p p e n w h e n w r a t h i s a t a n e n d , " c o n t i n u i n g : ki le-mo'ed

ketz ( ץ ק ד ע ו מ ל יכ , " f o r [it r e f e r s ] t o t h e t i m e a p p o i n t e d f o r t h e e n d " ) . T h i s v e r s e

i s p i c k i n g u p o n t h e v o c a b u l a r y of H a b a k k u k 2 : 3 : " F o r t h e r e is y e t a p r o p h e c y

la-mo'ed ( ד ע ו מ ל , ' f o r a s e t t e r m ' ) , / A t r u t h f u l w i t n e s s f o rketz ( ץ ק , 'a t i m e ' ) t h a t

w i l l c o m e . " T h u s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e B o o k of D a n i e l p r e s e n t s t h i s p a s s a g e a s a n e w

p r o p h e c y , i t r e l a t e s t o a n o l d e r p r o p h e c y .

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2 1 4 H o w t o R e a d t h e B i b l e

R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d C r e a t i v e P h i l o l o g y

R e f e r r i n g t o m u c h e a r l i e r o r a c l e s r e p r e s e n t s a s h i f t i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f i d e a s

a b o u t p r o p h e c y . A s t h e J e w s w h o i n h e r i t e d o l d p r o p h e c i e s c a m e t o b e l i e v e t h a t

t h e y c o u l d b e s t u d i e d in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i v i n e w i l l i n t h e p r e s e n t , n e w

p r o p h e c i e s s e e m e d t o b e le s s a n d l e ss n e c e s sa r y .

T h e a p o c a l y p s e o f D a n i e l 9 r e c o r d s a n i m p o r t a n t s t a g e i n t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t .

T h e r e , D a n i e l " c o n s u l t e d t h e b o o k s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n u m b e r of y e a r s t h a t , a c c o r d -

i n g t o t h e w o r d o f t h e L O R D t h a t h a d c o m e t o J e r e m i a h t h e p r o p h e t , w e r e t o b e

t h e t e r m o f J e r u s a l e m ' s d e s o l a t i o n — s h i v ' i m ( ם י ע ב ש , 's e v e n t y ' ) y e a r s " ( 9 : 2 ) . T h i s

i s q u i t e a s t r a n g e v e r s e , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e i n i t i a l v e r b ( " c o n s u l t e d " ) r e a l l ym e a n s " l o o k e d at a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d c a r e fu l l y ." F e w p r o p h e t i c t e x t s a r e m o r e

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t h a n J e r e m i a h ' s s e v e n t y - y e a r o r a c l e , w h i c h p r o m i s e d s e v e n t y

y e a r s o f B a b y l o n i a n w o r l d d o m i n a t i o n b e g i n n i n g i n 6 0 5 , f o l l o w e d b y p u n i s h -

m e n t o f t h e B a b y l o n i a n s a n d a r e s t o r a t i o n o f I s r a e l ( J e r . 2 5 ; s e e a b o v e , c h a p t e r

1 8 ) . A t f i rs t g l a n c e , t h i s w o u l d s e e m l i k e t h e l a st p r o p h e c y t h a t o n e w h o l i v e d

c e n t u r i e s l a t e r w o u l d " c o n s u l t " f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y i n s i g h t s.

H o w e v e r , a n a u t h o r w h o w a s w r i t i n g b e t w e e n 1 6 7 a n d 1 6 4 w o u l d h a v e h a d

g o o d r e a s o n t o s t u d y t h a t p a s s a g e ca r e f u ll y . F o r J e r e m i a h h a d p r o m i s e d a n u l t i -

m a t e , p e r m a n e n t r e s t o r a t i o n of I sr a el a f t e r s e v e n t y y e a r s ; y e t p e o p l e w e r e n o w —

u n d e r A n t i o c h u s I V — u n a b l e t o w o r s h i p in J e r u s a l e m , a n d u n d e r p a i n of d e a t h

f o r o b s e r v i n g b a s i c J e w i s h p r a c t i c e s . T h u s , e i t h e r J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y w a s fa l se ,

o r e ls e w h a t h e s a i d m u s t h a v e a h i d d e n m e a n i n g — o n e t h a t o n l y c l o se s t u d y

c o u l d r e v e a l . T h e a u t h o r o f D a n i e l c h o s e t h e l a t t e r a p p r o a c h , r e v e a l i n g t h i s e s o -

t e r i c m e a n i n g l a t e r i n t h e c h a p t e r :

( 2 1 ) W h i l e I w a s u t t e r i n g m y p r a y e r , t h e m a n G a b r i e l , w h o m I h a d p r e -

v i o u s l y s e e n in t h e v i s i o n , w a s s e n t f o r t h i n f l i g h t a n d r e a c h e d m e a b o u t

t h e t i m e of t h e e v e n i n g o f f e r i n g . ( 2 2 ) H e m a d e m e u n d e r s t a n d b y

s p e a k i n g t o m e a n d s a y i n g , " D a n i e l , 1 h a v e j u s t c o m e f o r t h to g i v e y o u

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . . ( 2 4 ) S e v e n t y w e e k s h a v e b e e n d e c r e e d f o r y o u r p e o -

p i e a n d y o u r h o l y c i t y u n t i l t h e m e a s u r e o f t r a n s g r e s s i o n i s f i ll e d a n d

t h a t o f s i n c o m p l e t e , u n t i l i n i q u i t y is e x p i a t e d , a n d e t e r n a l r i g h t e o u s -

n e s s u s h e r e d i n ; a n d p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n r a t i f i e d , a n d t h e H o l y o f H o l i e sa n o i n t e d . . ."

T h e a u t h o r h e r e r e i n t e r p r e t s t h e p r o p h e c y o f J e r e m i a h a s if t h e w o r d shiv'im

( • , ע ב ש ) i n t h e p h r a s e " s e v e n t y y e a r s " w e r e ta c i tl y r e p e a t e d a n d r e v o c a l i z e d :

shavu'im shiv'im ( ם י ע ב ש ם י ע ב ש ) , " s e v e n t y w e e k s " o f y e a r s , n a m e l y 7 0 x 7 = 4 9 0

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y e a r s . 1 1 T h u s , t h e a u t h o r g r a n t s t h i s c e n t r a l p r o p h e c y o f J e r e m i a h a 4 2 0 - y e a r

e x t e n s i o n ! T h i s r e a d i n g e n a b l e s J e r e m i a h s o r a cl e t o r e m a i n a t r u e p r o p h e c y , a n d

J e r e m i a h a p r o p h e t o f t r u t h .

C e r t a i n l y , t he r e a d i ng i n D a n i e l i s no t w h a t J e r e m i a h m e a n t . Se ve r a l f a c t o r s

t ha t w o u l d t y p i f y l a t e r po s t b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e a l r e a d y v i s i b le he r e , pa r -

t i c u l a r l y "c r e a t i ve ph i l o l ogy , " 1 2 w h e r e w o r d s n e e d n o t h a v e t h e i r u s u a l m e a n i n g ,

e s pe c i a l l y i f t he y a r e d i v i ne w or ds , w h i c h a r e t r e a t e d a s s pe c i a l . י 1 T h u s , n o c l e a r

l i ne d i v i de s r a bb i n i c t ype s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i on f r om t hos e f ound i n t he b i b l i c a l pe r i -

od i t s e l f . 1 4 St a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y , i n s o m e w a ys , w e s h o u l d v i e w t h e la t e b i b l i c a l pe r i -

o d a s p r o t o - r a b b i n i c .

C o n t i n u i t y h o l d s a c r o s s t h e p e r i o d s n o t o n l y f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e a r li e rp r o ph e c y , bu t a ls o f o r e vo l v i ng t he o l og i c a l i de a s . Fo r e x a m pl e , t he no t i o n o f r e s -

u r r e c t i o n o f t he de a d i s ha r d l y a c e n t r a l b i b l ic a l no t i o n , t h ou gh a f e w b i b l i c a l

t e x t s m a y h i n t a t i t . 1 י In t h e B i bl e, r e s u r r e c t i o n is u n a m b i g u o u s l y m e n t i o n e d

on l y i n D a n i e l : "Ma ny o f t hos e t ha t s l e e p i n t he dus t o f t he e a r t h w i l l a w a ke ,

s o m e t o e t e r n a l li fe , o t h e r s t o r e p r o a c h e s , t o e v e r l a s t i n g a b h o r r e n c e " ( 1 2 : 2 ) . 1 6

F o r t h e r a b b i s , h o w e v e r , t h e f u t u r e r e s u r r e c t i o n b e c o m e s a c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e .

T h e m e s i n t h e S t o r i e s o f D a n i e l

If t h e r e a d e r u n d e r s t a n d s h o w t h e g e n r e o f a p o c a l y p s e f u n c t i o n s , t h e n t h e a p o c -

a l yp t i c s e c t i o ns of D a n i e l a re no t s o d i f f i c u l t t o g r a s p . O n c e o ne f i nd s t he a l l u -

s i ons t o s pe c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l e ve n t s ( a nd a poc a l yp t i c a u t ho r s t yp i c a l l y g i ve m a ny

c l u e s ) , t h e m e a n i n g a n d f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e p r o p h e c i e s b e c o m e c l e a r . B u t h o w a r e

w e t o u nd e r s t a n d t he f a n c i f u l s t o r i e s in D a n i e l 1 - 6 ? T h e s e s t o r i e s a r e a t l e as t a sb i z a r r e a s t h e a p o c a l y p t i c i m a g e s t h a t c o n c l u d e t h e b o o k . 1 ׳

D a n i e l s f ir s t c h a p t e r b r e a k s u s i n s low l y , s h ow i n g h o w D a n i e l a nd h i s

t h r e e f r i e n ds p r os pe r i n t he r oya l c o u r t w h i l e a v o i d i ng t he k ing ' s r i t ua l l y i m -

p u r e f o o d a n d w i n e . 1 8 T h e y p e r f o r m e d " t e n t i m e s b e t t e r t h a n a l l t h e m a g i c i a n s

a n d e x o r c i s t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s r e a l m " (v. 2 0 ) . I n c h a p t e r 2 , D a n i e l o u t d o e s t h e

de e d o f J o s e p h i n G e ne s i s 41 : no t on l y c a n D a n i e l i n t e r p r e t d r e a m s , bu t h e

c a n d i v i ne t he i r c o n t e n t . T h i s r e fl e c t s pos i t i ve l y no t on l y on D a n i e l , bu t a ls o on

h i s d e it y. T h u s N e b u c h a d n e z z a r c o n c l u d e s , " T r u ly y o u r G o d m u s t b e t h e G o d o f

gods a nd L or d o f k i ngs a nd t he r e ve a l e r o f m ys t e r i e s t o ha ve e na b l e d you t o

r e ve a l t h i s m y s t e r y " ( D a n . 2 : 4 7 ) . O f c ou r s e , it i s i m po s s i b l e t o i m a g i n e t he h i s -

t o ri c al N e b u c h a d n e z z a r — a w o r s h i p p e r o f M a r d u k w h o d e s t r o y e d t h e T e m p l e in

J e r u s a l e m — a s s a y i n g t h i s .

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Th e f o l l o wi n g c h a p te r s h i f t s i ts f o c u s t o Da n ie l 's t h r e e f r i e n d s : S h a d r a c h ,

M e s h a c h , a n d A b e d - n e g o . W h e n t h e y a b r o g a t e N e b u c h a d n e z z a r ' s c o m m a n d b y

r e f u s i n g t o b o w d o w n t o a s t a t u e , t h e ki n g' s r e s p o n s e i s i m m e d i a t e a n d b r u t a l :

( 3 : 1 9 ) N e b u c h a d n e z z a r w a s s o f il le d w i t h ra g e a t S h a d r a c h , M e s h a c h ,

a n d Ab e d - n e g o th a t h i s v i s a g e wa s d i s to r t e d , a n d h e g a v e a n o r d e r t o

h e a t u p t h e f u r n a c e t o s e v e n t i m e s i ts u s u a l h e a t . . . . ( 2 ) B e c a u se

th e k in g ' s o r d e r wa s u r g e n t , a n d t h e f u r n a c e w a s h e a t e d t o e x c e s s , a

t o n g u e o f f l a m e k i l le d t h e m e n w h o c a r ri e d u p S h a d r a c h , M e s h a c h , a n d

A b e d - n e g o . . .

T h e t h r e e f r i e n d s , h o w e v e r , w e r e s a v e d :

( 2 7 ) T h e s a t r a p s , t h e p r e f e c t s , t h e g o v e r n o r s , a n d t h e r o y a l c o m p a n i o n s

g a th e r e d a r o u n d to l o o k a t t h o s e me n , o n wh o s e b o d ie s t h e f i r e h a d

h a d n o e f f e c t, t h e h a i r o f w h o s e h e a d s h a d n o t b e e n s in g e d , w h o s e s h i r t s

l o o k e d n o d i f f e r e n t , t o w h o m n o t e v e n th e o d o r of f ir e c lu n g .

( 2 8 ) N e b u c h a d n e z z a r s p o k e u p a n d s a i d , " B l e s s e d b e t h e G o d o f

S h a d r a c h , M e s h a c h , a n d A b e d - n e g o , w h o s e n t H i s a n g e l t o s a v e H i s s e r -

van ts who , t rus t ing in Him, f lou ted the k ing ' s dec ree a t the r i sk o f the i rl i v e s r a th e r t h a n s e r v e o r wo r s h ip a n y g o d b u t t h e i r o wn Go d . ( 2 9 ) I

h e r e b y g iv e a n o r d e r t h a t a n y o n e o f a n y p e o p le o r n a t i o n o f wh a te v e r

l a n g u a g e w h o b l a s p h e m e s t h e G o d o f S h a d r a c h , M e s h a c h , a n d A b e d -

n e g o s h a l l b e t o r n l imb f r o m l imb , a n d h i s h o u s e c o n f i s c a t e d , f o r t h e r e

i s no o the r God who i s ab le to save in th i s way ."

Th is sto ry , fu l l o f w e l l - p la ced de ta i l s su c h as the o d or o f the f i re no t c l in g in g to

t h e s e t h r e e , r e p e a t s t h e t h e m e s o f t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r — t h e m i r a c u l o u s d e l i v -e r a n c e of t h e J e w i s h c o u r t h e r o , a n d t h e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f G o d ' s g r e a t n e s s .

T h e a b o v e t h e m e s c o n t i n u e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s . I n D a n i e l 4 ,

N e b u c h a d n e z z a r a c k n o w l e d g e s G o d y et a g a in , w h i l e s h i f ti n g i n t o p o e t r y :

( 3 1 ) I b l e s s e d t h e M o s t H ig h , a n d p r a i s e d a n d g lo r i f i e d t h e Ev e r - L iv in g

O n e , / W h o s e d o m i n i o n is a n e v e r l a s t i n g d o m i n i o n / A n d w h o s e k i n g -

d o m e n d u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e g e n e r a t i o n s . / ( 3 2 ) A l l t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f

the ea r th a re o f no accoun t . / He does as He wishes wi th the hos t o fh e a v e n , / A n d w i th t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e e a r th . / Th e r e i s n o n e t o s t a y

Hi s h a n d / Or s a y t o H im, " W h a t h a v e Yo u d o n e ? "

Ch a p te r 5 a g a in f e a tu r e s Da n ie l ' s a b i l i t y t o i n t e r p r e t : h e a lo n e c a n d e c ip h e r

the "wr i t ing on the wa l l " ( M E N E M E N E T E K E L U P H A R S I N ) .

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T he la st o f these na r r a t ive c ha p t e r s i s ab ou t Da n ie l an d the lion . Th is s to r y

para l le l s tha t of the th re e f r ie nd s an d the f ie ry fu rn ac e (ch ap . 3 ) . I t be g in s w i th

a b iza r re roya l dec ree ( in th i s case , tha t peop le may p ray on ly to the k ing) . P ious

Da n ie l , w h o v io l a t e s t h e d e c r e e , is c a u g h t a n d p u n i s h e d b y b e in g t h r o w n in to

the l ion ' s de n . Aga in , the tex t re l i she s de ta i l s : "A rock wa s b r ou gh t an d p lac ed

over the m o u th o f the de n ; the k ing sea led it w i th h i s s igne t and w i th th e s igne t

o f h i s n o b le s , s o t h a t n o th in g mig h t b e a l t e r e d c o n c e r n in g Da n ie l " ( 6 :1 8 ) . Da n ie l

o f course i s saved , and h is adversa r ie s a re k i l l ed . The la s t f ew l ines summar ize

the le sson o f th i s chap te r a s we l l the in i t i a l s ix chap te rs .

( 6 :2 6 ) Th e n K in g Da r iu s wr o t e t o a l l p e o p le s a n d n a t i o n s o f e v e r y l a n -

g u a g e t h a t i n h a b i t t h e e a r th , " M a y y o u r we l l - b e in g a b o u n d ! ( 2 7 ) I h a v e

h e r e b y g i v e n a n o r d e r t h a t t h r o u g h o u t m y r o y a l d o m a i n m e n m u s t

t re m ble in fea r be f o re the Go d o f Da n ie l , fo r H e i s the l iv ing G od w h o

e n d u r e s f o r e v e r; H i s k i n g d o m is i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , a n d H i s d o m i n i o n i s to

th e e n d o f t ime ; ( 2 8 ) He d e l i v e r s a n d s a v e s , a n d p e r f o r m s s ig n s a n d

w o n d e r s i n h e a v e n a n d o n e a r th , f o r He d e l i v e r e d Da n ie l f r o m th e

p o we r o f t h e l i o n s . " ( 2 9 ) Th u s Da n ie l p r o s p e r e d d u r in g t h e r e ig n o f

Da r iu s a n d d u r in g t h e r e ig n o f Cy r u s t h e P e r s i a n .

In sum, these s to r ie s a re no t rea l ly abou t spec i f ic h i s to r ica l ind iv idua ls .

Ra the r , the y "p rove" tha t G od i s g rea t an d wi l l save any p io us Jew, espe c ia l ly

tho se pe rs ec u te d fo r re l ig iou s be l ie f s . O bv iou s ly thes e s to r ie s be lo ng in the l i t-

erary genre of " royal ta les ."1 9

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y a ll f e a tu r e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n

J e w a n d n o n -J e w , i n w h i c h t h e u n d e r d o g — w h o is t h e J e w — a l w a y s w i n s .

The Sign if ica n ce of the Stor ie s

As a scho la r , I am c ur io us w he th e r th e anc ien t Je w s took the se s to r ie s a s " real

h i s to r y " o r r e c o g n iz e d t h e m in s t e a d a s l e g e n d s . Ne i th e r p o s s ib i l i ty c a n b e r u l e d

o u t . O t h e r b i b li c a l b o o k s , s u c h a s J o n a h 2 0 a n d R u t h ( s e e c h a p t e r 2 6 b e l o w ) d r o p

h in t s t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a c c u r a t e ly d e p i c t i n g t h e p a s t . Be c a u s e t h o s e b o o k s a r e p r i -

ma r i l y d id a c t i c ( se e " C o n c lu d in g o n a D i f f e r e n t No te " i n c h a p t e r 1 1 ) , t h e y l a c k

spec i f ic h i s to r ica l re fe re nce s . In co n t r as t , Dan ie l c rea tes the i l lu s ion o f h i s to rywi th n o t e s s u c h a s " th e s e c o n d y e a r o f t h e r e ig n o f Ne b u c h a d n e z z a r " ( 2 :1 ) a n d

" Da r iu s t h e M e d e r e c e iv e d t h e k in g d o m, b e in g a b o u t s i x ty - two y e a r s o ld " ( 6 :1 ) .

Ne v e r th e l e s s , t h e s to r i e s o f Da n ie l a r e s o e x a g g e r a t e d a n d imp la u s ib l e t h a t we

m u s t w o n d e r w h e t h e r r e a d e r s i n a n t i q u i t y b e l i e v e d t h e m .

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Ul t ima te ly , i t ma y n o t ma t t e r wh e th e r t h e e d i to r s a n d c o p y i s t s o f t h e s to r i e s

in Dan ie l be l ieved tha t they were t rue . For the s to r ie s ex is t ma in ly to i l lu s t ra te

an a t t i t ud e abo u t l iv ing as a Jew : be p io us , an d eve n if th rea ten ed y ou wi l l u l t i -

m a t e l y b e s a v e d — t o e n j o y a b e t t e r f a te t h a n y o u r n o n - J e w i s h a d v e r s a r i e s . 2 1 In

the w or d s o f Da n ie l 6 :2 9 : "T hu s Dan ie l p ro sp er ed . . ." Bu t th i s i s on l y ha lf th e

s to r y — th e o th e r ha lf c o n c e r n s g lo r i f i c a t i o n of t h e G o d o f I s ra e l , w h o i s a g r e a t

a n d s a v in g Go d . Th u s J e w s a r e J e w s fo r g o o d r e a s o n .

Did these s to r ie s o r ig ina te in the Diaspora , and thus i l lu s t ra te tha t God saves

even ou ts ide o f the land o f I s rae l? Or d id they o r ig ina te in I s rae l du r ing the pe r -

s e c u t io n s of A n t io c h u s , a n d t h u s il l u s t r a t e r e a s o n s f o r h o p e d u r in g a d a r k t ime ?

Th e h i s to r i c a l - c ri t i c a l m e t h o d h a s n o t a n s w e r e d t h i s q u e s t i o n d e ci siv ely. N o m a t -te r h o w w e reso lve su ch i s sue s , the m essa ge o f the s to r ie s in Da n ie l is w ha t i s

im p o r t a n t . W h a t we n o t i c e m o s t i s h o w th e s to r ie s i n t h i s b o o k r e in f o r c e e a c h

o th e r , a n d h o w e f f e c ti v e ly t h e y c o n v e y th e i r b e l ie f t h a t Go d w o u ld r e w a r d a n d

pro tec t p ie ty .

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22P r a y e r of M a n y H e a r t s

R e a d i n g P s a l m s

Primary Reading: 1 Samuel 1-2; Psalms 1, 3, 6, 14, 15, 24, 53, 118.

What Is Psalms?

T h e E n g l i s h t it le " P s a l m s " c o m e s t o u s f r o m t h e S e p t u a g i n t , t h e v e n e r a b l e

J e w i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e i n t o G r e e k . I t r e n d e r e d t h e w o r d mizmor

( ר ו מ ז מ ) , w h i c h f e a t u r e s i n m a n y s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s ( c h a p t e r t it l es ) i n t h i s b o o k , a spsalmos. B o t h t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k w o r d s m e a n "a s o n g s u n g t o t h e a c c o m p a -

n i m e n t o f a s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , th i s b o o k c o n s i s t s of s o n g

l y r i c s — a b o u t 1 5 0 s e p a r a t e s o n g s (l ar g el y, b u t n o t ex a c tl y , i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e

c h a p t e r h e a d i n g s ) . M a n y o f t h e m s t r i k e u s a s f a m i l i a r , e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e i r

i m p o r t a n t r o le i n c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l i g io u s l if e, o r b e c a u s e w e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d

t h e m a s c l a s s i c s o f w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e ( e . g . , " T h e L O R D i s my shepherd . . . " ; P s . 2 3 ) .

A " p s a l m " i s a p o e t i c p r a y e r c o m p o s i t i o n t h a t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in t h e B o o k o f

P s a l m s , a l t h o u g h t h a t b o o k c o n t a i n s m o s t of t h e k n o w n p s a l m s .

P s a l m s i s a n u n u s u a l l y i n t i m i d a t i n g b o o k . W e i g h i n g i n a t 1 5 0 c h a p t e r s , it is

e a s i l y t h e l o n g e s t b o o k o f t h e B i b l e . T h e p o e t r y o f i t s l y r i c s i s r a r e l y s t r a i g h t f o r -

w a r d . It s s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s a re u s u a l l y o b s c u r e o r a m b i g u o u s . T i m e a n d a g a i n ,

u p o n e v e n a c u r s o r y r e a d i n g , w e e n c o u n t e r s u d d e n s h i f t s i n t o n e a n d f o c u s —

o f t e n w i t h i n t h e s a m e p s a l m — w h i c h c o m p o u n d s t h e c h a l le n g e t h a t t h is b o o k

p o s e s .

H o w a r e w e to r e a d t h e i n d i v i d u a l p s a l m s ? H o w a r e w e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h eb o o k a s a w h o l e ? H e r e I d o n o t m e a n " r e a d " a s a n a c t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r s o n -

a l d e v o t i o n ; t h a t m a y b e i m p o r t a n t t o m a n y o f u s , b u t it is n o t t h e t a s k at h a n d .

R a t h e r , t h e h i s t o r i a n s r o l e i s t o v i e w t h i s b o o k a n d i t s e l e m e n t s i n t e r m s o f t h e

a n c i e n t m i l i e u i n w h i c h t h e y a r o s e .

T h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i l l s h o w t h a t P s a l m s i s a n o r d e r e d c o l l e c t i o n of c o l -

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l e c t i ons , c om pr i s i ng d i f f e r e n t ge n r e s f r om va r i ous p l a c e s a nd t i m e s . T o e s t a b l i s h

th i s c la im, the bes t p lace to begin i s ou t s ide of Psa lms—spec i f i ca l ly , a t the begin-

n i n g o f 1 Sa m ue l , w h i c h c on t a i n s t w o p r a ye r s : one i n p r o s e , t he o t h e r in poe t r y .

T h e p o e m i s on e o f t ho s e p s a l m s t ha t t he B ook of Ps a l m s d i d no t i nc o r p o r a t e . 1

Prayer in the Bible: What Samuel Teaches Us

T h e fi rs t p r a y e r f o un d i n Sa m ue l is t ha t o f H a n n a h , w h o ha d be e n de s p e r a t e l y

w a n t i ng a ( m a l e ) c h i l d . She p r a ye d :

Ο L O R D of Ho s t s , if You wi l l loo k up o n the suf fe r i ng of Your m a id se r -va n t a nd w i l l r e m e m be r m e a nd no t f o r ge t Y our m a i ds e r va n t , a nd i f Y ou

w i l l g r a n t Y our m a i ds e r va n t a m a l e c h i l d , I w i l l de d i c a t e h i m t o t he L O R D

for a ll the da ys of h i s li fe ; an d n o raz or sha l l eve r to uc h h i s he ad (1 Sa m.

1 : 11 ) .

L i ke a l m os t one hu n d r e d o t he r b i b l i c a l p r a ye r s , th i s on e i s p r o s e . 2 ( I t lacks par-

a l l e li s m a n d f i gu r a t i on , a n d it e m p l oy s p l a i n l a ngua ge . ) It s t h r e e - pa r t s t r u c t u r e

i s c l ea r : a n i n v o c a t i o n o f G o d , a l o n g r e q u e s t , a n d a m o t i v a t i o n — w h y G o ds h o u l d h e e d t h i s r e q u e s t ) . T h e fo l l o w i n g t a b le s h o w s t h e s e e l e m e n t s 3

I n v o c a t i o n Ό L O R D of Hos t s "

R e q ue s t "if Y ou w i l l l ook u p o n t he s u f f e r i n g o f Y our m a i d s e r v a n t a n d w i l l

r e m e m be r m e a nd n o t f o r ge t Y our m a i d s e r v a n t , a nd if Y ou w i l l

g r a n t Y our m a i d s e r v a n t a m a l e c h i l d"

M o t i v a t i o n " I w i l l de d i c a t e h i m t o t he L O R D for a l l the days of his l i fe ; and no

r a z o r s ha l l e ve r t ouc h h i s he a d . "

S t a t e d d i ff e r e n t ly , a f t e r c a l l i ng u p o n G od ( pe r h a p s ge t t i n g H i s a t t e n t i o n ) ,

th i s p r ay e r of fe r s a dea l . H an n ah says tha t if G od g ives he r a ch i ld , she wi l l r e tu rn

it t o G od . T he r e a s on w h y H a n n a h w ou l d w a n t t h i s de a l i s qu i t e c l e a r f r o m b i b -

l ic al c o nc e p t i o ns o f b i o l ogy : if s he ha s on e c h i l d , t he n h e r w o m b ha s b e e n

ope ne d by G od ( G e n . 29 : 31 ; 30 : 22 ) , a nd s he w i l l be a b l e t o ha ve m or e c h i l d r e n

( se e 1 S a m . 2 : 2 1 ) . O n e c o u l d i m a g i n e s o m e o n e i n H a n n a h ' s s i t u a t i o n c o m i n g t o

t h e l o c a l t e m p l e a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y c o m p o s i n g s u c h a p r a y e r .

A l t o ge t h e r d i f f e r e n t i s H a nn a h ' s s e c on d p r a ye r . A f t e r s he g i ve s b i r t h t o a s on ,

w e a n s h i m , a n d b r i n g s h i m t o t h e s a n c t u a r y , 4 s he p r a ys :

(1 Sam. 2 :1) My hea r t exul t s in the L O R D ; / I h a v e t r i u m p h e d t h r o u g h

t h e L O R D . / I g l oa t ove r m y e ne m i e s ; / I r e jo ice in Your de l ive rance . /

(2 ) T he re is n o h ol y on e l ike th e LORD, / Truly, th ere is n o n e b esi de You; /

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Th ere i s n o rock l ike our G od . / (3 ) Ta lk n o m or e wi th lo f ty p r ide , / Let

no a r rogance c ross your l ips ! / For the L O R D i s a n a l l - k n o win g Go d ; / By

Him a c t i o n s a r e me a s u r e d . / ( 4 ) Th e b o ws o f t h e mig h ty a r e b r o k e n , /

A n d th e f a l t e r i n g a r e g i r d e d w i th s t r e n g th . / ( 5 ) M e n o n c e s a t e d m u s t

h i r e o u t f o r b r e a d ; / M e n o n c e h u n g r y h u n g e r n o m o r e . / W h i l e t h e

b a r r e n wo m a n b e a r s s e v e n , / Th e m o t h e r of m a n y is f o r lo r n . / ( 6 ) Th e

L O R D dea ls dea th an d g ives l if e , / Cas t s d o w n in to Sheo l and ra i ses up . /

( 7 ) Th e L O R D m a k e s p o o r a n d m a k e s r i c h ; / He c a s t s d o w n , H e a l s o l i ft s

h ig h . / (8 ) He ra i ses the po o r f r om the du s t , / L i f t s u p the ne ed y f r om

the dungh i l l , / Se t t ing them wi th nob les , / Gran t ing them sea ts o f honor . /

For the p i l lars of the ear th are the L O R D S ; / He h a s s e t t h e wo r ld u p o nth em . / (9 ) He gua rd s the s teps of His fa i th fu l , / Bu t the w ick ed pe r i sh

in da r kn es s— / For no t by s t r en g t h sha l l m a n p reva i l . / (10 ) Th e foes o f

th e L O R D s h a l l b e s h a t t e r e d ; / He w i l l t h u n d e r a g a in s t t h e m in t h e h e a v -

ens . / The L O R D wil l judge the ends o f the ea r th . / He wi l l g ive power to

Hi s k in g , / A n d t r i u m p h to H i s a n o in t e d o n e .

Th is p raye r of tha nk sg iv i ng i s c lea r ly in poe t ry . I t ha s the cha rac te r i s t i c fea tu res

o f b ib l ica l poe t ry tha t we d iscussed in chap te r 17 : b ina ry l ines , pa ra l le l s t ruc tu re ,a n d f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e . 5 If w e l i f t ed th i s t ex t f ro m i ts con tex t in the na r ra t iv e ,

we w ou ld r ead i t a s a roya l psa l m of th an ks g iv in g a f te r a m i l i t a ry v ic to ry . N o t

on ly is i t fu l l of w ar lan gu ag e (see esp . w . 4 an d 10) , bu t a lso i t refe rs ou tr i gh t

to the k ing (v . 10) . This is qui te s t range, s ince a t th is point in Israe l ' s h is tory , the

m o n a r c h y h a s n o t y e t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d .

S t a t e d d if f e r en t ly , t h e Ha n n a h p o r t r a y e d in S a m u e l c o u ld n o t h a v e r e c i t e d

th i s p s a lm , w h ic h d a t e s f r o m th e mo n a r c h i c p e r io d . Bu t t h e b ib l i c al e d i t o r s we r e

n o t s t u p id . S o h o w c o u ld o n e o f t h e m h a v e t h o u g h t t o i n s e r t t h i s p s a lm in to

H a n n a h ' s m o u t h ?

Ou r p s a lm ' s p r e s e n c e i n i t s c u r r e n t l o c a t i o n s h o ws u s t h a t t h e e d i to r e x p e c t -

e d t h e Is r a el i te a u d i e n c e t o f i n d i t p l a u s ib l e t h a t a w o m a n w h o s e d e e p e s t w i s h

h a d c o m e t r u e w o u ld r e s p o n d b y r e c i t i n g s u c h a p s a lm . In o th e r w o r d s , t h e

I s r a e l i t e s c u s to ma r i l y p r a y e d u s in g r e a d y - ma d e p s a lms . W h y d id t h e y d o s o ?

P r o b a b ly b e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e d s u c h p o e ms to b e b o th mo v in g ly b e a u t i f u l a n d

t r a d i t i o n a l—th a t i s , p r o v e n to b e e f f i c a c io u s .

As a n Is r a e li t e w o m a n v i s i t i n g t h e s a n c tu a r y , h o w w o u ld H a n n a h h a v e c o m e

to r e c i t e t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p s a lm? As t h e p e r s o n wh o h a d c o me to p r a y , s h e wo u ld

hav e aske d an o f f ic ial ( su ch as a p r ie s t ) fo r the m os t re levan t p sa l m ava i lab le .

P e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e I s r a e li t e s d id n o t h a v e " o f f - t h e - r a c k " p r a y e r s f o r s p e c ia l

occ as io ns in w om en ' s l ives , the o f fic ia l w ou ld h ave cho se n th i s psa lm bec aus e it

c o n t a in s a r e f e r e n c e t o a b a r r e n wo ma n wh o g iv e s b i r t h ( v . 5 ) . F u r th e r mo r e , i t

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c e l e b r a te s v i c to r y o v e r a n e n e m y — a r e ve r sa l o f f o r t u n e — w h i c h H a n n a h c o u l d

r e l a t e t o h e r r i v a l r y w i t h P e n i n n a h , h e r h u s b a n d ' s o t h e r w i f e . O n e c a n i m a g i n e

H a n n a h t h e n r e c i t i n g t h i s o f f - t h e - r a c k p r a y e r , r e p e a t i n g e a c h p h r a s e a f t e r t h e

p r i e s t , r e s o n a t i n g w i t h t h e p a r t s c o n c e r n i n g c h i l d r e n a n d r i v a l r i e s — r e c i t i n g

t h e s e v e r s e s w i t h v e r v e , w h i l e m u m b l i n g t h r o u g h t h e r e s t .

T h u s I h a v e a c c o u n t e d f o r h o w a r o y a l p s a l m o f v i c t o r y e n d e d u p i n

H a n n a h ' s m o u t h . T h a t e x p l a n a t i o n , i n t u r n , s h e d s l i g h t o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e B o o k

o f P s a l m s : T h a t b o o k c o m p r i s e d p o e t i c s e l e c t i o n s f r o m w h i c h w o r s h i p p e r s c o u l d

f i n d s o m e t h i n g r e l e v a n t w h e n t h e y fe l t t h e n e e d f o r f o r m a l , p o e t i c , t r a d i t i o n a l

l a n g u a g e .

When, Where, and Why

A s w e h a v e s e e n i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s , w e m u s t f i r s t i d e n t i f y a w o r k ' s l i t e r a r y g e n r e

a n d s o c i a l s e t t i n g ( w h a t s c h o l a r s c a l l t h e Sitz im Leben) b e f o r e w e c a n r e a d i t c o r -

r ec tl y. T h i s i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t f o r p s a l m s , m o s t o f w h i c h c o n t a i n o n l y o b s c u r e h i n t s

a t t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d . F o r e x a m p l e , P s a l m 1 1 8 : 2 7 c o n t a i n s t h e r i tu a l i n s t r u c t i o n

" b i n d t h e f e s t a l o f f e r i n g t o t h e h o r n s o f t h e a l t a r w i t h c o r d s , " s o w e k n o w t h a t

w o r s h i p p e r s ( o r p e r h a p s L e v i t e s ) r e c i t e d t h i s p s a l m d u r i n g t h e s a c r i f i c e o f a f e s -

t i v a l o f f e r i n g . B u t m o s t p s a l m s a r e s i l e n t a b o u t w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r r i t u a l s , i f a n y ,

t h e y a r e a s s o c i a t e d . M o s t r i t u a l t e x t s , i n t u r n , a r e s i l e n t a b o u t t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s

t o p a r t i c u l a r p s a l m s . 6 C o n s e q u e n t l y , d i s c e r n i n g t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g o f p s a l m s

i n v o l v e s a l o t o f g u e s s i n g . S u c h s p e c u l a t i o n i s u s e f u l , h o w e v e r , if it h e l p s g u i d e

u s t o w a r d t h e a n c i e n t m e a n i n g o f p s a l m s .

P s a l m 6 r e a d s :

( 1 ) F o r t h e l e a d e r ; w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c o n t h e s h e m i n i t h . A p s a l m

o f D a v i d . ( 2 ) Ο LORD, d o n o t p u n i s h m e i n a n g e r , / d o n o t c h a s t i s e m e

i n f u r y . / ( 3 ) H a v e m e r c y o n m e , Ο LORD, f o r 1 l a n g u i s h ; / h e a l m e , Ο

LORD, f o r m y b o n e s s h a k e w i t h t e r r o r . / ( 4 ) M y w h o l e b e i n g i s s t r i c k e n

w i t h t e r r o r , / w h i l e Y o u , L O R D — O , h o w l o n g ! / ( 5 ) Ο LORD, t u r n ! R e s c u e

m e ! / D e l i v e r m e a s b e f i t s Y o u r f a i t h f u l n e s s . / ( 6 ) F o r t h e r e i s n o p r a i s e

o f Y o u a m o n g t h e d e a d ; / i n S h e o l , w h o c a n a c c l a i m Y o u ? / ( 7 ) I a mw e a r y w i t h g r o a n i n g ; / e v e r y n i g h t I d r e n c h m y b e d , / I m e l t m y c o u c h

i n t e a r s . / ( 8 ) M y e y e s a r e w a s t e d b y v e x a t i o n , / w o r n o u t b e c a u s e o f a l l

m y f o e s . / ( 9 ) A w a y f r o m m e , a l l y o u e v i l d o e r s , / f o r t h e L O R D h a s h e e d -

e d t h e s o u n d o f m y w e e p i n g . / ( 1 0 ) T h e L O R D h a s h e e d e d m y p l e a , / t h e

L O R D w i l l a c c e p t m y p r a y e r . / ( 1 1 ) A l l m y e n e m i e s w i l l b e f r u s t r a t e d a n d

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s t r i c ke n w i t h t e r r o r ; / t he y w i l l t u r n ba c k i n a n i n s t a n t , f r u s t r a t e d

( t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) .

I n t e r m s o f i ts s t r u c t u r e a nd e l e m e n t s , t h i s p s a l m r e s e m bl e s H a n na h ' s p r o s ep r a y e r i n 1 Sa m ue l 1 : i nv oc a t i on o f G od , r e qu e s t s , a n d m o t i va t i on s ( w h y G od

s h o u l d h e e d t h i s p r a y e r ) .

Ό L O R D " (V . 2 )

"do no t pu n i s h m e . . . d o no t c ha s t i s e m e . . . . H a v e m e r c y on m e

. . . ; hea l m e . . . r e sc ue m e . . . de l iv e r me " (w . 2 - 5 )

"as be f i t s Your f a i t h fu lne ss . Fo r the re i s n o pra i se of You am o n g

t he de a d ; i n She o l , w h o c a n a c c l a i m Y ou? I a m w e a r y w i t h g r o a n -

i ng ; e ve r y n i gh t I d r e n c h m y be d , I m e l t m y c o uc h i n t ea r s . My

e ye s a r e w a s t e d by ve xa t i on , w or n ou t be c a us e o f a l l m y f oe s " ( w .

5 - 8 )

I n v o c a t i o n

R e q u e s t s

M o t i v a t i o n s

T he ps a l m s ' e xp r e s s e d m o t i va t i ons g i ve u s i n s i gh t i n t o how t he a nc i e n t

I s r a e li t e s un d e r s t oo d w ha t w ou l d m ov e o r s a t is f y G o d . I n t h i s c a s e , f o r e xa m pl e ,

t h e p o e t a s s u m e s th a t G o d e n j o y s p r a i s e . I n d e e d , t h e s p e a k e r a l m o s t t h r e a t e n s

G od b y po in t in g out tha t ( to p a r ap hr as e v. 6 ) "if You le t m y ene m ies k i l l me ,

the re wi l l be one l e s s pe r son a round to pra i se You!"

A s s i g n i n g a G e n r e

M a n y p s a l m s s h a r e t h e t r i a d o f e l e m e n t s f o u n d h e r e — i n v o c a t i o n , r e q u e s t s , a n d

m ot i va t i on . B i b l i c a l s c ho l a r s ha ve c l a s s e d s uc h ps a l m s unde r t he ge n r e o f "pe t i -t i o n s . " B e c a u s e t h o s e p s a l m s o f t e n b e g i n w i t h c o m p l a i n t s o r l a m e n t s , s o m e

s c ho l a r s r e f e r t o t he m a s "c om pl a i n t s " o r " l a m e n t s . " 7 S o m e t i m e s t h e i r g r a m m a r

s u g g e s t s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s r e c i t e d t h e m , w h i l e o t h e r p s a l m s c o u c h t h e i r l a n g u a g e

i n t he p l u r a l . T hus s c ho l a r s s ubd i v i de t he c l a s s o f l a m e n t s i n t o " i nd i v i dua l " a nd

" c o m m u n a l " t y p e s .

E a c h g e n r e o f p s a l m f o l l o w s a c o n v e n t i o n — a s c r i p t o r f o r m t h a t w a s

e ngr a i ne d i n t he c u l t u r e . ( I n ou r c u l t u r e , t oo , w e ha ve c e r t a i n c onve n t i ons f o r

w r i t i ng a pe r s o na l l e tt e r ve r s u s a bu s i n e s s l e t te r ; e a c h t ype o f c o m po s i t i on ha s

i ts o w n c o n v e n t i o n s . ) F o r e x a m p l e , P s a l m 2 2 , f e a t u r e d in C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n ,

o p e n s w i t h " M y G o d , m y G o d , " w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y l e a d s i n t o " w h y h a v e Y o u

a b a n d o n e d m e ; / w h y s o fa r f r o m d e l i v e r i n g m e / a n d f r o m m y a n g u i s h e d r o a r -

i ng? " (v. 2 ) . T h e ps a l m p r oc e e d s to p r e s e n t m a ny m ot i v a t i o ns f o r w h y G od

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s h o u l d l i s t e n , i n c l u d i n g "I b e c a m e Y o u r c h a r g e at b i r t h ; / f r o m m y m o t h e r ' s

w o m b Y ou h a v e b e e n m y G o d " (v. 1 1 ) , a n d " T h e n w il l I p r o c l a i m Y o u r f a m e t o

m y b r e t h r e n , / p r a i s e Y o u i n t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n " ( v . 2 3 ) . 8

A c c o u n t i n g f o r M o o d S w i n g s

T h u s fa r , o u r a n a l y s i s o f P s a l m 6 h a s i g n o r e d t h e e n d : " f o r t h e L O R D h a s h e e d e d

t h e s o u n d of m y w e e p i n g . / T h e L O R D h a s h e e d e d m y p l e a , / t h e L O R D w i l l a c c e p t

m y p r a y e r . / A l l m y e n e m i e s w i l l b e f r u s t r a t e d a n d s t r i c k e n w i t h t e r r o r ; / t h e y

w i ll t u r n b a c k in a n i n s t a n t , f r u s t r a t e d " ( w . 9 b - l l ; t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . T h e s e v e r s -e s a r e p u z z l i n g p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e i r g r a m m a t i c a l t e n s e d o e s n o t s e e m t o f i t t h e

c o n t e x t . 9 S o m e o f t h e v e r b s s e e m t o d e p i c t a c t i o n s t h a t a r e c o m p l e t e d o r a r e i n

t h e p a s t ( " h a s h e e d e d . . . h a s h e e d e d " ) . B u t h o w c a n t h e s p e a k e r s a y t h i s , g i v e n

t h e d i r e s t ra i ts j u s t d e s c r i b e d ? F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e m o o d h a s s h i f t e d s h a r p l y a n d

i n e x p l i c a b l y .

S u c h a d r a m a t i c c h a n g e in t h e m o o d o f a p s a l m is a c t u a l ly f r e q u e n t — w h i c h

o f c o u r s e o n l y h e i g h t e n s t h e p r o b l e m . It i s f o u n d , f o r e x a m p l e , in t h e l a m e n t o f

P s a l m 3 , w h e r e t h e r e is m o v e m e n t f r o m Ό LORD, m y f o e s a r e s o m a n y ! / M a n y

a r e t h o s e w h o a t t a c k m e " (v. 2 ) t o "I h a v e n o f e a r o f t h e m y r i a d f o r c e s / a r r a y e d

a g a i n s t m e o n e v e r y s i d e . . . . F o r Y o u H a v e s l a p p e d a l l m y e n e m i e s i n t h e f a c e ; /

Y o u h a v e b r o k e n t h e t e e t h o f t h e w i c k e d " ( w . 7 - 8 ; t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . S e e i n g b o t h

a c h a n g e o f t e n s e a n d t h e s u d d e n s p r o u t i n g of c o n f i d e n c e in m a n y l a m e n t s r a i s-

e s t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t f o r m - c r i t i c i s m a d d r e s s e s : W h a t s o c i a l s e t t i n g ( S it z im Leben)

c a n e x p l a i n t h is m o o d s w i n g ?

F o r m - c r i t i c i s m o f t e n a s k s g r e a t q u e s t i o n s t h a t it c a n n o t a n s w e r d e c i s iv e ly .T h u s , w e c a n n o t i d e n t i f y w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g of p e t i t i o n s t h a t c o n -

t a i n t h e c o n f i d e n c e m o t i f t h a t w e h a v e j u s t d e s c r i b e d . M a n y f o r m - c r i t i c s s u g g e s t

t h a t w o r s h i p p e r s u s e d t o r e c it e t h e s e p s a l m s i n a t e m p l e , w h e r e a n i n d i v i d u a l

( w h o m t h e s c h o l a r s o f t e n c a l l a " c u l t i c p r o p h e t " 1 0 ) h e a r d e a c h c o m p l a i n t a n d

t h e n l et t h e p e t i t i o n e r k n o w w h e t h e r G o d w a s s y m p a t h e t i c . A f t e r h a v i n g b e e n

t o l d t h a t G o d h e e d e d t h e l a m e n t , t h e p e t i t i o n e r w o u l d r e c i t e t h e l i n e s e x p r e s s -

i n g c o n f i d e n c e ( s u c h a s " f o r t h e L O R D h a s h e e d e d t h e s o u n d o f m y w e e p i n g . /

T h e L O R D h a s h e e d e d m y p l e a , / t h e L O R D w i l l a c c e p t m y p r a y e r " ; 6 : 9 b - 1 0 ) . 1 1

T h a t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n p s a l m s ' r it u a l s e t t i n g f i n d s s o m e s u p p o r t f r o m

b i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s t h a t d e s c r i b e a d i a l o g u e w i t h G o d . O n e v e r s e t h a t m a y a l l u d e

t o s u c h a ritua l e x c h a n g e i s " Yo u h a v e e v e r d r a w n n i g h w h e n I c a l l e d Y o u ; / Y o u

h a v e s a i d , ' D o n o t f e a r ! '" ( L a m . 3 : 5 7 ) .

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S e v e r a l G e n r e s i n P s a l m s

W e h a v e l o o k e d c a r e f u l l y a t a f e w p s a l m s s o a s t o p o s i t t h e i r g e n r e s . T h i s h a s

h e l p e d u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p s a l m w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r g e n r e o f w h i c h it s e e m s t o

p a r t a k e . S o f a r w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d t w o g e n r e s : t h e h y m n ( H a n n a h ' s s o n g ) a n d t h e

p e t i t i o n (P s s . 3 , 6 , a n d 2 2 ) . A n o t h e r g e n r e i s t h e " e n t r a n c e l it u r g y ," a p p a r e n t l y

r e c i t e d b y t h e w o r s h i p p e r w h o i s a b o u t to e n t e r t h e T e m p l e p r e c i n c t s . F o r e x a m -

p i e , P s a lm 1 5 b e g i n s "LO RD , w h o m a y s o jo u r n i n Y o u r t e n t , / w h o m a y d w e l l o n

Y o u r h o l y m o u n t a i n ? / H e w h o li ve s w i t h o u t b l a m e . . . " P a r t o f P s a l m 2 4 s h a r e s

t h e s a m e g e n r e : " W h o m a y a s c e n d t h e m o u n t a i n o f t h e LORD? / W h o m a y s t a n d

i n H i s h o l y p l a c e ? — / H e w h o h a s c l ea n h a n d s a n d a p u r e h e a r t . . . " ( w . 3 - 4 ) .

1 2

A g a in , n o e x p l i c i t r i t u a l t e x t i n L e v i t i c u s o r K in g s m e n t io n s s u c h a l i t u r g y .

R a t h e r , o u r a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e s e p s a l m s a n d t h e i r s t r u c t u r e is w h a t m o t i v a t e s

t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n t u r n , h e l p s u s r e a d a n d u n d e r s t a n d

t h e p s a l m b e t t e r . C e r t a i n ly , t h i s i s s o m e w h a t c i r c u la r . W e m u s t a l w a y s r e m e m b e r

th a t w e a r e f o l l o w in g t e x t u a l c l u e s , a n d w e m u s t a lw a y s a s k : Is t h e r e a d i f f e r e n t

s o c i a l s e t t i n g t h a t w o u l d b e t t e r e x p l a i n t h e p s a l m w i t h i n it s a n c i e n t c o n t e x t ?

T i m e a n d P l a c e

R e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s o c ia l s e t t i n g a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n o f " w h y " s o m e o n e c o m -

p o s e d t h e p s a l m s . In t h e s a m e w a y — b a s e d o n t e x tu a l c l u e s — w e c a n o f t e n

r e c o n s t r u c t w h e n a n d w h e r e t h e y w e r e w r i t t e n . I n s o d o i n g , w e c a n n o t t a k e li t-

e r a l l y t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t a s c r i b e s t h e b o o k ' s a u t h o r s h i p t o K i n g D a v i d . T h e b o o k

i ts el f d o e s n o t m a k e t h i s c l a i m ; t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s s e e m t o a t t r i b u t e l e ss t h a n

h a l f o f t h e p s a l m s t o D a v i d . M a n y p s a l m s a t t r i b u t e t h e i r o r i g i n t o o t h e r f i g u r e s ,

s u c h a s t h e t w o a t t r i b u t e d t o S o l o m o n ( 7 2 , 1 2 7 ) , a n d t h e t w e l v e e a c h t o A s a p h

( 5 0 , 7 3 - 8 3 ) a n d to t h e s o n s o f K o r a h ( 4 2 - 4 9 , 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 8 8 ) . E v e n t h e s u p e r -

s c r i p t i o n s t h a t d o s a y "O f D a v id . A p s a l m " o r "A P s a lm o f D a v id " m a y n o t m e a n

t o a t t r i b u t e a u t h o r s h i p t o h i m . R a t h e r , s u c h f o r m u l a s m a y m e a n "a p s a l m i n t h e

s ty l e o f D a v id . "1 3

L o o k i n g b e y o n d t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s g i v es u s f u r t h e r c l u e s f o r d a t i n g t h e

p s a lm s . T h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e "D a v id i c p s a lm s " m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a l lf r o m t h e s a m e p e r i o d , a n d n o n e of t h e m r e f l e ct s t h e e a r l y - t e n t h - c e n t u r y H e b r e w

th a t h e w o u ld h a v e s p o k e n . I n fa c t , t h e o p e n in g of P s a lm 1 3 7 , "B y t h e riv ers

o f B a b y lo n , / there w e s a t, " i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p s a l m c o m e s f r o m t h e p o s t e x i l i c

p e r i o d — f o u r h u n d r e d y e a rs a f t e r D a v i d 's t i m e . O t h e r p s a l m s c o n t a i n p o s t e x i l ic

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p h r a s e s o r w o r d s . T h u s t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t d e v e l o p e d i n t h e S y n a g o g u e a n d

t h e C h u r c h t h a t a t t r i b u t e d ( m u c h o f ) t h e b o o k t o D a v i d i s i n c o r r e c t . 1 4 T h e

P s a l t e r c l e a r l y h a s a l o n g h i s t o r y , f r o m t h e F i r s t t h r o u g h t h e ( e a r l y ) S e c o n d

T e m p l e p e r i o d .

S c h o l a r s a gr e e t h a t m o s t p s a l m s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e .

E v e n s o , s o m e of t h e s e p o e m s c l e a r l y o r i g i n a t e d e l s e w h e r e . F o r e x a m p l e , P s a l m

8 0 c o n t a i n s i n t e r n a l h i n t s t h a t i ts o r i g i n l ay i n t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m : "G i v e e ar ,

Ο s h e p h e r d o f I s ra e l / w h o l e a d s J o s e p h l ik e a f l o c k ! / A p p e a r , Y o u w h o a r e

e n t h r o n e d o n t h e c h e r u b i m , / a t t h e h e a d o f E p h r a i m , B e n j a m i n , a n d M a n a s s e h ! /

R o u s e Y o u r m i g h t a n d c o m e t o o u r h e l p ! " ( w . 2 - 3 ) . T h i s p a s s a g e i n v o k e s G o d

as the l eader o f the northern t r i b e s . S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e d e f i n e d s e v e r a l p s a l m s a sN o r t h e r n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r d i a l e c t , s i n c e w e k n o w f r o m a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i -

d e n c e t h a t N o r t h e r n H e b r e w w a s d i f fe r e n t t h a n J u d e a n H e b r e w . 1 י I n s u m , t h e

p s a l m s p r e s e r v e d i n P s a l m s r e f l e c t a w i d e v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s , d a t e s , a n d p l a c e s o f

o r i g i n .

A Co llection of C ollections

W e h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e B o o k o f P s a l m s c a m e t o g e t h e r o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d

o f t i m e . F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m t h e n o t a t i o n a b o u t h a l f w a y t h r o u g h t h e

b o o k , " E n d o f t h e p r a y e r s o f D a v i d s o n o f J e s s e " ( 7 2 : 2 0 ) , w h i c h m u s t m a r k t h e

c o n c l u s i o n o f a n e a r li e r e d i t i o n o f t h e P s a lt e r. T h e b o o k ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o v e r t i m e

h a s l e ft t r a c e s i n i ts p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e . C o m p a r e P s a l m s 1 4 a n d 5 3 :

Psalm 53

( 1 ) F o r t h e l e a d e r ; o n mahalath. A

maskil o f D a v i d .

( 2 ) T h e b e n i g h t e d m a n t h i n k s , " G o d

d o e s n o t c a r e . " M a n ' s w r o n g d o i n g

is c o r r u p t a n d l o a t h s o m e ; n o o n e

d o e s g o o d .

( 3 ) G o d l o o k s d o w n f r o m h e a v e n o nm a n k i n d t o f i n d a m a n o f

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a m a n m i n d f u l o f

G o d .

( 4 ) E v e r y o n e is d r o s s , a l t o g e t h e r f o u l ;

t h e r e i s n o n e w h o d o e s g o o d ,

n o t e v e n o n e .

Psalm 14

( 1 ) F o r t h e l e a d e r . O f D a v i d .

T h e b e n i g h t e d m a n t h i n k s ,

" G o d d o e s n o t c a r e . "

M a n ' s d e e d s a r e c o r r u p t a n d

l o a t h s o m e ; n o o n e d o e s g o o d .

( 2 ) T h e L O R D l o o k s d o w n f r o m

h e a v e n o n m a n k i n d t o f i n d a m a no f u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

a m a n m i n d f u l o f G o d .

( 3 ) A ll h a v e t u r n e d b a d , a l t o g e t h e r

f o u l ; t h e r e i s n o n e w h o d o e s g o o d ,

n o t e v e n o n e .

(4 ) Are th ey so w i t l e s s , a l l th os e

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( 5 ) A r e t h e y s o w i t l e s s , t h o s e

e v i l d o e r s , w h o d e v o u r m y p e o p l e

a s t h e y d e v o u r f o o d , a n d d o n o t

i n v o k e G o d ?

( 6 ) T h e r e t h e y w i l l b e s e i z e d w i t h

f r i g h t — n e v e r w a s t h e re s u c h a

f r i g h t — f o r G o d h a s s c a t t e r e d t h e

b o n e s o f y o u r b e s i e g e r s ; y o u

h a v e p u t t h e m t o s h a m e , fo r G o d

h a s r e j e c t e d t h e m .

( 7 ) Ο t h a t t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f I s r a e lm i g h t c o m e f r o m Z i o n ! W h e n

G o d r e s t o r e s t h e f o r t u n e s o f H i s

p e o p l e , J a c o b w i ll e x u l t , I s ra e l

w i l l r e j o i c e .

e v i l d o e r s , w h o d e v o u r m y p e o p l e

a s t h e y d e v o u r f o o d , a n d d o n o t

i n v o k e t h e L O R D ?

( 5 ) T h e r e t h e y w i l l b e s e i z e d w i t h

f r i g h t , f o r G o d i s p r e s e n t i n t h e

c i r c l e o f t h e r i g h t e o u s .

( 6 ) Y o u m a y s e t a t n a u g h t t h e c o u n s e l

o f the lowly , bu t the L O R D i s h is

r e f u g e .

( 7 ) Ο t h a t t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f I s r a e l

m i g h t c o m e f r o m Z i o n! W h e n t h eL O R D r e s t o r e s t h e f o r t u n e s o f H i s

p e o p l e , J a c o b w i l l e x u l t , I s r a e l

w i l l r e j o i c e .

C l e a r l y t h i s i s a s i n g l e p s a l m , p r e s e r v e d i n t w o s li g h t l y d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s . T h e

d i s c r e p a n c i e s r e s u lt f r o m c h a n g e s a n d e r r o r s d u r i n g t e x tu a l t r a n s m i s s i o n . A s i n -g l e e d i t o r p r o b a b l y w o u l d n o t h a v e i n c l u d e d b o t h v e r s i o n s . M o r e li ke ly , e a c h

p s a l m a l r e a d y e x i s t e d i n t w o d i f f e r e n t c o l l e c t i o n s . L a t e r , a n e d i t o r o f t h e P s a l t e r

a p p a r e n t l y i n c o r p o r a t e d b o t h c o l l e c t i o n s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , P s a l m s i s a collection of

collections.

F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t P s a l m s 1 4 a n d 5 3 c a m e f r o m t w o s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n s

i s t h e l a n g u a g e e m p l o y e d t o r e f e r t o t h e D e i t y . T h e l a s t t w o v e r s e s o f P s a l m 1 4

c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e YHWH ( " t h e L O R D " ) , w h e r e a s t h e s a m e v e r s e s i n P s a l m 5 3 u s e

Elohim ( " G o d " ) . If w e s t e p b a c k f r o m t h e s e t w o p s a l m s , w e c a n se e a l a r g e r p a t -

t e r n : P s a l m s 4 8 - 8 3 f o r m a c o l l e c t i o n t h a t , c o m p a r e d t o t h e re s t o f t h e P s a l t e r ,

p r e f e r s t o e m p l o y Elohim. T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r e l a t i v e u s e of t h e s e n a m e s is

s t r i k i n g :

P s a l m s 4 8 - 8 3 : Elohim, 2 1 0 t i m e s ; YHWH, 4 5 t i m e s

Res t o f the Psa l t e r : Elohim, 9 4 t i m e s ; YHWH, 5 8 4 t i m e s

O n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s c o m p a r i s o n , s c h o l a r s c o n s i d e r c h a p t e r s 4 8 - 8 3 t o b e a c o l -

l e c t i o n i n i t s o w n r i g h t , w h i c h t h e y c a l l t h e " E l o h i s t i c P s a l t e r , " s i n c e i t r e l i e s u p o n

t h e n a m e Elohim.

W e c a n s p o t o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s a s w e l l . F o r e x a m p l e , P s a l m s 1 2 0 - 1 3 4 a l l

b e g i n w i t h "A S o n g of A s c e n t s " o r a s i m i l a r f o r m u l a . (W e ar e n o l o n g e r s u r e w h a t

a S o n g o f A s c e n t i s . 1 6 ) P s a l m s 7 3 - 8 3 , w h o s e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s a t t r i b u t e t h e m t o

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A s a p h , o n c e f o r m e d a s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n . ( P s a lm 5 0 h a s a s im i l a r a t t r i b u t io n ,

bu t i t i s n o w in a d i f fe ren t pa r t o f the bo ok . ) Th e f ina l f ive ps a lm s be g in w i th

"Hal le lu jah !" In sum, we can be qu i te ce r ta in tha t the Psa l te r compr ises a co l -

lec t ion o f co l lec t ions .

Psalms as an Orderly Book

Giv e n th e e v id e n c e s u r v e y e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , p e r h a p s P s a lm s i s n o t r e a l-

l y a b o o k a t a ll ; i t w o u ld s e e m to b e a h o d g e - p o d g e . W e c a n n o l o n g e r d e t e r m in e

wh y e a c h p s a lm i s i n i t s p l a c e . Ev e n s o , we c a n d i s c e r n s o me g e n e r a l p r in c ip l e s

o f o r d e r in g f o r P s a lm s . Th a t o r d e r i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n s id e r P s a lm s a t r u e b o o k . 1 7

On th e s imp le s t l e v e l o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , we s e e t h a t t h e l a me n t s p r e d o min a t e

a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e P s a l t e r , wh e r e a s t h e h y mn s a p p e a r mo s t ly a t i t s e n d .

T h u s , P s a l m s m o v e s f r o m c o m p l a i n t t o t h a n k s g i v i n g , f r o m b e i n g t r o u b l e d t o

b e in g j o y f u l . Th a t is a c o m m o n b ib l i c a l s t r u c tu r e , a s i n p r o p h e t i c b o o k s t h a t

b e g in w i th r e b u k e a n d e n d w i th c o n s o l a t i o n ( s e e e s p . Ez e k ie l ) .

Th e s t r u c tu r e o f P s a lm s i s m o r e c o m p l e x a s we l l . A f o r m u la t h a t p r a i s e s Go d

( wh a t s c h o la r s c a l l a " d o x o lo g y " ) o c c u r s f o u r t ime s , w i th o n ly s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n :

Blessed is the LORD, God of Israe l , / f rom eterni ty to e terni ty . / Amen and

A m e n . ( 4 1 : 1 4 )

Blessed is His g lo r io us na m e fo reve r ; / His g lo ry f il ls the w ho le w or ld . /

A m e n a n d Am e n . / En d of t h e p r a y e r s of Da v id s o n of J e s s e . ( 7 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 )

Blessed is the L O R D f o r e v e r ; / A m e n a n d A m e n . ( 8 9 : 5 3 )

Ble ssed is th e LORD, G o d of Israel, / F ro m e te rn ity t o etern ity. / Let all

t h e p e o p le s ay , " Am e n . " / Ha l l e lu j a h . ( 1 0 6 :4 8 )

F u n c t io n a l ly s p e a k in g , t h e s e f o r m u la s d iv id e t h e b o o k in to f iv e p a r t s . L in g u i s t i c

a n d c o n te x tu a l e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e f o r mu la s a r e n o t a n o r ig in a l p a r t o f

the book . In o the r words , a l a te r ed i to r inse r ted them so as to c rea te a f ive -pa r t

c o m p o s i t i o n .Th e b o o k ' s c o n c lu s io n r e in f o r c e s t h a t f i v e - p a r t s t r u c tu r e , f o r i t e x u b e r a n t l y

u n d e r s c o r e s t h e e a r l i e r p r a i s e f o r mu la s ( we mig h t c a l l i t a " me g a d o x o lo g y " ) :

( 1 5 0 :1 ) Ha l l e lu j a h . P r a i s e Go d in H i s s a n c tu a r y ; p r a i s e H im in t h e s k y ,

H i s s t r o n g h o ld . ( 2 ) P r a i s e H im f o r H i s m ig h ty a c t s ; p r a i s e H im f o r H i s

e x c e e d in g g r e a tn e s s . ( 3 ) P r a i s e H im wi th b l a s t s o f t h e h o r n ; p r a i s e H im

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w i t h h a r p a n d l y r e . ( 4 ) P r a i s e H i m w i t h t i m b r e l a n d d a n c e ; p r a i s e H i m

w i t h l u t e a n d p i p e . ( 5 ) P r a i s e H i m w i t h r e s o u n d i n g c y m b a l s ; p r a i s e H i m

w i t h l o u d - c l a s h i n g c y m b a l s . ( 6 ) Le t a ll t h a t b r e a t h e s p r a i s e t h e L O R D .

H a l l e l u j a h .

W h a t i s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s f i v e - p a r t d iv i s i o n ? P s a lm s t e l ls u s a t i t s v e r y b e g in -

n i n g . P o s s i b l y t h e s a m e e d i t o r w h o a d d e d t h e f iv e d o x o l o g i e s a l s o p l a c e d P s a l m

1 a s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e P sa l te r . It s p e a k s o f t h e r i g h t e o u s p e r s o n f o r w h o m

"the Torah o f the L O R D i s h i s d e l i g h t , a n d h e s t u d i e s t h a t T o r a h d a y a n d n i g h t "

( v 2 ) .

A s a n o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e b o o k , t h a t v e r s e a c c o m p l i s h e s t w o t h i n g s . F i r s t,

h e r e — a t t h e s t a rt o f K e t h u v i m — t h e t h i r d m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e —

it a s se r t s the p r imacy of the Torah . Of the th ree pa r t s o f the Bib le , the Torah i s

t h e f ir s t a m o n g e q u a l s ( s c h o l a r s u s e t h e L a ti n e x p r e s s i o n primus inter pares). It is

t h e o n l y p o r t i o n t h a t g e t s m e n t i o n e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e o t h e r t w o .1 8

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a p p r o b a t i o n f o r s t u d y i n g " T o r a h " i n v. 2 i s a c t u a l l y d o u b l e -

v o i c e d . T h a t is , t h e r i g h t e o u s p e r s o n i s s u p p o s e d t o s t u d y n o t o n l y t h e F i v e

B o o k s o f M o s e s b u t a l s o t h i s s e c o n d "T o r a h , " t h e f i v e - p a r t B o o k o f P s a lm s . I f s o ,

t h e n t h e e d i t o r w h o c r e a t e d t h e f i v e - p a r t s t r u c t u r e h e a d e d b y P s a l m 1 o f f e r e d u sa n a m a z in g r e r e a d in g o f t h e B o o k of P s a lm s . It i s n o t m e r e l y a c o m p i l a t i o n o f o ld

p o e m s f o r w o r s h i p p e r s t o r e ci te a s p r a y e r s . R a t he r , it i s n o w a b o o k — s o m e t h i n g

t o b e s t u d i e d .

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23"Acqui re Wisdom"

Re adi ng P r ove r bs and E c c l e s i as t e s

Primary Reading: Proverbs 1,3,6, 7, 10, 22, 23, 30, 31; Ecclesiastes 1-3,

7-8, 10,12.

Outside the Bible's Theological Triangle

E v e n a c u r s o r y g l a n c e a t t h e b o o k s o f P r o v e r b s a n d of E c c l e s i a s t e s s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h e y a r e u n l i k e a n y t h i n g w e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d s o fa r. T h e y a re n o ti n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t T o r a h i s — P r o v e r b s , f o r e x a m p l e , i s l a r g e ly c o m -

p o s e d o f p i t h y s a y i n g s t h a t a r e n o t m a r k e d a s h a v i n g d i v i n e o r i g i n . N o r a r e t h e y

I s ra e l it e h i s t o r i c a l t e x t s — w h i l e P r o v e r b s a n d E c c l e s i a st e s d o m e n t i o n K i n g

S o l o m o n , t h e y r e c o r d l i t t l e i n t h e w a y o f a c t u a l e v e n t s . N o r a r e t h e t w o b o o k s

p r o p h e t i c — t h e p r o f o u n d s e n t i m e n t s o f E c c l e si a s te s , f o r e x a m p l e , ar e w o r d s of

t h a t p r e a c h e r ; t h e y a r e n o t u n d e r s t o o d t o b e d iv i n e . T h e m e s s e n g e r f o r m u l a

" t h u s s a i d t h e LORD" i s l a c k i n g i n b o t h b o o k s .

T h e s a m e is t r u e of a t h i r d b i b l i c a l b o o k , J o b , w h i c h i s t h e f o c u s o f t h e n e x t

c h a p t e r y e t t r e a t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i n s o f a r a s i t i s s i m i l a r t o P r o v e r b s a n d t o

E c c l e si a st e s. G o d c o m m u n i c a t e s d i r e c t l y w i t h a h u m a n b e i n g o n l y a t t h e v e r y

e n d , a n d e v e n t h e r e p r o v i d e s n o r e a l g u i d a n c e o n h o w t o l i v e . T h e s t o r y o f J o b

i s s e t i n t h e l a n d o f U z — n o t i n Is r a e l , a n d i t d o e s n o t i n v o l v e I s r a e l i te s . T h e b o o k

s h o w s n o i n t e r e s t i n t h e Is r a e li t e p a s t . It b e a r s n o p r o p h e t i c m e s s a g e .

T h e s e t h r e e b o o k s s h a r e c e r t a i n o t h e r f e a t u r e s , t o o . T h e y al l c o n t a i n a p r e -

p o n d e r a n c e of a p h o r i s m s a n d p r o v e r b s .1

T o g e t h e r t h e y a c c o u n t f o r m o s t o f t h eB i b l e ' s u s a g e s o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o u n chokhmah ( ה מ כ ח , " w i s d o m " ; 8 8 o u t of a t o t a l

o f 1 6 1 ) a n d o f v e r b s f o r m e d f r o m t h e r o o t ch-kh-m, ( ם כ ח , " t o b e w i s e " ; 9 6 o u t

o f 1 6 6 ) . T h i s , c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s , s u g g e s t s t o m a n y t h a t t h e t h r e e

b o o k s e m a n a t e f r o m a w i s d o m s c h o o l — a l t h o u g h e x a c t ly w h a t th a t s c h o o l w a s

s t i l l e l u d e s u s . 2 T h e y a l s o a ll e n g a g e in e x p l o r i n g t h e p r o p e r c o s m i c o r d e r . 3

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A c e r t a i n l a c k b i n d s t h e s e b o o k s s t r o n g l y t o g e t h e r : t h e y a ll l a c k e x p r e s s i o n s

o f c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o v e n a n t t h a t u n i t e s I s r ae l a n d G o d . I n f a c t, c o n c e r n w i t h

I s rae l as a nation is a b s e n t — a s n o t e d , J o b d o e s n o t e v e n m e n t i o n I sr a el .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e b o o k s c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s m o r e w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a n

w i t h " c o r p o r a t e I s r a e l . "

S t a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e s e t h r e e b o o k s l ie o u t s i d e o f t h e B ib l e s t h e o lo g i c a l t r i -

a n g l e . T h a t i s, m o s t o f t h e B ib le i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h ip s b e tw e e n G o d ,

t h e p e o p l e Is r a e l , a n d t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l . I c a n p o r t r a y t h o s e t h r e e c o n c e r n s a s t h e

c o r n e r s o f a t r i a n g l e ( s e e d i a g r a m ) . A t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t r i a n g l e l i e s t h e c o v e n a n t ,

b e c a u s e i ts g o a l is t o u n i t e t h e t h r e e e n t i t i e s : if t h e p e o p l e o f I s r ae l u p h o ld t h e

c o v e n a n t o f t h e G o d o f I s r a e l , t h e y w i l l p o s s e s s t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l .

G o d

T h i s th e s i s i s a m a i n t h e m e o f t h e T o r a h , w h i c h e v o k e s it o f t e n i n i t s l a n d p r o m -

i s es , a n d in t h e g r e a t r e b u k e s i n L e v i t i c u s 2 6 a n d D e u t e r o n o m y 2 8 . M e a n w h i l e ,

t h e h i s t o r i c a l b o o k s o f N e v i ' i m n a r r a t e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n I s ra el 's o b s e r -

v a n c e of t h e l a w a n d i ts l a n d t e n u r e . T h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s o f f e r w a r n i n g s t o

I s r ae l , t e l l i n g t h e m h o w t o r e m a i n o n t h e l a n d — o r h o w t o r e p o s s e s s it .

S u c h a c l u s t e r o f t h e m e s is a b s e n t i n t h e t h r e e b o o k s of P r o v e r b s ,

E c c l e s ia s t e s, a n d J o b . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n p l a c e s , t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e o n " c o v e n a n t a l "

c o n c e r n s i s a t o d d s w i t h t h e o t h e r b i b l i c a l b o o k s . F o r e x a m p l e , b o t h T o r a h a n d

p r o p h e t i c t e x t s e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of s u p p o r t i n g t h e p o o r , a s m a y b e

s e e n w h e n D e u t e r o n o m y d i s c u s s e s t h e r e m i s s i o n of d e b t s e v e r y s e v e n t h y e a r :

( 1 5 : 9 ) B e w a r e l e s t y o u h a r b o r t h e b a s e t h o u g h t , " T h e s e v e n t h y e a r , t h e

y e a r o f r e m i s s i o n , is a p p r o a c h i n g , " s o t h a t y o u a r e m e a n t o y o u r n e e d y

k i n s m a n a n d g i v e h i m n o t h i n g . H e w i l l c r y o u t t o t h e L O R D a g a i n s t y o u ,

a n d y o u w i l l i n c u r g u i l t . ( 1 0 ) G iv e t o h im r e a d i l y a n d h a v e n o r e g r e t s

w h e n y o u d o so , f o r i n r e t u r n t h e L O R D y o u r G o d w i l l b l e s s y o u i n al l

y o u r e f f o r t s a n d i n a ll y o u r u n d e r t a k i n g s . ( 1 1 ) F o r t h e r e w il l n e v e r c e a s e

t o b e n e e d y o n e s i n y o u r l a n d , w h i c h i s w h y I c o m m a n d y o u : o p e n y o u r

h a n d t o t h e p o o r a n d n e e d y k i n s m a n i n y o u r l a n d .

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Lik e wis e , Am o s , a p r o p h e t i c t e x t , s h o w s a s t r o n g c o n c e r n f o r t h e p o o r :

(2 : 6) T h u s sa id the LORD: Fo r thre e t ra ns gr es s io ns of Israe l , / Fo r four , I

wi l l no t rev oke i t : / Because the y have so ld fo r s i lve r / Tho se w ho secaus e w as ju s t , / A nd the ne ed y fo r a pa i r of san da ls . / (7 ) Ah , yo u w h o

t ra m pl e the he ad s of the p oo r / In to the d us t of the g r ou nd . . .

I n c o n t r a s t , P r o v e r b s c h id e s o n e wh o h a s b o th e r e d t o h e l p o u t a p o o r p e r -

s o n b y c o s ig n in g a l o a n :

(6 :1 ) M y so n , if you hav e s too d su re ty fo r yo ur fe l low, / Gi ven yo ur

h a n d f o r a n o th e r , / ( 2 ) Yo u h a v e b e e n t r a p p e d b y t h e wo r d s o f y o u r

m o u t h , / S n a r e d b y t h e w o r d s of y o u r m o u th . / ( 3 ) Do th i s , t h e n , m y

so n , to ex t r ica te you rse l f , / For you hav e co m e in to the po w er o f yo ur

f e l lo w: / Go g r o v e l— a n d b a d g e r y o u r f e l l o w; / ( 4 ) G iv e y o u r e y e s n o

s leep , / Your pup i l s no s lumber . / (5 ) Save yourse l f l ike a dee r ou t o f the

hand o f a hun te r , / L ike a b i rd ou t o f the hand o f a fowle r .

I t i s ha rd to be l ieve tha t P ro ve rb s— w ith i t s p rac t ic a l ye t l e ss co m pa ss io na te a t t i -

t u d e t o w a r d t h e p o o r — a p p e a r s i n t h e s a m e B ib le a s D e u t e r o n o m y a n d A m o s !

Ev e n in c a s e s w h e r e a ll b ib l i c al b o o k s a g r e e t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s b a d o r g o o d ,

P r o v e r b s p r e s e n t s t h e i s s u e i n a d i s t i n c t i v e ma n n e r . F o r e x a mp le , t h e e n t i r e B ib l e

i s a n t i - a d u l t e r y . ( T h e B ib le d e f in e s a d u l t e r y a s a m a n s h a v in g s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e

w i th a w o m a n w h o is m a r r i e d t o a n o th e r m a n . ) I n t h e To r a h , a d u l t e r y i s a c a p -

i ta l o f fen se : "If a m a n i s fo un d ly ing w i th an o t he r m an ' s wi fe , bo th o f th e m . . .

sha l l d ie . Thus you wi l l sweep away ev i l f rom Is rae l" (Deu t . 22 :22) . In the

To r a h 's n a r r a t i v e , J o s e p h r e c o g n iz e s t h e s e r io u s n e s s of a d u l t e r y w h e n h e sa y s t o

M r s . P o t ip h a r : " Ho w th e n c o u ld I d o t h i s mo s t w ic k e d th in g , a n d s in b e f o r e

Go d ? " ( Ge n . 3 9 :9 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , P r o v e r b s c o n d e mn s a d u l t e r y a s a n o f f e n s e n o t

a g a i n s t G o d b u t r a t h e r a g a i n s t t h e w o m a n ' s h u s b a n d :

( 6 :3 2 ) He wh o c o mmi t s a d u l t e r y i s d e v o id o f s e n s e ; / On ly o n e wh o

wo u ld d e s t r o y h ims e l f d o e s s u c h a t h in g . / ( 3 3 ) He w i l l me e t w i th d i s -

e a s e a n d d i s g r a c e ; / H i s r e p r o a c h w i l l n e v e r b e e x p u n g e d . / ( 3 4 ) Th e

f u r y of t h e h u s b a n d w i ll b e p a s s io n a t e ; / He w i l l s h o w n o p i t y o n h i s

day o f vengeance . / (35 ) He wi l l no t have regard fo r any ransom; / He

wi ll r e f u s e y o u r b r ib e , h o w e v e r g r e a t .

In th i s re spec t , P roverbs ' v iew of adu l te ry i s l ike tha t in the res t o f the Near

E a s t e r n w o r l d .

I n d e e d , P r o v e r b s , Ec c l e si a s t es , a n d J o b a r e m o r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t h e i r

p u r v i e w th a n o th e r b o o k s i n th e B ibl e. Th i s is m o s t o b v io u s in t h e s e c t i o n s of

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P r o v e r b s t h a t e c h o a n e a r l i e r E g y p t i a n t e x t c a l l e d The Instruction of Amen emope,

a s w e s h a l l s e e b e l o w . B u t a ll t h r e e b o o k s s h o w m a n y m o r e s i m i l a r i t i e s — i n s t y le

a n d in s p e c i f i c p h r a s e s a n d l i n e s — t o p r e - I sr a e l i t e l i t e r a t u r e . A p p a r e n t l y t h e

a u t h o r s o f t h e s e b i b l i c a l b o o k s h a d a c c es s t o t h i s n o n - I s r a e l i t e m a t e r i a l — a n d

sa w f i t to ma k e us e o f i t .

G i v e n t h e s i m i l a r it i e s a m o n g t h e s e t h r e e b o o k s , a n d t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m

t h e r e s t o f t h e B i b le , s c h o l a r s c u s t o m a r i l y r e f e r t o t h e m t o g e t h e r a s " W i s d o m

L i t e r a t u r e . "4

N o t a l l s c h o l a r s a g r e e t h a t t h i s i s t h e b e s t t e r m .5

A t t h e s a m e t i m e ,

m a n y s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s c o p e of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e e x t e n d s b e y o n d t h e s e

t h r e e b o o k s .6

Y et i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t L e v i ti c u s a n d D e u t e r o n o m y m a y b e

s t u d i e d t o g e t h e r u s e f u l l y a s T o r a h , o r t h a t I s a i a h a n d E z e k i e l m a y b e s t u d i e dt o g e t h e r e f f e c t i v e l y a s c l a s s i c al p r o p h e c y , t h e t h r e e b o o k s o f P r o v e r b s ,

E c c l e s ia s t e s, a n d J o b c a n b e e x a m i n e d p r o d u c t i v e l y w i t h r e g a r d t o e a c h o t h e r .

A l s o , g i v e n t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l f l a v o r , it i s o f t e n h e l p f u l t o r e a d t h e m a g a i n s t

o t h e r a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n t e x t s , r a t h e r t h a n i n l i g h t o f t h e T o r a h o r I s r a e l i te

p r o p h e t i c t e x t s .

What Is Proverbs?

P r o v e r b s i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f s m a l l e r c o l l e c t i o n s of d i v e r s e p r o v e r b s a n d o t h e r

d i d a c t i c m a t e r i a l f r o m d i v e r s e s e t t i n g s , s o m e of w h i c h r e f l e c t i n t e r n a t i o n a l

i n f l u e n c e . A s o u r d i s c u s s i o n w i l l s h o w , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n t o K i n g S o l o m o n i n 1 : 1 i s

n o t h i s t o r i c a l ly a c c u r a t e . M a n y o f i t s a d a g e s a d d r e s s t h e p u r s u i t o f w i s d o m o r

r i g h t e o u s n e s s .

P a t t e r n s T h a t R e v e a l t h e B o o k ' s N a t u r e

T h e s a m e ty p e s o f e v id e n c e t h a t l e d u s t o c o n c lu d e t h a t P s a lm s i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f

c o l l e c t i o n s ( s ee c h a p t e r 2 2 ) a p p l y to P r o v e r b s a s w e l l . P a r t w a y t h r o u g h t h i s

b o o k , a n o t i c e r e a d s : " T h e s e t o o a re p r o v e r b s o f S o l o m o n , w h i c h t h e m e n o f

K i n g H e z e k i a h o f J u d a h c o p i e d " ( 2 5 : 1 ) , i n d i c a t i n g t h at P r o v e r b s o n c e c o n c l u d -

e d j u s t b e f o r e t h a t p o i n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e b o o k r e p e a t s m a n y o f i ts p r o v e r b s . F o r

e x a m p l e , b o t h P r o v e r b s 1 4 : 1 2 a n d 1 6 : 2 5 r e a d : "A r o a d m a y s e e m r i g h t t o a

m a n , / Bu t in th e en d i t i s a ro ad to de a t h . "7

O t h e r p r o v e r b s a r e t o l d i n n e a r l y

id e n t i c a l f o r m s , f o r e x a m p l e : " I l l - g o t t e n w e a l t h is o f n o a v a i l , / B u t r i g h t e o u s n e s s

s a v e s f r o m d e a th " ( 1 0 :2 ) a n d "W e a l th i s o f n o a v a i l o n t h e d a y o f w r a th , / B u t

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r i g h t e o u s n e s s s a v e s f r o m d e a t h " ( 1 1 : 4 ) . 8 B o t h p h e n o m e n a s u g g e s t t h a t a p r o v e r b

( s o m e t i m e s al t e re d d u r i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n ) f o u n d i ts w a y i n t o m o r e t h a n o n e c o l -

l e c t i o n , w h ic h a l a t e r e d i t o r c o m p i l e d i n to t h e l a r g e r b o o k .Occas ion a l ly , tw o sep ara te ve rses sha re on ly ha lf o f a p r ov er b whi le the i r

respe c t ive o th e r ha lves eac h re f lec t a d i s t in c t v ie w po in t . For ex am ple , the fo l -

lowing ve rses g ive two d i f fe ren t answers to the ques t ion o f how to l ive long

a n d we l l :

T he in s t r uc t io n o f a wise m a n i s a foun ta i n of l i fe , / E na b l i ng on e to

a v o id d e a d ly s n a r e s . ( 1 3 :1 4 )

Fear of the L O R D i s a fo un ta in of l i fe , / En ab l in g one to avo id de ad ly

s n a r e s . ( 1 4 : 2 7 )

Th e d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r s p e c t iv e i s s i g n i f i c a n t . Th e f i rs t p r o v e r b i s s e c u l a r — i t a d v o -

ca tes fo l lo wi ng the wo rd s of a wise sage , w h o i s no t necessa r i ly r ig h te ou s in

te rms o f fo l lowing d iv ine law. To recas t i t s message in modern te rms : go ga in the

type o f p rac t ica l w is d om tau gh t in sec u la r sch oo ls , fo r tho se sk il l s wi l l ke ep yo u

o u t o f t r o u b le . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e s e c o n d p r o v e r b is r e l i g io u s . I n m o d e r n t e r m s , it

r e c o m m e n d s g o i n g t o s y n a g o g u e o r c h u r c h .

To g iv e a n o th e r e x a m p le , t h e f o l l o w in g p a i r o f f e r s t h e s a m e c o n t r a s t i n

p e r s p e c t i v e :

The horse i s read ied fo r the day o f ba t t l e , / Bu t v ic to ry comes f rom the

L O R D ( 2 1 : 3 1 ) .

F o r b y s t r a t a g e m s y o u wa g e wa r , / A n d v i c to r y c o m e s w i th m u c h p l a n -

n i n g ( 2 4 : 6 ) .

Th e f i rs t p r o v e r b h o ld s t h a t Go d c a u s e s al l ( " t h e o n o m y " ) , wh e r e a s t h e s e c o n d

o n e s u g g e s t s t h a t h u m a n s c o n t r o l t h e i r o w n f a t e ( " a u t o n o m y " ) .

Th u s , p r o v e r b s i n P r o v e r b s s e e m to h a v e two v e r y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t iv e s :

G o d i s e i t h e r t h e m a j o r p l a y e r o r e l se i g n o r e d a l t o g e th e r . Th e f ir s t t y p e e m p h a -

s i z e s " f e a r o f Go d , " " r i g h t e o u s n e s s , " a n d " w ic k e d n e s s , " wh i l e t h e s e c o n d ty p e

h ig h l ig h t s " w i s d o m , " " b e in g w i s e , " a n d " b e in g f o o l i s h ." W o r d s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e

o n e t y p e ra r e ly a p p e a r t o g e th e r w i th w o r d s t h a t t y p i f y t h e o th e r t y p e . 9 S o m e

s c h o la r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e two ty p e s r e f le c t d i f f e r e n t wo r ld v i e w s : 1 0 i n o n e , Go d

m i c r o m a n a g e s ; in t h e o t h e r , t h i n g s j u s t h a p p e n . 1 1 Al te r n a t e ly , t h e s a me p e r s o n

may have uphe ld each o f these v iews a t d i f fe ren t t imes . Bu t a t any ra te , each

p r o v e r b p r e s e n t s o n ly o n e p o in t o f v i e w .

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T h e C e n t r a l S e c t i o n

T h e b u l k of P r o v e r b s ( 1 0 : 1 - 2 2 : 1 6 ) i s c o m p r i s e d o f t w o - p a r t s a y i n g s i n w h i c ht h e s e c o n d p a r t o p p o s e s t h e fi r st p a r t (a p o e t i c f o r m c a l l e d " a n t i t h e t i c a l p a r a l -

l e l i s m " ; s e e c h a p t e r 1 7 ) . T h e s e s a y i n g s s e e m t o h a v e n o c o n n e c t i o n o n e t o t h e

n e x t . H e r e is a t y p i c a l t h r e e - v e r s e - l o n g p a s s a g e f r o m t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e b o o k :

( 1 0 : 4 ) N e g l i g e n t h a n d s c a u s e p o v e r t y / B u t d i l i g e n t h a n d s e n r i c h .

( 5 ) H e w h o l a y s i n s t o r e s d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r is a c a p a b l e s o n , / B u t h e

w h o s l e e p s d u r i n g t h e h a r v e s t is a n i n c o m p e t e n t .

( 6 ) B l e s s i n g s l i g h t u p o n t h e h e a d o f t h e r i g h t e o u s , / B u t l a w l e s s n e s s c o v -e r s t h e m o u t h o f t h e w i c k e d .

F o r s o m e r e a s o n , t h e e d i t o r s o f P r o v e r b s p r e f e r s a y i n g s o f t h i s t y p e , w h i c h

i s o f t e n r e d u n d a n t . S u c h a p r e f e r e n c e i s o d d ; s u r e l y t h e a n c i e n t I s r a e l it e s d i d n o t

c o m p o s e a l l t h e i r p r o v e r b s i n t h i s f o r m . I n d e e d , m o s t p o p u l a r p r o v e r b s q u o t e d

e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B i bl e a n d t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t a p p e a r i n a w i d e r a n g e of o t h e r

f o r m s , s u c h a s " H o w c a n s t r a w b e c o m p a r e d t o g r a i n ? " ( J e r . 2 3 : 2 8 ) , o r " L e t n o t

h i m w h o g i r d s o n h i s s w o r d b o a s t l i k e h i m w h o u n g i r d s i t! " ( 1 K i n g s 2 0 : 1 1 ) . 1 2

T h e F i r s t S e c t i o n

V e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e b o o k ' s c e n t e r s e c t i o n is i t s o p e n i n g ( c h a p s . 1 - 9 ) . It c o n -

t a i n s n o n e o f t h o s e i n d e p e n d e n t , p i t h y , t w o - p a r t s a y i n g s . I n s t e a d , t h i s s e c t i o n

p r e s e n t s a p a e a n t o w i s d o m a s a n i d ea l . I t d e v e l o p s th i s t h e m e t h r o u g h s e v e r a l

s p e e c h e s a d d r e s s e d t o a y o u n g a d u l t m a l e , w h i c h c o n t r a s t t w o w o m e n : a n a r c h e -t y p a l ( y e t r e a l ) w o m a n , d e p i c t e d a s a f o r e i g n 1 3 s e d u c t r e s s ; a n d ch okh ma h ה) מ כ ח ,

" w i s d o m " ) , p e r s o n i f i e d a s f e m a l e i n v i v i d t e r m s . 1 4 I n a d d i t i o n t o g l o r i f y i n g w i s -

d o m , t h i s s e c t io n d r iv e s h o m e t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e r ea l w o m a n — t h e s m o o t h - t a l k -

i n g t e m p t r e s s — i s d e a d l y : "a h i g h w a y t o S h e o l / L e a d i n g d o w n t o D e a t h ' s i n n e r

c h a m b e r s " ( 7 : 2 7 ) . O b v i o u s l y t h i s s e c t i o n i s x e n o p h o b i c a n d m i s o g y n i s t i c ; w e d o

n o t k n o w w h y s u c h o p i n i o n s f ig u r e s o p r o m i n e n t l y in P r o v e r b s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n . 1 5

T h e T h i r d S e c t i o n

T h e b o o k ' s t h i r d s e c t i o n is a l s o q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e fi r st t w o s e c t i o n s

d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . It b e g i n s w i t h a n e w i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i ts o w n ( 2 2 : 1 7 - 2 1 ) . T h e n

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it p r e s e n t s a n u m b e r o f s a y i n g s t h a t a re s e v e r a l v e r s e s l o n g ; f o r e x a m p l e : " W h e n

y o u s it d o w n t o d i n e w i t h a r u l e r , / C o n s i d e r w e l l w h o i s b e f o r e y o u . / T h r u s t a

k n i f e i n t o y o u r g u l l e t / If y o u h a v e a l a r g e a p p e t i t e . / D o n o t c r a v e f o r h i s d a i n -

t i e s, / F o r t h e y a r e c o u n t e r f e i t f o o d " ( 2 3 : 1 - 3 ) . F o l l o w i n g t h a t s u b s e c t i o n i s t h e

s u p e r s c r i p t i o n m e n t i o n e d e a rl ie r , w h i c h in t r o d u c e s a n o t h e r s u b s e c t i o n w i t h

m o r e o f t h e s a m e : " T h e s e t o o a r e p r o v e r b s o f S o l o m o n , w h i c h t h e m e n o f K i n g

H e z e k i a h of J u d a h c o p i e d " ( 2 5 : 1 ) .

T h e m a i n p o r t i o n of t h i s s e c t i o n ( 2 2 : 1 7 - 2 4 : 3 4 ) i s w h e r e w e f i n d m a n y s i m -

i l a r i t i e s — a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e — t o a n E g y p t i a n w o r k , The Instruction of

Amenemope.16 T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r i n g s :

D o n o t r o b t h e w r e t c h e d b e c a u s e h e i s w r e t c h e d ; / D o n o t c r u s h t h e

p o o r m a n i n t h e g a t e . ( P r o v e r b s 2 2 : 2 2 )

B e w a r e of r o b b i n g a w r e t c h , / O f a t t a c k i n g a c r i p p l e . ( A m e n e m o p e 2 )

D o n o t r e m o v e t h e a n c i e n t b o u n d a r y s t o n e / T h a t y o u r a n c e s t o r s s e t u p .

( P r o v e r b s 2 2 : 2 8 )

D o n o t r e m o v e a n c i e n t b o u n d a r y s t o n e s ; / D o n o t e n c r o a c h u p o n t h e

f i e l d o f o r p h a n s , / F o r t h e y h a v e a m i g h t y K i n s m a n , / A n d H e w i l l s u r e -l y t a k e u p t h e i r c a u s e w i t h y o u . ( P r o v e r b s 2 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 )

D o n o t m o v e t h e m a r k e r s o n t h e b o r d e r s of f i e l d s , / N o r s h i f t t h e p o s i -

t i o n o f t h e m e a s u r i n g - c o r d . / D o n o t b e g r e e d y f o r a c u b i t of l a n d , / N o r

e n c r o a c h o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s of a w i d o w . ( A m e n e m o p e 6 )

T h e t w o b o o k s s h a r e t o o m u c h w o r d i n g t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k s . B u t

w h i c h b o r r o w e d f r o m w h i c h ? C o n s i d e r t h a t o n e v e r s e i n P r o v e r b s m a k e s s e n s e

o n l y w h e n w e a s s u m e t h a t i ts e d i t o r b o r r o w e d m a t e r i a l f r o m s o m e f o r m o f

Amenemope. T h a t v e r s e r e a d s : " I n d e e d , I w r o t e d o w n f o r y o u a t h r e e f o l d l o r e "

( 2 2 : 2 0 ) . T h i s i s o b s c u r e — t h e r e is n o t h i n g " t h r e e f o l d " i n t h e c o n t e x t . W e c a n

r e s o lv e th e p r o b l e m if w e a s s u m e t h a t th e v o w e l s o f o n e w o r d b e c a m e c o r r u p t -

e d i n t r a n s m i s s i o n . ( T h e M a s o r e t i c t r a d i t i o n a l r e a d y a c t s a s if o n e of t h e l e t t e r s

s u f f e r e d f r o m a s c r i b a l e r r o r a t s o m e p o i n t . ) If i n s t e a d o f t h e M a s o r e t i c r e a d i n g

o f t h e c o n s o n a n t s ם י ש י ל ש a sshalishim ( " t h r e e f o l d " ) w e r e a d sheloshim ( " t h i r t y " ) ,

w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h i s v e r s e a s a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t h i r t y s e c t i o n s of Amenemope.

W e c a n n o t k n o w e x a c t l y h o w a n d w h e n a n I s r a e l i t e e d i t o r e m p l o y e d a v e r -s i o n of t h a t e a r l i e r w o r k , i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h e h i s t o r y of c o m p o s i t i o n o f P r o v e r b s

i s c o m p l e x ( a s t h e s t r u c t u r e d i s c u s s e d s o f a r i n d i c a t e s ) . Y et it a p p e a r s t h a t a n e d i -

t o r o f P r o v e r b s c h a n g e d t h e n a m e o f t h e d e i t y m e n t i o n e d i n t h e E g y p t i a n b o o k ,

w h i l e l e a v i n g m u c h o f t h e re s t a l o n e .

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T h e F i n a l S e c t i o n

Th e c o n t in u a t io n o f P r o v e r b s c o n ta in s a v a r i e ty of ma te r i a l . S o m e of it r e s e m b le s

w ha t w e have seen ea r l ie r . O th er pas sage s a re qu i te d i f fe re n t . Th is inc lud es a co l -

l e c t i o n o f n u me r i c a l s a y in g s , s u c h a s : " Th e e a r th s h u d d e r s a t t h r e e t h in g s , / A t

f o u r w h ic h i t c a n n o t b e a r : / A s l av e wh o b e c o m e s k in g ; / A s c o u n d r e l s a t e d w i th

f o o d ; / A l o a t h s o m e w o m a n w h o g e t s m a r r i e d ; / A s la v e- g ir l w h o s u p p l a n t s h e r

mi s t r e s s " ( 3 0 : 2 1 - 2 3 ) . A l so u n iq u e i s t h e a c r o st i c p a e a n t o t h e "c a p a b le w i f e "

( 3 1 : 1 0 - 3 1 ) , w h i c h c o n c l u d e s t h e b o o k . I n o t h e r w o r d s , p a s s a g e s o n t h e t o p i c o f

w o m e n f r a m e t h e B o o k of P r o v e r b s at i ts b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d . 1 7

Reading Proverbs

Ea c h s e c t i o n o f P r o v e r b s p r e s e n t s p a r t i c u l a r c h a l l e n g e s . Th e f i r st n in e c h a p te r s ,

w i th t h e i r c a r i c a tu r e o f a " f o r e ig n w o m a n , " is b y t o d a y s e g a li t a r ia n s t a n d a r d s

o f f e n s iv e . I n t h e s e c o n d , c e n t r a l s e c t i o n , m a n y p r o v e r b s a r e t o o o b v io u s t o

exc i te , su ch as : "A wise so n b r ing s jo y to h i s fa the r ; / A du l l son i s h i s m oth er ' s

s o r r o w " ( 1 0 : 1 ) . T h e y p r o m p t u n a n s w e r a b l e q u e s t i o n s , s u c h as : F o r w h o m w e r e

t h e s e w o r d s i n t e n d e d ? W e r e th e y m e a n t f o r e d u c a t i n g c h i l d r e n ? 1 8 O t h e r s a y i n g s ,

h o w e v e r , a r e c o lo r f u l a n d s u r p r i s in g ; l ik e t h e b e s t of m o d e r n p r o v e r b s , t h e y p r o -

v o k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h in k a b o u t t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t t h e y ma k e . F o r e x a mp le : " A

gold ring in the sn ou t o f a p ig . / A be au t i f u l w o m a n be re f t o f sens e" ( 11 :22 ;

t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . 1 9

P e r h a p s t h e mo s t c h a l l e n g in g p a r t o f r e a d in g P r o v e r b s i s t a k in g i t o n i t s o wn

te r ms , r e mo v e d f r o m o th e r b ib l i c a l l i t e r a tu r e . M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e f a i l e d t o d os o . Th u s , Ye s h u a ( J o s h u a ) Be n - S i r a c h , a s a g e l i v in g i n t h e s e c o n d c e n tu r y B . C . E . ,

ide n t i f ied "w isd om " wi th " fea r o f the LORD," co nf l a t i ng w ha t in P ro ver bs ha d

been two d is t inc t ideas ( see above , "Pa t te rns Tha t Revea l the Book ' s Na tu re" ) .

F o r e x a mp le , Be n - S i r a c h o p e n s h i s b o o k w i th t h e o b s e r v a t io n t h a t " a l l w i s d o m

is f r om th e LORD," an d e lse w he re i t no te s tha t " the w ho le of w is d o m is fear of the

L o r d " ( 1 9 : 2 0 ) . 2 0 T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of w i s d o m a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s b e c a m e s t a n -

d a r d i n l a t e r J u d a i s m — s o m u c h s o t h a t l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s t o o k th e w o r d " w i s -

d o r n " i n P r o v e r b s t o m e a n " To r a h ." T h u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n h a s l o n g u n d e r s t o o d

To r a h , a n d n o t s imp ly w i s d o m, t o b e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e f a mo u s v e r s e , " S h e i s a

t ree o f l i f e to those who g rasp he r , / And whoever ho lds on to he r i s happy"

(Prov . 3 :18 ; compare v . 13 ) . His to r ica l -c r i t i ca l s tudy encourages us to s t r ip away

s u c h l a t er i d e n t i f i c a t io n s , a n d t o u n d e r s t a n d s u c h t e x ts o n t h e i r o w n t e r m s — t h a t

i s , i n r e f e r e n c e t o s e c u l a r w i s d o m.

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Ecclesiastes: Utter Futility!

E c c l e s i a s t e s , a l s o k n o w n b y i t s H e b r e w t i t l eKohelet

( o r K o h e l e t h , Q o h e l e t , o rQ o h e l e t h ) , i s o n e of t h e B i b l e s m o s t c h a l l e n g i n g b o o k s . P a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m

d e r i v e s f r o m o u r l a c k o f a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f i t s c o m p o s i t i o n .

M o s t s c h o l a r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e b o o k e n d s w i t h a s e c o n d a r y se t o f a p p e n d i c e s i n

1 2 : 9 - 1 4 , w h i c h a t t e m p t to m a k e a r a t h e r r a d i c a l b o o k m o r e a c c e p t a b l e . 2 1

I n d e e d , if w e s e t a s i d e t h e s e v e r s e s t o l o o k a t t h e " o r i g i n a l " w o r k , w e s e e a b o o k

t h a t is n e a t l y b r a c k e t e d b y a n i n c l u s i o : 1 : 2 r e a d s " U t t e r f u t i l i t y ! — s a i d

K o h e l e t h — U t t e r f u t i l it y ! A ll i s f u t il e ! " ; 1 2 : 8 s e c o n d s t h a t v i e w b y n e a r l y r e p e a t -

i n g i t , " U t t e r f u t i l i t y — s a i d K o h e l e t h — A l l i s f u t i l e ! "

B u t e v e n a p a r t f r o m t h e d r a m a t i c s h i f t o f d i r e c t i o n i n t h e l a st s i x v e r s e s , t h e

b o o k i s v e r y d if f i c u lt . It c o n t a i n s a l a rg e n u m b e r o f g e n r e s , i n c l u d i n g m o n o -

l o g u e ( c h a p s . 1 - 2 ) , p o e t r y ( c h a p s . 3 , 1 2 ) , a n d p r o v e r b i a l s a y i n g s ( c h a p s . 7 , 1 0 ) .

H o w t h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n s c o m b i n e t o c r e a t e m e a n i n g i s o f t e n n o t c l ea r . F u r t h e r ,

t h e p r o t a g o n i s t q u o t e s n o t o n l y p r o v e r b s t h a t h e a g r e e s w i t h , b u t al s o p o p u l a r

p r o v e r b s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s h o w a r e w r o n g , 2 2 y e t o f t e n w e c a n n o t t e ll w h i c h

a r e w h i c h .

D e s p i t e t h e b a r r i e r s t h a t w e f a c e , w e d o h o l d s e v e r a l k e y s t o r e a d i n g

E c c l e s i a s t e s . 2 3 F i r s t , w e k n o w b a s e d o n i t s v o c a b u l a r y a n d s t y le t h a t i t i s a w i s -

d o m b o o k , a n d a s s u c h it i s f u l l o f o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t , K o h e l e t h

( w h o m t h e b o o k s e e m s t o i d e n t i f y w i t h K i n g S o l o m o n ; 2 4 1 :1 , 12 , 16 ) , i s con-

s t a n t l y f i n d i n g , l o o k i n g , a n d o b s e r v i n g . I n d e e d , t h e w o r d ra'iti ( , ת י א ר ״ "I s aw , I

f o u n d , I o b s e r v e d " ) a p p e a r s e i g h t e e n t i m e s i n t h i s s h o r t b o o k . A s i n P r o v e r b s ,

s t u d e n t s l e a r n n o t t h r o u g h T o r a h s t u d y , n o r t h r o u g h p r o p h e t i c o r a c l e s , b u t

t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n .E c c l e s i a s te s , h o w e v e r , d i f f e r s f r o m P r o v e r b s i n o n e r e m a r k a b l e f a c e t:

P r o v e r b s t r e a ts w i s d o m a s p o s i t iv e , w h e r e a s E c c l e s i a s t e s — h a v i n g e x p e r i m e n t e d

w i t h b o t h w i s d o m a n d f o o l i s h n e s s — f i n d s t h a t w i s d o m t o o h a s l i m i t a t i o n s :

( 2 : 1 5 ) " T h e f a t e o f t h e f o o l i s a l s o d e s t i n e d f o r m e ; t o w h a t a d v a n t a g e ,

t h e n , h a v e I b e e n w i s e ? " A n d I c a m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h a t t o o w a s

f u t i l e , ( 1 6 ) b e c a u s e t h e w i s e m a n , j u s t li k e t h e f o o l , i s n o t r e m e m b e r e d

f o r e v e r ; f o r, a s t h e s u c c e e d i n g d a y s r o ll b y, b o t h a r e f o r g o t t e n . A l a s , t h ew i s e m a n d i e s , j u s t l i k e t h e f o o l !

I n o t h e r w o r d s , w i s d o m i s f l e e t i n g , b e c a u s e t h e w i s e m a n d o e s n o t g e t c r e d i t f o r

h i s p e r s p i c a c i t y ; t h u s , l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s d o n o t r e m e m b e r h i m . A n a n e c d o t e i n

9 : 1 3 - 1 5 c o n f i r m s t h i s v i e w : a p o o r w i s e m a n w h o s a v e s a c i t y i s f o r g o t t e n .

K o h e l e t h t h e n c o n c l u d e s , u s i n g t h e f o r m of p o i n t a n d c o u n t e r p o i n t : " S o 1

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o b s e r v e d : W i s d o m i s b e t t e r t h a n v a l o r ; b u t : A p o o r m a n ' s w i s d o m i s s c o r n e d , /

An d h i s w o r d s a r e n o t h e e d e d " (v. 1 6 ) .

A s e c o n d k e y t o t h e b o o k i s t h a t it a s s u m e s a v a s t g a p b e tw e e n Go d a n d p e o -

p i e : G o d c o n t r o l s e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e w o r l d , b u t p e o p l e c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d h o w

H e doe s th i s . As a resu l t of tha t ch as m , i t v iew s peop le ' s va un te d w is d om as ac t u -

a l ly w or t h le ss . K ohe le th s ta tes th i s qu i te c lea r ly : "an d I hav e obs e rv ed a ll tha t

Go d b r in g s t o p a s s . I n d e e d , ma n c a n n o t g u e s s t h e e v e n t s t h a t o c c u r u n d e r t h e

su n . Fo r m a n t r ie s s t ren uou s ly , bu t fa il s to gu ess the m ; an d even if a sage s ho u l d

th in k t o d i s c o v e r t h e m h e wo u ld n o t b e a b l e t o g u e s s t h e m" ( 8 :1 7 ) . Th u s a ma jo r

th e m e of t h e b o o k i s Go d ' s c o n t r o l of t h e w o r ld — a d o m in a t i o n t h a t is b o th c o m -

p le t e a n d in s c r u t a b l e . I n d e e d , th i s i s t h e p o in t of t h e b o o k ' s f a m o u s p o e m :

( 3 :1 ) A s e a s o n i s s e t f o r e v e r y th in g , a t ime f o r e v e r y e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r

heaven : / (2 ) A t ime fo r be ing born and a t ime fo r dy ing , / A t ime fo r

p l an t in g an d a t im e fo r up ro o t in g the p la n t ed . . . . / (8 ) A t im e fo r lov -

ing and a t ime fo r ha t ing ; / A t ime fo r war and a t ime fo r peace .

T h e p o i n t i s t h a t G o d h a s d e t e r m i n e d w h a t t h e s e " s e a s on s " s h o u l d b e ; n o t h i n g

t h a t h u m a n s d o c a n c h a n g e t h e m . 2 5 P e o p le a r e p o we r l e s s t o c h a n g e wh a t Go d

h a s d e t e r m i n e d . M o r e o v e r , t h e y c a n n o t e v e n k n o w w h e n t h o s e s e a s o n s o c c u r . A s

the sam e passage pu ts it : "I hav e ob se rve d the bus in ess tha t G od gave m a n to be

c o n c e r n e d w i th : He b r in g s e v e r y th in g t o p a s s p r e c i s e ly a t i t s t ime ; He a l s o p u t s

e t e r n i t y [= t h e d e s i r e to k n o w th e f u tu r e ] i n t h e i r m in d , b u t w i th o u t ma n e v e r

gue ss in g , f ro m f i r st to la s t, a ll the th in gs tha t God b r ing s to pass" (w . 1 0- 1 1 ) .

S u c h e x t r e m e d e t e r m in i s m d i s t i n g u i s h e s Ec c l e s i a s te s f r o m th e re s t o f t h e B ib l e .2 6

O n e m ig h t t h in k t h a t p e o p le ' s r e a c t i o n to a w o r ld i n w h i c h t h e y a re p a w n s ,

i n w h i c h G o d " h o ld s a ll t h e c a r d s , " w o u ld c a u s e s u i c id a l p e s s im i s m . Ho we v e r ,th i s same passage te l l s us tha t " the on ly wor thwhi le th ing the re i s fo r them i s to

e n jo y t h e m s e lv e s a n d d o wh a t i s g o o d in t h e i r l i f e time ; a l s o , . . . w h e n e v e r a m a n

does ea t and d r ink and ge t en joyment ou t o f a l l h i s wea l th , i t i s a g i f t o f God"

(w. 12-13) . I rony o f i ron ies : t ry to be happy , bu t i t i s God who wi l l dec ide i f you

wi l l b e h a p p y o r n o t .

Th i s l e a d s u s t o t h e b o o k ' s t h i r d k e y : h a p p in e s s i s o n e o f i t s ma jo r t h e me s . 2 7

Ko h e le t h c o n c lu d e s t h a t " t h e o n ly g o o d a m a n c a n h a v e u n d e r t h e s u n is t o ea t

a n d d r i n k a n d e n j o y h i m s e l f . T h a t m u c h c a n a c c o m p a n y h i m . . . t h r o u g h t h e

d a y s of l if e t h a t G o d h a s g r a n t e d h i m u n d e r t h e s u n " ( 8 :1 5 ) . E l s e w h e r e t h e B ib le

h a s n o p r o b l e m s w i th h a p p in e s s . W h a t m a k e s Ec c l e si a s t e s e x c e p t io n a l is i t s g iv -

in g a cen t ra l ro le to ha pp in es s , " the g if t o f G od " (3 :13 ; 5 :1 8) .

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More Wisdom

Th e th e m e of w i s d o m wi ll c o n t i n u e i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , a s we e x p lo r e J o b . L ik e

P r o v e r b s a n d K o h e l e t h , J o b e m p h a s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of e x p e r i e n c e in u n d e r -

s t a n d in g h o w th e wo r l d f u n c t io n s . Yet t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a u th o r o f J o b s e e m s

to h a v e d i f f e r e d r e ma r k a b ly f r o m th a t o f t h e a u th o r s o f t h e o th e r two wo r k s ,

y i e l d in g a m u c h m o r e en i g m a t i c a n d p r o f o u n d w o r k .

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24"Being But Dust and Ashes"

Reading Job

Primary Reading: Job.

(Note: T h i s i s a b e a u t i f u l b u t c o m p l i c a t e d b o o k ; i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e a d in o n e

s i t t i n g . )

Beyond Difficult

In c h a p t e r 2 3 , I t r e a t e d J o b a s o n e o f t h r e e e x e m p l a r s of b ib l i c a l "w i s d o m l i t-

e r a t u r e . " 1 h i g h l i g h t e d h o w c h a l l e n g i n g a r e t h e o t h e r t w o b o o k s , P r o v e r b s a n d

E c c l e si a s te s : t h e i r h i s t o r y o f c o m p o s i t i o n i s o b s c u r e , a n d t h e i r d i v e r s e p a r t s d o

n o t f it n e a t l y i n to a m e a n i n g f u l w h o le . Y et J o b i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n b o th o f t h o s e

b o o k s c o m b i n e d .1

F i r s t o f a ll , t h e l a n g u a g e i n t h i s b o o k i s e x t r e m e l y h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d . J o b

e m p l o y s a l ar ge n u m b e r o f hapax w o r d s ( se e " W o r d s W i t h o u t P e er " ; s e e c h a p t e r

1 7 ) a n d u n u s u a l g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s — s o m u c h s o t h a t s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e w o n -

d e r e d i f i t i s a b a d t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m a n o th e r l a n g u a g e !2

M o r e o v e r , t h a t d i f f i c u l t

v o c a b u l a r y p o p s u p a t c r u c i a l j u n c t u r e s in t h e t ex t , l e a v i n g u s u n s u r e h o w t o

i n t e r p r e t n o t o n l y t h e w o r d , b u t a l s o t h e v e r s e — o r e v e n a n e n t i r e s e c t i o n .

T h e h i s t o r i c a l - c ri t i c a l m e t h o d r e v e a l s o t h e r p r o b l e m s o n t o p of t h e s e , c o n -

n e c t e d t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of J o b . L o o k i n g at t h e m c a n h e l p u s u n d e r s t a n d why

t h e b o o k i s s o d i f fi c u l t , w h i c h c a n m a k e r e a d i n g J o b l e ss f r u s t r a t i n g . S o m e o f

t h e s e p r o b l e m s a r e o b v i o u s f r o m t h e o u t l i n e o f t h e b o o k ' s s t r u c t u r e , a s f o l l o w s :

1. N a r r a t i v e i n t r o d u c t i o n

2 . S p e e c h e s b y J o b , E l i p h a z , B i l d a d , Z o p h a r

3 . S p e e c h e s b y J o b , E l i p h a z , B i l d a d , Z o p h a r

4 . S p e e c h e s b y J o b , E l i p h a z , B i l d a d

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5 . S p e e c h e s b y E l ih u

6 . Go d ' s s p e e c h e s

7 . N a r r a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n

Ce r t a in a s y m m e t r i e s h e r e ar e p u z z l in g . W h y , f o r e x a m p le , i s t h e r e n o s p e e c h b y

Z op ha r in the th i rd se t o f sp ee ch es ( sec t ion 4 )? If Zo pha r ' s th i rd sp ee ch i s mis s -

in g , w h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n ? P e r h a p s it i s n o t r e al ly m i s s i n g — p e r h a p s t h e wo r d s

" Z o p h a r t h e N a a m a th i t e s a id i n r e p ly " s im p ly f el l o u t s o m e w h e r e , s k i p p e d b y a

d i s t r a c t e d s c r ib e ; b u t if s o , a t w h a t p o in t s h o u ld we r e in s e r t t h e m ? W h e th e r we

r e a d a p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n a s s a id b y J o b , o r b y Zo p h a r , m a k e s a b ig d i f f e r e n c e .

As id e f r o m th e s t r a n g e s t r u c t u r e , n o n e of t h e f r i e n d s h a s a d i s t i n c t p e r s o n -

a l i ty , a s migh t be expec ted . 3 M o r e u n s e t t l i n g is t h e u n f u l f i l l e d p r o m i s e w h e n

eac h sp ee ch cyc le i s rep ea t ed l y pu nc tu a t ed b y the phr as e "X sa id in rep ly . "

Th i s s u g g e s t s t h a t we a r e r e a d in g a t r u e d i a lo g u e , y e t we n e v e r g e t o n e . I n d e e d ,

the charac te r s no t on ly ta lk pas t each o the r (a s we sha l l see be low) , they a l so

a t tempt to de f ine the o the r ' s pos i t ion . For example , E l iphaz says : "You [ Job] say ,

' W h a t c a n G o d k n o w ? / C a n H e g o v e r n t h r o u g h t h e d e n s e c l o u d ? / T h e c l o u d s

sc re en H im so He can no t see / As H e m ov es abo u t the c i rcu i t o f heave n ' "

( 2 2 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . T h e se w o r d s E li p h az p u t s i n t o J o b' s m o u t h — a n d t h e y m i s c o n s t r u eJ o b ' s a r g u m e n t !

Th e t h r e e f o ld c y c l e o f s p e e c h e s i s f o l l o we d b y E l ih u ' s l o n e s p e e c h e s i n c h a p -

t e r s 3 2 - 3 7 . H i s p r e s e n c e is a s u r p r i s e . H e i s m e n t io n e d n e i t h e r in th e b o o k ' s p r o -

lo g u e ( 2 :1 1 ) n o r it s e p i l o g u e ( 4 2 :7 , 9 ) , w h e r e J o b h a s o n ly t h r e e o th e r f r i e n d s .

W h a t i s E l ih u d o in g h e r e ? W h y d o e s h e o f f e r f o u r s p e e c h e s i n a r o w? Ev e n

s t ranger than th i s , he dep ic t s h imse l f a s a bumble r who ta lks a lo t bu t says l i t -

t ie : "Fo r I a m ful l of w or d s; / T he w in d in m y bel ly pre ss es m e. / M y bel ly is l ike

win e n o t y e t o p e n e d , / L ik e j u g s o f n e w w in e r e a d y to b u r s t . / Le t m e s p e a k ,

th e n , a n d g e t r e li e f; / Le t m e o p e n m y li p s a n d r e p ly " ( 3 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 ) . To ma k e

m a t t e r s m o r e c o n f u s in g , w h a t G o d s a y s l a t e r o n i s m u c h l ik e w h a t E l ih u s a y s

h e r e . W h a t d o e s t h i s t el l u s a b o u t G o d ? If E l ih u i s a b u m b l in g i d io t , t h e n h i s

s p e e c h e s m a y f o r e s h a d o w G o d ' s s p e e c h e s , h i n t i n g t h a t e v e n G o d ' s a n s w e r s a r e

no t sa t i s fac to ry . 4

Go d ' s sp ee ch es to Jo b have th e i r ow n d i f f icu l t i e s , a s w e sha l l see be low. Fo r

n o w we c a n a s k : W h y d o e s Go d n e e d to s p e a k tw ic e ? W h a t is t h e d i f f e r e n c e

b e tw e e n J o b ' s two a n s w e r s t o G o d , a n d wh y i s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e s o im p o r t a n t t h a t

G od i s sa t i s f ied w i th Job ' s se co nd re sp on se , bu t n o t w i th h i s f i rs t? M os t s ign i f i -

can t ly , do es Go d rea l ly an sw er Job ' s cha l lenge ?

Th ese p r ob le m s a re eas i ly m ul t ip l ie d , fo r the Bo ok of Jo b is an en igm a . '5 T h i s

g r e a t w o r k o f l i t e r a tu r e i s n o t o p e n to a s im p le , a u th o r i t a t i v e e x p la n a t io n .

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A Partial Resolution

De s p i t e t h e e x t r e m e c h a l l e n g e s , we c a n m a k e s ev e r a l d e f in i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u tp a r t s o f J o b . On c e t h e s e a re c o n s i d e r e d , we c a n ma k e s o m e s e n s e o u t o f t h e b o o k

a s a wh o le .

Th e Bo o k of J o b is c o m p r i s e d o f tw o ma in p a r t s : a p r o s e f r a m e a r o u n d a

p o e t i c c e n t e r . 6 T h e p r o s e is n o w m a r k e d a s c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 a n d 4 2 : 7 - 1 7 . T h e r e s t

o f t h e b o o k ( 3 :1 - 4 2 : 6 ) i s p o e t r y . Ea c h p a r t a l s o p r e f e r s d i f f e r e n t d iv in e n a m e s .

Yet the d i f fe ren ce be tw ee n th e tw o pa r t s i s m or e th an a m at t e r o f l ingu is t ic s ty le .

Ea c h o f t h e tw o s e c t i o n s t e ll s a f u n d a m e n ta l l y d i f f e r e n t s to r y. In t h e p r o s e p a r t ,

J o b ' s m i s f o r t u n e s a r i se f r o m a d i s c u s s io n b e tw e e n G o d a n d th e Ad v e r s a r y , a c h a r -

ac te r w h o i s ab sen t f ro m the po e t ic pa r t . The a f f l i c t ion s o f Jo b in the p ro se an d

poe t ry a re a l so d i f fe ren t . In the p rose , a l l h i s ch i ld ren a re k i l l ed , bu t in the poe t -

ry they a re a l ive : "My od or i s repu ls ive to m y wife ; / I am lo a th so m e to m y ch i l -

d ren" (19 :17) . F ina l ly , i t i s the p rose tha t dep ic t s wha t scho la rs have ca l led " Job

th e p a t i e n t . " Th e p o e t r y p o r t r a y s a d i s t i n c t t e m p e r a m e n t , " Jo b t h e im p a t i e n t . " 7

Ho we v e r , i n c o n t r a s t t o wh a t we f o u n d th r o u g h s o u r c e - a n a ly s i s o f t h e

To r a h , w h e n we c o n t r a s t t h e two p a r t s of J o b , we mu s t c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e y d o no t

r e p r e s e n t two s e p a r a t e s o u r c e s . F o r n e i t h e r s e c t i o n is c o m p le t e w i th o u t t h e

o th e r . F o r e x a mp le , t h e p r o s e e p i lo g u e a s s u me s t h a t s o me s o r t o f d i a lo g u e h a d

o c c u r r e d b e tw e e n th e f r i e n d s a n d J o b : " Af te r t h e L O R D h a d s p o k e n t h e s e w o r d s

to J o b , t h e L O R D s a id t o E l ip h a z t h e Te ma n i t e , '1 a m i n c e n s e d a t y o u a n d y o u r

tw o f r i e n d s ' " ( 4 2 :7 ) . No r c o u ld a p o e t i c c o m p o s i t i o n h a v e s to o d o n i t s

o w n . " A f t e r w a r d , J o b b e g a n to s p e a k a n d c u r s e d t h e d a y of h i s b i r t h " ( 3 : 1 ) — a s a

b e g i n n i n g , t h i s s t a t e m e n t a s s u m e s t o o m u c h .

A l th o u g h th e two p a r t s b e lo n g to g e th e r , t h e y a r e e a c h d i s t i n c t e n o u g h th a t

i t i s w o r th e x a m in i n g e a c h o n e in t u r n , to g r a s p t h e i r i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e . Th e n

we wi l l be be t te r ab le to pe rce ive wha t each pa r t con t r ibu tes to the overa l l s to ry .

Job the Patient: Happily Ever After

Th e o p e n in g a n d c lo s in g p a s s a g e s i n t h e b o o k —th e two p r o s e s e c t i o n s ( c h a p s .

1 - 2 a n d 4 2 : 7 - 1 7 ) — f i t t o g e t h e r q u i t e n e a t l y . 8 Co n s id e r t h e f o l l o win g v e r s e s n e a r

th e e n d : " Th u s t h e L O R D bles sed the la t ter years of Job 's li fe m or e th an th e for m er .

H e h a d f o u r t e e n t h o u s a n d s h e e p , s i x t h o u s a n d c a m e l s , o n e t h o u s a n d y o k e o f

o x e n , a n d o n e t h o u s a n d s h e - a s s e s . He a l s o h a d s e v e n s o n s a n d th r e e d a u g h te r s "

( 4 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) . Th a t i s, J o b r e ce iv e s d o u b le t h e p r o p e r ty t h a t h e o w n e d a t t h e s t a r t

o f the book , and h is ch i ld ren a re " rep laced" by the same number as he o r ig ina l ly

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h a d . ( P e r h a p s d o u b l i n g p r o p e r t y is a b l e s s i n g , w h i l e h a v i n g t w e n t y c h i l d r e n

w o u l d n o t b e ! ) A c c o r d i n g t o s o m e s c h o l a r s , t h e s t y l e o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s r e s e m b l e s

t h a t o f a n e p i c , p e r h a p s e v e n o f a f a i r y t a l e . T h u s t h e n a r r a t o r t r e a t s u s t o a m e a -

s u r e d a c c o u n t , f e a t u r i n g p a t t e r n s o f r e p e a t i n g p h r a s e s a n d e v e n t s . W e fi n d m a n y

g r o u p s of f o u r s — f o r e x a m p l e , f o u r a t t r i b u t e s of J o b ( " b l a m e l e s s , " " u p r i g h t , "

" f e a r e d G o d , " a n d " s h u n n e d e v il ") a n d f o u r c a t a s t r o p h i c s e ts o f d e a t h s ( t h o s e

t e n d i n g t h e c a t t le , t h e n t h e s h e e p , t h e n t h e c a m e l s , a n d f i n a ll y J o b ' s c h i l d r e n ) .

T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e o p e n i n g i ts el f i s h i g h l y s y m m e t r i c a l , n a r r a t i n g f i rs t w h a t

h a p p e n s o n t h e e a r t h , t h e n i n h e a v e n , t h e n o n e a r t h , t h e n i n h e a v e n , t h e n a g a i n

o n e a r t h ( a s s c h o l a r s w o u l d d e n o t e i t: A B A B A ). M e a n w h i l e , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s of

t h e h e a v e n l y s c e n e i n c h a p t e r s o n e a n d t w o a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . T h e e x a c t r e p e t i t i o no f t h e p h r a s e s "1 a l o n e h a v e e s c a p e d t o t e ll y o u " ( w . 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 9 ) a n d " T h i s

o n e w a s s t il l s p e a k i n g w h e n a n o t h e r o n e c a m e a n d s a i d . . ." ( w . 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 ) e r e -

a t e s a n e e r i e , b r e a t h l e s s n a r r a t i v e . I t i s e s p e c i a l l y t e l l i n g t h a t three c o l u m n s o f

C h a l d e a n s s tr i k e i n t h e t h i r d c a t a s t r o p h e ( 1 : 1 7 ) , w h i l e i n t h e f o u r t h , " a m i g h t y

w i n d . . . s t r u c k t h e four c o r n e r s of t h e h o u s e " ( 1 : 1 9 ) — t h i s is t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , s u c h a s f a i r y t a l e s .

R u n n i n g l ik e a t h e m a t i c t h r e a d t h r o u g h t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n is t h e v e r b b-r-kh

( 9 2:5 11,21 10 1:5 ך . T y p i c a l l y i n b i b l i c a l H e b r e w , i t m e a n s " t o b l e s s , "

y e t t h i s p a s s a g e e m p l o y s i t e u p h e m i s t i c a l l y — r e f e r r i n g t o i t s o p p o s i t e : " to c u r s e . "

W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o G o d , c u r s i n g m e a n s " to b l a s p h e m e , " a l o c u t i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r

s e e m s t o w a n t t o a v o i d s t a t i n g o u t r i g h t . 9 I n b o t h s e n s e s t a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h i s w o r d

u n i f i e s t h e o p e n i n g p r o s e s e c t i o n , le a v i n g u s t o w o n d e r : a f t e r b e i n g s t r u c k

w i t h s u c h h o r r i b l e a f f l i c t i o n s , w h a t w il l J o b d o — b l e s s G o d , o r " b l e ss " ( c u r s e )

G o d ?

T h e b o o k ' s f i n a l p r o s e p a s s a g e m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t J o b d o e s n o t c u r s e G o d . Itb e g i n s : " A f t e r t h e L O R D h a d s p o k e n t h e s e w o r d s t o J o b , t h e L O R D s a i d t o E l i p h a z

t h e T e m a n i t e , '1 a m i n c e n s e d a t y o u a n d y o u r t w o f r i e n d s , f o r y o u h a v e n o t s p o -

k e n t h e t r u t h a b o u t M e a s d i d M y s e r v a n t J o b ' " ( 4 2 : 7 ) . H e r e t h e i m a g i n a r y q u a l -

i t y o f t h e w o r k c o n t i n u e s . I n v e r s e 1 1 , e a c h o f J o b ' s f r i e n d s g i v e h i m " o n e kesi-

i a h , " a n o l d u n i t of w e i g h t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e B i bl e o n l y i n G e n e s i s 3 3 : 1 9 a n d

J o s h u a 2 4 : 3 2 ; i t s u s e h e r e s u g g e s t s a d i s t a n t , " l o n g , l o n g a g o " s e t t i n g . T h e e n d o f

t h i s n a r r a t i v e s e c t i o n is r e m a r k a b l e : " A f t e r w a r d j o b l i ve d o n e h u n d r e d a n d f o r t y

y e a r s t o s e e f o u r g e n e r a t i o n s o f s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n s . S o J o b d i e d o l d a n d c o n -

t e n t e d " ( w . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , " h e l i v e d h a p p i l y e v e r a f t e r . "

T h i s e n d i n g , a l o n g w i t h t h e s u rr e a l i st i c p a t t e r n s i n c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 , s u g g e s t s

t h a t r a t h e r t h a n v i e w i n g th e p r o s e p o r t i o n a s a n e p i c , 1 0 w e s h o u l d c h a r a c t e r i z e

i t a s be ing l ike a f a i ry t a le . Tha t i s to s ay , the s to ry te l l e r g ives us ample c lues to

c o n v e y t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t ta k e t h e s t o r y a s h i s t o r i c a l l y t r u e , y e t p r o m p t s u s b y

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t h o s e s a m e f i n e l y c r a f t e d f e a t u r e s t o li s t e n f o r a m e s s a g e o f t r u t h . T h i s o p i n i o n

is a m o n g t h o s e i n t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d , w h e r e o n e u n n a m e d r a b b i s t a t e s t h a t

" J ob n e v e r e x i s t e d , b u t is a p a r a b l e . " T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a n s l a t o r S t e p h e n

M i t c h e l l a d o p t s th i s v i e w w h e n h e o p e n s h i s t r a n s l a t i o n w i t h " O n c e u p o n a t i m e

i n t h e l a n d o f U z . " 1 1

T h e A d v e r s a r y

T h e h e a v e n l y s c e n e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e b o o k ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n d i s t u r b s m a n y r e a d e r s .

It p o r t r a y s h e a v e n d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m h o w w e u s u a l l y i m a g i n e t h e d i v i n e w o r l df u n c t i o n i n g . T h e i m a g e o f a n a n g e l i c c o u r t i t se lf is n o t u n i q u e t o J o b . 1 2 H o w e v e r ,

f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f o t h e r b i b l i c a l t e x t s , t h e p r e s e n c e i n t h i s c o u r t o f ha-satan

( ן ט ש ה ," t h e A d v e r s a r y " ) i s o d d .

S o m e t r a n s l a t o r s h a v e r e n d e r e d ha-satan a s " S a t an . " H o w e v e r , fo r g r a m m a t -

i ca l r e a s o n s , t h i s w o r d c a n n o t b e a p r o p e r n a m e . 1 3 ( T r u e , t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h i s

t e r m d e n o t e s is a b a d g u y o r t r o u b l e m a k e r , w h o in l a te r t h o u g h t d i d d e v e l o p

i n t o a f u l l - f l e d g e d S a t a n . 1 4 ) G i v e n t h e l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e t h a t p l a c e s t h i s p r o s e

s e c t i o n ' s o r i g i n i n t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , 1 3 t h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e m o d e l e d t h e r o l e o f

" t h e A d v e r s a r y " a f t e r t h e ro y a l s p y w h o t ra v e l e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e P e r s i a n e m p i r e ,

t e s t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s ' l o y a l ty i n t h e f a r - f l u n g p r o v i n c e s . 1 6 A s d e p i c t e d i n J o b 1 - 2 ,

t h i s A d v e r s a r y c a n p u s h G o d t o d o w h a t G o d w a s n o t i n t e n d i n g t o d o , b u t h e

h a s n o i n d e p e n d e n t p o w e r .

T h e t h e o l o g y b e h i n d t h i s p r o s e n a r r a t i v e i s r e m a r k a b l e : W h e n G o d is u n d e r

t h e A d v e r s a r y 's i n f l u e n c e , s o m e o n e m a y s u f f e r d e s p i t e b e i n g b l a m e l e s s . S u c h

m i s f o r t u n e m a y u p s e t t h e r i g h t e o u s y e t t h e y w i l l i d e a l l y r e m a i n p i o u s l i k e J o b ,

w h o u t t e r s " N a k e d c a m e I o u t of m y m o t h e r s w o m b , a n d n a k e d sh a l l I r e t u r n

t h e r e ; 1 7 t h e L O R D h a s g i v e n , a n d t h e L O R D h a s t a k e n a w a y ; b l e s s e d b e t h e n a m e

o f t h e LORD" ( 1 : 2 1 ) . E v e n a f t e r f u r t h e r a f f l i c t i o n s s t r i k e t h e i r b o d y , s u c h p e o p l e

w i ll s a y " n o t h i n g s i n f u l " ( 2 : 1 0 ) a n d m e r e l y p e r f o r m t h e n o r m a l m o u r n i n g r i t u -

a l s, a s n e e d e d . U l t i m a t e l y , G o d w i l l r e w a r d s u c h p i e t y . 1 8

Job the Impatient

P o l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e D e b a t e

A s n o t e d , t h e b o o k ' s m i d d l e p o r t i o n t e ll s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s to r y. N o A d v e r s a r y i s

c a u s i n g t r o u b l e , b u t n e i t h e r is J o b t a k i n g h i s a f f l i c t i o n s w i t h e q u a n i m i t y .

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Struc tu ra l ly , th i s sec t ion i s a long d ia logue be tween Job and h is " f r iends . " By the

e n d , th e t w o p a r t i e s s e e m t o n e e d a g o o d m e d i a t o r o r t h e r a p i s t — t h e y d o n o t

"hear" each o the r , and they a l low the s i tua t ion to esca la te ou t o f hand .

Th e b o o k c o n v e y s t h e e s c a l a t i n g t e n s io n i n s e v e r a l wa y s . A t t h e b e g in n in g ,

E l ip h a z a p p r o a c h e s J o b w i th r e s p e c t , n o t in g : "If o n e v e n tu r e s a w o r d w i th y o u ,

w i l l i t b e t o o m u c h ? " ( 4 :2 ) . Af t e r h e a c c u s e s J o b me r e ly o f s p e a k in g imp r o p e r ly ,

h e a d d s g e n e r o u s ly , " S ee , y o u h a v e e n c o u r a g e d m a n y ; / You h a v e s t r e n g th e n e d

f a i l in g h a n d s " ( 4 :3 ) . By th e f i n a l r o u n d , h o w e v e r , E l ip h a z i s a c c u s in g J o b o f s e n -

o u s c r i m e s :

( 2 2 :5 ) Yo u k n o w th a t y o u r w ic k e d n e s s is g r e a t , / A n d th a t y o u r i n iq u i -

t i e s have no l imi t . / (6 ) You exac t p ledges f rom your fe l lows wi thou t rea -

son , / And leave them naked , s t r ipped o f the i r c lo thes ; / (7 ) You do no t

g ive the th i r s ty wa te r to d r ink ; / You deny b read to the hungry .

Job ' s sp ee ch es po i n t to the esca la t io n eve n mo re c lea rly . Af te r re bu t t i ng h i s

f r i e n d s t i m e a n d t i m e a g ai n , a f t e r d e m a n d i n g a h e a r i n g f r o m G o d a n d g e t t i n g n o

m e a n i n g f u l r e s p o n s e , J o b s e e m s r e a d y to g iv e u p . He s a y s , "I c r y o u t t o Yo u , b u t

Yo u d o n o t a n s w e r me ; / I wa i t , b u t You d o n o t c o n s id e r me " ( 3 0 :2 0 ) . U l t im a te ly

J o b d o e s t h e o n e t h in g le f t t o h im — h e c a l l s d o w n a c u r s e u p o n h ims e l f if h e i s

g u i l t y ( c h a p . 3 1 ) . I n t h i s p o we r f u l p a s s a g e h e i n v o k e s me a s u r e - f o r - me a s u r e r e t -

r i b u t io n : "If I r a i s e d m y h a n d a g a in s t t h e f a th e r l e s s , / Lo o k in g to m y s u p p o r t e r s

in the ga te , / May m y a rm dr o p o ff m y sho u l de r ; / My fo r ea r m brea k o ff a t the

e lb o w" ( w . 2 1 - 2 2 ) . Th e a n c i e n t s t o o k s u c h imp r e c a t i o n s v e r y s e r io u s ly . F o r t h i s

rea son , they se rve as a f i t t ing en d to Job ' s sp eec h . Af te r he ha s tak en th ese m u l -

t i p l e c u r s e s u p o n h ims e l f i n p r o t e s t a t i o n o f i n n o c e n c e , wh a t mo r e c a n b e s a id ?

T h u s h i s f r i e n d s a r e u n w i l l i n g t o c h a l l e n g e h i m f u r t h e r .

1 9

Is Ex perience th e Best Teach er?

Th e r e a s o n th a t t h i s " d i a lo g u e " mu s t e n d w i th o u t r e s o lu t i o n i s t h a t n o r e s o lu t i o n

i s p o s s ib l e . Bo th J o b a n d h i s f r i e n d s g r o u n d th e i r m a in a r g u m e n t s in e x p e r i e n c e ,

b u t t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s le a d t h e m in v e r y d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . T h u s , t o

e x p la in s u f f e r in g , t h e f r i e n d s a r g u e : " On ly t h e w ic k e d s u f f e r ; y o u a r e s u f f e r in g ;

th e r e f o r e y o u a r e w ic k e d , " wh i l e J o b c o u n te r s : "I a m n o t w ic k e d , y e t I a m s u f -

fe r ing ; the re fo re God i s ind i f fe ren t to the wicked . " S imi la r ly , r ega rd ing d iv ine

p o w e r , t h e f r i e n d s a r g u e : " Go d is p o w e r f u l , t h e r e f o r e g o o d , " w h e r e a s J o b a r g u e s :

" G o d is p o w e r f u l , t h e r e f o r e d e s t r u c t i v e . " O n l y G o d k n o w s w h i c h p o s i t i o n ( if

any ) is co r r ec t . Th is i s w h y Jo b ca l ls ou t so o f t en fo r G od to ap pea r , and w h y w e

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r e a d e r s m i g h t w i s h t h at G o d s s p e e c h e s — w h e n t h e y d o c o m e — w e r e l es s

o b s c u r e .

Th e r e a s o n in g of J o b a n d h i s f r i e n d s i s n o t e a s y t o f o ll o w . O n ly r a r e ly d o J o b

a n d h i s f r i e n d s f o r m u l a t e t h e i r a r g u m e n t s in a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d m a n n e r , a s o n e

m ig h t e x p e c t i n a w o r k s o d e v o te d t o d e b a t e . Bu t t h i s i s n o t a P l a to n i c d i a lo g u e .

Ra the r , the au thor cas t s a l l the d i scourse as poe t ry . E lsewhere even the Bib le uses

p r o s e to s t a t e ( m u c h l i ke J o b s f r i e n d s ) t h a t wh e r e a s t h e r i g h t e o u s d o n o t s u f f e r ,

t h e w ic k e d d o . He r e a r e t h r e e s u c h f o r m u la t i o n s i n P r o v e r b s :

(10 :3 ) The Lord wi l l no t l e t the r igh teous go hungry , / Bu t He den ies the

w i c k e d w h a t t h e y c r a v e .

( 1 2 :2 1 ) N o h a r m b e f a l l s t h e r i g h t e o u s , / Bu t t h e w ic k e d h a v e t h e i r fill

o f m i s f o r t u n e .

(1 3: 25 ) T he r ighteous m a n eat s to h is hea r t ' s co n te n t , / But the bel ly of

th e w ic k e d i s e mp ty .

Th i s i s a t r a d i t i o n a l p e r s p e c t iv e . E l ip h a z i n h i s l a s t s p e e c h ma k e s h i s s im i l a r

p o i n t in a m o r e c o m p l e x f a s h i o n :

( 2 2 :4 ) I s i t b e c a u s e o f y o u r p i e ty t h a t He a r r a ig n s y o u , / An d e n t e r s i n to

j u d g m e n t w i t h y o u ? / ( 5 ) Y ou k n o w t h a t y o u r w i c k e d n e s s is g r e a t , /

A nd tha t yo ur in iq u i t ie s have n o l imi t . . . . / (1 0 ) Th ere fo re sn a re s a re

a ll a r o u n d y o u , / A n d s u d d e n t e r r o r s f r i g h t e n y o u , / ( 1 1 ) O r d a r k n e s s ,

so yo u c an no t see . . . . / (23 ) I f yo u r e t u r n to Sh ad da i you w i l l be

res to r ed . . .

J o b c o u n te r s b y c l a imin g th a t Go d i s i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e w ic k e d , a s i n t h i sp o i g n a n t s p e e c h :

( 2 4 : 1 ) W h y a r e t i m e s f o r j u d g m e n t n o t r e s e r v e d b y S h a d d a i ? / E v e n

th o s e c lo s e t o H im c a n n o t f o r e s e e H i s a c t i o n s . / ( 2 ) P e o p le r e mo v e

b o u n d a r y - s t o n e s ; / T h e y c a r r y o ff f l o c k s a n d p a s t u r e t h e m ; / ( 3 ) T h e y

lead awa y the d on ke y s of the fa th e r les s , / A nd se ize the wido w ' s bu l l a s

a p ledge ; / (4 ) They chase the needy o f f the roads ; / Al l the poor o f the

lan d a re fo rce d in t o h id i ng . . . . / (9 ) The y sn a t ch t he fa the r less in fa n t

f rom the b reas t , / And se ize the ch i ld o f the poor as a p ledge . / (10 ) They

g o a b o u t n a k e d f o r l a c k o f c lo th in g , / A n d , h u n g r y , c a r r y s h e a v e s . . . I

(1 2) M en g r oa n in the c i ty ; / T he so u ls o f the d y i ng c ry ou t ; / Yet G od

d o e s n o t r e g a r d i t a s a r e p r o a c h .

I n t h e e n d , n e i t h e r s i d e mo v e s t h e o th e r .

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T h e t w o p a r t i e s ' p o s i t i o n s b e c o m e s i m i l a r l y e n t r e n c h e d w i t h r e g a r d t o G o d ' s

p o we r . F o r e x a mp le , E l ip h a z s e e s Go d ' s p o we r a s o n ly g o o d :

(5 :8 ) Bu t I w ou ld reso r t to Go d ; / I w ou ld lay m y case be fo r e G od , /( 9 ) W h o p e r f o r m s g re a t d e e d s w h i c h c a n n o t b e f a t h o m e d , / W o n d r o u s

t h i n g s w i t h o u t n u m b e r ; / ( 1 0 ) W h o g i v es r a i n t o t h e e a r t h , / A n d s e n d s

w a te r o v e r t h e f i e ld s ; / ( 1 1 ) W h o r a i s e s t h e lo wly u p h ig h , / S o t h a t t h e

d e j e c t e d a r e s e c u r e i n v i c to r y ; / ( 1 2 ) W h o th w a r t s t h e d e s ig n s of t h e

c r a fty , / S o t h a t t h e i r h a n d s c a n n o t g a in s u c c e s s ; / ( 1 3 ) W h o t r a p s t h e

c lever in the i r ow n w i les ; / The p la ns o f the c ra f ty go awry . / (14 ) By day

th e y e n c o u n te r d a r k n e s s , / A t n o o n th e y g r o p e a s i n t h e n ig h t . / ( 1 5 ) Bu t

He s a v e s t h e n e e d y f r o m th e s wo r d o f t h e i r mo u th , / F r o m th e c lu t c h e s

of the s t rong .

J o b , i n c o n t r a s t , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s p o we r f u l Go d " a b u s e s " p o we r , w ie ld in g i t

r e c k l e s s ly a g a in s t J o b a n d o th e r s :

( 1 2 : 1 3 ) W i t h H i m a r e w i s d o m a n d c o u r a g e ; / H i s a r e c o u n s e l a n d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . / ( 1 4 ) W h a t e v e r H e t e a r s d o w n c a n n o t b e r e b u i l t ; /

W h o m e v e r H e i m p r i s o n s c a n n o t b e s et f re e . / ( 1 5 ) W h e n H e h o l d s b a c k

th e wa te r s , t h e y d r y u p ; / W h e n He l e ts t h e m lo o s e , t h e y t e a r u p t h e

l a n d . / ( 1 6 ) W i th H im a r e s t r e n g th a n d r e s o u r c e f u ln e s s ; / E r r i n g

a n d c a u s i n g t o e r r a r e f r o m H i m . / ( 1 7 ) H e m a k e s c o u n s e l o r s g o a b o u t

n a k e d / A n d c a u s e s j u d g e s t o g o m a d . / ( 1 8 ) He u n d o e s t h e b e l t s o f

k in g s , / A n d f a s t e n s l o in c lo th s o n t h e m . / ( 1 9 ) He m a k e s p r i e s t s g o

a b o u t n a k e d , / An d l e a d s t e m p le - s e r v a n t s a s tr a y. / ( 2 0 ) He d e p r iv e s

t r u s ty me n of s p e e c h , / An d t a k e s a wa y th e r e a s o n of e ld e r s . . . . I

( 2 4 ) H e d e r a n g e s t h e l e a d e rs o f t h e p e o p l e , / A n d m a k e s t h e m w a n d e r

in a t r a c k l e s s wa s t e . / ( 2 5 ) Th e y g r o p e w i th o u t l i g h t i n t h e d a r k n e s s ; /

H e m a k e s t h e m w a n d e r a s i f d r u n k .

W i th r e g a r d t o o th e r i s s u e s a s we l l , J o b a n d h i s f r i e n d s c o m e to s t a n d o n d i f -

f e r e n t s i d e s . Ea c h s id e s e e s d i f f e r e n t imp l i c a t i o n s f r o m th e s a me p r e mis e . F o r

e x a m p l e , t h e f r i e n d s b e l ie v e t h a t p e o p l e a re u n g o d l y — s o m u c h s o t h a t t h e y

c a n n o t b e g u i l t l e s s , a s B i ld a d c l a ims in h i s ma g n i f i c e n t l a s t s p e e c h :

( 2 5 :2 ) D o m in io n a n d d r e a d a r e H i s ; / He imp o s e s p e a c e i n H i s h e ig h t s . /

( 3 ) Ca n H i s t r o o p s b e n u mb e r e d ? / On wh o m d o e s H i s l i g h t n o t s h in e ? /

( 4 ) Ho w c a n ma n b e i n t h e r i g h t b e f o r e Go d ? / Ho w c a n o n e b o r n o f

w o m a n be c lea red o f gu i l t? / (5 ) Ev en the m o o n i s no t b r ig h t , / A nd the

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s ta r s a re no t p ur e in His s igh t . / (6 ) H o w m u c h le ss m an , a w o rm , / The

s o n - o f - m a n , a m a g g o t .

J o b t o o a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e c r e a t u r e h o o d o f p e o p l e , a n d t h a t t h e y a r e u n g o d -ly. Ho w e v e r , h e b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s s h o u ld p r o m p t G o d to b e l ax i n j u d g m e n t—

p e o p le s h o u ld n o t b e h e ld t o d iv in e s t a n d a r d s : " W h a t i s m a n , th a t You m a k e

m u c h o f h i m , / Th a t You f ix Your a t t en t io n u p o n h i m ? / You insp ec t h im every

m o r n i n g , / E x a m i n e h i m e v e r y m i n u t e " ( 7 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) . T h e B o o k of J o b p r e s e n t s

ma n y mo r e s u c h a r g u me n t s i n wh ic h t h e s p e a k e r s t a lk p a s t e a c h o th e r .

W h a t D o e s E x p e r i e n c e T e a c h ?

As s ta te d ea r l ie r , the f r ie nd s an d Jo b d isagre e on the bas i s o f the i r exp er ie nce s .

Ex per ien ce , bo th pe rso na l an d as re la ted by o the r s , p lays a c ruc ia l role in wis -

d o m l i t e r a tu r e . But e v e r y o n e h a s d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s . Th i s fa c t e x p l a in s w h y

each " s ide" in Jo b t r ie s to e s tab l i sh tha t i t s ex pe r ie nc e is sup er io r . For ex am pl e ,

El ip haz c la im s : "See , we h ave in qu i re d i n to th i s an d i t i s so ; / Hea r it an d acce p t

i t " (5 :27) ; and Bi ldad no tes : "Ask the genera t ion pas t , / S tudy wha t the i r fa the rs

hav e sea rch ed ou t" (8 :8 ) . To th i s , Jo b co un te rs tha t h i s w is d om is a t l eas t a s goo d

as the i r s : "You m us t have co ns u l ted the way fa re r s ; / You ca nn o t d en y the i r ev i -

dence" (21 :29) , and even , "Bu t a sk the beas t s , and they wi l l t each you ; / The

birds of the sky, they wil l te l l you, / Or speak to the ear th , i t wi l l teach you; / The

f i sh o f the sea , they wi l l in fo rm you" (12 :7 -8 ) .

I n s u m , a l t h o u g h th e f r i e n d s a n d J o b s h a r e s o m e p r e mis e s , t h e y r e a c h d i f -

f e r e n t c o n c lu s io n s f r o m th e m , b e c a u s e t h e i r b a s e o f e x p e r i e n c e is d i f f e r e n t . But

a s r e a d e r s , we mu s t w o n d e r a f t e r t h e a r g u m e n t s c o n c lu d e a n d th e d u s t h a s s e t -t i ed : W h o i s r igh t?

"The L O R D Replied to Job" ( 3 8 : 1 )

Afte r El ihu ' s sp eec he s , G od f ina l ly an sw er s Jo b . Bu t the on ly th i ng tha t i s c lea r

a b o u t t h e s e s p e e c h e s i s t h e i r s t r u c tu r e :

I. 3 8 : 1 - 4 0 : 2 G o d s f ir st s p e e c h

I I. 4 0 :3 - 5 J o b ' s f ir s t r e s p o n s e

III . 4 0 : 6 - 4 1 : 2 6 G o d ' s s e c o n d s p e e c h

IV 4 2 : 1 - 6 J o b 's s e c o n d r e s p o n s e

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T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e s p e e c h e s a c c o r d s w i t h t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n t h e t w o f ig u r e s ; G o d , w h o s p e a k s m u c h m o r e , i s m u c h m o r e p o w e r f u l .

Em p h a s i z in g t h a t d i ff e r e n t i a l is t h e d iv in e a p p e a r a n c e " o u t o f t h e t e m p e s t " 2 0 a n d

b y Go d s two in i t ia l s t a t e m e n t s . Th e f i rs t s p e e c h b e g in s , " W h o i s t h i s w h o d a r k -

e n s c o u n s e l , / S p e a k in g w i th o u t k n o wle d g e ? / G i r d y o u r l o in s l i k e a ma n ; / I w i l l

a s k a n d y o u w i l l i n f o r m M e " ( 3 8 :2 - 3 ) . Th e s t a r t o f t h e s e c o n d s p e e c h r e p e a t s

pa r t of th i s ve rb a t i m (40 :7 ) . G od a l so te l l s Jo b to p r ep ar e fo r w ar 2 1 a n d s u g g e s t s

that he is not yet "a man."

A N o n a n s w e r

Go d ' s f ir s t r e s p o n s e ( 3 8 : 1 - 4 0 :2 ) d o e s n o t a n s w e r J o b ' s q u e s t i o n s — a t l e as t n o t i n

a n y d i r e c t f a s h io n . J o b h a d wa n te d t o k n o w th e c h a r g e s a g a in s t h i m , t o u n d e r -

s t a n d w h y h e w a s b e i n g p u n i s h e d ; 2 2 h e h a d a l so i n s i st e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w

Go d p r a c t i c e s r e t r i b u t io n . Go d d o e s n o t a d d r e s s t h e s e i s s u e s . I n s t e a d , Go d t r e a t s

us to the longes t l i s t o f rhe to r ica l ques t ions in the Bib le : "Where were you , "

"Ha ve yo u ," "W hic h , " "Ca n you ," "Do yo u ," "I s i t? " an d so on . Th e ex am pl es a l l

i n v o lv e t h e w o r l d of n a tu r e , n o t o f h u m a n s o c i e ty o r b e h a v io r .

Some scho la rs in fe r f rom the ex t ravagance o f God ' s l i s t o f ques t ions tha t i t s

p u r p o s e i s t o o v e r w h e l m J o b . 2 3 O t h e r s s u g g e s t t h a t G o d m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n t h e

p o s i t i o n of t h e f r i e n d s ( w h o s a id t h a t Go d i s p o w e r f u l a n d g o o d ) a n d J o b ( w h o

s a id t h a t Go d i s p o w e r f u l a n d a b u s iv e ) b y a n s w e r in g s imp ly : " Go d i s p o w e r -

f u i . " 2 4 A th i r d p e r s p e c t iv e o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e d e p i c t i o n o f n a t u r e h e r e is n e g a t iv e

a n d c h a o t i c — c o n c l u d i n g t e l l i n g l y w i t h t h e h a w k , w h o s e " y o u n g g u l p b l o o d ; /

W h e r e t h e s l a in a r e , t h e r e is h e " ( 3 9 : 3 0 ) . H u m a n c o n c e p t s of j u s t i c e a re n o t p a r to f th i s p ic tu re .

Job ' s rep ly to th i s f ir s t sp ee ch ( 4 0 :3 -5 ) am o u n ts to "Wel l , w ha t can I say?"

A n O b s c u r e A n s w e r

No t s a t i s f i e d w i th J o b ' s r e s p o n s e , Go d d e l i v e r s a s e c o n d s p e e c h , wh ic h w e m ig h t

e x p e c t t o b e mo r e c le a r. I n d e e d , t h i s s p e e c h , i n b o th s t r u c tu r e a n d c o n te n t , i s

q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e f i rs t . Th e s t r u c tu r e i s b e s t u n d e r s to o d a s f o l l o ws :

I. 4 0 : 7 - 1 4 J u s t ic e

II. 4 0 : 1 5 - 2 4 B e h e m o t h

I II. 4 0 : 2 5 - 4 1 : 2 6 L e v i a t h a n

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Th e p a r a g r a p h in g a n d l a y o u t in t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n d o n o t r e f le c t t h i s s t r u c tu r e ,

a n d th e r e f o r e t h e y o b s c u r e t h e me a n in g o f t h i s s p e e c h . Ev e n s o , we c a n n o t b e

s u r e wh a t t h e s e s e c t i o n s me a n a n d h o w th e y f it t o g e th e r . M o s t l ik e ly t h i s

B e h e m o t h i s a m y t h o l o g i c a l f i g u r e b a s e d o n a h i p p o p o t a m u s , w h i l e L e v i a t h a n

r e s e m b l e s v a r i o u s s e a - c r e a t u r e s k n o w n f r o m U g a r it i c m y t h o l o g y . 2 i But how a re

th e y g e r ma n e ? Ho w d o th e y r e l a t e t o wh a t Go d wa s s a y in g a b o u t j u s t i c e ?

W e ma y a p p ly h e r e t h e s a me in t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t we a p p l i e d t o Go d ' s f i r s t

s p e e c h . F o r e x a m p l e , w e m a y u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e s e c ti o n s a s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f

Go d ' s o v e r w h e lm in g J o b . G o d m a y b e d i s p l a y in g p o w e r b y p o in t i n g t o t h e a b i l -

i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e s e my th o lo g i c a l b e a s t s .

Limits to D ivin e Powe r ?

Al te r n at i v ely , Go d ma y b e s a y in g s o m e th in g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . Th i s s p e e c h m a y b e

c o n c e d in g th a t e v e n Go d c a n n o t c o n t r o l t h e s e tw o c r e a t i o n s . By th i s r e a d in g , t h e

v e r s e " S ee , a n y h o p e of c a p tu r in g [ L e v ia th a n ] mu s t b e d i s a p p o in t e d ; / O n e i s

p r o s t r a t e d b y t h e v e r y s ig h t o f h im" ( 4 1 :1 ) i n c lu d e s Go d a s o n e o f t h e p r o s t r a t -

ed . S imi la r ly , "Div ine be ings a re in d read as he rea rs up ; / As he c rashes down,th e y c r in g e " ( 4 1 :1 7 ) wo u ld a p p ly a l s o t o Go d .

If s o , we c a n g o b a c k a n d a p p ly t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o Go d ' s i n t r o d u c to r y

s p e e c h . Ra th e r t h a n b e in g s a r c a s t i c ( a s ma n y t a k e i t ) , Go d ma y a c tu a l l y b e

a d m i t t i n g w e a k n e s s :

( 4 0 : 1 0 ) D e c k y o u r s e lf n o w w i t h g r a n d e u r a n d e m i n e n c e ; / C l o t h e y o u r -

sel f in g lo ry and majes ty . / (11 ) Sca t te r w id e yo ur rag in g ange r ; / See

e v e r y p r o u d m a n a n d b r in g h i m low . / ( 1 2 ) S ee e v e r y p r o u d m a n a n d

h u m b l e h i m , / A n d b r i n g t h e m d o w n w h e r e t h e y s t a n d . / ( 1 3 ) B u r y

them a l l in the ea r th ; / Hide the i r faces in obscur i ty . / (14 ) Then even I

wo u ld p r a i s e y o u / F o r t h e t r i u mp h y o u r r i g h t h a n d wo n y o u .

Th a t i s , G od i s rea l ly say ing to Jo b : " I 'm no t pe r f ec t . Bu t can y ou d o any be t te r?

Th e n s to p c r i t i c i z in g ! "

J o b R e s p o n d s A g a i n

Th e b o o k s p o t l i g h t s J o b ' s s e c o n d r e p ly t o G o d . Th e s e a r e t h e la st w o r d s o f

p o e t r y . Un l ik e h i s f i rs t r e ply, Go d d o e s n o t r e s p o n d b a c k a f t e r w a r d — in d ic a t i n g

s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t J o b h a s n o w u n d e r s to o d . Th e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e s J o b ' s w o r d s

t o m e a n :

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( 4 2 : 2 ) I k n o w t h a t Y o u c a n d o e v e r y t h i n g , / T h a t n o t h i n g y o u p r o p o s e

i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r Y o u . / ( 3 ) W h o i s t h i s w h o o b s c u r e s c o u n s e l w i t h o u t

k n o w l e d g e ? / I n d e e d , I s p o k e w i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g / O f t h i n g s

b e y o n d m e , w h i c h I d i d n o t k n o w . / ( 4 ) H e a r n o w , a n d I w i l l s p e a k ; / 1

w i l l a s k , a n d Y o u w i l l i n f o r m m e . / ( 5 ) I h a d h e a r d Y o u w i t h m y e a r s , /

B u t n o w I s e e Y o u w i t h m y e y e s ; / ( 6 ) T h e r e f o r e , I r e c a n t a n d r e l e n t , /

B e i n g b u t d u s t a n d a s h e s .

T h i s t r a n s l a t i o n o b s c u r e s t h e fa c t t h a t i n p a r t , J o b is q u o t i n g G o d s e a r l i e r

s p e e c h e s . ( I n c h a p t e r 2 3 , I n o t e d t h a t u n m a r k e d q u o t a t i o n s f e a t u r e i n a n o t h e r

b o o k o f w i s d o m l i t e ra t u r e , E c c l e s ia s t es . ) C l a r i f y i n g t h e q u o t a t i o n s w o u l d m a k e

t h e w h o l e p a s s a g e m u c h c l e a re r :

(4 2 : 1 ) J o b s a id in r ep ly to th e LORD: (2 ) I k n o w th a t You ca n d o ev ery -

t h i n g , / T h a t n o t h i n g y o u p r o p o s e i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r Y o u . ( 3 ) W h o i s t h i s

w h o o b s c u r e s counsel without knowledge? [ 3 8 : 2 ; 4 2 : 3 ] — / I n d e e d , I

s p o k e w i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g / O f t h i n g s b e y o n d m e , w h i c h I d i d n o t

k n o w . / ( 4 ) Hear now, and I will speak; I will ask, and You will inform me

[ 3 8 : 3 ; 4 2 : 4 ] — / ( 5 ) I h a d h e a r d Y o u w i t h m y e a r s , / B u t n o w I s e e Y o u

w i t h m y e y e s ; / ( 6 ) T h e r e f o r e , I r e c a n t a n d r e l e n t , / B e i n g b u t d u s t a n d

a s h e s .

T h i s r e p l y i s l o n g e r a n d m o r e d e v e l o p e d t h a n J o b ' s f i rs t a n s w e r . Y e t, e v e n a s

1 h a v e t r a n s l a t e d t h e p a s s a g e h e r e , it s m e a n i n g i s s ti ll u n c e r t a i n . I s J o b e m p h a -

s i z in g h i s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t t h at a s a h u m a n , G o d is b e y o n d h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g

(v. 3 b ) ? O r d o e s h e f o c u s o n a c k n o w l e d g i n g G o d ' s o m n i p o t e n c e (v. 2 ) — a n d if

s o , h o w i s t h i s a r e s p o n s e ? I s J o b s a t i s f ie d b e c a u s e h e h a s e x p e r i e n c e d a v i s u a l

r ev e la t io n o f G o d ( " no w I s ee You w i t h m y eyes" ; v . 5 )? If so , h o w d oe s th i s

a n s w e r J o b ' s c o n c e r n s ?

T o c o m p l i c a t e t h i n g s f u r t h e r , w e c a n n o t s a y f o r s u r e w h a t t h e f i n a l v e r s e of

p o e t r y — t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e — m e a n s . 2 6 A s w e h a v e s a i d , t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n

r e n d e r s v e r s e 6 a s " T h e r e f o r e , I r e c a n t a n d r e l e n t , / B e i n g b u t d u s t a n d a s h e s . " I n

c o n t r a s t , t h e N e w R e v i s e d S t a n d a r d V e r s i o n (N R S V ) t r a n s l a t e s i t , " T h e r e f o r e I

d e s p i s e m y s e l f , / a n d r e p e n t i n d u s t a n d a s h e s , " w h e r e a s M i t c h e l l t r a n s l a t e s it a s

" T h e r e f o r e I w i l l b e q u i e t , c o m f o r t e d t h a t I a m d u s t . "

2

׳ S o , w h a t is J o b d o i n g :r e c a n t i n g , e n g a g i n g i n s e l f - l o a t h i n g , o r a t t a i n i n g e n l i g h t e n m e n t ? A l l t h r e e

v i e w s — a n d o t h e r s a s w e l l — a r e p la u s i b l e . W e m a y w i s h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

m e a n i n g o f t h e p o e t r y i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d p r o s e , y e t i n a l l

h o n e s t y w e c a n n o t p i n d o w n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s v e r s e .

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Putting Job Back Together Again

By th i s p o in t , my e a r l i e r s t a t e m e n t a b o u t J o b b e in g t h e mo s t d i f f i c u lt b o o k o f t h e

Bibl e s h o u ld m a k e s e n s e . W i th t h e p r o f o u n d i s s u e s t h a t t h i s b o o k a d d r e s s e s , a n d

i t s po ten t rhe to r ic , i t p rompts us to a sk : What does i t a l l mean? In pa r t icu la r ,

w h o is r i g h t— G o d ? Th e f r i e n d s ? J o b ? I n p a r t i c u l a r , h o w m ig h t we r e a d t h e b o o k

a s a wh o le , c o n s id e r in g b o t h t h e p o e t r y a n d th e p r o s e ?

At least one th i ng is c lea r : ac co rd in g to the way the boo k ha s be en pu t

t o g e t h e r , t h e f r i e n d s — w i t h t h e i r " t r a d i t i o n a l " w i s d o m a n s w e r s — a r e w r o n g . T h e

ep i log ue beg in s : "Af te r the L O R D h a d s p o k e n th e s e wo r d s t o J o b , t h e L O R D sa id

to El ip haz the Tem ani te , '1 am i nc en sed a t you a nd y ou r two f r ien ds , fo r yo uh a v e n o t s p o k e n th e t r u th a b o u t M e a s d id M y s e r v a n t J o b ' " ( 4 2 :7 ) . Ho we v e r , t h e

am big u i t y of 42 :6 st il l l eaves op en th e poss ib i l i ty tha t Job ' s ea r l ie r a rg um en ts

w ere r igh t . (T ha t poss ib i l i ty loo ks mo re l ike ly if w e take se r iou s ly the idea th a t

E l ih u ' s s p e e c h e s u n d e r min e Go d ' s p o s i t i o n . ) Th u s , t h e b o o k ma y b e s a y in g t h a t

t h e wa y Go d r u n s t h e wo r ld , t h e i n n o c e n t d o i n d e e d s u f f e r .

Al te rna t ive ly , i t s ed i to r may have s t ruc tu red the book so tha t no s ing le

a n s w e r w i n s t h e d e b a t e ; i n s t e a d , t h i s w o r k o f f e r s a v a r i e ty o f p l a u s ib l e a n s w e r s ,

e a c h o f wh ic h h a s s o me b a s i s i n e x p e r i e n c e . 2 8 P e r h a p s it i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t we

c a n n o t f i n d a c l e a r a n s we r to o u r q u e s t i o n s , g iv e n t h e v e r y s e r io u s a n d p e r s o n -

a l i s sues tha t the Book o f Jo b co nf ro n t s .

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25"Drink Deep of Love!"

R ea d in g S o n g o f S o n g s

Primary Reading: Song of Songs.

Th e S o n g of S o n g s ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d " t h e S o n g " f o r s h o r t ) is t h e m o s t e x q u i -

s i t e b o o k o f t h e B i b l e . 1 I n t r y i n g t o g u i d e r e a d e r s , I d o n o t w a n t t o p a r a -

p h r a s e i t — i t i s s i m p l y t o o b e a u t i f u l a n d t o o m u l t i l a y e r e d . N o p a r a p h r a s e c a n d o

it j u s t i c e . T h e S o n g o f S o n g s d e s e r v e s t o b e r e a d a n d r e r e a d ; it c a n n o t b e c o n -

f i n e d t o a s i n g l e m e a n i n g .

2

W h a t I c a n b e s t o f f e r a r e s o m e s i g n p o s t s t h a t w i l lh e l p r e a d e r s d i s c o v e r t h e r i c h n e s s o f t h e t e x t .

Solomon and the Song

I n E n g l i s h , in a d d i t i o n t o " S o n g of S o n g s , " t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e

" S o n g o f S o l o m o n , " b a s e d o n t h e f ir s t v e r s e : " T h e S o n g of S o n g s , b y S o l o m o n . "

I n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , I d i s c u s s e d s i m i l a r a t t r i b u t i o n s , w h i c h r a r e ly s e e m t o b e

h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e . ( T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f m u c h o f P s a l m s t o D a v i d ,

a n d of P r o v e r b s a n d E c c l e si a st e s t o S o l o m o n . ) H e r e , t o o , c o m p a r i s o n w i t h d a t e d

H e b r e w i n s c r i p t i o n s h a s s h o w n s c h o l a r s t h a t m a n y p h r a s e s a n d f o r m s i n th e

S o n g d o n o t m a t c h t h e l a n g u a g e of K i n g S o l o m o n s t i m e . In p l a c e s , t h e t e x t i s

c l e a r l y p o s t e x i l i c ; f o r e x a m p l e , 4 : 1 3 u s e s pardes ( ס ד ר פ ) , a P e r s ia n w o r d m e a n -

i n g " o r c h a r d . " ( H e b r e w w r i t e r s w o u l d n o t h a v e b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e P e r s i a n l a n -

g u a g e u n t i l a f t e r t h e e x i l e t o B a b y l o n ; s e e a b o v e , c h a p t e r 4 . ) I n s h o r t , s o m e o n e

w r o t e i t d o w n w e l l a f t e r S o l o m o n . I n d e e d , if S o l o m o n r e a ll y w r o t e t h e b o o k ,

w h y w o u l d h e r e f e r t o h i m s e l f i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , as i n " K i n g S o l o m o n m a d e

h i m a p a l a n q u i n . . . " ( 3 : 9) ?

C r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s b r o a d l y a g r e e t h a t t h e f ir s t v e r s e is n o t i n t e g r a l t o t h e b o o k .

E v e r y w h e r e e ls e i n t h e b o o k ( t h i r t y - t w o t i m e s ) , t h e r e la t iv e p r o n o u n — t r a n s l a t -

e d a s " t h a t , " " w h i c h , " o r " w h o " — i s e x p r e s s e d u s i n g t h e p a r t i c l e p r e f i x she- (ψ ).

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O n l y i n t h i s f i r s t v e r s e d o w e f i n d t h e l o n g e r f o r m asher ( ר ש א ; t h e J P S t r a n s l a -

t i o n r e n d e r s it a s " b y " — o r i n i ts f o o t n o t e , " c o n c e r n i n g " ) . A s i n g l e a u t h o r w o u l d

n o t h a v e u s e d b o t h f o r m s . T h i s a n o m a l y h a s p r o m p t e d s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a ta l a t e r e d i t o r a d d e d 1 : 1 .

T h a t e d i t o r m o s t l i k e ly w a n t e d u s to t h i n k o f t h i s b o o k a s w r i t t e n b y

S o l o m o n . G i v e n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n in 1 K i n g s 1 1 : 3 o f S o l o m o n ' s " s e v e n h u n d r e d

r o ya l w i v e s a n d t h r e e h u n d r e d c o n c u b i n e s , " S o l o m o n w o u l d n a t u r a l l y h a v e b e e n

a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e l o v e - s o n g b u s i n e s s . T h e So n g ' s o w n r e p e a t e d m e n t i o n of a

k i n g m a y h a v e a l s o m o t i v a t e d t h e a t t r i b u t i o n . 3

W h i l e r e a d e r s m a y st il l u s e t h e r o y a l S o l o m o n i c c o u r t a s a n i m a g i n e d s e t t i n g

f o r t h e b o o k , t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t ic a l m e t h o d s u g g e s t s t h a t w e a l s o t r y t o i m a g i n e

r e a d i n g t h e S o n g a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e i n it i a l a t t r i b u t i o n .

A Collection

A l t h o u g h t h e S o n g l o o k s l i k e a u n i f i e d c o m p o s i t i o n , i t i s n o t . I t c o n v e y s a s e n s e

o f u n i t y b y b e i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e m s o f s i m i l a r g e n r e s .

A n u m b e r of i n d i c a t i o n s a r g u e a g a i n s t i ts b e i n g a c o m p o s i t i o n b y a si n g l e

a u t h o r . F i r s t , t h e S o n g c o n t a i n s a r e f r a i n , y e t t h e r e f r a i n d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n

e x a c t l y t h e s a m e H e b r e w w o r d s , as w e w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m a b o o k w r i t t e n b y o n e

a u t h o r :

( 2 : 7 ) I a d j u r e y o u , Ο m a i d e n s o f J e r u s a l e m , / B y g a z e l l e s o r b y h i n d s of

the f ie ld : / Im [ ם א , " D o n o t " ] w a k e o r r o u s e / L o v e u n t i l i t p l e a s e !

( 3 : 5 ) 1 a d j u r e y o u , Ο m a i d e n s o f J e r u s a l e m , / B y g a z e l l e s o r b y h i n d s o f

the f i e ld : / Im [ ם א , " D o n o t " ] w a k e o r r o u s e / L o v e u n t i l i t p l e a s e !

( 8 : 4 ) I a d j u r e y o u , Ο m a i d e n s o f J e r u s a l e m : / M ah [ Ì1D, "Do not" ] wake

or rouse / Love un t i l i t p l ea se !

A s e c o n d s i g n o f t h e b o o k ' s m u l t i p l e a u t h o r s h i p i s t h a t it u s e s v a r i a n t f o r m s

o f t h e s a m e w o r d s — v a r i a n t s t h a t l i n g u i s t s u n d e r s t a n d t o a r i s e f r o m d i f f e r e n t

H e b r e w d i a l e c t s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e st y l e o f t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t s u f f i x d i f f e r s b e t w e e n

c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 5 : bikashtiv (1 י ת ש ן ל ב ) v e r su sbikashtihu ( ו ה י ת ש ן ל ב ) ; b o t h w o r d s

m e a n "I s o u g h t h i m . "

P e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e s t p r o o f o f m o r e t h a n o n e a u t h o r i s t h e n e a r r e p e t i t i o n

o f o n e p a r t i c u l a r p a s s a g e , a n e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f f e a t u r e s o f t h e l o v er 's b o d y ,

w h i c h i s c a l l e d a wasf. ( S u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s h a v e a l o n g - s t a n d i n g p l a c e i n A r a b i c

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p o e t r y , w h i c h is w h y s c h o l a r s r e f e r t o t h e m b y t h i s A r a b i c t e r m , p r o n o u n c e d

" w a t z f . " 4 ) . T h e S o n g r e p e a t s o n e o f i t s wasfs, b u t d o e s s o w i t h v a r i a t i o n s :

( 6 : 4 ) Y o u a r e b e a u t i f u l , m y d a r l i n g ,

a s T i r z a h ,

C o m e l y a s J e r u s a l e m ,

A w e s o m e a s b a n n e r e d h o s t s .

( 5 ) T u r n y o u r e y e s a w a y f r o m m e ,

F o r t h e y o v e r w h e l m m e !

Your ha i r i s l i ke a f l ock o f goa t s

S t r e a m i n g d o w n f r o m G i l e a d .(6 ) Your t e e th a re l i ke a f l ock o f ewes

C l i m b i n g u p f r o m t h e w a s h i n g p o o l ;

A l l o f t h e m b e a r t w i n s ,

A n d n o t o n e l o s e s h e r y o u n g .

( 7 ) Y o u r b r o w b e h i n d y o u r v e i l

G l e a m s l ik e a p o m e g r a n a t e s p l i t

o p e n .

( 8 ) T h e r e a r e s i x t y q u e e n s ,

A n d e i g h t y c o n c u b i n e s ,

A n d d a m s e l s w i t h o u t n u m b e r .

( 9 ) O n l y o n e i s m y d o v e ,

M y p e r f e c t o n e ,

T h e o n l y o n e o f h e r m o t h e r ,

T h e d e l i g h t o f h e r w h o b o r e h e r .

M a i d e n s s e e a n d a c c l a i m h e r ;Q u e e n s a n d c o n c u b i n e s , a n d p r a i s e

h e r .

( 4 : 1 ) A h , y o u a r e f a ir , m y d a r l i n g ,

Ah, you a re f a i r .

Y o u r e y e s a r e l i k e d o v e s

B e h i n d y o u r v e i l .

Your ha i r i s l i ke a f l ock o f goa t s

S t r e a m i n g d o w n M o u n t G i l e ad .

(2 ) Your t e e th a re l i ke a f l ock o f ewes

C l i m b i n g u p f r o m t h e w a s h i n g p o o l ;A l l o f t h e m b e a r t w i n s ,

A n d n o t o n e l o s es h e r y o u n g .

( 3 ) Y o u r l i p s a r e l i k e a c r i m s o n t h r e a d ,

Y o u r m o u t h i s l o v e l y .

Y o u r b r o w b e h i n d y o u r v e i l

G l e a m s l ik e a p o m e g r a n a t e s p li t o p e n .

(4 ) Your neck i s l i ke t he Tower o f

D a v i d ,

B u i l t t o h o l d w e a p o n s ,

H u n g w i t h a t h o u s a n d s h i e l d s —

A l l t h e q u i v e r s o f w a r r i o r s .

( 5 ) Y o u r b r e a s t s a r e l i k e t w o f a w n s ,

Twins o f a gaze l l e ,

B r o w s i n g a m o n g t h e l i l i e s .

( 6 ) W h e n t h e d a y b l o w s g e n t l yA n d t h e s h a d o w s f l e e ,

I w i l l b e t a k e m e t o t h e m o u n t o f

m y r r h ,

T o t h e h i l l o f f r a n k i n c e n s e .

( 7 ) E v e r y p a r t o f y o u i s f a ir , m y d a r l i n g ,

T h e r e is n o b l e m i s h i n y o u .

W h y w o u l d a s i n g l e a u t h o r r e p e a t t h e s a m e d e s c r i p t i o n ? If h e 5 were t o r epea t i t ,

w h y d o s o w i t h t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a t i o n s ? T h e b e s t a n s w e r t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s

i s t h a t m o r e t h a n o n e v e r s i o n o f t h e s e p o e t i c p a s s a g e s c i r c u l a t e d i n a n c i e n t I s r a e l ;

s o m e o n e t h e n c o l l a t e d t h e m t o g e t h e r in a l a r g e r w o r k t h a t e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e t h e

S o n g o f S o n g s a s w e h a v e i t .

S a y i n g th a t t h i s b o o k is a c o l l e c t i o n l e a v es m a n y q u e s t i o n s o p e n . W h a t t y p e

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o f a c o l l e c t i o n i s i t? I s i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n h a p h a z a r d , o r i s i t s c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e m s

o r g a n i z e d t o t e ll a s t o r y ? E v i d e n c e p o i n t s i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s . T h e h i s t o r i c a l -

c r i t i c a l m e t h o d j u s t i f i e s r e a d i n g t h e b o o k e i t h e r a s a l o o s e a n t h o l o g y o r a s a u n i -

f i e d w o r k .

What Genre of Poetry Is It?

M o s t o f t e n , t h e S o n g i s d e s c r i b e d a s l o v e p o e t r y , s e n s u a l p o e t r y , o r e r o t i c p o e t r y .

W h a t i s m e a n t b y th e s e t e r m s i s r a r e l y d i s c u s s e d ; p e r h a p s t h e r e t i c e n c e is b a s e d

o n t h e a w a r e n e s s t h a t w e h a v e t o o l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o d e f i n e t h e s e g e n r e s f o ra n c i e n t I s r a el . S o m e u n i t s i n t h e S o n g c a n s a f e ly b e c a t e g o r i z e d a s " l ov e p o e t r y "

b a s e d o n t h e u s e o f t h e r o o t '-h-v ( ב ה א , "t o l o v e " ) — f o u n d , s u r p r is i n g l y , o n l y

s e v e n t i m e s i n t h e w h o l e b o o k .

S i m i l a r l y , t h e l a b e l " s e n s u a l " i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r p a s s a g e s i n w h i c h t h e s e n s e s

a r e e v o k e d , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y : "I h a v e c o m e t o m y g a r d e n , / M y o w n ,

m y b r i d e ; / I h a v e p l u c k e d m y m y r r h a n d s p i c e , / E a t e n m y h o n e y a n d h o n e y -

c o m b , / D r u n k m y w i n e a n d m y m i l k . / E a t , l o v e r s , a n d d r i n k : D r i n k d e e p o f

love!" (5 :1 ) .

T h e t e r m " e r o t i c p o e t r y , " h o w e v e r , i s m o r e s l i p p e r y : if w e u n d e r s t a n d t h i s

t e r m t o m e a n w o r d s i n t e n d e d t o s e x u a l l y a r o u s e , a ll w e k n o w is t h a t c e r t a i n s e c -

t i o n s o f t h e S o n g h a v e t h is e f fe c t o n s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r s . H o w e v e r , w e

h a v e n o w a y t o t e ll w h e t h e r i ts p o e t r y h a d t h e e f f e c t o f s e x u a l a r o u s a l i n i t s s e t -

t i n g i n a n t i q u it y . W i t h o u t k n o w i n g m o r e a b o u t it s o r i g i n a l s e t t i n g a n d i n t e n d e d

p u r p o s e , w e c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f t h e s e g e n r e s a p p l i e d t o t h e S o n g o f

S o n g s i n a n c i e n t t i m e s .

Ancient Near Eastern Love Poetry

I n r e a d i n g t h e S o n g , w e m u s t b e c a r e f u l n o t t o i m p o s e V i c t o r i a n n o t i o n s of s e x -

u a li ty , n o r a n y n o t i o n a b o u t w h a t m a n y p r e s u m e is a " n e g a t iv e " a t t i t u d e t o w a r d

s e x u a l i t y i n J u d a i s m o r C h r i s t i a n i t y . 6 T h e S o n g m a y s e e m o d d a s a b i b l ic a l b o o k ,

y e t w h e n v i e w e d i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t , e s p e c i a l l y

E g y p t i a n l i t e r a t u r e , 7 it i s q u i t e n o r m a l . ( G a i n i n g s u c h p e r s p e c t i v e il l u s t r a t e s t h e

u t i l i t y o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d : i t c a n c o r r e c t o u r o w n c u l t u r a l b i a s e s . )

In t e rms o f s ty le , the wasfs i n t h e S o n g a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e f o l l o w i n g p o e m

w r i t t e n in t h e p e r i o d of t h e E g y p t i a n N e w K i n g d o m ( m i d - s i x t e e n t h t o e a r ly

e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s B . C . E . ) :

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T h e One, t h e s i s t e r w i th o u t p e e r , / T h e h a n d s o m e s t o f a ll ! / S h e l o o k s

l i k e t h e r i s i n g m o r n in g s t a r / A t t h e s t a r t o f a h a p p y y e a r . / S h in in g

br ig h t , f a ir o f sk in , / Love ly the l oo k o f h e r eyes , / Sw ee t the sp ee ch o f h e r

l i p s , / S h e h a s n o t a w o r d t o o m u c h . / U p r i g h t n e c k , s h in in g b r e a s t , / H a i r

t r u e l a p i s l a z u l i ; / A r m s s u r p a s s in g g o ld , / F in g e r s l i k e l o tu s b u d s . / H e a v y

t h i g h s , n a r r o w w a i s t , / H e r l e g s p a r a d e h e r b e a u t y ; / W i t h g r a c e f u l s t e p s

s h e t r e a d s t h e g r o u n d , / C a p t u r e s m y h e a r t b y h e r m o v e m e n t s . / S h e

c a u s e s a ll m e n ' s n e c k / T o t u r n a b o u t t o s e e h e r ; / J o y h a s h e w h o m s h e

e m b r a c e s , / H e i s l i k e t h e f i r s t o f m e n ! / W h e n s h e s t e p s o u t s i d e s h e

s e e m s / L i k e t h a t o t h e r One [ t h e S u n ] .8

L ik e t h e S o n g , b u t u n l i k e t h e r e s t o f b ib l i c a l l i t e r a tu r e , t h i s p o e m r e f e r s t o t h e

fema le love r a s " s i s te r . " L ike a l l bu t one o f the wasfs i n t h e S o n g , t h e E g y p t i a n

a u t h o r d e s c r i b e s th e b o d y f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m , d e s c r i b i n g m a n y of t h e s a m e

b o d y p a r t s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e b i b l ic a l b o o k . T h e c o m p a r i s o n s a re e q u a l l y o d d ( b y

m o d e r n W e s t e r n s e n s i b i l i t i e s ) — t h e E g y p t i a n s e x t o l b l u e h a i r ( " H a i r t r u e l a p i s

l a z u l i " ) w h i l e t h e I s r a e l i t e s d e s i r e e l o n g a t e d n o s e s ( "Y o u r n o s e li k e t h e L e b a n o n

t o w e r / T h a t f a ce s t o w a r d D a m a s c u s " ; 7 : 5 ) . T h e wasfs i n b o t h c u l t u r e s m o v e

f r o m d e s c r i b i n g th e b o d y to d r a w i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n . T h u st h e E g y p t i a n t e x t s t a t es : " W i t h g r a c e f u l s t e p s s h e t r e a d s t h e g r o u n d , / C a p t u r e s

m y h e a r t b y h e r m o v e m e n t s . / S h e c a u s e s al l m e n ' s n e c k s / T o t u r n a b o u t t o s e e

h e r . " S im i l a rl y , t h e I s r a e l i te p o e m c o n t i n u e s : " I s a y : L e t m e c l im b th e p a lm , / L e t

m e t a k e h o l d o f i t s b r a n c h e s ; / L e t y o u r b r e a s t s b e l i k e c lu s t e r s o f g r a p e s , / Y o u r

b r e a t h l i k e t h e f r a g r a n c e o f a p p l e s " ( 7 : 9 ) . O n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t s o m e of t h e

a u t h o r s o f t h e wasfs i n t h e S o n g w e r e a w a r e of t h e E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n s .

M e s o p o t a m i a n s o u r c e s , m e a n w h i l e , p r e s e r v e a s i g n i f ic a n t c o l l e c t io n o f

p o t e n c y i n c a n t a t i o n s ; th e y, t o o , c a n h e l p u s d r a w a p i c t u r e o f a n c i e n t N e a r

E a s t e r n s e x u a l it y . O n e of t h e m o r e t a m e i n c a n t a t i o n s g o e s l i k e t h i s :

A t t h e h e a d o f m y b e d a r a m i s t i e d . A t t h e f o o t o f m y b e d a w e a n e d

s h e e p is t i e d . A r o u n d m y w a i s t t h e i r w o o l is t i e d . L ik e a r a m e l e v e n

t i m e s , l i k e a w e a n e d s h e e p t w e l v e t i m e s , li k e a p a r t r i d g e t h i r t e e n t i m e s ,

m a k e l o v e t o m e , a n d l i k e a p ig f o u r t e e n t im e s , l i k e a w i ld b u l l fi f t y

t im e s , l i k e a s t a g f i f t y t im e s ! E t c .9

T h i s i n c a n t a t i o n s h o w s t h a t s o m e a n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a n s a d d r e s s e d t h e i r c o n -

c e r n s w i t h s e x u a l p o t e n c y i n a r a t h e r o p e n a n d c r e a t i v e f a s h i o n .

T h e t h e m e o f c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g ri v a ls , s o p r o m i n e n t i n t h e S o n g ( s ee , e . g .,

1 : 8 ) , a p p e a r s i n M e s o p o t a m i a m l i t e r a t u r e a s w e l l :

I s e n s e m y b e a u t y s p o t s , / M y u p p e r l i p b e c o m e s m o i s t / W h i l e t h e

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low er on e t rem ble s . / I sha l l em br ac e h im , I sha l l k i s s h i m , / I sha l l look

a t h i m ; / I sha l l a t ta in v ic to ry. . . / Ov er m y gos s ipy w o m e n , / A nd I sha l l

r e tu r n h a p p i ly t o my lo v e r . 1 0

These l i t e ra tu res c lea r ly a re concerned wi th rea l lovers , they a re secu la r , and they

are av id ly sexua l . The i r s imi la r i ty to the Song sugges t s tha t we shou ld read i t in

t h e s a m e m a n n e r .

The Taming of the Song

De sp i te th i s , t r ad i t ion has tam ed the So ng by a l legor iz in g it in a va r ie ty of ways .

Th u s , t h e Ta r g u m, t h e a n c i e n t Ar a ma ic t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B ib l e , v i e ws th e S o n g

as a h i s to r ica l a l legory ab ou t the "m ar r iage" be tw ee n G od an d I s rae l . C on s id e r th e

provo ca t ive ex c lam at io n , "I have tak en o ff m y ro be — / Sh ou ld I do n it aga in? /

I h a v e b a th e d m y f e e t— / S h o u ld I s o il t h e m a g a in ?" ( 5 :3 ; t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . Th e

w o m a n i s a n n o u n c i n g t o t h e m a n o u t s i d e t h a t s h e is n a k e d i n b e d . T h e T a r g u m

r e n d e r s t h i s v e r s e a s a n e x p r e s s io n o f n a t i o n a l g u i l t a n d mo r a l j u d g me n t :

The assembly o f I s rae l answered be fo re the p rophe ts : "Lo , a l ready , I

h a v e r e m o v e d t h e y o k e of H i s c o m m a n d m e n t s f r o m m e a n d h a v e w o r -

sh ip pe d th e ido ls o f the na t i on s . H ow ca n I hav e the face to re tu rn to

Him? " Th e Lo r d o f t h e W o r ld r e p l i e d t o t h e m th r o u g h th e p r o p h e t s :

" M o r e o v e r , 1 M y s el f h a v e a l r e a d y l i f t e d M y P r e s e n c e f r o m a m o n g y o u ,

h o w th en ca n I re tu rn s ince you have d on e ev il? I hav e c lean sed m y fee t

f r o m y o u r f i l t h, a n d h o w c a n I s o il t h e m a m o n g y o u w i th y o u r e vi l

d e e d s ? "

1 1

Ev e n Ab r a h a m ib n Ez r a , c o n s id e r e d o n e o f t h e mo r e l i b e r a l me d ie v a l i n t e r -

p r e t e r s ( b e c a u s e o f S p in o z a ' s a d v o c a c y o f h i s wo r k ) , wh o h ims e l f a u th o r e d s e c -

u la r love poe t ry , was adamant tha t the Song mus t be in te rp re ted a l legor ica l ly . In

h is in t roduc t ion to the Song , he s ta tes : "The Song o f Songs i s ce r ta in ly no t a

p o e m a b o u t d e s i r e , " a d d in g , " d o n o t b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t t h e b r id e is a p a r a b l e f o r

I s rae l , an d he r g r oo m is G od , fo r su ch i s the hab i t of the p r op he ts . " Ibn Ezra th en

b r in g s a s e t o f f iv e p r o p h e t i c e x a m p le s a n d o n e e x a m p le f r o m P s a lms th a t u s e

parab les o f lovers to rep resen t I s rae l and God ( inc lud ing Ezek ie l 16 ; see

"R efu t ing Po pu la r Be lie fs" in ch ap te r 19) . H ow eve r , al l o f the passa ges tha t Ibn

Ezra c i te s c lea r ly ind ica te tha t the un i t s a re pa rab les . For example , wh i le I sa iah

5 beg ins , "Le t me s ing fo r my be loved / A song o f my lover abou t h i s v ineyard , "

ve rse 7 spe l l s ou t who the p layers a re : "For the v ineyard o f the L O R D of Hosts /

I s the H ou se o f I s rae l , / A nd t he see d l in gs he lov ing ly te nd ed / Are the m en o f

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J u d a h . " I n c o n t r a s t , n o s im i l a r s t a t e m e n t i n t h e S o n g s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s a l l e g o r i -

ca l , n o r tha t the m a le love r i s G o d , an d th e f em a le lov e r I s rae l . In f ac t , the So ng

c o n t a i n s n o r e f e r e n c e s t o G o d at a l l .1 2

A s I h a v e a r g u e d , t h e secular N e a r E a s t e r n l o v e p o e m s to w h i c h i t i s s o

s i m i l a r s u g g e s t t h a t t h e S o n g w a s o r i g i n a l l y a s e c u l a r w o r k , d e a l i n g w i t h t w o

u n m a r r i e d l o v e r s .1 3

T h e S o n g i ts e lf g iv e s n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t it i n t e n d s i ts w o r d s

d i f f e r e n t l y .

Sex in the Song Versus the Rest of the Bible

T h e S o n g d e p i c t s p r e m a r i t a l s e x p o s i t i v e l y ; t h i s a t t i t u d e d i f f e r s d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m

w h a t i s f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B ib l e. B u t t h e B ib l e i s a h ig h ly c o m p l e x b o o k

r e f l e c t i n g t h e o u t l o o k o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s , s o s u c h a d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g .

I t c e r t a i n ly d o e s n o t j u s t i f y r e a d i n g t h e b o o k a l le g o r i ca l ly .

M o r e o v e r , i n t h e le g al c o l l e c t i o n s , t h e c o r e o b j e c t i o n t o a y o u n g w o m a n

e n g a g i n g i n p r e m a r i t a l a c t i v it y i s n o t a m o r a l o n e . I n s t e a d , t h e p r o b l e m i s th a t

a c c o r d in g t o b ib l i c a l l aw , a w o m a n d id n o t a lw a y s h a v e t h e f u l l r i g h t t o d e c id e

h o w s h e m i g h t u s e h e r s e x u a l i t y .1 4

T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e C o v e n a n t

C o l l e c t i o n :

( E x o d . 2 2 : 1 5 ) If a m a n s e d u c e s a v i r g i n f o r w h o m t h e b r i d e - p r i c e h a s

n o t b e e n p a i d , a n d l ie s w i t h h e r , h e m u s t m a k e h e r h i s w i f e b y p a y m e n t

o f a b r i d e - p r i c e . ( 1 6 ) If h e r f a t h e r r e f u s e s t o g iv e h e r t o h im , h e m u s t

s t i l l w e ig h o u t s i l v e r i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th t h e b r i d e - p r i c e f o r v i r g in s .

T h e la w 's o n l y c o n c e r n i s w i t h t h e f a t h e r 's c o m p e n s a t i o n , c a l l ed t h e b r i d e -p r i c e ,

1 5a n d n o t w i t h a n y m o r a l l y i m p r o p e r b e h a v i o r b y t h e d a u g h t e r .

Ambiguities

T h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e S o n g is o n e of t h e f e a t u r e s t h a t m a k e it s o r e m a r k a b l e .

P o e t r y i s a m b i g u o u s , b u t t h i s b o o k s e e m s t o r e v e l i n t h a t q u a l i t y

D o u b l e E n t e n d r e

M u c h of t h e b o o k ' s a m b i g u i t y i s s e x u a l i n n a t u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e s e c o n d

d r e a m s e q u e n c e f r o m c h a p t e r 5 , w e r e a d :

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( 2 ) I wa s a s le e p , / But m y h e a r t wa s w a k e f u l . / Ha r k , my b e lo v e d

knocks! / "Le t me in , my own, / My dar l ing , my fau l t le ss dove! / For my

h e a d i s d r e n c h e d w i th d e w , / M y lo c k s w i th t h e d a m p o f n ig h t . " / (3 ) I

ha d t ak en o f f m y ro be — / W as I to d o n i t aga in? / I ha d ba th ed m y

fe e t — / W as I to so i l th em aga in? / (4 ) My be lo ve d t oo k h is ha n d o f f the

la tc h , / A nd m y hea r t wa s s t i r red for h i m . / (5) I rose to le t in m y

b e l o v e d ; / M y h a n d s d r i p p e d m y r r h — / M y f i n g e r s , f l o w i n g m y r r h — /

U p o n th e h a n d l e s o f t h e b o l t . / ( 6 ) 1 o p e n e d th e d o o r f o r m y b e lo v e d , /

Bu t m y b e lo v e d h a d t u r n e d a n d g o n e . / I w a s f a in t b e c a u s e of w h a t h e

said . / 1 s o u g h t , b u t f o u n d h i m n o t ; / I c a l l e d , b u t h e d id n o t a n s we r .

Th i s p a s s a g e t u r n s o n t h e a mb ig u i ty o f w h e th e r t h e wo m a n ' s " h o u s e " i s r e al ly h e r

dwel l ing , o r he r body . I s the male lover s tand ing ou ts ide t ry ing to ge t ins ide ; o r

i s he nex t to he r , t ry ing to en te r he r? In w ha t sens e is he "k noc k in g"? In v e rses

4 - 5 , a re t h e " h a n d " a n d th e " l a t c h " e u p h e m is m s f o r g e n i t al i a ? I n v e r s e 3 , w h e n

th e w o m a n d e s c r ib e s h e r s e l f a s c l e a n a n d n a k e d , i s s h e s a y in g t h a t t h e m a n

s h o u ld g o a wa y b e c a u s e s h e i s a l r e a d y h a l f - a s l e e p , o r i s s h e t e a s in g h im to c o me

n e a r e r ? 1 6 R e p r e s e n t i n g t h e b o d y a s a h o u s e i s a f r e q u e n t m e t a p h o r i n m a n y c u l -

t u r e s ; t h i s a l l o ws th e p o e t o f t h i s u n i t t o i n t r o d u c e n u me r o u s d o u b le me a n in g s .Su ch sexua l amb igu i t ie s fi ll the Song . For ex am ple , the v ine yard in the S on g

is an ima ge tha t o f t en a l lude s to the wo m an ' s r ipe and sw ee t sexua li ty . Mos t l ike -

ly th i s symbol p lays on the v i sua l s imi la r i ty be tween a c lus te r o f da rk g rapes and

th e p u b ic t r i a n g l e . 1 7 T h u s , t h e w o m a n c a n sa y : " M y m o t h e r s s o n s . . . m a d e m e

g u a r d t h e v in e y a r d s ; / M y o w n v in e y a r d I d id n o t g u a r d " ( 1 : 6 ) — th i s me a n s t h a t

h e r b r o th e r s t r i e d t o k e e p h e r c h a s t e b y ma k in g h e r wo r k o u t i n t h e f i e ld , b u t

s h e f o o l e d t h e m . W h i l e g u a r d in g t h e l it e ra l v in e y a r d s , s h e wa s f re e w i t h h e r

o w n f ig u r a t i v e o n e . A n o th e r ca s e w h e r e v in e y a r d is u s e d s y mb o l i c a l l y i s 1 :1 3 ,

wh e r e t h e wo ma n s a y s o f h e r ma le l o v e r : " M y b e lo v e d to me i s a s p r a y o f h e n n a

b lo o ms / I n t h e v in e y a r d s o f En - g e d i " ( t r a n s i , a d a p t e d ) . Ho we v e r , En - g e d i

h o u s e d t h e a n c i e n t J u d e a n p e r f u m e i n d u s t r y , 1 8 n o t a w i n e v in e y a r d . Th u s , " v in e -

yard s" i s no t m ea n t l i te ra l ly ; th i s ve rse i s rea l ly a ve i led re fe re nce to the w o m an

e n jo y in g t h e ma n ' s b o d y .

T h e S o n g ' s C o n c l u s i o n

A d i f fe ren t type o f ambigu i ty appears a t the conc lus ion o f the Song . I t a f fec t s

h o w we r e a d t h e b o o k a s a w h o l e — if we c h o o s e t o r e a d it a s a m e a n in g f u l l y

a r r a n g e d c o l l e c t i o n . Th e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n r e n d e r s t h e la st v e r s e (i n w h i c h t h e

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f e m a le l o v e r i s s p e a k in g ) a s f o l l o w s : "H u r r y , m y b e lo v e d , / S w i f t a s a g a z e l l e o r a

y o u n g s t a g , / T o t h e h i l l s o f s p i c e s ! " ( 8 :1 4 ) . T h e i n i t i a l w o r d i s berach ח) ר ב ),

w h i c h a c t u a l l y m e a n s , " F l ee a w a y ! " T a k e n o n i ts o w n , t h i s v e r s e w o u l d s e e m t o

b e a n u n h a p p y e n d i n g t o t h e S o n g , w h e r e t h e w o m a n t el ls t h e m a n ( p o e t ic a l ly ) ,

" S c r a m ! "

H o w e v e r , " t h e h i l l s o f s p i c e s " m a y r e f e r t o t h e w o m a n ' s b o d y ! T h e s im i l a r i -

t y i n s h a p e b e t w e e n b r e a s t s a n d m o u n t a i n s s u g g e s t s t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,1 9

a s

d o e s t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e : " M y b e l o v e d t o m e is a b a g o f m y r r h / L o d g e d b e t w e e n

m y b r e a s t s " ( 1 : 1 4 ) , w h i c h m o r e d i r e c t l y d e p i c t s t h e i m a g e e v o k e d b y " h i l l s o f

s p i c e s . " T h u s , e v e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e S o n g is u n c e r t a i n . Is i t a b o u t l o v e a n d

d e s i r e f u l f i l l e d , o r a b o u t u n r e q u i t e d l o v e a n d d e s i r e ?

Canonization of the Song

I n c h a p t e r 2 7 , I w i l l d e a l m o r e g e n e r a l l y w i t h t h e i ss u e of h o w v a r i o u s b o o k s

b e c a m e p a r t of t h e B ib le , w h a t is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e c a n o n i z a t i o n o f t h e

B ib l e. S u f f i c e i t t o s a y h e r e t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

t h e S o n g ( s e e a b o v e ) r a i s e s a q u e s t i o n : W a s t h e S o n g v i e w e d a s a l l e g o r y a f t e r

it b e c a m e c a n o n i c a l , o r d i d i t b e c o m e c a n o n i c a l o n l y a f t e r it w a s v i e w e d a s

a l l e g o r y ?

T h e w a y w e a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n d e t e r m i n e s o u r b a s i c a p p r o a c h t o t h e

q u e s t i o n o f h o w b o o k s b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e B i bl e. W e c a n d e f i n e b i b l i c a l b o o k s a s

o n ly t h o s e t h a t t h e p e o p l e a l r e a d y t r e a t e d a s s a c r e d a n d r e l i g io u s . A l t e r n a t i v e ly ,

w e c a n b r o a d e n t h e n o t i o n of b o o k s i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e B ib le t o a ll b o o k s t h a t

w e r e cen t ra l to I s rae l fo r a va r ie ty o f r ea so ns . If th e l a t t e r i s th e ca se , the n Je w sm i g h t h a v e h e l d t h e S o n g a s a c e n t r a l w o r k — a c u l t u r a l t r e a s u r e — o n a e s t h e t i c

g r o u n d s . M a y b e t h e y e v e n u s e d it f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n s e t t in g s li k e w e d d i n g

r e c e p t i o n s .2 0

P e r h a p s o n l y l a te r , o n c e it w a s in t h e s a m e " b o o k " a l o n g s i d e

p r o p h e t i c p a r a b l e s t h a t u s e d t h e i m a g e o f G o d a s h u s b a n d a n d I s r ae l a s w i f e , d i d

t h e a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e l i t e r a l o n e .

Conclusions

A l t h o u g h w e k n o w l it tl e a b o u t w h o w r o t e t h e S o n g o f S o n g s , w e c a n v e n t u r e a

f e w p o i n t s o f o r i e n t a t i o n . S e c o n d a r i l y a t t r i b u t e d t o S o l o m o n , t h e b o o k i s a c o l -

l e c t i o n o f p o e m s o f u n c e r t a i n g e n r e — p r o b a b l y l ov e p o e m s a n d s e n s u a l p o e t r y

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t h a t i t s o r ig in a l a u d i e n c e m a y h a v e c o n s id e r e d e ro t i c . Th e S o n g ' s a t t i t u d e s a n d

w o rd in g r e s e m b le o th e r a n c i e n t N e a r Ea s t e rn p o e t ry o f t h o s e g e n re s . I t w a s n o t

wr i t t en as an a l legory , a l though rabb in ic t rad i t ion has t rea ted i t tha t way .

I t s hea r ty approach to sexua l i ty does no t f i t mos t dep ic t ions o f love and sex

e lsewhere in the Bib le ; bu t g iven the na tu re o f the Bib le a s a d ive rse co l lec t ion

i t s e l f , t h i s s h o u ld n o t b e s u rp r i s i n g . Th e a m b ig u i ty o f t h e im a g e ry i n t h i s b o o k

con t r ibu tes to i t s beau ty . F ina l ly , the Song may have become par t o f the Bib le

even whi le the anc ien t I s rae l i t e s che r i shed i t a s a secu la r work tha t ce leb ra tes

h u m a n l o v e .

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2 6" W h y A r e Y ou S o K i n d . . . W h e n IA m a F o r e i g n e r ? "

Ruth vs . Esth er

Primary Reading: Ruth and E sther.

Surface Similarities

Ru t h a n d E s t h e r a r e t w o o f t h e b e s t - k n o w n b o o k s o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e . A t f i r s t

g l a n c e t h e y s e e m q u i t e s i m i l a r . B o t h a r e s h o r t s t o r i e s n a m e d f o r f e m a l e f i g -

u r e s . I n e a c h o n e , w o m e n a n d f o r e i g n e r s p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l

c o m p a r e t h e s e t w o s i m i l a r w o r k s . T h i s c o m p a r i s o n w i l l r a i s e e x p l i c i t l y a c e n t r a l

i s s u e t h a t h a s u n t i l n o w b e e n l a r g e l y i m p l i c i t : h o w t h e B i b l e f u n c t i o n s a s a col-

lection t h a t e x p r e s s e s a d i v e r s i t y o f v i e w s .

Beyond History: The Genre of Ruth and Esther

A s w e h a v e s e e n , i d e n t i f y i n g a w o r k s g e n r e c a n h e l p u s u n d e r s t a n d h o w t o r e a d

o r i n t e r p r e t t h a t b o o k . 1 B o t h R u t h a n d E s t h e r a r e h i s t o r i c a l i n t h e s e n s e o f " n a r -

r a t i v e s t h a t d e p i c t a p a s t " ( s e e " T h e B i b l e ' s L i m i t s a s a S o u r c e f o r H i s t o r y " i n

c h a p t e r 4 ) , b u t n e i t h e r is h i s t o r y in t h e s e n s e o f d e p i c t i n g a n a c t u a l p a s t . I n f a c t ,

b o t h w o r k s s i g n a l t h a t t h e y a r e not to be r ead h i s to r ica l ly .

T h e B o o k of R u t h

R u t h , a t l e a s t i n i t s f i n a l f o r m , d a t e s f r o m m u c h l a t e r t h a n " t h e d a y s o f t h e c h i e f -

t a i n s [ j u d g e s ] , " t h e p e r i o d m e n t i o n e d i n i t s o p e n i n g v e r s e . T h i s i s c e r t a i n

b e c a u s e i t i n t r o d u c e s t h e c e r e m o n y i n 4 : 7 w i t h t h e w o r d s " N o w t h i s w a s f o r -

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m e r l y d o n e i n I s r a e l i n c a s e s o f r e d e m p t i o n o r e x c h a n g e . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e

n a r r a t o r n e e d e d t o e x p l a i n a c e r e m o n y t h a t h a d l o n g s i n c e b e c o m e d e f u n c t . 2

A l t h o u g h a w o r k t h a t h a s l i t e r a r y m e r i t m a y a l s o b e h i s t o r i c a l , 3 R u t h i s m o r e

e a s i l y l a b e l e d a s l i t e r a t u r e t h a n h i s t o r y . I t i s r e m a r k a b l y w e l l f o r m e d f r o m a l i t -

e r a r y o r r h e t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ( t h o u g h s u c h f e a t u r e s d o n o t a l w a y s c o m e

t h r o u g h c l e a r l y i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n ) . I n t h i s s t o r y , a gibbor chayil ( ל י ח "lÎZtë, "a

v a l i a n t w a r r i o r o r g e n t l e m a n " ; t r a n s l a t e d a s " p r o m i n e n t r i c h m a n , " 2 : 1 ) m e e t s a n

eshet chayil ( ל חי ת ש א , " v al ia n t w o m a n " ; t r a n s l a te d a s " w o r t h y w o m a n , " 3 : 1 1 ) ,

a n d t h e y li v e h a p p i l y e v e r a f t e r. T h e s t o r y a l s o h i g h l i g h t s R u t h ' s m o v e m e n t

f r o m b e i n g u n d e r G o d ' s g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n t o b e i n g e s p o u s e d b y B o a z , b y p l a y -

i n g o n t w o s e n s e s o f t h e w o r d kanaf ( ף נ כ , " e x t r e m i t y " ) : lachasot tachat kenafav( ו י פ נ כ ״ ת ח ת ת ו ס ח ל , " u n d e r w h o s e w i n g s y o u h a v e s o u g h t re f u g e , " 2 : 1 2 ) a n d u -

farasta khenafekha ( ך פ נ כ ! י ש ר פ ו , " s p r e a d y o u r r o b e , " 3 : 9 ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , B o a z

r e s o l v e s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g N a o m i a n d R u t h b y a c t i n g a s a s u r r o g a t e f o r G o d .

S u c h v e r b a l l i n k s s u g g e s t t h a t g o o d s t o r y t e l l i n g is t h e g o a l o f t h e b o o k , r a t h e r

t h a n h i s t o r y .

T h e b o o k g i v e s a d d i t i o n a l h i n t s t h a t it i s n o t h i s t o r i c a l . It b e g i n s w i t h a n

i m a g e t h a t a n c i e n t r e a d e r s w o u l d h a v e f o u n d i r o n i c — a f a m i n e i n B e t h l e h e m

( • ח ל ת י ב ) , li t e ra l l y " h o u s e o f b r e a d . " M o r e si g n i f ic a n t l y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f

t h e n a m e R u t h , t h e p e r s o n a l n a m e s a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e b o o k d o n o t f i t p a t t e r n s

w e f i n d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B i b l e . I n s t e a d , t h e y a r e c l e a r l y s y m b o l i c : N a o m i m e a n s

" s w e e t n e s s " ; h e r s o n s w h o d i e y o u n g a r e n a m e d M a h l o n ( " I ll n es s ") a n d C h i l i o n

( " C e s s a t io n " ) ; a n d th e d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w w h o f o l lo w s N a o m i o n l y p a r t w a y t o

I s ra e l is n a m e d O r p a h — l i t e r a l l y " b a c k of t h e n e c k , " m e a n i n g " b a c k - t u r n e r . " I n

a n c i e n t I s ra e l , n o p a r e n t s w o u l d h a v e n a m e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n M a h l o n a n d C h i l i o n .

S u r e l y t h e a u t h o r e m p l o y s t h o s e n a m e s s o a s t o s i g n a l t h a t t h e b o o k s h o u l d b er e a d s y m b o l i c a l l y a n d n o t a s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d h i s t o r y .

T h e B o o k o f E s t h e r

I n a d d i t i o n t o b e i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o n g e r t h a n R u t h , E s t h e r e m p l o y s a v e r y d i f -

f e r e n t s t y l e . I t c o m b i n e s r e a l h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h f a n c y o r f a n t a s y , m u c h

l i k e m o d e r n h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n . I t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e P e r s i a n r o y a l g a r d e n s , t h e

e x t e n t o f t h e e m p i r e , a n d i t s d i v i s i o n i n t o " s a t r a p s " ( b u r e a u c r a t i c d i v i s i o n s ) a r e

a ll a c c u r a t e . E v e n s o m e o f t h e n a m e s , s u c h a s E s t h e r a n d M o r d e c a i ( B a b y l o n i a n

n a m e s r e l a t e d t o t h e g o d d e s s I s h t a r a n d t h e g o d M a r d u k ) , w e r e r e a l p e r s o n a l

n a m e s i n t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , o t h e r a s p e c t s a r e a t o d d s w i t h t h e k n o w n

h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d : a q u e e n ' s b e i n g c h o s e n t h o u g h a " M i s s P e r s i a c o n t e s t " 4 ; a k ing 's

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no t ca r ing if H a m a n k i l l s o ff a po r t i on o f h i s t ax base ; H am an ' s o f fe r ing to g ive

th e k in g t e n t h o u s a n d t a l e n t s o f s i l v e r 5 ; and the ru le tha t the dec rees o f Pe rs ian

k in g s c o u ld n o t b e c h a n g e d o n c e t h e y w e re s e a l e d . A l l o f t h i s i s f a n c i fu l . I n d e e d ,

c o n t r a ry t o t h e p i c tu r e p r e s e n t e d i n Es th e r , t h e P e r s i a n k in g s t y p i c a l l y t o l e r a t e d

m in o r i t i e s ; t h e y d id n o t p e r s e c u t e g ro u p s b e c a u s e o f e th n i c i t y o r r e l i g io n p e r s e .

L ik e Ru th , t h e Bo o k o f Es th e r e m p lo y s m a rk e r s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t i t s m a in

in te res t i s no t h i s to r ica l . L ike Ru th , th i s book fea tu res va r ious l i t e ra ry sym-

m e t r i e s . F o r e x a m p le , t h e c l a u s e " Th e t e x t o f t h e d o c u m e n t w a s t o t h e e f f e c t

tha t a l aw . . . " (3 :14) i s mi r ro red by "The tex t o f the document was to be i s sued

as a l aw . . . " (8 :13) . Some v iew the book as s t ruc tu red a round pa r ty scenes in

p a r t i c u l a r .6

H o w e v e r , u n l ik e Ru th , t h e s t o ry t e l l i n g i n Es th e r i s h u m o ro u s i n a v a r i e ty o f

p l a c e s . F o r e x a m p le , H a m a n i s e a g e r t o k n o w w h y Es th e r c a l l e d h im to h e r p a r ty ,

a n d t h e k in g a s k s Es th e r w h a t s h e w a n t s ; a f t e r m u c h b u i ld u p , r a th e r t h a n d i s -

c u s s in g a n y m a t t e r o f s u b s t a n c e , s h e u n e x p e c t e d ly a n s w e r s , " I f Y o u r M a je s ty w i l l

do me the favor , i f i t p lease Your Majes ty to g ran t my wish and accede to my

re q u e s t— le t Y o u r M a je s ty a n d H a m a n c o m e to t h e f e as t w h i c h I w i l l p r e p a re fo r

th e m ; a n d t o m o r ro w I w i l l d o Y o ur M a jes ty 's b id d in g " (5 :8 ) .

A l l o f t h e s e p i e c e s o f e v id e n c e —th e f a c tu a l e r ro r s , t h e l i t e r a ry s y m m e t r i e s ,

a n d t h e l i g h th e a r t e d s ty l e —p o in t t o t h e f a c t t h a t Es th e r i s n o t a h i s to r i c a l

accoun t . Ra the r , i t i s more l ike comedy , bu r lesque , o r fa rce . P robab ly the o r ig i -

na l soc ia l se t t ing fo r th i s book was the annua l pa r ty in ce leb ra t ion o f the a l ready

e x i s t i n g h o l id a y o f P u r im ; t h e b o o k , w h e n r e a d a lo u d , f u n c t io n e d a s a j u s t i f i c a -

t i o n f o r t h e u p s i d e - d o w n f e s t i v a l /

Women in Esther and Ruth

M y in t e n t i o n h e r e is n o t t o e x p l a in w h y R u th a n d Es th e r w e re w r i t t e n . I n s t e a d ,

c o n s id e r in g b o th w o r k s t o b e m a in ly im a g in a t i v e r a th e r t h a n f a c tu a l , I w i l l c o m -

p a re h o w th e y e a c h im a g in e tw o th e m e s : t h e ro l e o f w o m e n , a n d t h e I s r a e l i t e

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d f o r e i g n e r s .

Disce rn ing the ro le o f women accord ing to the Book o f Es the r i s no t a t a l l

s t r a ig h t fo rw a rd . P a r t l y t h i s d e r iv e s f ro m th e f a c t t h a t t h e b o o k i s c o m e d y . Wi thc o m e d y , i t i s n o rm a l ly d i f f i c u l t t o u n t a n g le w h a t t h e a u th o r r e a l l y b e l i e v e s f ro m

w h a t i s m e a n t t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k . O n o n e h a n d , E s t h e r is a m o d e l of b r a v e r y w h e n

s h e a p p ro a c h e s t h e k in g t o p l e a d fo r t h e J e w s b e c a u s e s h e b e l i e v e s t h a t m e re ly

b y d o in g s o s h e r i s k s b e in g p u t t o d e a th (4 :1 1 ) . O n th e o th e r h a n d , Es th e r d o e s

no t r i sk he r l i f e on he r own in i t i a t ive , so a rguab ly she i s an agen t 8 r a th e r t h a n a

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p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r o r h e r o . T h e b o o k ' s t r u e s t a n c e i s l i k e l y r e v e a l e d i n i t s f i n a l

v e r s e , f r o m w h i c h E s t h e r is m i s s i n g : " F o r M o r d e c a i t h e J e w r a n k e d n e x t t o K i n g

A h a s u e r u s a n d w a s h i g h l y r e g a r d e d b y t h e J e w s a n d p o p u l a r w i t h t h e m u l t i t u d e

o f h i s b r e t h r e n ; h e s o u g h t t h e g o o d o f h i s p e o p l e a n d i n t e r c e d e d f o r t h e w e l f a r e

o f a l l h i s k i n d r e d . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , E s t h e r p l a y s a c r u c i a l r o l e a t o n e j u n c t u r e —

a r o l e s h e i s a b l e t o p l a y b e c a u s e h e r b e a u t y m o v e s t h e k i n g ( i n 2 : 1 7 : " s h e w o n

h i s g r a c e a n d f a v o r " ; i n 5 :2 : " s h e w o n h i s f a v o r " ) — b u t t h e b o o k c o u l d j u s t a s

w e l l h a v e b e e n n a m e d t h e B o o k o f M o r d e c a i .

I n c o n t r a s t , R u t h d e p i c t s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t w o r l d , in w h i c h a c o m m u n i t y o f

w o m e n e x i s t s i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h a t o f m e n . It s p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e t w o w o m e n w h o

f a c e a p r o b l e m l a r g e l y d e f i n e d b y t h e s o c i e ty ' s g e n d e r r o le s : b e c a u s e w o m e n m a yn o t i n h e r i t a n c e s t r a l l a n d h o l d i n g s o u t r i g h t , t h e y m u s t f in d a n a p p r o p r i a t e m a n ,

a " r e d e e m e r , " w h o c a n gi v e t h e m a c c e s s t o t h e f ie l d b e l o n g i n g t o N a o m i ' s

d e c e a s e d h u s b a n d , E l i m e l e c h . T h e y d o n o t n e e d a m a n t o t ell t h e m h o w to d o

t h i s — N a o m i a d v i s e s t h e y o u n g e r R u t h , a n d R u t h fo l l o w s h e r m o t h e r - i n - l a w ' s

i n s t r u c t i o n s . R u t h a l s o s h o w s h e r o w n i n i t i a t i v e w h e n s h e i m p r o v i s e s w h a t t o d o

a t Boaz ' s g ranary .

T h e B o o k of R u t h al s o h i g h l i g h t s t h e l a rg e r c o m m u n i t y o f w o m e n i n w h i c h

R u t h a n d N a o m i f u n c t i o n . A f t e r t h e i r h u s b a n d s d i e , N a o m i b e g s e a c h d a u g h t e r -

i n - l a w , " T u r n b a c k , e a c h o f y o u t o h e r mothers h o u s e " (1 : 8 ; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) .

I n 4 : 1 7 , it i s n o t t h e f a t h e r b u t r a t h e r t h e w o m e n n e i g h b o r s w h o n a m e R u t h 's

c h i l d . A f e w v e r s e s e a r l i e r , t h e p e o p l e b l e s s R u t h i n t h e n a m e o f I s r a e l ' s g r e a t

M a t r i a r c h s :

M a y t h e L O R D m a k e t h e w o m a n w h o i s c o m i n g i n t o y o u r h o u s e l i ke

R a c h e l a n d L e a h , b o t h o f w h o m b u i l t u p t h e H o u s e o f I s r a e l ! P r o s p e r i n

E p h r a t h a h a n d p e r p e t u a t e y o u r n a m e i n B e t h l e h e m ! A n d m a y y o u r

h o u s e b e l i k e t h e h o u s e o f P e r e z w h o m T a m a r b o r e t o J u d a h — t h r o u g h

t h e o f f s p r i n g w h i c h t h e L O R D w i l l g i v e y o u b y t h i s y o u n g w o m a n

( 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) .

W o m e n t h u s p l a y a m u c h m o r e p r o m i n e n t a n d p o s i t i v e r o le i n R u t h t h a n i n

E s t h e r .

Foreigners in Esther and Ruth

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e B o o k o f E s t h e r t o w a r d n o n - J e w s .

T h e b o o k m e n t i o n s s o m e g o o d f o r e ig n e r s , l ik e H a r b o n a h , w h o s u g g e s t s t h a t

H a m a n b e i m p a l e d o n t h e t r e e h e w a n t e d t o u s e t o i m p a l e M o r d e c a i ( 7 : 9 ) . T h e

p r e d o m i n a n t n o n - J e w s i n t h e s to ry , h o w e v e r , a r e A h a s u e r u s a n d H a m a n . T h e

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a u t h o r d e p i c t s A h a s u e r u s as a f o o l, s p e n d i n g h i s ti m e p a r t y i n g i n s t e a d o f r u l i n g ;

h e is c l u e l e s s a n d e a si ly m a n i p u l a t e d . F o r h i s p a r t , H a m a n is a m e g a l o m a n i a c

w i t h a n i r r a t i o n a l f e a r o f J e w s w h o t h e r e f o r e w a n t s t h e m k i l l e d . A f t e r m e s s e n g e r s

a n n o u n c e H a m a n s p l a n f a r a n d w i d e , n o b o d y e i t h e r p r o t e s t s o n t h e J e w s ' b e h a l f

o r o f f e r s t o c o m e t o t h e i r d e f e n s e . I n d e e d , t h e p o p u l a c e i n c l u d e s " e n e m i e s " w h o

a p p e a r w i l l i n g t o d o t h e k i l l i n g . I n s h o r t , t h i s f a r c e g e n e r a l l y d e p i c t s n o n - J e w s i n

a n e g a t i v e f a s h i o n .

R u t h i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . I n c h o o s i n g a M o a b i t e w o m a n a s i t s p r o t a g o n i s t , t h e

a u t h o r p i c k e d s o m e o n e w h o m t h e a u d i e n c e w o u l d v i e w n e g a t i v e l y f r o m t h e

s t a r t , f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e T o r a h p o r t r a y s t h e o r i g i n o f t h e M o a b i t e p e o p l e

t h r o u g h i n c e s t . I n G e n e s i s , L o t s l e e p s w i t h h i s e l d e r d a u g h t e r , w h o n a m e s t h er e s u l t i n g c h i l d M o a b , w h i c h w a s u n d e r s t o o d i n I s r a e l t o c o m e f r o m me'av, " f r o m

d a d d y " ( 1 9 : 3 0 - 3 8 ) . S e c o n d , t h e T o r a h c o n t i n u e s t o h o l d th e M o a b i t e s a t a r m ' s

l e n g t h . W h e n D e u t e r o n o m y li st s n a t i o n s w i t h w h o m i n t e r m a r r i a g e ( b e i n g

" a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n " ) i s q u e s t i o n a b l e , it s m o s t e x t r e m e s t r i c t u r e s

a p p l y t o t h e M o a b i t e s :

( 2 3 : 4 ) N o . . . M o a b i t e s h a ll b e a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n o f t h e

LORD; n o n e o f t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s , e v e n i n t h e t e n t h g e n e r a t i o n , s h a l l e v e rb e a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n o f t h e LORD. . . . ( 7 ) Y o u s h a l l n e v e r

c o n c e r n y o u r s e l f w i t h t h e i r w e l f a r e o r b e n e f i t a s l o n g a s y o u l i v e .

C o n t r a r y t o c o m m o n o p i n i o n ( b a s e d o n a n c i e n t r a b b i n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) , I

b e l i e v e t h a t R u t h s t a y s a f o r e i g n e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k . S h e d o e s n o t " c o n v e r t

t o J u d a i s m . " T h e r e w a s n o s u c h t h i n g a s c o n v e r s i o n i n t h e b i b l i c a l p e r i o d . 9 T h e

f a m o u s s t a t e m e n t o f R u t h i n 1 : 1 6 - 1 7 i s r a t h e r a d e c l a r a t i o n o f c l o s e n e s s t o

N a o m i :

D o n o t u r g e m e t o l e a v e y o u , t o t u r n b a c k a n d n o t f o l l o w y o u . F o r

w h e r e v e r y o u g o , I w i l l g o ; w h e r e v e r y o u l o d g e , I w i l l l o d g e ; y o u r p e o -

p i e s h a l l b e m y p e o p l e , a n d y o u r G o d m y G o d . W h e r e y o u d i e , 1 w i l l

d i e , a n d t h e r e I w i l l b e b u r i e d . T h u s a n d m o r e m a y t h e L O R D d o t o m e

if a n y t h i n g b u t d e a t h p a r t s m e f r o m y o u .

R u t h s p r o n o u n c e m e n t d o e s n o t m a k e h e r i n t o a n I s r a e l i t e . I n d e e d , after t h i s d e c -

l a r a t i o n t h e n a r r a t o r t w i c e u s e s t h e p h r a s e " R u t h t h e M o a b i t e " ( 2 : 2 , 2 1 ) , a s d o e sB o a z ( 4 : 5 , 1 0 ) . E v e n R u t h c a l l s h e r s e l f nochnyyah ( " a f o r e i g n e r " ; 2 : 1 0 ) . T h e a t t i -

t u d e o f t h e t e x t s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n : " O n c e a M o a b i t e , a l w a y s a M o a b i t e . "

T h e a u t h o r o f R u t h , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t h o l d t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s s t a t u s a s a

M o a b i t e a g a i n s t h e r . E v e n a s a f o r e i g n w o m a n , R u t h c a n e n t e r t h e c o m m u n i t y .

M o r e t h a n t h a t , s h e b e c o m e s t h e p r o g e n i t o r o f K i n g D a v i d . T h u s t h e b o o k i l l u s -

t r a t e s t h a t k i n d n e s s i s f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n e t h n i c i ty . It o b j e c t s t o t h e a n t i p a -

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t h y t o w a rd fo r e ig n e r s t h a t m a y b e p r e s e n t i n Es th e r , a n a t t i t u d e t h a t i s f o u n d in

g re a t e r e x t r e m e in Ez ra . A c c o rd in g t o Ez ra 9 :2 , i n t e rm a r r i a g e i s f o rb id d e n

b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s " th e h o ly s e e d [ t o ] b e c o m e in t e rm in g le d w i th t h e p e o p le s o f

th e l a n d . " Th e Bo o k o f Ru th p r e s e n t s a n o p p o s in g p e r s p e c t i v e .

In the Same Book, in the Same Room

Let's im ag ine tha t we co u l d p lace the au th or s o f Es the r an d Ru th in the s am e

ro o m to g e th e r . W h a t m i g h t t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n s o u n d li k e? In t h e d i a lo g u e t h a t

fo l l o w s , I p l a y u p t h e a p p a re n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e . " R" r e p r e s e n t s t h eau thor o f Ru th , and "E" tha t o f Es the r .

E : H o w c a n y o u s t a n d b e in g m a r r i e d t o y o u r M o a b i t e w i f e ? D o n ' t y o u

k n o w th a t M o a b i t e s a r e t h e w o r s t—th e y s in a n d c a u s e o th e r s t o s i n !

And i f tha t isn ' t enough, they are a l l the resul t of inces t! You are going

to d i l u t e o u r " h o ly s e e d " b y h a v in g c h i ld r e n w i th h e r !

R: M o a b i t e s , s h m o a b i t e s ! P e o p le a r e w h a t t h e y b e c o m e , n o t h o w th e y a r e

b o r n . A M o a b i t e w o m a n w h o p e r f o r m s a c t s o f k i n d n e s s i s b e t t e r t h a n aJ e w i s h m a n w h o d o e s n ' t . D o n ' t l i s t e n t o t h a t f a n a t i c " h o ly s e e d "

n o t io n — i t i s j u s t p l a in w ro n g . A n d , w h i l e w e a r e a t i t, y o u r t o n e m a k e s

y o u s o u n d l i k e y o u d o n ' t l i k e w o m e n to o m u c h e i t h e r .

E : T h a t 's a n o v e r s t a t e m e n t . S o m e w o m e n a r e w o n d e r f u l t o l o o k a t , a n d

w h e n th e y l i s t e n t o t h e i r h u s b a n d s a n d o th e r m a le r e l a t i v e s , g o o d th in g s

h a p p e n . B u t b e w a r e t h e w o m a n w h o s h o w s i n d e p e n d e n t i n i t i a t i v e . S h e

is " the h ighway to Sheo l [he l l ] " (P rov . 7 :27) —stay away f rom her !

R: Th a t v i e w s o u n d s s h o r t s ig h t e d : " Be a u ty i s i l l u s o ry " (P ro v . 3 1 :3 0 ) . Bu t

m o r e i m p o r t a n t , it's u n d u l y h a r s h a n d j u d g m e n t a l . 1 p r e f e r t o j u d g e

w o m e n a s w e j u d g e f o r e i g n e r s — b y w h a t t h e y d o , n o t b y w h a t t h e y a r e.

D o n ' t y o u k n o w th a t a M o a b i t e w o m a n w a s t h e a n c e s to r o f K in g D a v id ?

E: You do n ' t exp ec t m e to be l ieve tha t m yt h , d o you?

Y o u m ig h t e x p e c t a n y p e r s o n w h o h e a rd s u c h a d e b a t e t o c h o o s e o n e s id e

over the o the r . What i s mos t remarkab le abou t the Bib le i s tha t , he re and in

m a n y a r e a s , i t t a k e s n o s id e s . I n s t e a d , d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d p o s i t i o n s o n s u c h

fu n d a m e n ta l i s s u e s a s " H o w d o w e r e l a t e t o o u t s id e r s ? " o r " H o w d o w e v i e w g e n -

der?" a re inc luded in one co l lec t ion o f books . Th is l eads us to the overa l l ques -

t ion o f the nex t chap te r : How d id the Bib le come to be fo rmed ou t o f so many

te x t s f i l l e d w i th c o n f l i c t i n g v i e w p o in t s ?

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27

The Creat ion of the Bible

An Abundance of Ignorance

We k n o w l i t t l e a b o u t t h e B i b l e ' s o r i g i n — h o w s o m a n y b o o k s c o m p r i s i n g s o

m a n y d i v e r s e i d e a s b e c a m e " t h e B i b l e . " 1 C l e a r l y t h e p r o c e s s h a p p e n e d i n

s t a g e s, o v e r a l o n g t i m e . N o b o d y w o k e u p o n e m o r n i n g , d e c i d e d t o c r e a t e t h e

B i b l e , a n d a r r a n g e d t h e n e x t d a y f o r a ll J e w s t o a d o p t it a s s u c h .

T h e p r o c e s s w a s a t l e a s t a s m u c h " d o w n - u p " a s " u p - d o w n . " T h a t i s , t h e

w i d e r p o p u l a t i o n h e l p e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e Bi bl e i n c l u d e d ; it w a s n o t p r i -

m a r i l y a n o ff i c ia l ( r a b b i n i c ) d e c i s i o n . 2 I n d e e d , t h e B i b l e l i k e l y c a m e i n t o b e i n g

b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e M i s h n a h , t h e f i r s t g r e a t r a b b i n i c w o r k ( c a . 2 0 0

C . E . ) . T h i s i s w h y f e w r a b b i n i c o p i n i o n s d e s c r i b e t h e B i bl e's d e v e l o p m e n t . I n a n y

c a s e , t h e r a b b i s w e r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s t o r y f o r i t s o w n s a k e , s o w e n e e d t o

i n t e r p r e t a ll r a b b i n i c e v i d e n c e w i t h ca r e . M e a n w h i l e , s o m e p r e r a b b i n i c e v i d e n c e

c o m e s f r o m J o s e p h u s a n d o t h e r J e w i s h H e l l e n i s t i c a u t h o r s . A ls o t h e D e a d S eaS c r o l l s s h e d l i g h t o n t h e p r o c e s s o f " h o w t h e B i b l e b e c a m e t h e B i b l e , " b u t t h a t

e v i d e n c e is i n d i r e c t a n d o f t e n a m b i g u o u s . I n s h o r t , t o o m u c h of t h e p i c t u r e i s

o b s c u r e t o e n a b l e m e t o o f f e r a d e f i n i t e t i m e l i n e o f " p r o j e c t m i l e s t o n e s . "

The Canon

U n t i l r e c e n t l y , s c h o l a r s a d d r e s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d a b o v e i n t e r m s o f t h e

" c a n o n " o f t h e B i b l e . S o m e o f u s , h o w e v e r , h a v e r e c e n t l y e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h i s

t e r m ( r e l a t e d t o t h e G r e e k w o r k kanon, a " r e e d " o r a " m e a s u r i n g s t i c k " ) m a y b e

a n a c h r o n i s t i c i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e B i b l e ; i t m o r e p r o p e r l y r e f e r s t o " a f i x e d s t a n -

d a r d ( o r c o l l e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g s ) t h a t d e f i n e s t h e f a i t h a n d i d e n t i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r

r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y . " 3 T h e e a rl y C h u r c h f i rs t u s e d t h i s t e r m w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o

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l i s t s o f b o o k s t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n B i b l e . I t i s n o t n a t i v e t o e a r l y J e w i s h

l i t e r a tu r e c o n c e r n i n g w h a t i s p a r t o f — o r e x c l u d e d f r o m — t h e B i bl e. A p p l i e d t o

t h e J e w i s h B i b le , " c a n o n " h a s b e e n u s e d i n m a n y w a y s , m a k i n g it a n a m b i g u o u s

a n d c o n f u s i n g t e r m . 4

F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , m a n y s c h o l a r s p r e f e r t o s p e a k o f " t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

s c r i p t u r e , " r a t h e r t h a n " t h e c a n o n i z a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e . " 5 Y et t h a t is n o t m u c h o f

a n i m p r o v e m e n t . F o r m e at l e a st , " s c r i p t u r e " is a f o r e i g n t e r m . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

b e c a u s e " s c r i p t u r e " m e a n s m e r e l y " t h a t w h i c h i s w r i t t e n , " i t i s h i s t o r i c a l l y i m p r e -

e i se . T h e r e f o r e , I p r e f e r t o f r a m e o u r q u e s t i o n a s f o l l o w s : W h e n a n d h o w d i d a

c e n t r a l s e t o f b o o k s w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r n a m e ( e . g . , mikra ! א ר ק מ , " t h a t w h i c h i s

r e a d o r r e c i t e d " ] o r kitvei ha-kodesh [ ש ד ק ה ,

ב ת כ , " h o l y w r i t i n g s " ]) c o m e i n t ob e i n g w i t h i n J u d a i s m ? 6

T h e p r o c e s s e v o l v e d g r a d u a l l y , p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e b o o k s t h a t n o w c o m p r i s e

t h e B i bl e w e r e w r i t t e n o v e r a p e r i o d o f m o r e t h a n a t h o u s a n d y e a r s ( s ee " O t h e r

J e w i s h N a m e s : A H i s t o r ic a l R e v ie w " i n c h a p t e r 2 ). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t h r e e - p a r t

( " t r i p a r t i t e " ) s t r u c t u r e o f t h e B i b le m o s t l i k e ly r e f l e c t s h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t : a t

f i rs t , t h e T o r a h a l o n e w a s c e n t r a l . T h u s t h e p o s t e x i l i c b o o k s o f E z r a - N e h e m i a h

a n d C h r o n i c l e s e m p l o y p h r a s e s s u c h a s " t h e T o r a h o f t h e LO RD ," " t h e T o r a h o f

M o s e s , " " M y [ G o d ' s] T o r a h , " a n d s i m p l y " t h e T o r a h , " r e f e r r i n g t o a b o o k m u c h

l i k e w h a t w e n o w c a l l t h e T o r a h . 7 B y t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , J e w s t r e a t e d o t h e r

b o o k s a s i m p o r t a n t a n d w o r t h y of s t u d y a s w e l l ; f o r e x a m p l e , t h e B o o k o f D a n i e l

s p e c i f i c a l l y r e i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e v e n t y - y e a r o r a c l e o f J e r e m i a h ( se e " R e i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n a n d C r e a t i v e P h i l o l o g y " i n c h a p t e r 2 1 ) . D a n i e l 9 : 2 s p e a k s o f " c 0 n s u 1 t [ i n g ]

t h e sefarim ( ם י ר פ ס , ' b o o k s ' ) , " b u t t h e w o r dsefarim— e ven u s e d w i t h a d e f i n i t e

a r t i c l e a s " t h e " b o o k s — i s t o o g e n e r i c t o b e a t e c h n i c a l t e r m ( t h a t i s , r e f l e c t i n g

t e x t s o f c o m m u n a l i m p o r t a n c e — w h a t J e w s w o u l d l a te r c a ll t h e B i bl e) .T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d a t u m f o r a g r o u p of s a c r e d b o o k s b e y o n d t h e T o r a h

c o m e s f r o m J o s e p h u s — t h e f i r st - ce n t u ry - c .E . J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n — w h o n o t e s :

" O u r b o o k s , t h o s e of w h i c h a r e j u s t a c c r e d i t e d a r e b u t t w o a n d t w e n t y , a n d c o n -

t a i n t h e r e c o r d f o r a ll t i m e . " 8 H e is e m p l o y i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f a s e t n u m b e r o f

a u t h o r i t a t i v e b o o k s , w h i c h h e c a l l s t h e s e " h o l y b o o k s . " 9 J o s e p h u s n o w h e r e e n u -

m e r a t e s t h e m . H o w e v e r , c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o l a r s w i d e l y a g r e e t h a t h e m e a n s t h e

t w e n t y - f o u r b o o k s t h a t w e n o w c a l l t h e B i b l e , w i t h R u t h b e i n g c o u n t e d a s p a r t

o f J u d g e s , a n d L a m e n t a t i o n s a s p a r t o f J e r e m i a h . 1 0 O n e r e a s o n t o t h i n k s o i s t h a t

t h e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s IV E z r a (a n o n b i b l i c a l w o r k ) r e f e r s t o " t w e n t y -

f o u r " b o o k s ( 1 4 : 4 4 f f . ) . It s e e m s l i k e ly t h a t t h e s e t w o s o u r c e s h a d i n m i n d t h e

s a m e c o l l e c t i o n o f c e n t r a l b o o k s .

U n t i l s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a g o , m a n y s c h o l a r s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r a b b i s c o n v e n e d

a c o u n c i l at J a m n i a ( m o d e r n J a b n e h o r Y a v n e h ), d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y c a n o n i z e d

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t h e B ib l e .1 1

A t t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e g r ea t J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n

H e i n r i c h G r a e t z h a d p o p u l a r i z e d t h i s v i ew , b u t it i s n o w r e c o g n i z e d t o b e w r o n g .

R a b b in i c l i t e r a tu r e a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e s a g e s o f J a m n ia ( l a te fi r st c e n t u r y C .E .)

d o e s d i s c u s s w h e t h e r c e r t a i n b i b l i c a l b o o k s ( s u c h a s S o n g o f S o n g s o r E s t h e r )

"d e f i l e t h e h a n d s . " ( T h a t i s t h e r a b b i s ' c l a s s ic t e c h n i c a l t e r m f o r a w o r k t h a t i s

b i b l i c a l .1 2

) H o w e v e r , a s m o s t h i s t o r i a n s n o w a c k n o w l e d g e , r a b b i n i c t e x t s f r o m a

l a t e r p e r i o d a r e n o t r e l i a b l e f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e

l i t e r a r y f o r m of t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r t e x t s i s s u s p e c t : t h e y d o n o t h a v e t h e g iv e - a n d -

t a k e o f " r ea l " r a b b i n i c d e b a t e s . M o s t li ke ly , s o m e o n e c o m p o s e d t h e s e " d e b a t e "

t e x t s t o j u s t i f y w h y t h e " p r o b l e m a t i c " ( u n s e t t l i n g ) b o o k s l i k e E s t h e r a n d

Ecc le s ia s te s we re a l r eady pa r t o f the Bib le .H o w e v e r , e v e n t h o u g h r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e o f t e n r e f e r s t o " t w e n t y - f o u r " b i b -

l ic al b o o k s ( t h e s a m e n u m b e r w e h a v e ) ,1 3

t h e e n t i r e g r o u p of s a g e s m a y n o t h a v e

s h a r e d t h e s a m e B i b l e .1 4

C o n s i d e r h o w t h e y c i t e d B e n - S i r a c h (a n o n b i b l i c a l

s e c o n d - c e n t u r y - B . C . E . J e w i s h w o r k c o m p o s e d i n t h e l a n d of I s ra e l; s e e " R e a d i n g

P r o v e r b s " i n c h a p t e r 2 3 ) . R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e s o m e t i m e s q u o t e s B e n - S i r a c h u s i n g

t h e s a m e c i t a t i o n f o r m u l a s a s f o r b o o k s t h a t w e ca ll b i b l i c a l .1 5

A s o n e s c h o l a r h a s

o b s e r v e d , it " w a s s o m e t i m e s e x p o u n d e d m u c h li k e a n y o t h e r b i b l ic a l b o o k , "1 6

w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t f o r s o m e r a b b i s , B e n - S i r a c h w a s as a u t h o r i t a t i v e a s i s t h e

B i b l e — a n d m o s t l i k e l y f o r t h e m it w a s B ib le ! T h u s f o r t h e r a b b i n i c p e r i o d , i t

migh t be be s t to speak o f a " l arge l y c lo s e d " s e t o f t e x t s t h a t c o m p r i s e d t h e B ib l e —

o r s e v e r al c o m p e t i n g c o n c e p t i o n s of i t, w i t h s o m e s a g e s i n c l u d i n g B e n - S i r a c h ,

a n d o t h e r s n o t .

Q u i t e p o s s ib ly a " l a r g e ly c lo s e d " s e t o f t e x t s t h a t c o m p r i s e d t h e B ib l e , m o s t -

ly i d e n t i c a l t o o u r c u r r e n t B ib l e, a l s o e x i s t e d a m o n g a J e w i s h s e c t t h a t l i v e d i n

t h e J u d e a n D e s e r t , w h o s e s u r v i v i n g l ib r a r y is w h a t w e n o w c al l t h e D e a d S eaS c r o l l s .

1 7T h i s c o m m u n i t y m a y n o t h a v e h a d a n o t i o n o f c a n o n ; a t l e a st , t h e y h a d

n o s p e c i a l t e r m f o r s u c h a t h i n g . H o w e v e r , in t h e i r i n t e r p r e t i v e l i t e r a tu r e t h e y d i d

t e n d to c i te p a r t i c u l a r b o o k s . F u r t h e r m o r e , c e r t a i n b o o k s a r e e x t a n t i n m a n y

c o p i e s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o t h e c o m m u n i t y .

Of the books tha t a re pa r t o f the c la s s ica l r abb is ' B ib le , on ly the Book of

E s t h e r i s m i s s i n g a m o n g t h e D e a d S ea S c r o l l s t h a t w e h a v e t o d a y ; t h u s , t h e c o m -

m u n i t y p r o b a b l y d i d n o t c o n s i d e r t h a t b o o k a u t h o r i t a t i v e .1 8

I n c o n t r a s t , o t h e r

D e a d S e a S c r o l l t e x t s ci t e t h e T e m p le S c r o l l a n d t h e B o o k o f J u b i l e e s a s a u th o r i -

t at iv e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o m m u n i t y k e p t a l a rg e n u m b e r of m a n u s c r i p t s of b o t h

w o r k s .1 g

T h u s , o u r t e r m " c a n o n i c a l " B i bl e s e e m s a n a c h r o n i s t i c f o r t h i s g r o u p i n

th e p r e r a b b in i c p e r i o d . N e v e r th e l e s s , i t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t it s s e t o f a u th o r i t a t i v e

b o o k s la rg el y, b u t n o t c o m p l e t e l y , o v e r l a p p e d w h a t w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y b e c o m e

b ib l i c a l f o r t h e r a b b i s .

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The Order and the Ordering of Biblical Books

F o r th e m a n y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e J e w i s h s c r i b e s p u b l i s h e d b o o k s i n c o d e x f o r m ,th e y p r e s e r v e d b o o k s i n t h e f o r m o f s e p a r a t e s c r o l l s . 2 0 In ce r ta in cases , the

s c r ib e s p u t s e v e r al b o o k s in a s i n g l e s c r o l l— a n d in a p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r . On e s u c h

b o o k w a s t h e To r a h , wh ic h n e e d e d to b e o r d e r e d b e c a u s e J e w s r e a d it r i t u a l ly i n

o r d e r a s p a r t o f t h e l e c ti o n a r y . S imi la r ly , t h e y g r o u p e d J o s h u a , J u d g e s , S a m u e l ,

a n d K in g s i n s e q u e n c e , s i n c e t h e y t e l l a mo r e o r l e s s c o n t in u o u s s to r y i n c h r o n o -

log ica l o rde r . Ho w eve r , fo r the res t of the Bib le , i t s bo o ks fa l l in to no pa r t icu la r

o r d e r .

Ce r t a in p e o p le a n d g r o u p s ( e s p e c i a l l y p r o f e s s io n a l s c r ib e s ! ) l o v e o r d e r .

M e s o p o ta m ia n s c r ib e s o f t e n c o p ie d s e r i e s o f c u n e i f o r m t a b l e t s ( s u c h a s l e x ic a l

l i s t s ) i n a r b i t r a r y b u t s t a n d a r d o r d e r s . Th e r e s u l t i n g p r e d i c t a b i l i t y ma d e i t e a s i e r

f o r r e a d e r s t o f in d w h a t t h e y we r e l o o k in g f o r , n o m a t t e r w h i c h c o p y th e y c o n -

su i ted . S imi la r ly , pe rhaps anc ien t I s rae l i t e l ib ra r ians may have kep t b ib l ica l

sc ro l l s in o rde red cubby ho les , so tha t they cou ld loca te the r igh t t ex t eas i ly . Th is

ma y b e t h e o r ig in a l f u n c t io n o f o r d e r in g t h e b o o k s o f t h e B ib l e . 2 1

Th e B ib l e s h o ws e v id e n c e o f o r d e r in g a t b o th t h e ma c r o a n d th e mic r o l e v e l .O n the mic ro lev e l , i t s t ex t i s d iv ide d in t o boo ks— typ i ca l l y , wh a t can f it on a

s c r o ll . ( Th u s , t h e twe lv e " M in o r " P r o p h e t s c o m p r i s e a s i n g l e b o o k o r s c r o ll , e v e n

t h o u g h it i s m a d e u p o f m a n y b o o k s . ) 2 2

On th e ma c r o l e v e l , t h i s l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n c o mp r i s e s s ma l l e r c o l l e c t i o n s .

Ex a c t ly h o w a n d w h e n th i s wa s d o n e i s t h e s u b j e c t o f i n t e n s e c u r r e n t d e b a t e :

How ea r ly i s the th ree -pa r t d iv i s ion o f the Bib le in to Torah , Nev i ' im, and

Ke th u v im ? W h e n a n d w h y d id t h i s t r i p a r t i t e d iv i s io n d e v e lo p ? R a b b in i c

s o u r c e s — t h o u g h n o t a n y of t h e e a rl ie s t s u c h s o u r c e s — d o a t t es t t o a t h r e e - p a r t

(wha t scho la rs ca l l a " t r ipa r t i t e " ) Bib le . 2 3 S c h o la r s h a v e f o u n d a l l u s io n s t o t h i s

s t r u c tu r e i n t h e Ne w Te s t a m e n t a n d a m o n g th e De a d S ea S c r o ll s . Ho w e v e r , t h e s e

re fe rences do no t dec is ive ly p rove tha t the Bib le was o rgan ized in to th ree pa r t s

as ear ly as the f i rs t century c . E .2 4 I n d e e d , J e w s cl e a r ly e m p l o y e d a v a r i e ty o f

o r d e r s a n d o r d e r i n g s c h e m e s i n t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , 2 5 a n d th e t r i p a r t i t e

o r d e r in g wa s l i k e ly o n e o f t h e m.

Th e t r i p a r t i t e o r d e r in g wa s l i k e ly o n e o f t h e e a r ly o r d e r in g s c h e me s , f o r i t s

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a r e n o t o b v io u s o n e s . As n o t e d e a r li e r, Da n ie l p r o p e r ly b e l o n g s

w i t h t h e l a t t e r p r o p h e t s ; m e a n w h i l e , E z r a - N e h e m i a h , C h r o n i c l e s , a n d p e r h a p s

s o m e o t h e r b o o k s b e l o n g w i t h t h e f o r m e r p r o p h e t s ( se e " N a m e a n d S t r u c t u r e "

in c h a p te r 2 ) . Th u s , t h e i r p r e s e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s e e ms to r e f l e c t a n e v o lu t i o n : b y

th e t ime th o s e l a t e r b o o k s c a me a lo n g , t h e s e t o f b o o k s k n o wn a s P r o p h e t s h a d

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a l r e a d y b e e n d e t e r min e d , s o t h e y c o u ld n o t b e i n c lu d e d in t h a t s e c t i o n . Th a t i s ,

ove r t im e the Torah be ca m e au t ho r i ta t ive f i r s t , th en Ne v i ' im , an d f ina l ly

K e t h u v i m . 2 6

Th i s h y p o t h e s i s f o r t h e e v o lu t i o n a r y d e v e lo p m e n t of t h e t r i p a r t i t e c a n o n

w o u ld a l s o e x p la in t h e s t a b i l i t y — a n d l a c k o f s t a b i l i t y —o f o r d e r w i th i n e a c h s e c -

t i o n . Th e To r a h — a u th o r i t a t i v e f i r s t— is f u l l y s t a b l e : a ll m a n u s c r ip t s h a v e t h e

o r d e r a s Ge n e s i s , Ex o d u s , Le v i t i c u s , N u m b e r s , De u te r o n o m y . ( Of c o u r s e , g iv e n

the con te n t s o f the se boo ks , the i r o r de r i s no t rea l ly f lex ib le . ) W i th in Ne v i ' im ,

th e s a m e is t r u e f o r t h e F o r m e r P r o p h e t s . C o n c e r n in g t h e o r d e r of t h e La t t e r

P r o p h e t s , t h e r e i s m o r e f l e x ib il i ty ; m o s t m a n u s c r ip t s d o n o t f o l l o w th e T a lm u d ic

o r d e r . W i t h i n K e t h u v i m , m a n u s c r i p t s s h o w a t r e m e n d o u s v a r ia t i o n o f t h e o r d e ro f i t s b o o k s . 2 7 T h i s a c c o r d s w i t h i ts p r e s u m e d s t a t u s a s t h e s e c t i o n b e c o m i n g

a u th o r i t a t i v e l a t e s t . Qu i t e s u r p r i s in g ly , t h e a n c i e n t s o u r c e s d o n o t s h o w e v e n a

b r o a d c o n s e n s u s o n w h a t th e l a s t — c u l m i n a t i n g — b o o k o f t h e B ib le s h o u l d b e !

The Stabilization of the Biblical Text

A b o o k m a y b e a u th o r i t a t i v e e v e n th o u g h it d o e s n o t h a v e a f i x e d t e x t . Th e

s p e l l i n g o f i ts w o r d s , c e rt a i n w h o l e w o r d s t h e m s e l v e s — e v e n w h o l e v e r s e s —

s u c h th in g s c o u ld a n d d id v a r y f r o m o n e wr i t t e n c o p y to a n o th e r . Th u s , I c o n -

s id e r the i s sues o f ca no n i za t io n an d tex tu a l s tab i l i z a t ion separa te ly . In de ed , it i s

h igh ly l ike ly tha t the b ib l ica l t ex t became s tab le on ly in the ea r ly rabb in ic pe r i -

od . By th en , Je w s a l ready h ad a re la t ive ly c lea r idea as to w hi ch tex ts were " in"

a n d w h i c h we r e " o u t , " a n d t h e y h a d d e v i s e d c e r t a in m e t h o d s of m id r a s h i c i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n ( n a me ly , me th o d s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t r e a d t h e t e x t c a r e f u l l y , a n de v e n b a s e t h e i r d e d u c t i o n s o n fi n e s p e l l i n g v a r i a n t s ) . F u n c t io n a l ly s p e a k in g , t h e

l a t t er d e v e lo p m e n t a l l o w e d f o r f l u id m e a n i n g e v e n a s t h e te x t b e c a m e f ix e d .

As we h a v e s e e n , t h e De a d S ea S c r o l ls c o m m u n i ty c o n s id e r e d a u th o r i t a t i v e

a Bible of sor ts , ye t they d id not have a s ingle s table text for i ts books. 2 8 T h a t

a n c i e n t d e s e rt c o m m u n i t y st il l p r o c e e d e d t o e x p o u n d t h e i r t e x t s — s o m e t i m e s i n

vers ions tha t a re qu i te d i f fe ren t f rom those found in (wha t l a te r c rys ta l l i zed as )

th e M a s o r e t i c t e x t . 2 9 In fac t , in at l eas t on e case , the y seem to be in te rp re t in g tw o

d i f f e r e n t v e r s io n s of t h e s a me v e r s e . I n o th e r wo r d s , j u s t b e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e d

a ce r ta in work to be ho ly and insp i red d id no t imply tha t i t had to ex is t in a s in -

g l e v e r s io n . 3 0 I n t h e wo r d s o f t h e c o n te mp o r a r y s c h o la r M o s h e Gr e e n b e r g , " P i e ty

i s n o t a lwa y s a c c o m p a n ie d b y a c r i ti c a l s e n s e . " 3 1

Based on the textual witnesses avai lable to us , we can say that the Bible ' s

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(co ns on an ta l ) t ex t l a rge ly s tab i l i zed by the se co nd c en tu ry C.E. W e do no t k n o w

e x a c tl y h o w t h i s h a p p e n e d ; p e r h a p s s o m e o n e m a d e a m a s t e r e d i t i o n o r r e c e n -

s i o n f r o m w h i c h o t h e r s c r ib e s c o p i e d . 3 2 P e r h a p s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S e c o n d

Te m ple in 70 c .E . an d the fa i lu re o f the revo l t o f 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 ( the Bar Ko kh ba

Re b e l l i o n ) c r e a t e d a c r i si s t h a t s e r v e d a s a n im p e tu s f o r c r e a t i n g a n a u th o r i t a t i v e

t e x t . Th e d e v e lo p m e n t of a m id r a s h i c a p p r o a c h ( i n t h e e a r ly s e c o n d c e n tu r y

C . E . )3 3 t h a t t r e a t e d t h e e x ac t s p e l l i n g o f e a c h wo r d a s im p o r t a n t m a y h a v e b e e n

in f luen t ia l a s we l l in s tab i l i z ing the tex t .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e w i d e r r a n g e of a n c i e n t v e r s i o n s ( a n d t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s

m e a n w h i l e f o r s c r ib a l e r r o r s in t r a n s m is s io n ) , me d ie v a l b ib li c a l t e x t s s h o w

r e m a r k a b l y f e w v a r i a n t s . Ho we v e r , e v e n t h a t e r a k n e w o c c a s io n a l , s i g n i f i c a n tt e x tu a l v a r i a n t s , i n c lu d in g r e a d in g s i n t h e Ba b y lo n i a n T a lm u d th a t d i f f e r f r o m

mo s t o f o u r b ib l i c a l ma n u s c r ip t s .3 4

Th e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n s o n a n ta l t e x t c o n -

t in ue d u n t i l we l l a f te r the adv en t o f p r in t in g in the la te 140 0s . Even so , to th i s

d ay , a f e w v a r i a n t s p e l l in g s r e m a i n . ( O f c o u r s e , p r i n t i n g c o u l d — a n d d i d ! — i n t r o -

d u c e n e w e r r o r s i n to t h e t e x t . ) 3 5

How the Bible Became the Bible

Today , were we to open two tex ts o f the Hebrew Bib le , they would con ta in the

s a m e b o o k s , g r o u p e d in to t h r e e ma jo r p a r t s , a p p e a r i n g m o s t ly (if n o t e n t i r e ly )

in t h e s a me o r d e r , w i t h a we l l o v e r 9 9 % a g r e e m e n t o n t h e c o n s o n a n t s a n d v o c a l -

iza t ion ( vow els an d can t i l l a t ion ) . 1 h op e tha t i t i s n o w c lea r tha t th i s c on s i s t en -

cy w as the resu l t of a lon g an d co m pl i ca ted p ro ces s tha t too k p lace la rge ly

b e h in d t h e s c e n e s , o b s c u r e d f r o m o u r v i e w . A t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e p r o c e s s c a methe idea of a "Bible" i tse lf . Most l ike ly the Torah (which i tse lf developed over

t ime) became au thor i ta t ive f i r s t . La te r , a l a rge r Bib le coa lesced a round the Torah ,

t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s a t d i f f e r e n t t ime s v i e we d th e c o n te n t s o f t h i s B ib l e d i f -

fe ren tly , o r de re d i t s bo ok s d i f fe ren t ly , an d g r ou pe d it va r io us ly in to m aj o r d iv i -

s ions . In the la te f i r s t o r ea r ly second cen tu ry , sc r ibes seemed to s top copy ing a l l

b u t o n e p a r t i c u l a r c o n s o n a n ta l t e x t o f t h i s i n c ip i e n t B ib l e .

M ore tha n ha l f a ce n t u r y la te r , gu ar d i an s of the b ib l ica l t ex t dev ised va r iou s

s y s t e m s of m a r k i n g t h e p r o p e r v o c a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n s o n a n ta l t e x t . By th e l a t e

f ir st m i l l e n n iu m , t h e v o c a l i z a t i o n s y s t e m a s s o c i a t e d w i th Aa r o n Be n - As h e r a n d

wi th t h e c i t y o f T ib e r iu s i n t h e Ga l i l e e " wo n " o v e r c o mp e t in g s y s t e ms , g iv in g u s

the Bible as we now have i t . 3 6 Th i s me a n s t h a t i n i ts c u r r e n t f o r m ( w i th v o we l s ) ,

the Bible is only a l i t t le more than 1 ,000 years o ld!

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Af te rword

Reading the Bib le as a Committed Jew

h u s fa r I h a v e wr i t t e n t h i s b o o k in m y " s c h o la r ly " m o d e , e m p h a s i z i n g w h a t

th e B ib le m e a n t i n i ts t ime a n d p l a c e . I h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e imp o r t a n c e of

th e h i s to r i c a l- c r i t ic a l me th o d , w h ic h e n c o u r a g e s me to p r e s e n t f a c t s a b o u t a n t i q -

u i t y a s 1 u n d e r s t a n d th e m . In s o d o in g , I h a v e a t t e m p te d t o m a s k m y p e r s o n a l

b e l i e fs . Th e s e b e l i e f s s h o u ld n o t ma t t e r — o n e s o w n re l i g io n ( o r l a c k t h e r e o f )

s h o u ld n o t d e c i s iv e ly imp a c t h o w o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e He b r e w Bib l e i n i t s o r ig -

M a n y wh o h a v e j u s t c o m p le t e d t h i s b o o k w o u ld g u e s s t h a t I, a s i t s a u t h o r ,

lack re l ig ious con v ic t io ns a l tog e the r . A f te r a l l, i t i s easy to read t he p re v io us

p a g e s as a n a c u t e c a s e o f " B ib le b a s h in g . " I h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e c o m p o s i t e

na tu re o f the Bib le , t r ea t ing it a s a h u m a n , ra th e r tha n a d iv in e , w or k . I hav e c on -

tex tua l ized i t in the anc ien t Near Eas t , r a the r than t rea t ing i t a s a t ime less book .

I h a v e m a d e th e f o l l o w in g c l a ims : t h e b e g in n in g o f Ge n e s i s is a " my th " ; t h e

Ex o d u s d id n o t h a p p e n ; a n d J o s h u a d id n o t f ig h t t h e b a t t l e o f J e r i c h o a n d m a k e

th e wa l l s c o m e tu m b l i n g d o w n . F u r th e r , I h a v e s t a t e d t h a t m u c h o f t h e ma te r i -

a l in the Bib les h i s to r ica l t ex ts i s no t h i s to r ica l ; tha t no t ev e ry th i ng f ou nd in the

w o r k k n o w n a s A m o s ( o r I s a i a h , o r J e r e m ia h , o r Ez e k ie l ) wa s wr i t t e n b y A m o s

( o r I s a i a h , o r J e r e m ia h , o r Ez e k ie l ) ; a n d t h a t Da v id c o m p o s e d n o n e of t h e

psa lm s . I hav e asse r ted th a t no t on ly is the So ng of Son gs a secu la r wo rk , b u t

tha t m u c h o f the Bib le i s a l so , fo r it w as in f lu en ce d by ( secu la r ) ideo logy as m u c h

I am, in fac t , an obse rvan t Jew. I t ake the Bib le qu i te se r ious ly in my per -

son a l l if e . I t i s no t m ere ly a bo ok f ro m w hi ch 1 m ak e a liv ing (as a t eac her an d

au th or ) . Ra the r , it s ta nd s a t the co re o f w h o I a m as a pe rso n , an d as a Jew.

There i s no s ing le way to p lace the Bib le a t ones co re . Indeed , the ways o f

v iewing the Bib le a s a re l ig ious tex t a re a t l eas t a s numerous as the peop le who

pu zz le it ou t . T hu s , I do no t in ten d wh a t fo l low s as the way to reconc i le the

scho la rs ' c r it i ca l ap pr oa ch w i th a re l ig iou s ( Jew ish ) li f e. Ins t ead , 1 s im ply w ish

i n a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

as by re l ig ion.

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t o e x p l a i n h o w I n e g o t i a t e n o t m e r e l y w h a t t h e B i bl e m e a n t ( t h e s u b j e c t of t h e

p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s ) , b u t a l s o w h a t t h e B i b l e m e a n s to me.

From Sourcebook to Textbook

In a nu ts he l l , h e re i s m y v ie w of th e Bib le a s a Je w : The Bible is a sourcebook that

I—w ithin my comm unity—make into a textbook. I do so by selecting, revaluing, and

interpreting the texts that I call sacred.

" S o u r c e b o o k s " ar e n o t t h e s a m e a s " t e x t b o o k s . " A s o u r c e b o o k , b y n a t u r e ,

p r e s e n t s m a n y p e r s p e c ti v e s , w h e r e a s a t e x t b o o k — i n o r d e r t o b e c o g e n t — a d o p t sa p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f v ie w . A n e c o n o m i c s t e x t b o o k t h a t w a s b o t h K e y n e s i a n a n d

M a r x i s t , o r a n i n t r o d u c t o r y l i te r a r y t e x t b o o k t h a t w a s b o t h n e w - c r i t i c a l a n d

d e c o n s t r u c t i v i s t , w o u l d b e c o n f u s i n g , a s c o n f u s i n g , i n d e e d , a s t h e B i b le i ts e lf .

H o w e v e r , a b r o a d - m i n d e d p r o f e s s o r t e a c h i n g " I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E c o n o m i c s " c o u l d

c r e a te a s o u r c e b o o k s h o w i n g a v a r i e ty o f a p p r o a c h e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e K e y n e s i a n

a n d t h e M a r x i s t . L i k e w i s e , a g o o d l i t e r a t u r e p r o f e s s o r m i g h t c o m p i l e r e a d i n g s

t h a t e n c o u r a g e d s t u d e n t s t o a n a l y z e t h e s a m e te x t f r o m c o m p e t i n g t h e o r e t ic a l

p e r s p e c t i v e s .

T h e B ib l e a s it p r e s e n t s it s e l f, "o ff t h e s h e l f , " i s a s o u r c e b o o k . I t c o m e s f r o m

m a n y p l a c e s a n d t i m e s ; it c o n v e y s t h e i n t e r e s t s of m a n y d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s . W i t h i n

i t, w e c a n f i n d m o r e t h a n o n e o p i n i o n o n a l m o s t a n y s i n g l e i t e m o f i m p o r -

t a n c e — t h e n a t u r e o f G o d , t h e c o r p o r e a l i t y o f G o d , i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l p u n i s h -

m e n t , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n , t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d f o r e i g n e r s ,

r e t r i b u t i o n , e tc . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e B i bl e i s s u r e l y m o r e s o u r c e b o o k t h a n t e x t -

b o o k .1

Y e t, i n o r d e r t o t a k e t h e B ib l e s e r i o u s ly i n m y r e l i g io u s l i f e — a s a g u id e f o r

v a r i o u s i s s u e s — 1 m u s t m a k e it i n t o s o m e t h i n g m o r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e . G u i d e b o o k s

d o n o t s a y : a t t h e f o r k i n t h e r o a d , t a k e e i t h e r a r i g h t , a l e f t , o r t u r n a r o u n d .

R a t h e r, t h e y m a k e d e c i s io n s , t h e y c h o o s e b e t w e e n o p t i o n s . T h u s , w h e n I c o n -

f r o n t t h e B i b le a s a p r a c t i c i n g J e w , I t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o a m o r e m o n o l i t h i c b o o k .

Se le c t ion

A s n o t e d , I m a k e t h e B ib l e i n t o a t e x t b o o k i n s e v e r a l w a y s . T h e s im p le s t i s

t h r o u g h " s e l e c t i o n " — c h o o s i n g o n e of t h e o p t i o n s t h a t t h e B ib le o f f er s . H o w a n d

w h y I m a k e t h o s e c h o i c e s i s a c o m p l i c a t e d ( a n d p e r s o n a l ) i s s u e . A t a n y r a t e , i n

p a r t I d o t h i s w i t h i n m y r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y — a n d i n p a r t I c h o o s e a c o m m u -

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n i t y t h a t h a s a l r e a d y m a d e c o m p a t i b l e c h o i c e s . S u c h c o m m u n i t i e s m i g h t b e a

s y n a g o g u e c o m m u n i t y , a c o m m u n i t y o f l i k e - m i n d e d f r i e n d s , o r a n e x t e n d e d

f a m i ly . A s p e r s o n a l a s r e l i g io n i s , it h a s a v e r y s t r o n g s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n , a n d t h u s

m y f i n d i n g a r e l ig i o u s c o m m u n i t y is c r u c i a l t o m e . ( W h e n p e o p l e s b e l ie f s

c h a n g e , t h e y m a y m o v e f r o m o n e c o m m u n i t y t o a n o t h e r , f i n d i n g g r o u p s t h a t

v i e w th e B ibl e a n d i ts i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n a s im i l a r f a s h io n . )

S e l e c t i n g f r o m a m o n g t h e B ib le 's s o u r c e s i s n o t h i n g n e w . A l r e a d y in t h e b i b -

l i ca l p e r i o d i t s a u th o r s a n d e d i t o r s d i d s o . A s w e s a w e a r l i e r i n t h i s b o o k , t h e e d i -

t o r o f C h r o n i c l e s k n e w s o u r c e s d e s c r i b i n g m o r e t h a n o n e w a y t o c o o k t h e

p a s c h a l l a m b . By c l a i m i n g t h a t it s h o u l d b e b o i l e d ( 2 C h r o n . 3 5 : 1 3 ) , t h a t a u t h o r

selected D e u t e r o n o m y 1 6 : 7 o v e r E x o d u s 1 2 : 9 . T r u e , t h a t a u t h o r g a v e a n o d to t h eE x o d u s t e x t b y m e n t i o n i n g f ir e ( s ee " R e w r i t i n g H i s t o r y " i n c h a p t e r 1 4 ) .

H o w e v e r , t h e b o t t o m l i n e w a s a c h o i c e : t h e e d i t o r selected t h e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e i n

D e u t e r o n o m y 1 6 : 7 , s e t t i n g t h e o t h e r p r a ct i c e a s id e .

C l a ss ic a l m i d r a s h ( a n d m e d i e v a l J e w i s h c o m m e n t a r y , w h i c h f o l l o w e d in i ts

w a k e ) h a s f u n c t i o n e d s i m i l a r l y .2

A s I m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 1 , E x o d u s 2 1 : 6

a l l o w s a H e b r e w to b e a " s l av e f o r l i fe , " w h e r e a s L e v i t i c u s 2 5 :4 0 i n s i s t s t h a t a l l

s u c h s l a v e s " s h a l l s e r v e w i th y o u o n ly u n t i l t h e j u b i l e e y e a r " ; t h e e d i t o r o f t h e

Mekhilta r e s o l v e d t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n b y r e i n t e r p r e t i n g " f o r l if e" a s m e a n -

i n g " u n t i l t h e j u b i l e e y e a r ." T h i s w a s c r e at i v e p h i l o l o g y ( se e " R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

a n d C r e a t i v e P h i l o l o g y " i n c h a p t e r 2 1 ) . S o m e m i g h t s p e a k o f t h i s a s r e c o n c i l i n g

t h e s e t w o t e x t s . H o w e v e r , p r a c t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e m i d r a s h i c e d i t o r selected

L e v i t i c u s 2 5 : 4 0 o v e r E x o d u s 2 1 : 6 . ( T h i s is i r o n i c g i v e n t h a t t h e Mekhilta is a

m i d r a s h o n E x o d u s . )

S o , t o o , a s I e n g a g e t h e B ib l e : A f t e r c a r e f u l l y c o n s id e r i n g i t s t e x t s , I u s e s e l e c -

t i o n to a d o p t s o m e te x t s a s m o r e m e a n i n g f u l t o m e t h a n o t h e r s .

Reva luat ion

S o m e t i m e s , w h e n c o n f r o n t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e , I f i n d t h a t all t h e b ib l i c a l t e x t s

a r e p r o b l e m a t i c f o r o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r . In s u c h c a s es , I m u s t a c k n o w l e d g e

th a t t h e B ib l e i s a n a n c i e n t t e x t ; it h a i l s f r o m a s o c i e ty f u n d a m e n ta l l y d i f f e r e n t

f r o m o u r s . P e r h a p s it h a s n o t a l w a y s a g e d w e l l . T h e r e f o r e I m u s t a c t i v el y " t r a n s -

l a t e " t h e t e x t i n to t e r m s t h a t f i t o u r so c i e ty . T h i s is e x t r e m e ly d i f f i c u l t t o d o w i th

i n te g r it y , y e t i n s o m e a r e as , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g m a t t e r s of s e x a n d g e n d e r

( w h a t " r ea l m e n " a n d " r ea l w o m e n " d o ) , i t i s t h e o n l y w o r k a b l e a p p r o a c h . I t h e n

d i s t i n g u i s h w h a t t h e t e x t o r i g i n a l l y meant ( i n i t s o r i g in a l h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ) f r o m

w h a t it n o w means ( t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n c e r t a i n k e y d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

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a n c i e n t I s r a e l i t e a n t i q u i t y a n d m o d e r n t i m e s ) . 3 I a s s i gn t he ne w m e a n i ng by

m ode r n i z i ng t he t e x t qu i t e c a r e f u l l y .

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e ve n ra d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , ha s a l w a ys p l a y e d a r o l e i n m a k i n g

sense of the Bib le . As we saw in a pr ior chapte r , the au thor of the Book of Danie l

w r o t e t h a t h i s p r o t a g o n i s t " c o n s u l t e d t h e b o o k s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n u m b e r o f y e a r s

t ha t , a c c o r d i ng t o t he w or d o f t he L O R D t h a t h a d c o m e t o J e r e m i a h t h e p r o p h e t ,

w e r e t o be t he t e r m o f J e r us a l e m ' s de s o l a t i o n— s e v e n t y ye a r s " ( D a n . 9 : 2 ) . A s ar e s u l t o f t h i s r e c ko n i ng w i t h J e r e m i a h ' s e a r l i er p r o ph e c y ( a nd w i t h t he he l p o f

the ange l Gabr ie l ) , Danie l r ea l i zed tha t "70 yea r s" r ea l ly meant 490 yea r s ( see

"R e i n t e r p r e t a t i on a nd C r e a t i ve Ph i l o l ogy" i n c ha p t e r 21 ) .

E x a m pl e s o f s i m i l a r l y r a d i c a l r e i n t e r p r e t a t i on a b o u n d i n r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e .

A m os 5 : 2 r e a ds i n pa r t , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y : D p ף י ס ו ת א ל ה ל פ נ ( "Fa l le n , no t to

r is e a g a in , ") / ל א ר ש י ת ל ו ת ב (" Is M a i d e n Is ra el ") . S o m e r a b b i n i c i n t e r p r e t e r s

f o u n d t h i s s e n t i m e n t u n a c c e p t a b l y h o p e l e s s . T h e y r e p u n c t u a t e d t h i s v e r se t o

r e a d : א ל ה ל פ נ ( " F a l l e n — n o ! " ) / ם ו ק ף י ס ת ( "A g a in t o r is e" ) / ל א ר ש י ת ל ו ת ב ( " Is

Ma i de n I s r a e l " ) .4 Syn t a c t i c a l l y , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i on i s i m pos s i b l e , bu t i t s how s

how r a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i on c a n a r i s e ou t o f ne c e s s i t y . R a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i on m a i n -

ta ins the p lace of the b ib l i ca l t ex t a s cen t ra l w i th in Juda i sm but a l lows i t to be

e x p o u n d e d i n a f a s h i o n t h a t i t s o r i g i n a l a u t h o r s w o u l d h a r d l y r e c o g n i z e . T h i s

m e t h o d c o n t i n u e s t o b e i m p o r t a n t t o d ay .

Final Words

T h e a p p r oa c h t h a t I ha ve l a id ou t he r e a l l ow s m e t o w a l k s om e t h i n g of a

t i gh t r op e be t w e e n be i ng a s e r i ou s h i s t o r i c a l - c r i ti c a l B i b le s c ho l a r , e m ph a s i z i n g

p r e r a bb i n i c no r m s o f b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i on a nd t a k i ng t he B i b l e s e r i ous l y a s a

J e w , i nc o r po r a t i ng pos t b i b l i c a l , r a bb i n i c no r m s . M a ny f e e l t ha t t he s e r o l e s a r e

m u t u a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e . Y e t , a s m y s u p p o r t i n g e x a m p l e s s h o w , t h i s a p p r o a c h h a s

r oo t s i n bo t h b i b l i c a l a n d r a b b i n i c t e x t s. J u da i s m a s i t ha s e vo l ve d i s m or e t h a n

b i b l i c a l r e l i g i on , j u s t a s J e w s a r e m or e t ha n on l y K a r a i t e s — a nd e ve n K a r a i t e s

h a v e a d o p t e d m a n y p r a c t i c e s n o t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e B i b l e . 5 Yet we re ta in some

c on t i nu i t y i n ou r a pp r oa c he s t o a t e x t t ha t w e ho l d s a c r e d .

T h e h i s to r i c a l- c r it i c a l m e t h o d , w i t h i ts e m p h a s i s o n t h e p r e r a b b i n i c m e a n -

i ng o f d i ve r s e t e x t s , m i gh t s e e m t o be a n t i r a bb i n i c . N o t s o . C l a s s i c r a bb i n i c t e x t s

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a r e t y p i c a l l y p u n c t u a t e d w i t h t h e p h r a s e davar acher ( ר ח א ר ב ד , " a n o t h e r o p i n -

i o n " ) , u s e d t o s e p a r a t e d i s t i n c t o p i n i o n s . F r e q u e n t l y , r a b b i n i c te x t s o f f e r a s m a n y

d i v e r s e o p i n i o n s a s b i b l i c a l t e x t s d o . 6 I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e B i b le i s r e a l l y m u c h

m o r e l ik e a r a b b i n i c t e x t t h a n p e o p l e t h i n k — i t i s f u ll o f c a s e s o f " a n o t h e r o p i n -

i o n . " T h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e B i bl e a n d c l a s si c r a b b i n i c t e x t s i s t h a t t h e

B i b l e m a r k s i ts d i s t i n c t o p i n i o n s l e s s f o r t h r i g h t l y . Y et i n l i g h t of t h e h i s t o r i c a l -

c r i ti c a l m e t h o d , t h e B i bl e a p p e a r s a s a c o m p i l a t i o n o f d i v e r s e s o u r c e s — t h a t i s ,

c l o s e r t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of m u c h o f r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e .

I n d e e d , a s m a l l n u m b e r o f r a b b i n i c te x t s s e e m t o r e c o g n i z e t h e c o m p o s i t e

n a t u r e o f t h e T o r a h . C e r t a i n l y , n o r a b b i n i c t e x t s a y s t h a t t h e T o r a h w a s w r i t t e n

b y J , E , D , a n d P. H o w e v e r , a n e a r l y m e d i e v a l m i d r a s h i c w o r k , Pesikta de-Rav

Kahana, d e s c r i b e s t h e r e v e l a t i o n a t S i n a i , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t it w a s n o t m o n o l i t h i c :

" R. H a n i n a b a r P a p a s a i d : T h e H o l y O n e a p p e a r e d t o I sr a e l w i t h a s t e r n f a c e ,

w i t h a n e q u a n i m o u s f a c e , w i t h a f r i e n d l y fa c e , w i t h a j o y o u s f a ce . . . " — a l l of

w h i c h , w i t h t h e s a m e a u t h o r i ty , r e p r e s e n t e d t h e s a m e G o d . ' T h e m i d r a s h p r o -

c e e d s t o p r e s e n t a n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n d e s c r i b i n g G o d a t t h e m o m e n t o f re v e l a t io n

a s " a s t a t u e w i t h f a c e s o n e v e r y s i d e . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p r e s e n t

g a i n e d a u n i q u e l y p e r s o n a l v ie w of G o d .

T h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e b o o k a s s u m e s t h a t w e c a n

n o l o n g e r r e c o v e r t h e s i n g l e t r u t h o f w h a t t h e T o r a h d e s c r i b e s a s R e v e l a t i o n , n o r

o f o t h e r r e l i g i o u s i s s u e s t h a t t h e a n c i e n t H e b r e w t e x t s a d d r e s s . T h e m o s t w e c a n

d o i s t o r e c o g n i z e t h e " f a c e s o n e v e r y s i d e " — t h e m u l t i p l e a n c i e n t p e r c e p t i o n s of

G o d , p r e s e r v e d i n o u r c o m p o s i t e B i b l e .

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Notes

C h a p t e r 1

1. I h a v e b o r r o w e d t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l b i b l ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

f r o m J a m e s L. K u g e l , The Bible as It Was ( C a m b r i d g e , M A : B e l k n a p P r e ss ,

1 9 9 7 ) , 1 8 - 2 3 . H e e x p a n d s t h a t b o o k i n h i s Traditions of the Bible: A Guide to

the Bible as It Was at the Start of the Comm on Era ( C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d

U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) . H e m a k e s s i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t a l a t e r p e r i o d i n h i s

In Potiphar's House: The Interpretive Life of Biblical Tex ts ( S a n F r a n c i s c o :

H a r p e r a n d R o w , 1 9 9 0 ) .

2 . F o r a t r a n s l a t i o n o f P e s h e r H a b a k k u k , s e e G e z a V e r m e s , The Complete Dead

Sea Scrolls ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , U K : P e n g u i n , 1 9 9 7 ) , 4 7 8 - 8 5 ; s ee e s p. 4 7 9

( f r o m t h e m i d d l e o f c o l u m n 2 ) : " t h e p r i e s t [ in w h o s e h e a r t ] G o d s e t [ u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g ] t h a t h e m i g h t i n t e r p r e t a ll t h e w o r d s o f H i s s e r v a n t s t h e p r o p h e t s ,

t h r o u g h w h o m h e f o r e t o l d a ll t h a t w o u l d h a p p e n t o H i s p e o p l e a n d [ H i s

l a n d ] " a n d 4 8 1 : " t h e T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , to w h o m G o d m a d e k n o w n

a l l t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e w o r d s o f H i s s e r v a n t s t h e P r o p h e t s . " F o r a d i s c u s s i o n

o f P e s h e r l i t e r a tu r e , s e e S h a n i L . B e r r i n , "P e s h a r im , " i n The Encyclopedia of

the Dead Sea Scrolls, e d . L a w r e n c e H . S c h i f f m a n a n d J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m ,

2 . 6 4 4 - 4 7 .

3 . C l a s s i ca l r a b b i n i c c o m m e n t a r y ( m i d r a s h ) e x p l a i n s t h e E x o d u s p h r a s e " in

p e r p e t u i t y " w i t h t h e w o r d s " u n t i l t h e j u b i l e e y e a r . " S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , J a c o b

Z . L a u t e r b a c h , e d . a n d t r a n s . , M ek hi lt a de-Rabbi Ishmael ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y, 1 9 3 5 ; r e i s s u e d 2 0 0 4 ) , 3 . 1 7 .

4 . S e e e s p . I b n E z r a' s c o m m e n t a r y t o G e n . 3 6 : 3 1 .

5 . B a r u c h S p i n o z a , Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, ( t r a n s . S a m u e l S h i r l e y

( L e id e n : B r i ll , 1 9 9 1 ) .

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6 . I b id . , 1 4 1 .

7 . F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e m e t h o d i ts e l f, s e e J o h n B a r t o n , " H i s t o r i c a l - C r i t i c a l

A p p r o a c h e s , " i n The Cam bridge Com panion to Biblical Interpretation, e d . J o h n

B a r t o n ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v. P r e s s, 1 9 9 8 ) , 9 - 2 0 . F o r d e s c r i p t i o n s

o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h i s m e t h o d , s e e The Cam bridge History of the Bible, 3

v o l s. ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v. P r e ss , 1 9 6 3 - 7 0 ) , a n d t h e s e r ie s Hebrew

Bible/Old Testament: The History of Its Interpretation ( G ö t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k

& R u p r e c h t , 1 9 9 6 - ) . F o r a n o u t l i n e of t h e m e t h o d , s ee E d g a r K r e n t z , The

Historical-Critical Method ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) .

8 . T h e t e r m " h i s t o r i c a l - c r i ti c a l " m a y d a t e f r o m t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

9 . J u l i u s W e l l h a u s e n , Prolegom ena to the History of Ancient Israel ( G l o u c e s t e r ,M A : P e t e r S m i t h , 1 9 7 3 ) . M u c h o f t h e b o o k b r i l l i a n t l y s y n t h e s i z e s e a r l i e r

f i n d in g s . It s e p a r a t e s t h e B ib l e, e s p e c i a l l y t h e T o r a h , i n t o s o u r c e s t h a t a r e

d a t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r ti m e p e r i o d s . T h e n i t p u t s t h o s e s o u r c e s b a c k t o g e t h e r

a c c o r d i n g t o a p o s i t e d h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f I s ra e l it e r e l i g i o n .

1 0 . T h e w o r k s of t h e G e r m a n r a b b i D a v i d Zv i H o f f m a n n a r e t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t

of t h o s e w h o d e c r i e d W e l l h a u s e n ' s a p p r o a c h . A m o n g h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s

w h o d e f e n d e d t h e h i s to r i ca l -c r it i ca l m e t h o d w a s a n o t h e r G e r m a n - e d u c a t e d

r a b b i , t h e A m e r i c a n R e f o r m l e a d e r K a u f m a n n K o h l e r .

1 1 . S o l o m o n S c h e c h t e r , Seminary Addresses and Other Papers ( C i n c i n n a t i , O H :

A r k P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1 9 1 5 ) , 3 5 - 3 9 .

1 2 . I b id . , 3 8 .

1 3 . Prolegomena, 2 2 7 . O n W e l l h a u s e n s i n d e b t e d n e s s t o t h e a g e h e l i v e d i n f o r

h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f J u d a i s m , s e e L o u H . S i l b e r m a n , " W e l l h a u s e n a n d

J u d a i s m , " Semeia 2 5 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 7 5 - 8 2 .

1 4 . S c h e c h t e r , Seminary Address, 3 7 .1 5 . T h e Jewish Study Bible ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 4 ) i s f u r t h e r p r o o f

o f h o w f a r t h i s m e t h o d h a s s p r e a d ; t w o d e c a d e s a g o it w o u l d h a v e b e e n

i m p o s s i b l e to f i n d e n o u g h J e w i s h s c h o l a r s c o m m i t t e d t o t h e h i s t o r ic a l - c r it -

i ca l m e t h o d t o c o m p l e t e t h a t b o o k .

1 6 . B a r r y H o l t z , e d . , Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts ( N e w

Y o rk : S u m m i t B o o k s , 1 9 8 4 ) .

1 7 . R i c h a r d E l li o t t F r i e d m a n h a s w r i t t e n s e v e r a l e x c e l l e n t r e a d a b l e w o r k s o n

th e B ib l e . H o w e v e r , h i s W h o Wrote the Bible ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r S a n

F r a n c i s o , 1 9 9 7 ) is n o t J e w i s h l y s e n s i t i v e , a n d h i s m o r e r e c e n t Commentary

on the Torah with English Translation and Hebrew Text ( S a n F r a n c i s c o :

H a r p e r S a n F r a n c i s o , 1 9 9 7 ) d o e s n o t u s e s o u r c e c r i ti c i s m .

1 8 . T h e c l a s s i c o f t h i s g e n r e i s O t to E i s s f e ld t , The Old Testament: An Introduction,

( t r a n s . P e t e r A . A c k r o y d ( N e w Y o rk : H a r p e r a n d R o w , 1 9 6 5 ) . F o r a s u r v e y

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of the genre , s ee Breva rd S . Chi lds , Introduction to the Old Testament As

Scripture ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 9 ) , 2 7 - 4 5 .

1 9 . F o r t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n m o r e d e t a i l e d t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f m e t h o d o l o -

g y, s e e J o h n B a r to n , Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study

( r e v i s e d a n d e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n ; L o u i s v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 9 6 ) ; D o u g l a s s A . K n i g h t , e d . , Method s 0J Biblical Interpretation ( N a s h v i l l e ,

T N : A b i n g d o n , 2 0 0 4 ) .

C h a p t e r 2

1 . T h e G r e e k w o r d biblia, i n t u r n , l i k e l y d e r i v e s f r o m t h e P h o e n i c i a n p o r t c i t y

o f B y b l o s , a m a j o r e x p o r t e r of p a p y r u s , f r o m w h i c h t h e a n c i e n t s m a d e m o s t

o f t h e i r b o o k s . P a p e r r e a c h e d t h e W e s t f r o m C h in a o n ly i n t h e l a t e f i r s t m i l -

l e n n i u m c . E .

2 . S ee 2 C o r i n t h i a n s 3 : 1 4 a n d H e b r e w s 8 : 7 .

3 . A s a t e c h n i c a l t e r m f o r a b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e , "O ld T e s t a m e n t " w a s f i rs t u s e d

b y M e l i t o o f S a r d i s a n d t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s T e r tu l l i a n a n d O r i g e n , w h o l i v e d

f r o m t h e s e c o n d t o t h e t h i r d c e n t u r i e s c . E .

4 . S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s ( o r d i a l e c t s ) i n t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a st i n c l u d e d A k k a d i a n ,

P h o e n i c i a n , U g a r i t i c , M o a b i t e , A r a m a i c , a n d H e b r e w . W h e n i n t h i s b o o k I

r e f e r t o " S e m i t i c c u l t u r e s , " I m e a n t h e c i v i l i z a t io n s t h a t p r o d u c e d d o c u m e n t s

o r i n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s . F r o m t h a t e v i d e n c e w e k n o w t h a t t h o s e

c u l t u r e s s h a r e d a g r e a t d e a l i n t e r m s o f t h e i r o u t l o o k a n d w a y of l i fe .

5 . T h i s b o o k u s e s t h e d a t i n g s c h e m a B.C.E . ( B e fo r e t h e C o m m o n E r a ) a n d c . E .

( C o m m o n E r a ) f o r t h e d e s ig n a t i o n s B .c . a n d A .D ., r e s p e c t iv e ly . T h e d a t e s a r e

e q u i v a l e n t .

6 . S ee J o s e p h u s , Antiquities 1 0 . 2 1 0 , 1 3 . 1 6 7 , 1 6 . 1 6 8 , 2 0 . 2 6 4 ; Against Apion

1 . 5 4 , 1 2 7 , 2 2 8 . A n o t h e r a n c i e n t J e w w h o w r o t e i n G r e e k , P h i l o , e m p l o y e d

a s i m i l a r p h r a s e , hai hierai graphai, in h i s Abraham 6 1 , de congressu 3 4 , 9 0 ;

Decalogue 8 , 3 7 ; a n d e l s e w h e r e . ( S e e a l s o J o s e p h u s i n A g a in s t Apion 2 . 4 5 . )

T h e s e r e f e r e n c e s w e r e s u p p l i e d b y P r o f e s s o r S h a y e D . C o h e n .

7. See Against Apion 1 . 4 2 . T h i s m a y b e f o u n d in H . S t. J . T h a c k e r y , t r a n s . ,

Josephus I: The Life; Against Apion, L o e b C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y ( C a m b r i d g e , M A :

H a r v a r d U n iv . P r e ss , 1 9 2 6 ) , 1 7 8 - 7 9 .

8 . T h e s e c o n d t e r m o v e r l a p s w i t h t h e e a r l i e r G r e e k n o m e n c l a t u r e . F o r t h e s e

a n d o th e r r a b b i n i c t e r m s f o r t h e e n t i r e B ib l e a n d i t s s e c t i o n s , s e e S id Z.

L e i m a n , The Canonization of Hebrew Scripture: The Talmud ic and Midrashic

Evidence ( H a m d e n , C T : A r c h o n B o o k s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 5 7 .

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9 . Ib i d . , 6 0 - 7 2 .

1 0 . F r e d e r i c k Ε . G r e e n s p a h n , " H o w J e w s T r a n s l a te t h e B i b le , " i n Biblical

Translation in Context, e d . F r e d e r i c k W K n o b l o c h ( B e t h e s d a : U n i v . P r e s s o f

M a r y l a n d , 2 0 0 2 ) , 5 2 - 5 3 .

1 1 . R o l a n d E . M u r p h y , " O l d T e s t a m e n t / T a n a k h — C a n o n a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " i n

Hebrew Bible or Old Testament? Studying the Bible in Judaism and Christianity,

e d . R o g e r B r o o k s a n d J o h n J . C o l l i n s ( N o t r e D a m e , I N : U n i v . o f N o t r e D a m e ,

1 9 9 0 ) , 1 1 - 2 9 .

1 2 . A p a r t f r o m t h e T o r a h , J e w s h a v e a r r a n g e d t h e b i b l i c a l b o o k s i n m a n y o t h e r

o r d e r s . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n L e i m a n , The Cano nization of Hebrew Scripture,

5 1 - 5 3 . S e e a l s o t h e c h a r t s i n C h r i s t i a n D . G i n s b u r g , Introduction to theMa ssoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible ( 1 8 9 7 ; r e p r . , H o b o k e n , N J :

K ta v, 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 0 8 . G i n s b u r g w o r k e d w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t

t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d B i bl e m a n u s c r i p t k n o w n as t h e A l e p p o C o d e x ( a n d r e l a t-

e d c o d e x e s s u c h a s L e n i n g r a d B 1 9 a ) . T h e o r d e r o f K e t h u v i m i n A l e p p o i s :

C h r o n i c l e s , P s a l m s , J o b , P r o v e r b s , R u t h , S o n g of S o n g s , E c c l e s i a s te s ,

L a m e n t a t i o n s , E s t he r , D a n i e l , E z r a - N e h e m i a h .

1 3 . T h i s i s t h e f i r st o f t h e " F o r m e r P r o p h e t s " ; t h r e e o t h e r s f o ll o w .

1 4 . A l t h o u g h E n g l i s h B i b le s l is t S a m u e l , K i n g s, C h r o n i c l e s , a n d E z r a - N e h e m i a h a s

t w o b o o k s a p i e c e , o r i g i n a l l y t h e y w e r e e a c h a s i n g l e b o o k . B e c a u s e t h o s e b o o k s

w e r e q u i t e l o n g , l a t e r e d i t o r s s p l i t e a c h o n e i n t o t w o p a r t s f o r c o n v e n i e n c e .

1 5 . M a n y m a n u s c r i p t s p l a c e d J o b b e f o r e P r o v e r b s .

1 6 . J e w i s h s c r i b e s a n d e d i t o r s h a v e t e n d e d t o g r o u p t o g e t h e r f iv e r e l a ti v e l y s h o r t

b o o k s ( S o n g o f S o n g s , R u t h , L a m e n t a t i o n s , E c c l e s ia s t e s , a n d E s t h e r ) , p l a c -

i n g t h e m u s u a l l y w i t h i n K e t h u v i m o r s o m e t i m e s right a f t e r t h e T o r a h , a t t h e

s t a r t o f N e v i ' i m . W i t h i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n , w h i c h i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e Chamesh

Megillot ( " F i v e S c r o l l s " ) , t h e i r o r d e r h a s b e e n h i g h l y v a r i a b l e . T h e o r d e r

s h o w n r e f le c t s t h e s e q u e n c e i n w h i c h J e w s r e a d t h e m d u r i n g t h e l it u rg i c a l

y e a r. A n o t h e r c o m m o n a r r a n g e m e n t r e f le c t s t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r in

w h i c h t h e y w e r e w r i t t e n a c c o r d i n g t o r a b b i n i c a s c r i p t i o n .

1 7 . T h r e e b o o k s ( I s a i a h , J e r e m i a h , a n d E z e k i e l ) f o r m a s e t c a l l e d " M a j o r

P r o p h e t s , " w h e r e " m a j o r " r e f e r s t o t h e l e n g t h of t h e b o o k s . W i t h i n t h i s se t ,

J e w i s h s c r i b e s a n d e d i t o r s h a v e a r r a n g e d t h e b o o k s i n d i f f e r e n t s e q u e n c e s .

1 8 . " M i n o r " i n th i s c o n t e x t m e a n s " s h o r t . " T h e t w e l v e a r e H o s e a , J o e l , A m o s ,O b a d i a h , J o n a h , M i c a h , N a h u m , H a b a k k u k , Z e p h a n i a h , H ag g ai , Z e c h a r ia h ,

M a l a c h i . I n H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s a n d p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s , t h e s e t w e l v e t e x t s

a l w a y s a p p e a r i n t h e s a m e o r d e r .

1 9 . T o o m u c h e m p h a s i s s h o u l d n o t b e p l a c e d o n C h r o n i c l e s a s t h e " la st " b o o k

o f t h e B i b l e — t h i s is n o t it s p o s i t i o n i n m a n y o f t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e e a r l y

m a n u s c r i p t s .

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2 0 . A s s t a t e d , t h e S e p t u a g i n t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a J e w i s h t r a n s l a t i o n . F o r c e n t u r i e s ,

m a n y J e w s s p o k e G r e e k a s t h e i r fi rs t l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e y u s e d v a r i o u s G r e e k

t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e B ib le . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e J u d e a n D e s e r t c o m m u n i t y w h o s e

l i b r a r y w e n o w c al l t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l ls k e p t G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s o n h a n d

( s e e t h e s u m m a r y i n E u g e n e U l r i c h , " S e p t u a g i n t , " Encyclopedia of the Dead

Sea Scrolls, 2 . 8 6 3 - 6 8 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e S e p t u a g i n t w a s p r e s e r v e d i n i ts e n t ir e -

t y o n l y w i t h i n t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y . S c h o l a r l y l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e

S e p t u a g i n t a n d it s o r i g i n is i m m e n s e ; s e e r e c e n t l y N a t a l i o F e r n a n d e z

M a r c o s , The Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the Greek Version of the Bible,

t r a n s . W i l f r e d G . E . W a t s o n ( B o s t o n : B ril l A c a d e m i c P u b l i s h e r s , 2 0 0 1 ) .

2 1 . I n a n t i q u i t y t h i s w a s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o r d e r o f t h e s e f o u r s e c t i o n s , b u t n o tt h e o n l y a r r a n g e m e n t . S e e t h e li s ts a n d d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n i n H e n r y B a r cl a y

S w e t e , A n Introduction to the Old Testamen t in Greek ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e

U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 0 2 ) , 1 9 7 - 2 3 0 ; f o r l e ss c o m p l e t e , b u t le s s t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s -

s i o n , s e e R o g e r B e c k w i t h , The Old Testament Canon of the New Testament

Church and Its Backgroun d in Early Judaism ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s ,

1 9 8 5 ) , 1 8 1 - 2 3 4 .

2 2 . T h e S e p t u a g i n t p l a c e d R u t h a f t e r J u d g e s , a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e t h e t w o a r e

r e c o g n i z e d a s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s a m e t im e p e r io d ( s e e R u th 1 :1 ) . I t a l s o

p l a c e d L a m e n t a t i o n s a f t e r t h e B o o k of J e r e m i a h , t h e p r o p h e t w h o is s a i d t o

h a v e w r i t t e n t h o s e l a m e n t s .

2 3 . T h e d iv i s i o n i n to tw o p a r t s of s o m e of t h e l a rg e r b o o k s ( S a m u e l , K in g s ,

C h r o n i c l e s , E z r a - N e h e m i a h ) i s f o u n d a l r e a d y i n t h e S e p t u a g i n t . G r e e k t r a-

d i t i o n a l s o a s s i g n e d d i f f e r e n t n a m e s t o s o m e o f t h e b i b l i c a l b o o k s ; f o r e x a m -

p i e , w h a t w e ca ll C h r o n i c l e s , t h e y c a l l e d P a r a l i p o m e n a , " th a t w h i c h w a s

o m i t t e d [ f r o m S a m u e l a n d K i n g s ] ."

2 4 . I n S e p t u a g i n t m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o r d e r o f t h e T w e lv e d i f f e r s f r o m

t h a t f o u n d i n H e b r e w B i b l es . H o w e v e r , E n g l i s h B i b l e s t y p i c a l l y o r d e r t h e

T w e lv e a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r H e b r e w o r d e r .

2 5 . F o r a c h a r t o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , s e e JSB, 2 1 1 8 - 1 9 .

2 6 . b . BavaBatra 1 4 b - 1 5 a .

C h a p t e r 3

1 . M u c h o f t h i s c h a p t e r , a n d t h e ti t le o f t h i s b o o k , is b a s e d o n J o h n B a r to n ,

Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study, rev. a n d enl . e d .

( L o u i s v il l e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 6 ) .

2 . Ba r to n ' s t e rm fo r r e ad in g the Bib le l ike an anc ien t I s rae l i t e i s " l i t e ra ry co m -

p e t e n c e " ( s e e t h e p r e v i o u s n o t e ) .

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3 . J a m e s L . K u g e l , The Bible as It Was ( C a m b r i d g e , M A : B e l k n a p P r e ss , 1 9 9 7 ) ,

1 8 - 2 3 .

4 . T h i s p o e m i s q u o t e d i n T h o m a s E. S a n d e r s , The Discovery of Poetry ( A t l a n t a :

S c o t t, F o r e s m a n a n d C o m p a n y , 1 9 6 7 ) , 3 3 .

5 . O u r la c k of i n f o r m a n t s m a y h a v e m o v e d m a n y r e a d e r s , a n d s o m e s c h o l a r s ,

a w a y f r o m t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d , w h i c h t h e y s e e a s o v e r l y c o n j e c -

t u r a l a n d u n v e r i f i a b l e . T h i s i s a n e x a g g e r a t e d r e a c t i o n . M a n y o f t h e r e s u l t s

o f h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l a n a ly s e s c a n b e t r u s t e d w i th a h i g h d e g r e e of c o n f i -

d e n c e .

C h a p t e r 4

1 . B a s e d o n l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e , m o s t s c h o l a r s c o n s i d e r t h e S o n g o f D e b o r a h i n

J u d g e s 5 t o b e t h e e a r l i e s t p i e c e o f b ib l i c a l l i t e r a tu r e . P o r t i o n s o f t h e B o o k o f

D a n ie l a r e t y p i c a l l y d a t e d t o b e tw e e n 1 6 7 a n d 1 6 4 B .C .E., b a s e d o n i n t e r n a l

r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s .

2 . F o r a d d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d h e r e , s e e m y

b o o k The Creation of History in Ancient Israel ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 5 ) ;

" T h e C o p e n h a g e n S c h o o l : T h e H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l I s s u e s , " AJS Review 2 7

( 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 - 2 1 ; a n d V P h i l i p s L o n g , e d . , Israel's Past in Present Research: Essays

on Ancient Israelite Historiography, S o u r c e s fo r B i b li ca l a n d T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d y

7 ( W i n o n a L a k e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

3 . T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e s e in A m e r i c a w a s b y J o h n B r i g h t , r e c e n t l y r e p u b -

l i s h ed i n a f o u r t h ( p o s t h u m o u s ) e d i t i o n .

4 . E . A. Sp e ise r , Genesis, A n c h o r B i b le ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 6 4 ) ,

X L - X L I , 9 1 - 9 3 .

5 . T h i s t e n d e n c y p e r v a d e s t h e w o r k o f W i l l i a m F o x w e l l A l b r i g h t , a n d m a y b e

s e e n e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s s y n th e s i s , From Stone Age to Christianity: Mo notheism

and the Historical Process ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : A n c h o r , 1 9 5 7 ) . T h e b o o k a l s o

d i s p l a y s a s i g n i f i c a n t C h r i s t i a n b i a s . F o r a n i m p o r t a n t c r i t i q u e o f A l b r i g h t ,

s e e B u r k e O . L o n g , Planting and Reaping Albright: Politics, Ideology, and

Interpreting the Bible ( U n i v e r s i t y P a r k : P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a te U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) .

6 . T h o m a s L. T h o m p s o n , The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Q uest

for the Historical Abraham , B Z A W 1 3 3 ( B e r li n : d e G r u y t e r , 1 9 7 4 ) .

7 . J o h n V a n S e t e r s , Abraham in History and Tradition ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y a l e

U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) .

8 . S e e , e . g . , K a th l e e n K e n y o n , Archaeology in the Holy Land, 3 r d e d . ( N e w Y o r k :

P r a e g e r , 1 9 7 0 ) , 2 1 1 .

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9. S e e t h e s u m m a r y i n A m i h a i M a z a r , Archaeology of the Land of the Bible

10,000-586 B.C.E., A n c h o r B i b le ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 0 ) ,

3 2 8 - 3 8 . F o r a r e c e n t d e t a i l e d s y n t h e s i s , s e e W i l l i a m G . D e v e r , Who Were the

Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? ( G r a n d R a p i d s M I :

E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 3 ) . F o r a p o p u l a r s u m m a r y , s e e A m y D o c k s e r M a r c u s , The

View from Nebo: How Archaeology is Rewriting and Reshaping the Middle East

( B o s t o n : L i tt le , B r o w n , 2 0 0 0 ) , 7 8 - 1 0 4 .

1 0 . S ee t h e s u m m a r y a n d c r i t i q u e i n m y a r ti c le " T h e C o p e n h a g e n S c h o o l : T h e

H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l I s s u e s , " AJS Review 2 7 ( 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 - 2 1 .

1 1 . T h e l it e r a t u r e o n t h e o r e t i c a l b i a s e s i s n o w i m m e n s e . S e e e s p e c i a l l y t h e

w o r k s of T h o m p s o n a n d L e m c h e f r o m t h e C o p e n h a g e n S c h o o l , a s w e l l a s av a r i e t y o f a u t h o r s p u b l i s h i n g i n t h e SJOT. F o r c r i t i q u e s , s e e t h e a r t i c l e c i t e d

i n n . 1 0 a n d v a r i o u s w o r k s b y D e v e r . T h e d i s p u t e is r e f l e c t e d i n t h e v a r i e t y

o f a r t i c l e s f o u n d i n L e s t e r L . G r a b b e , e d . , Can A 'History of Israel' Be Written?

J S O T S u p 2 4 5 ( S h e f f i e ld , U K : S h e f f i e ld A c a d e m i c P r es s , 1 9 9 7 ) .

1 2 . A c c u s a t i o n s o f a n t i - Z i o n i s m h a v e b e e n l e v e l e d i n p a r t i c u l a r a g a i n s t K e i t h W

W h i t e l a m , The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History

( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 6 ) .

1 3 . F o r m o r e o n t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s i n u s i n g t h e B i bl e a s a h i s t o r i c a l

s o u r c e , s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History a n d t h e v a r i o u s b o o k s a n d a r t i-

c l e s c i t e d a b o v e .

1 4 . F o r m a n y e x a m p l e s f r o m v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s , s e e B e r ti l A l b r e k t s o n , History and

the Gods: An Essay on the Idea of Historical Events as Divine Man ifestations in

the Ancient Near East and in Israel, C B O T 1 ( L u n d ; G l e e r u p , 1 9 6 7 ) .

1 5 . C O S , 2 . 1 3 7 .

1 6 . A s s y r i a n s c r i b e s , h o w e v e r , r e c o p i e d t h e i r a n n a l s e x t e n s i v e l y s i n c e t h e y w e r e

u p d a t e d a n n u a l ly . S o m e t i m e s in t h i s p r o c e s s , t h e y w o u l d r e v is e a n d s h o r t e n

t h e e v e n t s o f e a r l i e r y e a r s ; s e e L o u i s D . L e v i n e , " M a n u s c r i p t s , T e x t s a n d t h e

S t u d y o f t h e N e o - A s s y r i a n R o y a l I n s c r i p t i o n s , " i n F M . F a l e s , e d . , Assyrian

Royal Inscriptions: New Horizons ( R o m e : I n s t i t u t o p e r L O r i e n t e , 1 9 8 1 ) ,

4 9 - 7 0 .

1 7 . D e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e re l i a b i l it y o f t e x t u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n m a y b e f o u n d i n

E m a n u e l Τ ο ν , Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 2 n d re v. e d . ( M i n n e a p o l i s ,

M N : A u g s b u r g F o r t r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) .1 8 . M a n y b o o k s b e a r ti t le s l i ke " A / T h e H i s t o r y of ( A n c i e n t ) I s r a e l, " w h i c h t h e

f o l l o w i n g s u m m a r y d r a w s u p o n . T w o o f t h e m o r e r e c e n t s u c h b o o k s a re

I a i a n P r o v a n , V. P h i l i p s L o n g , a n d T r e m p e r L o n g m a n I II , A Biblical History of

Israel ( L o u i s v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 2 0 0 3 ) , a n d V i c t o r H .

M a t t h e w s , A Brief History of Ancient Israel ( L o u i s v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n

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K n o x , 2 0 0 3 — s e e a ls o h i s t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o n 3 - 9 7 ) . T h e s e l e a n

t o w a r d t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s id e i n t e r m s o f u p h o l d i n g a s m u c h o f t h e b i b l i c a l

n a r r a t i v e a s p o s s i b l e .

1 9 . S e e D o n a l d B . R e d f o r d , Egypt, C anaan, and Israel in Ancient Times ( P r i n c e t o n ,

N J : P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 ) , 2 5 7 - 8 0 ; n o t e e s p e c i a l l y 2 6 0 , w h e r e h e

a c c u s e s m a n y b ib l ic a l s c h o l a r s of " m a n h a n d l i n g of e v i d e n c e . " C o n t r a s t t h e

v i e w o f J a m e s K . H o f f m e i e r , Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity

of the Exodus Tradition ( N e w Y o rk : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s, 1 9 9 7 ) .

2 0 . B i b li ca l s c h o l a r s h a v e n o t r e a c h e d a c o n s e n s u s o n e x a c t l y w h a t t h e I s r a el i te

s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g w a s , o r e v e n a b o u t w h e n t h e a n c e s t r a l s t o r i e s w e r e w r i t -

t e n . C o m p a r e , e . g . , E . T h e o d o r e M u l l e n , J r ., Ethnic Myths and PentateuchalFound ations: A New Approa ch to the Forma tion of the Pentateuch ( A t l a n t a :

S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 7 ) t o Ρ K y le M c C a r t e r a n d R o n a l d S. H e n d e l , " T h e P a t r i a r c h a l

A g e : A b r a h a m , I sa a c a n d J a c o b , " i n H e r s h e l S h a n k s , e d . , Ancient Israel, rev.

a n d e x p . ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : B i b li c al A r c h a e o l o g y S o c ie ty , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 - 3 1 .

2 1 . C O S , 2 . 4 1 .

2 2 . I. E p h ' a l , " T h e W e s t e r n M i n o r i t i e s i n B a b y l o n i a i n t h e 6 t h - 5 t h C e n t u r i e s

B . C . : M a i n t e n a n c e a n d C o h e s i o n , " Orientalia 4 7 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 7 4 - 9 0 .

C h a p t e r 5

1. S ee G . Ε M o o r e , " T h e V u l g a te C h a p t e r s a n d N u m b e r e d V e rs e s i n t h e H e b r e w

B i b l e , " i n S i d Z . L e i m a n , e d . , The Canon and Masorah of the Hebrew Bible: An

Introductory Reader( N e w Y o rk : K ta v, 1 9 7 4 ) , 8 1 5 - 2 0 .

2 . S e e E m a n u e l Τ ο ν, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N :F o r tr e ss , 2 0 0 1 ) , 5 0 - 5 1 , 2 1 0 - 1 1 .

3 . S e e Τ ο ν, 5 2 - 5 3 , a n d L. B l a u , " M a s s o r e t i c S t u d i e s , I I I . - I V : T h e D i v i s i o n i n t o

Verses , " in The Canon and Masorah of the Hebrew Bible, e d . S i d Z . L e i m a n ,

6 2 3 - 6 4 .

4 . O n t h e d i v i s io n b e t w e e n w o r d s , s e e Τ ο ν, 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 5 2 - 5 3 .

5 . F r o m c o m p a r a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e a n d a n c i e n t t r a n s l a t i o n s , s c h o l a r s

h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d o f t h e B i b l e , t h e c o n s o n a n t v a v ( 1 ) r e p -

r e s e n t e d a " w " s o u n d . T h a t is w h y s c h o l a r s o f t e n w r i t e t h e u n v o c a l i z e d

d i v i n e n a m e a s " Y H W H " r a t h e r t h a n "YHVH."

6 . See J e f f r ey H . T igay , The Evolution of the Gilgame sh Epic ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v .

o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 ) . In f a c t , t h e m o s t f a m o u s p a r t o f t h i s c o m p o s i -

t i o n , t h e f l o o d s t o r y o f t a b l e t 1 1 , r e f l e c t s a r e w o r k i n g o f t h e e a r l i e r A t r a -

H a s i s e p i c .

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7 . S ee e s p e ci a l ly 4 Q p a l e o E x o dm

, w h i c h h a s m a n y e x p a n s i o n s o f t h e t y p e s e e n

i n t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h . S e e D J D 9 , 6 8 - 7 0 .

8 . F o r a p o p u l a r i n t r o d u c t i o n t o s o u r c e c r i t i c i s m , s e e R i c h a r d E ll io t t F r i e d m a n ,

Who Wrote the Bible? ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r S a n F r a n c i s c o , 1 9 9 7 ) ; Is ra e l

K n o h l , The Divine Symphony: The Bible's Many Voices ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h

P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y , 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 - 8 5 . F o r a c o l o r - c o d e d d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e s e

s o u r c e s , s e e R i c h a r d E l l i o t t F r i e d m a n , The Bible with Sources Revealed ( S a n

F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r S a n F r a n c i s c o , 2 0 0 3 ) . F o r a m o r e t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s s i o n , s ee

E r n e s t N i c h o l s o n , The Pentateuch in the Twentieth Century: The Legacy of Julius

Wellhausen ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 9 8 ) .

9 . S e e M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel ( O x f o r d : O x f o r dU n i v . P r e s s, 1 9 8 5 ) , w h o a r g u e s f o r a s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g c a n o n , o r a c a n o n

w i th in a c a n o n . M o r e s p e c i fi c a l ly , o n t h e r e t e n t i o n o f l e g al s e c t i o n s o f

E x o d u s t h a t w e r e r e i n t e r p r e t e d i n D e u t e r o n o m y , s e e B e r n a r d M . L e v i n s o n ,

Deuteronom y and the Herm eneutics of Legal Innovation ( N e w Y o rk : O x f o r d

U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) .

1 0 . G e o r g e F o o t M o o r e , " T a t i a r i s D i a t e s s a r o n a n d t h e A n a l y s i s o f t h e

P e n t a t e u c h , " i n Empirical Mo dels for Biblical Criticism, e d . J e f f r e y H . T ig a y

( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v . o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) , 2 4 3 - 5 6 .

1 1 . F o r a d d i t i o n a l m o d e l s , s e e Empirical Mod els for Biblical Criticism.

C h a p t e r 6

1 . T h e l i t e r a t u r e b y a n d a b o u t c r e a t i o n i s m i s i m m e n s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g w e b s i te

o f f e r s a g o o d s e n s e of t h e p r i n c i p l e s a n d a g e n d a s of c r e a t i o n i s t s :h t t p : / / w w w . c r e a t i o n i s m . o r g . 

2 . F o r a r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p r o b l e m o f g e n r e a n d p r e m o d e r n t e x t s , s e e

B e r t R o e s t a n d H e r m a n V a n s t i p h o u t , e d s . , Aspects of Genre and Type in Pre-

Modern Literary Cultures ( G r o n i n g e n : S t y x, 1 9 9 9 ) .

3 . W a l t e r B u r k e r t , Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual ( B e r k e l e y :

U n iv . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 ) .

4 . I b id . , 2 8 .

5 . F o r m o r e o n m e t a p h o r s , s e e m y God is King: Understanding an Israelite

Metaphor, J S O T S u p 7 6 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P re s s , 1 9 8 9 ) .

6 . B u r k e r t , Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual, 1 - 3 4 , e s p . 2 3 .

7 . S e e , e . g ., J o h n C a r l o s R o w e , " S t r u c t u r e , " i n F r a n k L e n t r i c c h i a a n d T h o m a s

M c L a u g h l i n , e d s . , Critical Terms for Literary Study ( C h ic a g o : U n iv . o f

C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 3 - 3 8 . A m o n g b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s o f t h e l a te t w e n t i e t h

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c e n t u r y , J . Ρ F o k k e l m a n e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t r u c t u r e ; s e e e .g . h i s

Reading Biblical Narrative: An Introductory Guide ( L o u i s v i l l e , K Y : W e s t m i n s t e r

J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 9 ) , 9 7 - 1 1 1 .

8 . T h e f a c t t h a t m a n y o f t h e s e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s a r e n o t e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d

t h r o u g h o u t G e n e s i s 1 h a s l e d m a n y s c h o l a r s t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s f ir s t c r e a t i o n

s t o r y h a s a l o n g p r e h i s t o r y , a n d h a s i n c o r p o r a t e d e l e m e n t s o f e a r l i e r s t o r ie s .

T h i s i s l i k e l y c o r r e c t , y e t i t d o e s n o t a f f e c t m y b a s i c a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e

s t r u c t u r e a n d m e a n i n g of t h i s m y t h .

9 . S i n c e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t i m a g e o f G o d in t h e B i b le i s a s m a l e , a n d t h r o u g h -

o u t t h e H e b r e w B i b le " G o d " is a l w a y s t r e a t e d a s g r a m m a t i c a l l y m a l e , I w i l l

e m p l o y t h e m a s c u l i n e p r o n o u n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s b o o k in r e f e re n c e t o G o d .H i s t o r ic a l - c ri t ic a l m e t h o d o l o g y i s i n d e b t e d t o t h e n o r m s of t h e p a s t w h i c h

it i s t r y i n g t o r e c a p t u r e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r e f e r e n c e s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y r e li -

g i o u s p r a c t i c e . T h e u s e o f t h e m a s c u l i n e p r o n o u n t h r o u g h o u t t h e B i b l e —

a n d i n t h i s b o o k — s h o u l d h a v e n o b e a r i n g o n m o d e r n t h e o l o g i c a l i s s u es , o n

h o w w e m i g h t e n v i s i o n G o d , n o r w h a t p r o n o u n s w e m i g h t u s e i n c o n t e m -

p o r a r y d i s c o u r s e .

1 0 . T h i s s t r u c t u r e i s p o i n t e d o u t i n m o s t c o m m e n t a r i e s ; i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l s e e

B e r n h a r d W A n d e r s o n , " T h e P r i e st l y C r e a t i o n S t o r y : A S t y li s ti c S t u d y ," in

From Creation to New Creation, O B T ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) ,

4 2 - 5 5 .

1 1 . A s i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h E n u m a E l i sh ( o f t e n i n c o r r e c t l y c a l l e d T h e

M e s o p o t a m i a n C r e a t i o n S t o r y ) , l i g h t e x i s t s b e f o r e t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e l u m i -

n a r i e s .

1 2 . A s a r g u e d b y s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s , it i s l i k e l y t h a t t h i s c r e a t i o n s t o r y is a c t u a l l y

t h e p r o d u c t o f " H , " a l a t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e P r i e st l y S c h o o l , r a t h e r t h a nΡ i t se l f , b u t t h i s i s n o t i m p o r t a n t a t t h i s p o i n t .

1 3 . T h u s , t h e m a i n t h e m e o f R u d o l f O t t o , The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry into the

Non-rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine and its Relation to the Rational

( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 2 5 ) i s c o r r e c t , b u t o n l y t o a l i m i t e d d e g r e e

in the Bible .

1 4 . F o r e a r l y J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , se e J a m e s L. K u g e l , The Bible

as It Was ( C a m b r i d g e , M A : B e l k n a p P r e s s, 1 9 9 7 ) , 6 1 - 6 3 .

1 5 . S e e C l a u s W e s t e r m a n n , Genesis 1-11 ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : A u g s b u r g , 1 9 8 4 ) ,

1 4 5 .

1 6 . S e e m y b o o k God Is King, 1 0 0 - 1 0 9 .

1 7 . Se e e s p e c i a l l y J a m e s B a r r , " T h e I m a g e o f G o d i n t h e B o o k of G e n e s i s — A

S t u d y o f T e r m i n o l o g y , " BJRL 5 1 ( 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 ) , 1 1 - 2 6 .

1 8 . A d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of G e n e s i s 1 : 2 7 s e e s t h e f in a l t h i r d ( " m a l e a n d

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f e m a l e h e c r e a t e d t h e m " ) a s a n e w t h o u g h t , i n d e p e n d e n t o f w h a t p r e c e d e s ;

s e e P h y l l i s A . B i r d , ' "M a le a n d F e m a le H e C r e a t e d T h e m ' : G e n e s i s 1 :2 7 b i n

th e C o n te x t o f t h e P r i e s t l y A c c o u n t o f C r e a t i o n , " i n Missing Persons and

Mistaken Identities: W omen a nd Gende r in Ancient Israel, O B T ( M i n n e a p o l i s ,

M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) , 1 2 3 - 5 4 .

1 9 . U s u a l l y c r e a t i o n i m p l i e s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s . I n s t i t u t i o n s ,

h o w e v e r , c a n a l s o b e c r e a t e d . G e n e s i s 2 : 2 - 3 d e a l s w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e

S a b b a t h , m u c h l ik e t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h E n u m a E li sh n a r r a t e s t h e e r e-

a t i o n of k i n g s h i p a n d of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e w o r s h i p of t h e g o d

M a r d u k .

2 0 . S e e L o u i s G i n z b e r g , The Legends of the Jews, t r a n s . H e n r i e t t a S z o l d( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y , 1 9 6 8 ; r e i s s u e d , 2 0 0 2 ) , v o l . 5 ,

9 7 - 9 8 .

21 . See Phy l l i s T r ib le , God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s ,

1 9 7 8 ) , 1 2 6 .

22 . Fo r th e Fa l l o f M an , see R o m an s 5 ; th e id ea of o r i g in a l s in is no t p re se n t in

th e G r e e k N e w T e s t a m e n t t e x t h e r e , b u t a l r e a d y a p p e a r s i n a n e a r l y L a t i n

t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e G r e e k . Se e J a r o s l a v P e l i k a n , The Christian Tradition: A

History of the Developm ent of Doctrine, vol . 1 , The Em ergence of the Catholic

Tradition (100-600) ( C h i c a g o : U n iv . o f C h i c a g o , 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 .

2 3 . F o r a d e t a i l e d , b u t d i f f e r e n t t r e a tm e n t o f t h e s t o r y , s e e J a m e s B a r r , The

Garden of Eden an d the Hope of Immo rtality ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s ,

1 9 9 3 ) . I l e a r n e d m a n y o f t h e i d e a s t h a t I d e v e l o p b e l o w f r o m 1. T z v i A b u s c h ;

s o m e a r e a l s o f o u n d i n S u s a n N i d i t c h , " G e n e s i s , " i n The Wom en's Bible

Commentary, e d . C a r o l A . N e w s o m a n d S h a r o n H . R in g e ( L o u i s v i l l e , K Y:

W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 2 ) , 1 2 - 1 4 . A s y n t h e s i s o f r e c e n t f e m i n i s t r e a d -

in g s o f t h e G a r d e n s t o r y c a n b e f o u n d i n A l i c e O g d e n B e l l i s , Helpmates,

Harlots, Heroes: Wo men's Stories in the Hebrew Bible ( L o u i s v i l l e , K Y :

W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 4 ) , 4 5 - 6 6 .

2 4 . C o n c e r n w i t h o v e r p o p u l a t i o n i s n o t a n a c h r o n i s t i c ; in f a c t, t h i s i s a m a i n

t h e m e of t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n A t r a - H a s i s e p i c . ( F o r t h e t e x t , s e e S t e p h a n i e

Dal ley, Myths from Mesopo tamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others

[ O x f o r d : O x f o r d U ni v. P r e ss , 1 9 9 1 ] , 1 - 3 8 . )

2 5 . O n m e r i s m s , s e e L u i s A l o n s o S c h ö k e l , A Manual of Hebrew Poetics ( R o m e :

P o n t i f i c i o I s t i t u t o B i b l ic o , 1 9 8 8 ) , 8 3 - 8 4 .

2 6 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y t h e r e a d i n g of t h i s v e r s e p r o p o s e d i n C a r o l M e y e r s ,

Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Wom en in Context ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v .

P r es s, 1 9 8 8 ) , 9 5 - 1 2 1 .

2 7 . T h o u g h s o m e h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r of h i s s to r y , t h e Y a h w i s t , m a y

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b e a w o m a n , t h i s is m o s t u n l i k e l y . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e B o o k of R u t h ,

w h i c h s h o w s p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h e w o m e n ' s w o r l d a n d d e p i c t s w o m e n

v e r y p o s i t i v e l y ( s e e " W o m e n i n E s t h e r a n d R u t h " i n c h a p t e r 2 6 ) , b i b l i c a l

a u t h o r s m a y b e a s s u m e d t o b e m a l e , u n l e s s t h e r e is s t r o n g e v i d e n c e o t h e r -

w i s e .

2 8 . N i d i t c h , " G e n e s i s , " 1 3 .

2 9 . I n c o n t r a s t to bara'(א ר ב ) , th e w o r d yatzar ר) צ י ) i s u sed in th i s s to ry , a word

o f t e n u s e d o f h u m a n p o t t e r s ( se e e s p e c i a l l y J e r . 1 8 ) .

C h a p t e r 7

1 . O n t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f g e n e a l o g i e s a n d t h e i r u s e , s e e R o b e r t R . W i l s o n ,

Genea logy and History in the Biblical World, Y N E R 7 ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y a l e

U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) , w h i c h h e s u m m a r i z e s in h i s a r t i c l e " G e n e a l o g y ,

G e n e a l o g i e s , " ABD , 2 . 9 2 9 - 9 3 2 .

2 . S e e J o h n v a n S e t e r s , Prologue to History: The Yahwist as Historian in Genesis

( L o u is v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 2 ) , 1 8 9 - 1 9 1 , f o l l o w i n g C l a u s

W e s t e r m a n n .

3 . G e r h a r d v o n R a d , Genesis, O T L ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 7 2 ) , 2 4 .

4 . T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e r o l e o f t h e M a t r i a r c h s is n o w i m m e n s e . S ee i n p a r t i c u -

la r A Feminist Com panion to Genesis, e d . A t h a l y a B r e n n e r ( S h e f f i e l d , U K :

S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e ss , 1 9 9 3 ) ; i d e m , Genesis: A Feminist Com panion to the

Bible (Second Series) ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) ; S u s a n

N i d i t c h , " G e n e s i s , " i n The Women's Bible Commentary, e d . C a r o l A . N e w s o m

a n d S h a r o n H . R i n g e ( L o u i s v i l le , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 2 ) ,1 0 - 2 5 , e s p . 1 5 - 2 5 ; a n d A l i c e O g d e n B e l l i s , Helpmates, Harlots, Heroes:

Wom en's Stories in the Hebrew Bible ( L o u i s v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 9 4 ) , 6 7 - 9 8 ( w i th e x t e n si v e b i b l i o g r a p h y ) .

5 . F o r a d i s s e n t i n g v i e w , s e e C a r o l M e y e r s , Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite

Women in Context ( N e w Y o r k: O x f o r d U n i v. P r e s s , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 4 - 4 6 .

6 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n m y b o o k The Creation of History in Ancient Israel

( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 5 ) , 1 0 - 1 2 .

7 . S e e a b o v e , c h a p t e r 4 .

8 . S e e S u s a n N i d i t c h , Underdo gs and Tricksters: A Prelude to Biblical Folklore ( S a n

F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r a n d R o w, 1 9 8 7 ) , 7 0 - 1 2 5 .

9 . Q u i t e p o s s i b l y G e n e s i s 2 2 : 1 5 - 1 8 i s n o t a n o r i g i n a l p a r t o f t h i s s t or y , a s

n o t e d b y m o s t c o m m e n t a r i e s . F o r t h e m e a n i n g of t h e b i n d i n g of I sa a c s to r y

b e f o r e t h e s e v e r s e s w e r e a d d e d , s e e J o n D . L e v e n s o n , The Death and

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Resurrection of the Beloved Son: The Transformation of Child Sacrifice in Judaism

and Christianity ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y al e U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 3 ) . H e p r o p e r l y

e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e s t o r y m a y not b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a p o l e m i c ag a i n s t c h i l d

s a c r i f i c e .

1 0 . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s ar e t a k e n f r o m J a m e s L. K u g e l , The Bible as It Wa s,

1 4 4 - 4 6 .

1 1 . " P s e u d e p i g r a p h a " a re n o n c a n o n i c a l w o r k s th a t o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e J e w i s h

H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . M o s t o r i g i n a t e d i n H e b r e w , b u t t h e y s u r v i v e d b e c a u s e

t h e C h u r c h p r e s e r v e d t h e m i n G r e e k , L a ti n , S y r i a c, E t h i o p i e , a n d o t h e r l a n -

g u a g e s . T h e t e r m m e a n s " f al se w r i t i n g s " b e c a u s e m a n y o f t h e P s e u d -

e p i g r a p h a p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s as a u t h e n t i c w o r d s of a w e l l - k n o w n s a ge , s u c ha s M o s e s . J a m e s H . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a s c o l l e c t e d t h e m i n The Old Testament

Pseudepigrapha , 2 v o l s . ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : D o u b le d a y , 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 5 ) .

1 2 . L o u i s G i n z b e r g , The Legends of the Jews, t r a n s . H e n r i e t t a S z o l d ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y, 1 9 6 8 ; r e i s s u e d , 2 0 0 2 ) , 1 . 2 2 1 - 2 2 2 . A v e r s i o n o f

t h i s b o o k w i t h o u t t h e v a l u a b l e f o o t n o t e s i s a v a i l ab l e u n d e r t h e t it le Legends

of the Bible.

1 3 . G i n z b e r g , Legends of the Jews, 1 . 2 2 4 ; f o r t h e s o u r c e s , s e e 5 . 2 2 1 , n . 7 5 .

14 . Antiquities, 1 . 1 6 4 ; f o r t h e t r a n s l a t i o n , s e e H . S t . J . T h a c k e r y , J o s e p h u s I V :

Jewish Antiquities Books I-IV, L o e b C l a s s ic a l L i b r a r y ( C a m b r i d g e , M A :

H a r v a r d U n i v. P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , v o l . 1 , 8 1 . J o s e p h u s h a s h e r e r e c o n c i l e d G e n e s i s

1 2 w i th t h e s im i l a r s t o r i e s i n c h a p t e r s 2 0 a n d 2 6 .

1 5 . W h a t f o l l o w s i s a s u m m a r y o f " T h e T y p o l o g i e s o f G e n e s i s " i n m y b o o k

The Creation of Histoiy in Ancient Israel, 4 8 - 6 1 ; s e e t h e r e f o r e x t e n s i v e

d o c u m e n t a t i o n .

1 6 . S e e Y o h a n a n M u f f s , Love and Joy: Law, Languag e and Religion in Ancient Israel

( C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n iv . P r e ss , 1 9 9 2 ) , 6 7 - 9 5 .

1 7 . F o r l i t e r a tu r e o n t h e w i f e - s i s t e r m o t i f , s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History,

1 7 6 , n . 3 0 , a n d 1 7 7 , n n . 3 5 , 3 6 .

1 8 . S e e m y b o o k The Creation of History, 4 8 , a n d m o r e g e n e r a l l y m y a r t i c l e

"C y c l i c a l a n d T e l e o lo g i c a l T im e i n t h e H e b r e w B ib l e , " i n Time and

Temporality in the Ancient World, e d . R a lp h M . R o s e n ( P h i l a d e lp h i a : U n iv . o f

P e n n s y l v a n ia M u s e u m of A r c h a e o l o g y a n d A n t h r o p o lo g y , 2 0 0 4 ) , 1 1 1 - 2 8 .

1 9. S e e e s p e ci a l ly t h e t e n u o u s c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e E x o d u s a n d t h e S a b b a t h

i n D e u t e r o n o m y 5 : 1 5 — i t is t r a n s p a r e n t h o w t h e S a b b a t h is r e l a t e d t o e r e-

a t i o n i n t h e E x o d u s D e c a l o g u e , b u t it is l e ss c l e a r h o w it c o m m e m o r a t e s t h e

E x o d u s .

20 . See , e .g . , Robe r t A l te r , The Art of Biblical Narrative ( NY : B a s ic , 1 9 8 1 ) , 5 - 1 2 .

2 1 . S e e , e . g ., W . L e e H u m p h r e y s , Joseph and His Fam ily: A Literary Study

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( C o l u m b i a : U n iv . o f S o u t h C a r o l i n a P r es s , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 5 - 3 1 ; a n d V a n S e t er s ,

Prologue to History, 3 1 1 .

2 2 . O n t h e s i g n i f a n c e o f t h e f i r s t b o r n , a n d g e n e r a l l y o n t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e o f

b ib l i c a l g e n e a lo g i e s , s e e t h e w o r k s o f W i l s o n c i t e d a b o v e , n . 1 .

2 3 . S ee F r e d e r i c k E . G r e e n s p a h n , When B rothers Dwell Together: The Preeminence

of Younger Siblings in the Hebrew Bible ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) .

24 . Pe t e r F E l l i s , The Yahwist: The Bible's First Theologian ( L o n d o n : G . C h a p m a n ,

1 9 6 9 ) , 1 3 6 - 3 8 .

C h a p t e r 8

1 . F o r w h y I p r e f e r t h e t e r m "D e c a lo g u e , " s e e p . 6 4 , "T h e D e c a lo g u e . "

2 . F o r E x o d u s 2 0 , v e r s e n u m b e r i n g v a ri e s a m o n g B ib le e d i t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e r e

a r e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e n u m b e r i n g of t h e v e r s e s o f t h e D e c a l o g u e . T h e n u m -

b e r s u s e d h e r e f o l l o w t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n .

3 . O n t h e b a s i c s im i l a r i t i e s b e tw e e n b ib l i c a l v i e w s a n d t h o s e o f I s r a e l s n e ig h -

b o r s , s ee M o r t o n S m i t h , " T h e C o m m o n T h e o l o g y of t h e A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t ,"

JB L 7 1 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 1 3 5 - 4 7 .

4 . F o r r e a s o n s t h a t w i l l b e c o m e m o r e c l e a r l a t e r ( s ee b e l o w , " T h e C o v e n a n t

C o l l e c t i o n " ) , I a m a v o i d i n g t h e t e r m " c o d e . " I n s t e a d , I a m u s i n g t h e t e r m i -

n o l o g y f o u n d i n a r e c e n t t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e s e a n d o t h e r l aw s : M a r t h a T. R o t h ,

Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, S BL W r i t i n g s f r o m t h e

A n c i e n t W o r l d S e r i e s ( A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 5 ) .

5 . R o t h , Law Collections, 8 0 - 8 1 .

6 . I b id . , 1 3 3 .7 . I b id . , 1 3 5 .

8 . See m y God Is King, 1 1 3 .

9 . S e e K e i t h W h i t e l a m , The Just King: Mo narchical and Judicial Authority in

Ancient Israel, J S O T S u p 1 2 ; ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : J S O T P re s s , 1 9 7 9 ) . N o t e e s p .

D e u t e r o n o m y 1 7 : 8 - 1 3 , w h i c h g i v e s t h e l e v it i ca l p r i e s t s a j u d i c i a l r o le i n a

u n i t t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s th e la w o f t h e k i n g ( 1 7 : 1 4 - 2 0 ) . T h a t l a w

e m p h a s i z e s t h e k i n g ' s s u b s e r v i e n c e t o t h e l a w a n d t h e l ev i ti c al p r i e s t s

( 1 7 : 1 8 - 2 0 ) . Se e a l s o t h e a c c o u n t o f 2 C h r o n i c l e s 1 9 : 4 - 1 1 , c o n c e r n i n g K i n g

J e h o s h a p h a t , a n d t h e c o m m e n t s in S ar a J a p h e t , I & II Chronicles, O T L :

( L o u i s v i ll e , KY, 1 9 9 3 ) , 7 7 0 - 7 9 .

10 . The re fe rence i s to l iv ing long in the l and o f I s rae l , no t to pe r sona l longev i ty .

1 1 . M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " S o m e P o s t u l a t e s of B i b li ca l C r i m i n a l L a w , " i n J u d a h

G o l d i n , e d . , The Jewish Expression ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y al e U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) ,

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1 8 - 3 7 , d e v e l o p s t h e v i e w t h a t t h e e n t i r e B i b l e p r e s u m e s t h a t all l a w w a s r e l i -

g i o u s , d i v i n e la w . T h i s h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d m o r e r e c e n t l y ; s e e , e . g . , A n n e

F i t z p a t r i c k - M c K i n l e y , The Transformation of Torah from Scribal Advice to Law,

J S O T S u p 2 8 7 (S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P re s s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

1 2 . F r o m l a w 1 4 o f t h e M i d d l e A s s y r i a n L a w s ( R o t h , Law Collections, 1 5 8 ) .

1 3 . T e x t s s u c h a s t h e s e a r e d o w n p l a y e d b y G r e e n b e r g — s e e n . 1 1 .

1 4 . T h i s i s e x p l o r e d i n m y p a p e r , " T h e M a n y F a c e s o f G o d i n E x o d u s 1 9 , " i n

Jews, Christians, and the Theology of the Hebrew Scriptures, e d . A l ic e O g d e n

B e l li s a n d J o e l S . K a m i n s k y , S B L S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s 8 ( A t l a n t a : S o c i e t y o f

B i b li ca l L i t e r a t u r e , 2 0 0 0 ) , 3 5 3 - 6 7 .

1 5 . F o r a c o n t r a r y o p i n i o n — t h a t o n l y t h e t h r e e m a i n s o u r c e s , J , E , a n d Ρ a r ec o m b i n e d h e r e — s e e B a r u c h J . S c h w a r t z , " W h a t R ea ll y H a p p e n e d at M o u n t

S i n a i ? F o u r B i b l i c a l A n s w e r s t o O n e Q u e s t i o n , " Bible Review 1 3 : 5 ( 1 9 9 7 ) :

2 0 - 3 0 , 4 6 .

1 6 . M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " T h e D e c a l o g u e T r a d i t i o n C r i t i c a l l y E x a m i n e d , " i n The

Ten Com mand ments in History and Tradition, e d . B e n - Z i o n S e g a l ( J e r u s a l e m :

M a g n e s , 1 9 9 0 ) , 9 6 - 9 9 ; J a m e s K u g e l , The Bible as It Was ( C a m b r i d g e , M A :

B e l k n a p , 1 9 9 7 ) , 3 8 2 - 8 4 .

1 7 . T h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a m o n g t h e v i e w s o f v a r i o u s C h r i s t i a n d e n o m -

i n a t i o n s , a n d a m o n g v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s , r e g a r d i n g t h e d i v i si o n o f t h e

c o m m a n d m e n t s w i t h i n t h e D e c a l o g u e . S ee t h e c h a r t i n E d u a r d N i e l s e n , The

Ten Com mandm ents in New Perspective: A Traditio-historical Approach, S B T 2 7

( N a p e r v i l l e , IL : A l l e n s o n , 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 0 .

1 8 . S e e, e . g. , J o h a n n J a k o b S t a m m a n d M a u r i c e E d w a r d A n d r e w , The Ten

Commandm ents in Recent Research, S B T 2 2 ( N a p e r v i l l e , IL : A l l e n s o n , 1 9 6 7 ) ,

1 8 - 2 0 ; M o s h e W e i n f e l d , " T h e U n i q u e n e s s of t h e D e c a l o g u e a n d i ts P l a ce i nJ e w i s h T r a d i t i o n , " i n The Ten Comm andments in History and Tradition, e d .

B e n - Z i o n S e g al ( J e r u s a l e m : M a g n e s , 1 9 9 0 ) , 6 - 8 .

1 9 . S e e t h e c h a r t i n M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " T h e D e c a l o g u e T r a d i t i o n C r i t i c a l l y

E x a m i n e d , " 9 2 - 9 3 .

2 0 . K u g e l , The Bible as It Was, 3 8 3 - 8 4 .

2 1 . N o t e h o w i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e a s o n g i v e n fo r S a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e i n t h e

D e c a l o g u e i n D e u t e r o n o m y f it s w i t h D e u t e r o n o m y ' s b r o a d e r i n t e re s t i n

e m p h a s i z i n g t h e E x o d u s f r o m E g y p t . O n t h e i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e d e v e l -

o p m e n t o f t h e D e c a l o g u e , s e e B . L e v i n s o n i n t h e JSB, 3 7 6 , o n D e u t e r o n o m y

5 : 9 .

2 2 . T h e a n c i e n t t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s o f f e r c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e f o r

t h e f l u i d i t y o f t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t i n l a t e a n t i q u i t y . F o r a b r o a d d i s c u s s i o n o f t e x -

t u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e B i b l e , s e e E m a n u e l Τ ο ν , Textual C riticism of the

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Hebrew Bible ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) ; f o r e s s a y s o n t h e B i b le as

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s , s e e i n a d d i t i o n E u g e n e U l r i c h , The Dead

Sea Scrolls and the Origins of the Bible ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

2 3 . T h a t t h e c h i l d ' s d e a t h i s a p u n i s h m e n t o f D a v i d is c l e a r i n t h e H e b r e w t e x t ,

t h o u g h t h e p o i n t is o b s c u r e d b y t r a n s l a t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f J P S ) t h a t

i n c o r r e c t l y r e n d e r he-evir ( ר י ב ע ה , " h a s t r a n s f e r r e d " ) a s " h a s r e m i t t e d " ; s e e S .

B a r - E f r a t i n t h e JSB , 6 3 9 , o n 2 S a m u e l 1 2 : 1 3 .

2 4 . S e e M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e , " T o r a h a n d T r a d i t i o n , " i n Tradition and Theology in the

Old Testament, e d . D o u g l a s A . K n i g h t ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) ,

2 7 9 - 8 0 , a n d v a r i o u s p l a c e s i n F i s h b a n e ' s Biblical Interpretation in Ancient

Israel ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 8 5 ) .2 5 . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e v i d e n c e c i t e d in n . 2 1 , it i s n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e S a b b a t h

c o m m a n d m e n t s e e m s t o a d d r e s s w o m e n , w h i le t he c o m m a n d m e n t c o n -

c e r n i n g c o v e t i n g o n e ' s n e i g h b o r ' s w i f e d o e s n o t , a l s o s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e

D e c a l o g u e h a s a c o m p l e x h i s t o r y o f c o m p o s i t i o n .

2 6 . F i s h b a n e , " T o r a h a n d T r a d i t i o n , " 2 7 5 - 3 0 0 ; M e i r W e i s s , " T h e D e c a l o g u e i n

P r o p h e t i c L i t e r a t u r e , " i n The Ten Commandm ents in History and Tradition,

6 7 - 8 1 .

2 7 . M u c h a b o u t t h e l a w c o l l e c t i o n in E x o d u s c o n t i n u e s t o b e d e b a t e d ; s e e e s p .

t h e e s s a y s i n Theory and Method in Biblical and Cuneiform Law: Revision,

Interpolation, and Developm ent, e d . B e r n a r d M . L e v i n s o n , J S O T S u p 1 8 1

( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) .

2 8 . N o t e t h e t it l e o f R o t h ' s b o o k ( c o n t a i n i n g t e x t s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s ) , Law

Collections. A ll o f t h e s e c o l l e c t i o n s d i f f e r f r o m t h e l a t e r R o m a n l e g al c o d e s i n

s i ze , o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d u s e .

2 9 . S e e A l b r e c h t A l t , " T h e O r i g i n s o f I s r a e l i t e L a w , " i n Essays on Old TestamentHistory and Religion ( G a r d e n C ity , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 6 7 ) , 1 0 1 - 7 1 ; W

M a l c o l m C l a r k , " La w ," i n Old Testament Form Criticism, e d . J o h n H . H a y e s

( S a n A n t o n i o , T X : T r i n it y U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 4 ) , 9 9 - 1 3 9 .

3 0 . T h e t r a n s l a t i o n f o l lo w s R o t h , Law Collections, 1 2 3 , a l t h o u g h I h a v e r e n d e r e d

i , w h i c h s h e l e a v e s u n t r a n s l a t e d , a s "a m e m b e r o f t h e u p p e r c l as s ."

3 1 . R o t h , Law Collections, 1 2 5 .

3 2 . I n t h e A k k a d i a n o f H a m m u r a b i — a s i n t h e H e b r e w of t h e B i b l e — t h e r e is n o

s e p a r a t e g e n d e r - i n c l u s i v e p r o n o u n , s o " h e " i s u s e d t o i n c l u d e b o t h m a l e s

a n d f e m a l e s . I n m a n y o f t h e l a w s t h a t f o l l o w , " h e " o r " h i m " m a y b e u s e d i n

a g e n d e r - n e u t r a l s e n s e .

3 3 . R o t h , Law Collections, 1 2 8 .

3 4 . I b i d . , 7 3 - 7 6 .

3 5 . T h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e l a rg e l y t a k e n f r o m M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " S o m e

P o s t u l a t e s o f B i b l i c a l C r i m i n a l L a w , " i n The Jewish Expression, e d . J u d a h

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G o l d i n ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 8 - 3 7 ; i d e m , " M o r e

R e f l e c t i o n s o n B i b l i c a l C r i m i n a l L a w , " ScrHier 3 1 ( 1 8 6 ) , 1 - 1 7 ; a n d J . J .

F i n k e l s t e i n , T h e Ox That Gored, T A P S 7 1 / 2 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : A m e r i c a n

P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 8 1 ) . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , s e e D a v i d Ρ W r i g h t , " T h e L a w s

of H a m m u r a b i as a S o u r c e f o r t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n ( E x o d u s

2 0 : 2 3 - 2 3 : 1 9 ) , " Maarav 1 0 ( 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 1 - 8 7 .

3 6 . S o m e s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e l a w h e r e is c o m p o s i t e , w h e r e a n e a r l i e r l a w

i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e o w n e r b e k i l le d , a n d t h a t t h i s i s s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a l a t e r

l a w t h a t a l l o w e d f o r t h i s r a n s o m i n g .

3 7 . S e e t h e a r t i c l e o f G r e e n b e r g c i t e d a b o v e ( n . 3 5 ) .

3 8 . It i s u n c l e a r h o w t h e v a l u e of t h e " t w e n t y s h e k e l s " of s i lv e r i n H a m m u r a b ic o m p a r e s t o t h e " t h i r t y s h e k e l s " o f t h e C o v e n a n t C o l l e c t i o n .

3 9 . O n D e u t e r o n o m y ' s cheirem a s " a t h e o r y , " s e e M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " H e r e m , " E J ,

8 . 3 4 9 ; o n t h e j u b i l e e y e a r a s r e a l o r i d e a l , s e e C h r i s t o p h e r J . H . W r i g h t ,

" Jub i lee , Year o f , " ABD, 3 . 1 0 2 7 - 1 0 2 8 .

4 0 . S e e Theory and Method in Biblical and Cuneiform Law , e d . B e r n a r d M . L e v i n -

s o n . F o r a d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n , s e e J o h n v a n S e t e r s , A Law Book for the Diaspora:

Revision in the Study of the Covena nt Code ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d , 2 0 0 3 ) .

4 1 . S e e t h e e s s a y s b y G r e e n b e r g ( n . 3 5 ) .

C h a p t e r 9

1 . " R i t u a l" h a s b e e n d e f i n e d i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s , a n d n o p r e c i s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f r i t u a l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d h e r e . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n , s e e D a v i d Ρ W r i g h t , Ritual

in Narrative: The Dynam ics of Fasting, Mourning, and Retaliation Rites in theUgaritic Tale of Aqhat ( W i n o n a L a k e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s , 2 0 0 1 ) , 8 - 1 3 .

2 . G u s t a v o B e n a v i d e s , " M o d e r n i t y , " i n Critical Terms for Religious Studies, e d .

M a r k C . T a y l o r ( C h i c a g o : U n i v . o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) , 1 9 6 .

3 . J u l i u s W e l l h a u s e n , Prolegom ena to the History of Ancient Israel ( G l o u c e s t e r ,

M A : P e t e r S m i t h , 1 9 7 3 ) . F o r a s u m m a r y , se e t h e f o r e w a r d of D o u g l a s A .

K n i g h t i n t h e r e c e n t r e p r i n t b y S c h o l a r s P r e s s ( A t l a n t a , 1 9 9 4 ) , v - x v i ; s p e c i f -

i c a l l y o n W e l l h a u s e n ' s v i e w s o n r e l i g i o n , s e e P a t r i c k D . M i l l e r , J r . ,

" W e l l h a u s e n a n d t h e H i s t o r y o f I s r a e l ' s R e l i g i o n , " Semeia 2 5 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 6 1 - 7 3 .

4 . F o r a l is t o f r i t u a l t e x t s f r o m U g a r i t , s e e W r i g h t , Ritual in Narrative, 2, n . 4 .

5 . S e e W r i g h t , Ritual in Narrative; G . d e l O l m o L e t e , Canaanite Religion

According to the Liturgical Texts of Ugarit, t r a n s . W . G . E . W a t s o n ( W i n o n a

L a k e , I N : E t s e n b r a n s , 2 0 0 4 ) .

6 . A s m a l l n u m b e r of r i t u a l t e x t s f r o m Is ra e l' s n e i g h b o r s a r e c o l l e c t e d i n A N E T ,

3 2 5 - 6 1 ; C O S, 1 . 5 5 - 5 7 , 1 6 0 - 6 8 , 2 9 5 - 3 2 9 , 4 2 7 - 4 4 .

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7 . S ee J . H . H e r t z , The Authorized Daily Prayer B ook of the United Hebrew

Congreg ations of the British Empire ( L o n d o n : N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l fo r J e w i s h

R e l ig i o us E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 4 5 ) , 9 1 2 - 1 3 .

8 . I c o l l e c t e d m u c h of t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n n o t e d b e l o w w i t h t h e h e l p

of HALOT, v o l . 2 , 4 9 3 - 9 4 . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s i o n , s e e B a r u c h A.

L e v i n e , In the Presence of the Lord: A Study of Cult and Som e Cultic Terms in

Ancient Israel ( L e i d e n : B ril l, 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 2 3 - 2 7 . T h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n c o n -

c e r n s t h e u s e o f t h e r o o t k-p-r s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h e Piel c o n j u g a t i o n ( a n d r e l a t -

e d c o n j u g a t i o n s ) .

9 . S e e J . P a y n e S m i t h , A Compendious Syriac Dictionary Founded Upon the

Thesaurus Syriacus of R. Payne Sm ith, D.D. ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e ss , 1 9 7 6 ) ,2 2 3 .

1 0 . C A D , Κ 1 7 9 .

1 1 . L e v i t i c u s 1 6 d e s c r i b e s t h e ritu al a s i t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s s a n c t u a r y ,

t h o u g h I a g r e e w i t h m o s t s c h o l a r s t h a t it i s r e t r o j e c t i n g T e m p l e p r a c t i c e i n t o

t h e ( m y t h i c ) p e r i o d o f t h e w a n d e r i n g . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , 1 w i l l t r e a t it a s a

T e m p l e r i t u a l t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r .

1 2 . S e e a l s o E x o d u s 3 0 : 1 0 .

13 . S ee , e .g . , the NR SV

1 4 . J a c o b M i l g r o m , " I s r a e l s S a n c t u a r y : T h e P r i e s t l y ' P i c t u r e o f D o r i a n G r a y , " ' RB

8 3 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 3 9 0 - 9 9 . I h a v e b a s e d m u c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t r e a t m e n t o n

M i l g r o m s a r t i c l e , a n d o n h i s e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f L e v i t i c u s 1 6 in h i s

Leviticus 1-16, A B ( G a r d e n C ity , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 0 0 9 - 1 0 8 4 .

M i l g r o m c a l l s t h i s b i b l i c a l c h a p t e r " T h e D a y o f P u r g a t i o n . " S e e a l s o t h e

d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s c h a p t e r b y B. S c h w a r t z i n t h e JSB, 2 4 3 - 4 7 .

1 5 . O n t h e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n E z e ki e l' s p r o p h e c i e s a n d t h e P r i e s t lyc o r p u s , s e e W a l t h e r Z i m m e r l i , Ezekiel 1, H e r m e n e i a ; ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s ,

1 9 7 9 ) , 5 2 .

1 6. M o r t o n C o g a n , Imperialism and Religion: Assyria, Judah and Israel in the E ighth

and Seventh Centuries B.C.E., S B L M S ( M i s s o u l a , M T : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 7 4 ) , 9 - 2 1 .

1 7 . T h e s u g g e s t e d t r a n s l a t i o n a c c o r d s w i t h t h e n o t e in t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n a t

L e v i t i c u s 4 : 3 .

1 8 . M i l g r o m , " I sr a e l' s S a n c t u a r y , " 3 9 1 .

1 9 . T h e t y p i c a l b i b l i c a l t e r m f o r t h e T e m p l e i s beit YHWH ( H I T ת י ב , " t h e h o u s e

of th e LORD"), w h ic h sh o u ld b e t ak en l i te r a l ly .

2 0 . B. J a n o w s k i , " A z a ze l ," i n D D D , 1 2 8 - 3 1 .

2 1 . M i l g r o m , L e vi ti cu s, 1 0 2 0 - 2 1 .

2 2 . I s r a e l K n o h l , The Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly T orah and the Holiness

School ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 5 ) .

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2 3 . A l t h o u g h la t e r J u d a i s m h a s c o n f l a t e d t h e s e t w o fe s ti v al s, h e r e — a n d i n m o s t

o t h e r p l a c e s i n t h e B i b l e — t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e , c o n t i g u o u s f e s t i v a l s .

24 . See Je f f re y H . T igay , The JPS Torah Comm entaiy: Deuteronomy ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n So ci et y, 1 9 9 6 ) , 4 7 2 - 7 6 .

2 5 . S e e , e . g ., t h e h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e b u t c o n t r o v e r s i a l p r o p o s a l c o n c e r n i n g p e r -

m i t t e d a n d f o r b i d d e n f o o d i n M a r y D o u g l a s , "T h e A b o m i n a t i o n s o f

L e v i t i c u s , " i n Punty and Danger ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e & K e g a n P a u l , 1 9 6 9 ) ,

4 1 - 5 7 . M e a n w h i l e , th e c l as si c r a b b i n i c n o t i o n c a n n o t b e u p h e l d t h a t a chok

( p in ) r e f e r s t o a c l a s s o f l a w th a t d e f i e s r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n . I n f a c t , c o m -

p a r a t i v e a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e m a k e t h e l a w s a s s o c i a t ed w i t h o n e

chok— reg ard in g t h e r e d h e i f e r ( N u m . 1 9 ) — r a th e r t r a n s p a r e n t ; s e e , e . g . , N .F o x i n t h e JSB , 3 2 1 - 2 3 .

2 6 . S e e I s r a e l K n o h l , " B e t w e e n V o i c e a n d S i l e n c e : T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

P r a y e r a n d T e m p l e C u l t , " J B L 1 1 5 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , 1 7 - 3 0 .

2 7 . F o r a r i c h , d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f a n a ly s i s o f m a n y b ib l i c a l r i t u a l s , s e e S a u l M .

O l y a n , Rites and Rank: Hierarchy in Biblical Representations 0J Cult ( P r i n c e t o n ,

N J : P r i n c e t o n U n i v. P r e s s , 2 0 0 0 ) .

C h a p t e r 1 0

1. S e e "T h e D e c a lo g u e " i n c h a p t e r 8 . F o r a c o m p l e t e l i st o f d i f f e r e n c e s , s e e

c h a p t e r 8 , n . 1 9 .

2 . M o s h e W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School ( O x f o r d :

C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 7 2 ) , 3 2 6 - 3 0 .

3 . T h e b e s t s o u r c e f o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t t y p i f y D e u t e r o n o m y is W e i n f e l d ,Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School. M a n y of t h e s e a re s u m m a r i z e d i n

Je f f rey H . T igay , The JPS Torah Commentary: Deuteronomy ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e t y , 1 9 9 6 ) , x i i - x i x .

4 . F o r t h e l e g a l m a t e r i a l , s e e B e r n a r d M . L e v in s o n , Deuteronomy and the

Herm eneutics of Legal Innovation ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) ; f o r a

c o m p a r a b l e t r e a t m e n t o f s o m e n a r r a ti v e m a t e r i a l , s ee m y b o o k The Creation

of History in Ancient Israel, 6 2 - 7 8 .

5 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s p h r a s e i n L e v in s o n , Deuteronomy and the

Herm eneutics of Legal Innovation, 4 8 ; i d e m , " Y o u M u s t N o t A d d A n y t h i n g t o

W h a t I C o m m a n d Y o u: P a r a d o x e s of C a n o n a n d A u t h o r s h i p i n A n c i e n t

I s rae l , " Numen 5 0 ( 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 - 5 1 ; a n d m y b o o k The Creation of History, 7 8 .

6 . T h e s o u r c e s a n d h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e a c c o u n t i n K i n g s h a v e b e e n q u e s t i o n e d

r e c en t l y . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n N o r b e r t L o h f i n k , " R e c e n t D i s c u s s i o n o n

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2 K i n g s 2 2 - 2 3 : T h e S ta t e o f t h e Q u e s t i o n , " in A Song of Power and the Power

of Song: Essays on the Book of Deuteronom y, e d . D u a n e L. C h r i s t e n s e n

( W i n o n a L a k e , I N : 1 9 9 3 ) , 3 6 - 6 1 .

7 . Th is i s o f te n re f e r r ed to a s the Urtext ( o r i g in a l t e x t ) . T h i s Urtext, a s s c h o l a r s

i m a g i n e it , h a s g o t t e n s m a l l e r i n r e c e n t y e a r s , a s m o r e of D e u t e r o n o m y h a s

b e e n a s c r i b e d t o t h e e x i l i c p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d ; s e e , e . g . , R a y m o n d F P e r s o n ,

J r . , The Deuteronom ic School: History, Social Setting, a nd Literature ( A t l a n t a :

S o c i e ty o f B ib l i c a l L i t e r a tu r e , 2 0 0 2 ) . F o r a d i s c u s s io n o f t h e c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n ,

s e e E . W . N i c h o l s o n , Deuteronomy and Tradition ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s ,

1 9 6 7 ) , 5 8 - 8 2 . F o r cl a ss i ca l J e w i s h s o u r c e s , se e L o u i s G i n z b e r g , The Legends

of the Jews ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S oc ie ty , 1 9 6 8 ; r e i s s u e d , 2 0 0 2 ) ,

4 . 3 7 7 , n . 1 1 6 .

8 . See ab ov e , n . 5 .

9 . S ee t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n m y b o o k The Creation of History, 78.

1 0 . T h i s i s d e f e n d e d a t l e n g t h i n L e v i n s o n , Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of

Legal Innovation; fo r a d i f f e r en t v iew, see J o h n v an S e te r s , A Law Bo ok for the

Diaspora: Revision in the Study of the Covena nt Code ( N e w Y o rk : O x f o r d ,

2 0 0 3 ) .

1 1 . F o r t h i s , a n d a b r o a d e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e s t a t u s o f

w o m e n i n D e u t e r o n o m y , s e e C a r o l y n P r e s s l e r , The View of Women Found in

the Deuteronomic Family Laws, B Z A W 2 1 6 ( B e r li n : d e G r u y t e r , 1 9 9 3 ) a n d

E c k a r t O t to , "F a l se W e ig h t s i n t h e S c a l e s o f B ib l ic a l J u s t i c e ? D i f f e r e n t V ie w s

o f W o m e n f r o m P a t r i a r c h a l H i e r a r c h y t o R e l i g i o u s E q u a l i t y i n th e B o o k o f

D e u t e r o n o m y , " i n Gender and Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near

East, e d . V i c t o r H . M a t t h e w s et al ., J S O T S u p 2 6 2 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d

A c a d e m i c P r e ss , 1 9 9 8 ) , 1 2 8 - 4 6 .12 . See ab ov e , n . 3 .

1 3 . T h i s i s s h o w n in g r e a t d e t a i l in L e v in s o n , Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics

of Legal Innovation, 2 3 - 5 2 .

1 4 . T h e s a m e id e a i s r e f l e c t e d i n D e u t e r o n o m y 1 2 , w h i c h n o t o n l y d e s a c r a l i z e s

th e e a t i n g o f a n im a l s , b u t a l s o a l l o w s m e a t t o b e e a t e n o u t s i d e o f J e r u s a l e m .

S e e J a c o b M i l g r o m , " P r o f a n e S l a u g h t e r a n d a F o r m u l a i c K e y t o t h e

C o m p o s i t i o n of D e u t e r o n o m y , " HUCA 4 7 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 - 1 7 .

1 5 . S e e N a h u m M . S a r n a , The JPS Torah Comm entary: Exodus ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y, 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 2 0 .

1 6 . C r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s h a v e l o n g b e l i e v e d t h a t n o t al l o f t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r s a c tu a l -

ly b e l o n g t o D e u t e r o n o m y . R a t h e r , s o m e p a r t s o f t h e s e r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n -

e lu s io n t o t h e T o r a h f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s . F o r d e t a i l s , s e e m y a r t i c l e c o -

a u t h o r e d w i t h T h o m a s R ö m e r , " D e u t e r o n o m y 3 4 a n d t h e C a s e f o r a P e r s i a n

H e x a t e u c h , " JBL 1 1 9 ( 2 0 0 0 ) , 4 0 1 - 1 9 .

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1 7

18

1 9

20

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

26

2 7

28

2 9

3 0

G e o r g e E. M e n d e n h a l l , " C o v e n a n t F o r m s i n I s ra e li t e T r a d i t i o n , " BA 2 3 / 3

( S e p t . 1 9 5 4 ) , 2 - 2 2 ; r e p r i n t e d i n BAR 3 . 2 5 - 5 3 .

S e e e s p . W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, e s p . 5 9 - 1 7 8 ,

a n d t h e e a r l i e r a r t i c l e o f R . F r a n k e n a , "T h e V a s s a l - T r e at i e s o f E s a r h a d d o n

a n d t h e D a t i n g o f D e u t e r o n o m y , " OTS 1 4 ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 2 2 - 5 4 . A m o r e d e t a i l e d

s t u d y i s f o u n d in D e n n i s J . M c C a r t h y , Treaty and Covenant, A n B i b 2 1 ( R o m e :

B i b l i c a l I n s t i t u t e P r e s s , 1 9 7 8 ) . F o r c r i t i q u e s o f M e n d e n h a l l , W e i n f e l d , a n d

M c C a r t h y , se e E . W N i c h o l s o n , " C o v e n a n t in a C e n t u r y of S t u d y S i n c e

W e l l h a u s e n , " OTS 2 4 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 4 - 6 9 , r e p r i n t e d i n A Song of Power and the

Power of Song: Essays on the Book of Deuteronomy, e d . D u a n e L . C h r i s t e n s e n ,

7 8 - 9 3 ; i d e m , God and His People: Covenant and Theology in the Old Testament( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 6 - 8 2 .

W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, 1 1 5 . F o r o th e r s p e c i f i c

p a r a l l e l s , s e e 1 1 5 - 2 9 . T h e t e x t o f V T E , q u i t e s u r p r i s i n g ly , i s n o t f o u n d i n

C O S b u t m a y b e f o u n d i n ANET, 5 3 4 - 4 1 ; f o r t h e H i t t i t e t r e a t ie s , s e e 2 0 1 - 6 ,

5 2 9 - 3 0 .

W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, 2 4 4 - 8 1 ; t h e a p p r o p r i -

a t e n e s s o f t h i s w i s d o m i n f l u e n c e h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d b y C . B r e k e l m a n s ,

" W i s d o m I n f l u e n c e i n D e u t e r o n o m y , " i n The Song of Power, 1 2 3 - 3 4 .

E a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s o f s c h o l a r s c l a i m e d t h a t A s s y r i a im p o s e d i t s r e l i g io n o n

i t s v a s s a l s ; t h i s i s n o w b e l i e v e d t o b e i n c o r r e c t— s e e R ic h a r d L o w e r y , The

Reforming Kings, J S O T S u p 1 2 0 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : J S O T P r e s s , 1 9 9 0 ) .

F o r a s e n s i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s i d e a , s e e J o n D . L e v e n s o n , S in a i and Zion:

An E ntry into the Jewish Bible ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : W i n s t o n , 1 9 8 5 ) , e sp .

8 0 - 8 6 .

See n . 18 , ab ov e .

I t i s s t r i k in g t h a t t h i s p a r a g r a p h l a t e r b e c a m e s o s i g n i f i c a n t— i t i s n o t e s p e -

d a i l y i m p o r t a n t i n D e u t e r o n o m y o r e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B ib l e; a n d i n i ts o r i g i -

n a l c o n t e x t , it i s n o t e v e n a p r a y e r !

ANET, 5 3 7 , p a r a g r a p h 2 4 , l i ne 2 6 6 .

W i l l i a m L . M o r a n , " T h e A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e L o ve of

G o d in D e u t e r o n o m y , " CBQ 2 5 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 7 7 - 8 7 . T h i s is e x p a n d e d u p o n i n a

l e s s t e c h n i c a l f a s h io n b y S . D e a n M c B r id e , J r . , "T h e Y o k e o f t h e K in g d o m :

A n E x p o s i t i o n o f D e u t e r o n o m y 6 : 4 - 5 , " IN T 2 7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 2 7 3 - 3 0 6 .

I n t h i s c o n t e x t , " t h e s e w o r d s " l ik e ly r e f e r s t o t h e D e c a lo g u e , f o u n d i n t h e

i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r .

I n t h e r a b b i n i c v i e w , t h e l a t t e r a c t i o n s r e f e r t o t h e i n j u n c t i o n s f o r d o n n i n g

tefillin ( p h y l a c t e r i e s ) a n d a f f i x i n g a mezuzah t o e a c h d o o r p o s t .

S e e W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, 3 2 0 - 5 9 .

T h i s i d e a is s o m e t i m e s c a ll e d " r a di c a l m o n o t h e i s m " — a t e r m p o p u l a r i z e d b y

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T i k v a F r y m e r - K e n s k y , In the Wak e of the Godd esses: Wo men, Culture, and the

Biblical Transformation of Pagan My th ( N e w Y o r k : F r e e P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 ) .

3 1 . F o r e x a m p l e , is D e u t e r o n o m y ' s e m p h a s i s o n w o r s h i p in J e r u s a l e m o n l y a

political m o v e , n a m e l y a n a t t e m p t t o b r i n g t h e c u l t u n d e r r o y a l s u p e r v i s i o n ?

Or is i t a theological i d e a , n a m e l y t h a t t h e o n e G o d s h o u l d b e w o r s h i p e d i n

o n e w a y i n o n e p l a c e o n l y ?

C h a p t e r 1 1

1 . R i c h a r d D . N e l s o n , Joshua, O I L ( L o u i s v il l e, KY: W e s t m i n s t e r , J o h n K n o x ,1 9 9 7 ) , 2 - 3 .

2 . O n t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g I s ra e l it e h i s to r y , s e e c h a p t e r 4 .

3 . R e a s o n a b l e s u m m a r i e s of t h e p r e s e n t s t a te of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e m a y

b e f o u n d i n t w o r e c e n t b o o k s b y W i l l i a m G . D e v e r , What Did the Biblical

Writers Know and When Did They Know It? What Archaeology Can Tell Us about

the Reality of Ancient Israel ? ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 1 ) ; Who Were

the Israelites and Where Did They Come From? ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s ,

2 0 0 3 ) . F o r a s l i g h t l y o l d e r p o p u l a r s u m m a r y o f m a n y o f t h e i s s u e s , se e

H e r s h e l S h a n k s , e d . , The Rise of Ancient Israel ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : B i b l i c a l

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 9 2 ) .

4 . O n t o p o n y m s , s ee Y o h a n a n A h a r o n i , The Land of the Bible: A Historical

Geography, t r a n s . A . F R a i n e y ( L o n d o n : B u r n s ־& O a t e s , 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 0 5 - 3 0 .

5 . O l d e r s t u d i e s p o i n t t o c o l l a r - r i m m e d j a r s a n d f o u r - r o o m h o u s e s a s n e w

Is rae l i t e a r t i f ac t s in th i s pe r iod , bu t i t i s now c lea r tha t such s ty les p reda te

I s ra e l a n d a r e f o u n d e l s e w h e r e . T h e s a m e i s t r u e f o r t h e s u p p o s e d l y d i s t i n c -t i v e l a c k o f p i g b o n e s i n I s r a e l i t e s e t t l e m e n t s — t h i s i s f o u n d o u t s i d e o f I s r a e l

a s w e l l , a n d it m a y r e fl e c t c l i m a t e c h a n g e s o r n e w a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y p r a c t i c e s.

6 . O n t h e o r i g i n s o f I s r a e l , s e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d a b o v e i n n . 3 . A n i m p o r t a n t

e a r l y s t u d y t h a t d e v e l o p e d t h i s i d e a i s G e o r g e E. M e n d e n h a l l , " T h e H e b r e w

C o n q u e s t of P a l e s t in e , " BA 2 5 / 3 ( S e p t . 1 9 6 2 ) , 6 6 - 8 7 , r e p r i n t e d i n BAR,

3 . 1 0 0 - 1 2 0 .

7 . S o m e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a n d h i s t o r i a n s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e E x o d u s s t o r y m a y h a v e

s o m e b a s i s i n h i s to r y , i n t h a t a s m a l l g r o u p f r o m E g y p t j o i n e d t h e h i l l - c o u n -

t r y p i o n e e r s . H o w e v e r , s c a n t e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t o s u p p o r t t h i s c l a i m o u t s i d e o f

t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t . A s n o t e d , e a r l y I s r a e l i t e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e s h o w s l i t t l e i n f i u -

e n c e f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f E g y p t .

8 . I n J o s h u a 1 1 : 1 6 a n d a g a i n i n 2 1 : 4 3 , t h e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n d o e s n o t d i r e c t l y

r e n d e r e v e r y o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e w o r d kol.

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9 . M a r t i n B u b e r a n d F r a n z R o s e n z w e i g , Scripture and Translation, t r a n s .

L a w r e n c e R o s e n w a l d w i t h E v e r e t t F o x ( B l o o m i n g t o n , I N : I n d i a n a U n i v .

P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) , x x i - x x i i , x x x v i - x l ii , 1 1 4 - 2 8 , 1 4 3 - 5 0 ; m o r e r e c e n t l y o n " k e y

w o r d s " s e e S h i m o n B a r - E f r a t , Narrative Art in the Bible, J S O T S u p 7 0

( S h e f f ie l d , U K : A l m o n d P r es s , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 1 2 - 1 5 .

1 0 . E v e r e t t F o x , The Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Ex odus, Leviticus, Num bers,

Deuteronomy, S c h o c k e n B i b l e ( N e w Y o r k : S c h o c k e n , 1 9 9 5 ) , v o l . 1 ., x i - x i i .

1 1 . O n t h e b a n , s e e R i c h a r d N e l s o n , "Herem a n d t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c S o ci al

C o n s c i e n c e , " i n Deuteronom y and Deuteronom ic Literature: Festschiift for

C.H.W. Brekelmans, e d . M . V e r v e n n e a n d J . L u s t ( L e u v e n : L e u v e n U n iv . P r e s s ,

1 9 9 7 ) , 3 9 - 5 4 .1 2 . T h i s p i c t u r e c o u l d b e c o m p l i c a t e d f u r t h e r b y l o o k i n g a t t h e in i t ia l c h a p t e r s

o f J u d g e s — s e e c h a p t e r 1 2 , b e l o w .

1 3 . S e e , e . g . , Y o h a n a n A h a r o n i e t a l . , e d s . , The Carta Bible Atlas, 4 t h e d . ;

( J e r u s a l e m : C a r t a , 2 0 0 2 ) , 5 9 , m a p 6 9 .

1 4 . O n h o w th e f i r st b o o k s o f t h e B ib l e l it t o g e th e r , s e e m y a r t i c l e c o a u t h o r e d

w i t h T h o m a s R ö m e r , " D e u t e r o n o m y 3 4 a n d t h e C a s e f o r a P e r s ia n

H e x a t e u c h , " JB L 1 1 9 ( 2 0 0 0 ) , 4 0 1 - 4 1 9 .

1 5 . M a r t i n N o t h s b o o k w a s l a t e r t r a n s l a t e d u n d e r t h e t i t l e The Deuteronomistic

History, J S O T S u p 1 5 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : U n iv . o f S h e f f i e l d , 1 9 8 1 ) . F o r a n e v a l u -

a t i o n o f t h i s b o o k a n d i t s im p a c t , s e e S t e v e n L . M c K e n z i e a n d M . P a t r i c k

G r a h a m , e d s . , The History of Israel's Traditions: The Heritage of Ma rtin Noth,

J S O T S u p 1 8 2 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) .

1 6 . N o t h s t h e o r y h a s b e e n c r i t i ci z e d r e c en t l y , h o w e v e r , a n d i s b e g i n n i n g t o f al l

o u t o f f a v o r ; s e e , e . g . , G a r y N . K n o p p e r s , " T h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t a n d t h e

D e u t e r o n o m i c L a w o f t h e K i n g : A R e e x a m i n a t i o n o f a R e l a t i o n s h i p , " Z A W

1 0 8 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , 3 2 9 - 4 6 , a n d " R e t h i n k i n g th e R e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n D e u t e r -

o n o m y a n d t h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c H i s t o r y : T h e C a s e o f K i n g s , " CBQ 6 3

( 2 0 0 1 ) 3 9 3 - 4 1 5 .

1 7 . S e e , e . g . , R i c h a r d D . N e l s o n , The Doub le Redaction o f the Deuteronom istic

History, J S O T S u p 1 8 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : U n i v . o f S h e f f i e l d , 1 9 8 1 ) .

1 8 . S e e R a y m o n d F P e r s o n J r ., The Deuteronom ic School: History, Social Setting,

and Literature ( A t l a n t a : S o c i e ty o f B ib l i c a l L i t e r a tu r e , 2 0 0 2 ) . T h e p o s i t i o n

a s s u m i n g m o r e t h a n a d o u b l e r e d a c t i o n i s o f t e n c a l le d " t h e G ö t t i n g e n

S c h o o l . " O n e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t e x t o f D t r H a c c o r d i n g t o i t s s o u r c e s i s

f o u n d i n A n t o n y F. C a m p b e l l a n d M a r k A . O ' B r i e n , Unfolding the

Deuteronom istic History: Origins, Upgrade s, Present Text ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N :

F o r t r e s s , 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , a l m o s t as m a n y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f

D t r H ( a c c o r d i n g t o i ts s o u r c e s ) a s s c h o l a r s w o r k i n g o n t h e D t r H .

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1 9 . F o r e x a m p l e , " t h e A r k o f t h e LORD" i s m e n t i o n e d t e n t im e s i n J o s h u a , tw e n -

ty t im e s i n S a m u e l , a n d o n c e i n K in g s .

2 0 . I d i s c u s s i n g r e a t d e t a i l t h e p u r p o s e o f a n c i e n t s t o r y t e l l i n g in m y b o o k The

Creation of History.

2 1 . S e e N e l s o n , J o s h u a , 3 4 ; a n d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l , A l e x a n d e r R o f é , "T h e P i e ty o f

t h e T o r a h - D i s c i p l e s a t t h e W i n d i n g - U p o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e: J o s h . 1 : 8 ; P s .

1 :2 ; I s a . 5 9 :2 1 , " i n H e lm u t M e r k l e in e t a l . , e d s . , Bibel in jüdischer und

christlicher Tradition: Festschrift für Johann Maier z u m 6 0 . Geburtstag

( F r a n k f u r t a m M a in : A n t o n H a i n , 1 9 9 3 ) , 7 8 - 8 5 .

2 2 . T h e c h u t z p a h in v o l v e d in s u c h m o d i f i c a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d .

2 3 . F o r m o r e o n t h e l i t e r a r y d e v i c e o f r e s u m p t i v e r e p e t i t i o n , s e e m y Book of

Judges, O l d T e s t a m e n t R e a d i n g s ( L o n d o n : R o u t l ed g e , 2 0 0 2 ) , 9 5 - 9 6 .

2 4 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f e t i o lo g i e s w i t h s o u r c e s , s e e R J . v a n D y k , "T h e F u n c t i o n

o f S o - C a l l e d E t i o lo g i c a l E l e m e n t s i n N a r r a t i v e s , " ZAW 1 0 2 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 9 - 3 3 .

25 . See Robe r t E . Cooley , "Ai , " in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the

Near East, e d . E ri c M . M e y e r s ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d , 1 9 9 7 ) , 1 . 3 3 .

26 . The phra se "a s they s t i l l a re " i s ad ha-yom ha-zeh ( ΠΤΠ • ו י ה ד ע , l i tera l ly ,

" u n t i l t h i s d a y " ) . L i k e t h e e x p r e s s i o n " t h a t i s w h y " d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , it i s

a n o t h e r m a j o r m a r k e r o f a n e t i ol o g y.

2 7 . H e r m a n n G u n k e l , The Stones of Genesis ( B e r k e le y , C A : B IB A L , 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 8 - 2 4 .

2 8 . T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h i s l a n g u a g e is D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c m a y b e s e e n b y c h e c k -

i n g J o s h u a s p h r a s e s a g a i n s t t h e i n d e x t o W e i n f e l d s Deuteronomy and the

Deuteronomic School, 4 3 1 - 3 2 , o r b y l o o k i n g at t h e d i s c u s s i o n of J o s h u a 2 3

i n N e l s o n , Deuteronomy, 2 5 5 - 6 2 .

2 9 . T h e o n l y n o n - P r i e s t l y n a r r a t i v e s t h a t a s s u m e t h e I s r a e l i te p r a c t i c e of ritu al

c i r c u m c i s i o n a r e G e n e s i s 3 4 a n d t h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c H i s t o ry ' s o c c a s i o n a l( a n d u s u a l l y d i s p a r a g i n g ) r e f e r e n c e s t o P h i l i st i n e w a r r i o r s a s u n c i r c u m c i s e d ,

e . g . , J u d g e s 1 4 : 3 , 1 S a m u e l 1 8 : 2 5 , a n d 2 S a m u e l 1 : 2 0 .

3 0 . S e e t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f J o h n G r a y, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, N C B C ( G r a n d R a p i d s ,

M I : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 5 , t h a t t h e e x t e n t of P 's i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e c h a p t e r

h a s b e e n u n d e r e s t i m a t e d .

C h a p t e r 1 2

1. T h i s c h a p t e r is b a s e d o n m y b o o k The Creation of History in Ancient Israel

( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 5 ) , e s p . 9 1 - 1 1 1 ; a n d m y Book of Judges, O l d

T e s t a m e n t R e a d i n g s ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 2 0 0 2 ) . S e e t h e r e fo r e x te n s i v e

d o c u m e n t a t i o n .

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2 . J o h n B r i g h t , A History of Israel, 3 r d e d . ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 1 ) ,

1 3 1 .

3 . O n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h i s u n i t , a n d o n t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d f o l -

l o w i n g u n i t s , s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History in Ancient Israel, 9 1 - 1 1 1 .

4 . T h i s t r a n s l a t i o n r e p r o d u c e s t h e t e x t ' s t h r e e f o l d r e p e t i t i o n o f ve-ad ( ד ע ו ,

" i n c l u d i n g " ) , w h i c h h i g h l i g h t s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h J o n a t h a n g i v e s D a v i d h i s

c l o t h e s .

5 . N o t al l o f t h e c a s e s t h a t 1 a d d u c e b e l o w a r e e q u a l l y c o n v i n c i n g , b u t t o g e t h -

e r t h e y c e r t a i n l y f o r m a p a t t e r n o f c o n t r a s t s .

6 . S e e " T h e F i v e M a i n P o i n t s o f A m o s " i n c h a p t e r 1 6 .

C h a p t e r 1 3

1. T h i s is t h e m o t t o of t h e E u r o p e a n o r g a n i z a t i o n C L I O H , w h i c h s t a n d s fo r

" C r e a t i n g L i n k s a n d I n n o v a t i v e O v e r v i e w s t o E n h a n c e H i s t o r i c al P e r s p e c t i v e

i n E u r o p e a n C u l t u r e . "

2 . T h e t e r m " a n t i q u a r i a n i n t e r e s t " i s u s e d o f t e n b y B a r u c h H a l p e r n , The First

Historians: The Hebrew Bible and History ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r & R o w ,

1 9 8 8 ) . F o r a c r i t i q u e , s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History, e s p . 1 1 - 1 2 .

3 . M a n y w o u l d s t a t e t h i s o t h e r w i s e , t h a t S a m u e l i s b e t t e r " l it e r a t u r e " t h a n

K i n g s , b u t I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t e r m " l i t e r a t u r e " i s p r o b l e m a t i c o r m i s l e a d i n g

w h e n u s e d o f b i b l i c a l t e x t s ; s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History, 1 4 - 1 7 .

4 . T h e e x a m p l e is t a k e n f r o m J . M a x w e l l M i l le r , The Old Testament and the

Historian ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 - 3 .

5 . E d w i n R . T h i e l e u s e s t h i s p r i n c i p l e e x t e n s i v e l y i n h i s The Mysterious

Numbers of the Hebrew Kings ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : Z o n d e r v a n , 1 9 8 3 ) . H e

s o l v e s t h i s a n d o t h e r c h r o n o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s b y a s s u m i n g a l a r g e n u m b e r o f

" c o - r e g e n c i e s . "

6 . C O S , 2 . 1 3 7 ; c f . ANET 3 2 0 .

7 . See ANET, 2 8 4 - 8 5 ; COS 2 . 2 9 7 - 9 8 .

8 . S e e V o l k m a r F r i t z , 1 & 2 Kings, t r a n s . A n s e l m H a g e d o r n ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N :

F o r t r e s s , 2 0 0 3 ) , 2 8 .

9 . F o r t h e a n a l y s i s t h a t f o l l o w s , s e e m y a r t i c l e " T h e S t r u c t u r e of 1 K i n g s 1 - 1 1 , "JSOT 4 9 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 8 7 - 9 7 .

1 0 . T h e r e c o n t i n u e s t o b e a d e b a t e w i t h i n b i b li c a l s t u d i e s o n w h e t h e r t h e s e

c h a p t e r s c o m p l e t e 2 S a m u e l , a n d t o g e t h e r c o m p r i s e a h y p o t h e t i c a l s o u r c e

c a l l e d t h e s u c c e s s i o n n a r r a t i v e , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n " W h o w i l l s u c c e e d

D a v i d a s k i n g ? "

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1 1 . M . A v o t 1 :1 ; s e e J a c o b N e u s n e r , The Mishnah: A N e w Translation ( N e w

H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 1 ) , 6 7 2 .

1 2 . S ee M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel ( O x f o r d :

C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 8 5 ) . A c o n d e n s e d v e r s i o n of t h i s i s M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e , " I n n e r

B ib l ic a l E x e g e s i s : T y p e s a n d S t r a t e g i e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n A n c i e n t I s r a e l" i n

M idrash and Literature, e d . G e o f f r e y H . H a r t m a n a n d S a n f o r d B u d i c k ( N e w

H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 9 - 3 7 . S p e c i f i c a l l y o n i n t e r m a r r i a g e ,

s e e F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 1 2 5 - 2 6 ; a n d G a r y N .

K n o p p e r s , " S e x, R e l i g i o n , a n d P o l i ti c s: T h e D e u t e r o n o m i s t o n I n t e r m a r -

r i a g e , " HAR 1 4 ( 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 2 1 - 4 1 .

1 3 . S e e , e . g . , K a t h l e e n K e n y o n , Royal Cities of the Old Testament ( N e w Y o r k :S c h o c k e n , 1 9 7 1 ) , 5 3 - 7 0 .

1 4 . F o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w , s e e D e v e r , Wha t D id the Biblical Writers Know ?,

1 3 1 - 3 8 ; f o r t h e r e v i s i o n i s t v i e w , s e e I s r a e l F in k e l s t e i n a n d N e i l A s h e r

S i l b e r m a n , The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and

the Origin of Its Sacred Texts ( N e w Y o rk : T o u c h s t o n e , 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 3 5 - 4 2 .

1 5 . S e e Y o h a n a n A h a r o n i , The Archaeology of the Land o f Israel from the Prehistoric

Beginnings to the End of the First Tem ple Period, t r a n s . A n s o n R a i n e y

( P h i l a d el p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 0 1 - 3 .

1 6 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y D a v i d U s s i s h k i n , The Conq uest of Lachish by Sennache rib

( Te l A v iv: T el A v iv U n iv . , T h e I n s t i t u t e o f A r c h a e o lo g y , 1 9 8 2 ) ; M o r d e c h a i

C o g a n a n d H a y i m T a d m o r , II Kings, A B ( N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 8 8 ) ,

2 4 6 - 5 1 .

1 7 . T h e u s e o f H e b r e w p e r s o n a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l n a m e s (e . g ., J e r u s a l e m ) i n

A k k a d i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s o ff e r i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e fo r h o w H e b r e w w a s p r o -

n o u n c e d i n t h e b i b l i c a l p e r i o d . H e b r e w a t t h a t t i m e w a s w r i t t e n w i t h o u tv o w e l s ( w h i c h w e r e i n s e r t e d o n l y i n t h e la te fi rs t m i l l e n n i u m c . E . ) , w h i l e

A k k a d i a n w a s w r i t t e n s y ll a bi c al ly , w i t h v o w e l s .

1 8 . M a n y s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s n u m b e r i s a s c r i b a l e r r o r o r a n e x a g g e r a t i o n .

It w o u l d i m p l y a p o p u l a t i o n o f J u d e a o f s e v e r a l m i l l i o n a t t h i s ti m e , w h i c h

i s m o s t u n l i k e l y b a s e d o n o t h e r e v i d e n c e .

1 9 . C O S , 2 . 3 0 2 - 3 .

2 0 . O n t h e s e s u f f i x e s , s e e Z io n y Z e v i t , "A C h a p t e r i n t h e H i s to r y o f Is r a e l i t e

P e r s o n a l N a m e s , " BASOR 2 5 0 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 - 1 6 .

2 1 . T h e a n a ly s i s o f t h i s m a t e r i a l i s t o o c o m p le x t o b e d e t a i l e d h e r e . S e e B r e v a r d

S . C h i l d s , Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis, S B T23 ( L o n d o n : S C M , 1 9 6 7 ) ;

C h r i s t o p h e r R. S e i tz , Zion's Final Destiny: The Developm ent of the Book of

Isaiah: A Reassessment of the Isaiah 36-39 ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 1 ) .

2 2 . C o g a n a n d T a d m o r , II Kings, 2 6 0 - 6 3 .

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C h a p t e r 1 4

1 . O n C h r o n i c l e s i n g e n e r a l , s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History, 2 0 - 4 7 .

A d d i t i o n a l e x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l a p p e a r s in M . P a t r i c k G r a h a m a n d S t e v e n L.

M c K e n z i e , The Chronicler as Author: Studies in Text and Te xture, J S O T S u p 2 6 3

( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s, 1 9 9 9 ) ; a n d t h e c o m m e n t a r y o f

S a ra J a p h e t , I & II Chronicles, O T L (L o u i s v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 9 3 ) .

2 . A l t h o u g h E n g l i s h B i b l es t e n d t o p r i n t C h r o n i c l e s i n t w o p a r t s a n d E z r a a n d

N e h e m i a h a s s e p a r a t e b o o k s , a c c o r d i n g to J e w i s h s c r ib a l t r a d i t i o n

C h r o n i c l e s a n d E z r a - N e h e m i a h a r e e a c h s in g le b o o k s — s e e c h a p t e r 2, n n .

1 5 a n d 2 3 .

3 . I u s e t h e t e r m " C h r o n i c l e r " t o r e f e r t o t h e a u t h o r o f C h r o n i c l e s o nl y . F o r

m u c h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e b o o k o f E z r a - N e h e m i a h w a s s e e n a s a

c o n t i n u a t i o n of C h r o n i c l e s . E z r a - N e h e m i a h b e g i n s w h e r e C h r o n i c l e s e n d s .

H o w e v e r , in a s e m i n a l ar t i c le , S a ra J a p h e t , " T h e S u p p o s e d C o m m o n

A u t h o r s h i p o f C h r o n i c l e s a n d E z r a - N e h e m i a h I n v e s t ig a t e d A n e w , " V T 1 8

( 1 9 6 8 ) , 3 3 2 - 7 2 , a r g u e d t h a t t h e s t y li s ti c a n d t h e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n t h e t w o a r e t o o g r e a t t o s a y t h a t t h e y a r e w r i t t e n b y t h e s a m e p e r -s o n . A d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e ( c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i f f e r i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d i n t e r -

m a r r i a g e i n C h r o n i c l e s v e r s u s i n E z r a - N e h e m i a h ) c o r r o b o r a t e s t h a t j u d g -

m e n t ; s e e G a r y N . K n o p p e r s , " I n t e r m a r r i a g e , S o c i a l C o m p l e x i t y , a n d E t h n i c

D i v e r s i ty i n t h e G e n e a l o g y o f J u d a h , " JBL 1 2 0 ( 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 5 - 3 0 . A m a j o r i t y o f

s c h o l a r s h a v e a d o p t e d J a p h e t s c o n c l u s i o n s .

4 . J u d e a n s s o p r e d o m i n a t e d i n t h i s p e r i o d t h a t e v e n n o n - J u d e a n s c o u l d b e

c a l l e d J u d e a n s , a s i n E s t h e r 2 : 5 : " I n t h e f o r t r e s s S h u s h a n l i v e d a yehudi

( י ד ו ה י , " J u d e a n " o r " J e w " ) b y t h e n a m e of M o r d e c a i . . . a B e n j a m i n i t e . "

5 . F o r a s u m m a r y o f t h i s t h e o r y o f Z a d o k s h i d d e n p a s t , s e e G e o r g e W . R a m s e y ,

" Z a d o k , " ABD, 6 . 1 0 3 5 - 3 6 .

6 . S e e E l i a s B i c k e r m a n , From E zra to the Last of the Mac cabees: Found ations of

Postbiblical Judaism ( N e w Y o r k : S c h o c k e n , 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 2 . F o r m o r e d i s c u s s i o n

o n t h e r o l e o f h i s t o r i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y , s e e m y b o o k The Creation of History, e s p .

2 5 - 2 6 .

7 . S c h o l a r s d e b a t e w h e t h e r t h e C h r o n i c l e r s h o u l d b e c a l l e d a h i s t o r i a n a n d / o ra t h e o l o g i a n . I o u t l i n e w h y t h e s e t w o c o n c e p t s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e i n

The Creation of History, 4 6 - 4 7 .

8 . O n t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m i n C h r o n i c l e s , s e e H . G . M .

W i l l i a m s o n , Israel in the Books of Chronicles ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v .

P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) .

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9 . T h e e a s i e st w a y t o s e e t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s o m i s s i o n s a n d c h a n g e s i s t o u s e

b o o k s s u c h a s J . C . A n d r e s et a l. , Chronicles and Its Synoptic Parallels in

Samue l, Kings, and Related Biblical Texts ( C o l l e g e v i l l e , M N : L i t u r g i c a l P r e s s ,

1 9 9 8 ) , w h i c h l i st t h e t e x t s o f C h r o n i c l e s a n d i ts s o u r c e s i n p a r a l l e l c o l u m n s .

T h e l ar ge a m o u n t o f w h i t e s p a c e i n t h e s e c o l u m n s s h o w s h o w m u c h t h e

C h r o n i c l e r e i t h e r a d d s o r s u b t r a c t s p o r t i o n s of h i s s o u r c e s . S e e i n g s u c h

c h a n g e s b r i n g s t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s i d e o l o g y i n t o s h a r p e r r e l i e f .

1 0 . T h e H e b r e w t e x t a c t u a l l y r e f e r s t o t w o s e v e n - d a y f e s ti v a l s , b u t t h e s e c o n d

s e v e n - d a y f e s t i v a l i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a s c r i b a l e r r o r . I t i s m i s s i n g i n s e v e r a l

i m p o r t a n t S e p t u a g i n t m a n u s c r i p t s .

1 1 . I n t h i s v e r s e a n d i n t h e v e r s e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s , I a mi n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e v e r b b-sh-l ( ל ש ב ) b e tr a n s l a t e d as " b o i l " — i t s m e a n i n g i n

b i b li c al H e b r e w — r a t h e r t h a n a s t h e m o r e g e n e r i c " c o o k , " a m e a n i n g o f t e n

i n c o r r e c t l y a s s i g n e d t o it i n h a r m o n i z i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s .

1 2 . F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation, 1 3 5 - 3 6 .

1 3 . N o t e h o w Ρ i s r e p e t i ti v e a n d e m p h a t i c , e v e n s o u n d i n g p o l e m i c a l . M o s t l i ke -

l y Ρ i s p o l e m i c i z i n g a g a i n s t D o r s o m e s i m i l a r t e x t o r n o r m .

1 4 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t e r m ka-mishpat ( ע פ ש מ כ , "a s p r e s c r i b e d " ) i n

F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation, 2 0 9 - 1 3 .

1 5 . S e e " C l a s s i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n " i n c h a p t e r 1 .

1 6 . T h a t t h e T o r a h w a s a l r e a d y a s a c r e d t e x t m a y b e s e e n in t h e f r e q u e n t r e f e r -

e n c e s t o " t h e T o r a h , " " T h e T o r a h o f M o s e s , " " T h e T o r a h o f t h e L ORD" b o t h i n

C h r o n i c l e s a n d t h e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s E z r a - N e h e m i a h . J u d s o n R . S h a v e r di s-

c u s s e s m a n y o f t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s i n h i s Torah and the Chroniclers History Wo rk:

An Inquiry into the Chronicler's R eferences to Laws, Festivals, and Cultic Institutions

in Relationship to Pentateuchal Legislation (BJS 1 9 6 ; A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 9 ) ,t h o u g h m y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a n y i s su e s d i f fe r s f r o m h i s .

1 7 . F o r a l is t o f t h e s o u r c e s t h a t C h r o n i c l e s c l a i m s t o d r a w u p o n , s e e L e i m a n ,

Canonization, 1 8 .

1 8 . J a p h e t , I & II Chronicles, 2 0 - 2 3 .

C h a p t e r 1 5

1. M a r t t i N i s s i n e n , " P r e f a c e , " i n M a r t t i N i s s i n e n , e d . , Prophecy in Its Ancient

Near Eastern Context: Mesopotam ian, Biblical and Arabian Perspectives, SBL

S y m p o s i u m 1 3 ( A t l a n t a : S o c i e t y o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e , 2 0 0 0 ) , v i i . F o r a m o r e

d e t a i l e d d e f i n i t i o n , s e e D a v i d L . P e t e r s e n , " D e f i n i n g P r o p h e c y a n d P r o p h e t i c

L i t e r a t u r e , " i b i d . , 3 3 - 4 4 .

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2 . O n t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n m i l i e u , s e e t h e e x c e l l e n t s u m m a r y in H . B.

H u f f m o n , " P r o p h e c y (A N E ) , " A B D , 5 . 4 7 7 - 8 2 . F o r m o r e r e c e n t a n d d e t a i l ed

m a te r i a l , s e e Prophecy in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context ( s e e p r e v i o u s n o t e ) .

3 . S c h o l a r s w h o h a v e u n c o v e r e d a n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e s h a v e r e p e a t -

e d ly s h e d l i g h t o n b ib l i c a l t e x t s i n t h e p r o c e s s . T h a t i s b e c a u s e p e o p l e s

t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a st s h a r e d m a n y c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d

a s s u m p t i o n s ( s o m e t h i n g li k e w h a t w e m e a n w h e n w e s p e a k of " W e s t e r n c i v -

i l i z a t io n " t o d a y ) . A l s o , M e s o p o t a m i a ' s l e a d i n g c i t y - s t a t e s w e r e l o n g s t a n d i n g

p o l i t i c a l — a n d t h e r e fo r e c u l t u r a l — c e n t e r s i n t h e r e g io n . O n c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n s f r o m t h e g o d s , s e e t h e t r e a t m e n t s i n A . L e o O p p e n h e i m , Ancient

Mesop otamia: Portrait 0J a Dead Civilization ( C h i c a g o : U n i v . o f C h i c a g o ,1 9 7 7 ) , 2 0 6 - 2 7 ; J e a n B o t té r o , Mesop otamia: Writing, Reasoning, and the Gods,

t r a n s . Z . B a h r a n i a n d M . a n D e M ie r o o p ( C h ic a g o : U n iv . o f C h i c a g o P r e s s ,

1 9 9 2 ) , 1 0 5 - 3 7 .

4 . B o t t é r o , Mesopotamia, 1 2 7 , 1 3 0 .

5 . O n t h i s , s e e M a r t t i N i s s in e n , "T h e S o c io lo g i c a l R o le o f t h e N e o - A s s y r i a n

P r o p h e t s , " i n N i s s i n e n , e d . , Prophecy in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context,

8 9 - 1 1 4 .

6 . ANET, 6 0 5 . M o r e o f t h e s e p r o p h e c i e s a r e c o l l e c t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d i n S i m o

P a r p o l a , Assyrian Prophecies, S ta t e A r c h iv e s o f A s s y r i a 9 ( H e l s in k i : H e l s i n k i

U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) .

7 . I b id . , 6 2 4 . F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s io n of t h e M a r i l e t t e r s a n d t h e i r b e a r i n g o n

p r o p h e c y , s e e A b r a h a m M a l a m a t , Mari and the Bible ( L e id e n : B r il l, 1 9 9 8 ) ,

5 9 - 1 6 2 .

8 . F o r a s u r v e y of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e D e i r A l i a i n s c r i p t i o n , s e e H u f f m o n ,

" P r o p h e c y ( A N E ) , " ABD, 5 . 4 7 7 ; t h e t e x t m a y b e f o u n d i n COS, 2 . 1 4 0 - 4 5 .

9 . S e e Y o c h a n a n M u f f s , Love & Joy: Law, Languag e and Re ligion in Ancient Israel

( C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i v. P r e ss , 1 9 9 2 ) , 9 - 4 8 .

1 0 . S e e t h e c l a s s i c s t u d y o f C l a u s W e s t e r m a n n , Basic Form s of Prophetic Speech,

t r a n s . H . C . W h i t e (L o u i s v il l e, KY: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 1 ) , 9 8 - 1 2 8 .

1 1 . F o r a n i ro n i c e n d o r s e m e n t o f t h e p r o p h e t s ' i n t e r c e s s o r y r o l e , s e e J e r e m i a h

7 : 1 6 ; 1 1 : 1 4 ; 1 4 : 1 1 , w h e r e G o d a s k s J e r e m i a h not to p ray fo r I s rae l .

1 2 . O n t h i s e t y m o lo g y , s e e HALOT, 2 . 6 6 1 - 6 2 . T h e f o ll o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s a re

b a s e d o n a n a s s o r t m e n t o f c r i ti c a l t r e a t m e n t s of b i b l i c al p r o p h e c y ; se e e s p .

R o b e r t R. W i l s o n , Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

F o r t r e s s, 1 9 8 0 ) ; J o s e p h B l e n k i n s o p p , A History of Prophecy in Israel: From the

Settlement in the Land to the Hellenistic Period ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r ,

1 9 8 3 ) . Tw o g o o d p o p u l a r i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o p r o p h e c y a r e: J o h n F A . S a w y er ,

Prophecy and the Prophets of the Old Testame nt, O x f o r d B i b l e S e r i e s ( O x f o r d :

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O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 8 7 ) ; J a m e s L u t h e r M a y e s a n d P a u l J . A c h t e m e i e r ,

Interpreting the Prophets ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 7 ) .

1 3 . S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e c o n t e n d e d t h a t c l a ss i c a l p r o p h e c y d e v e l o p e d a s a r e a c -

t i o n a g a i n s t t h e f i rs t p e r i o d o f " s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i n I s r a e l" a n d t h a t c l a s s

d i f f e r e n c e s b e c a m e e s p e c i a l l y p r o n o u n c e d a t t h i s t i m e ( e . g ., B r i g h t , History,

2 5 9 - 6 2 ) . T h a t a r g u m e n t i s c i r c u l a r — t h e c la ss ic al p r o p h e t s s u c h a s A m o s

f ir st c o n d e m n t h e s e so c ia l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e th e y m u s t h a v e b e e n n e w i n

t h e i r d a y . N o e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e e x i s t s i n s u p p o r t o f t h i s i d e a .

1 4 . E v e n e a r l i e r f i g u r e s w h o m t h e B i b le d e s c r i b e s a s p r o p h e t s i n c l u d e M o s e s ,

M i r i a m , D e b o r a h , a n d S a m u e l .

1 5 . T h e H e b r e w h e r e f o r " c a n w e b r i n g " i s navi ( א י ב נ ) , w h i c h is p r o n o u n c e d a n ds p e l l e d t h e s a m e a s t h e w o r d f o r " p r o p h e t . " T h i s i s a p u n , o r p o s s i b l y a p o p -

u l a r e t y m o l o g y f o r navi: t h e o n e to w h o m o n e " b r i n g s " p a y m e n t in e x c h a n g e

f o r h e a r i n g t h e f u t u r e .

1 6 . F o r m o r e o n t h e m i r a c l e s to r i e s , s e e A l e x a n d e r R o f é , The Prophetical Stories:

The Narratives about the Prophets in the Hebrew Bible Their Literary Types and

History ( J e r u s a l e m : M a g n e s , 1 9 8 8 ) ; R o b e r t B. C o o t e , e d . , Elijah and Elisha in

Socioliterary Perspective, S e m e i a S t u d i e s ( A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 2 ) .

C h a p t e r 1 6

1 . T h e b e s t E n g l i s h c o m m e n t a r i e s o n A m o s a re H a n s W a l t e r W o l f f , Joel

and Amos, t r a n s . W . J a n z e n et a l ., H e r m e n e i a ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) ,

a n d S h a l o m M . P a u l , Amos ( H e r m e n e i a ; P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 1 ) .

W o l f f e x c e l s o n m a t t e r s o f h i s t o r y o f c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d P a u l o n t h e m e a n i n go f t h e b o o k i n i t s f i n a l f o r m , e s p e c i a l l y a s e l u c id a t e d b y a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n

t e x t s .

2 . T h e s a m e H e b r e w w o r d , korchah ( ה ח ר ק ) , i s u s e d in b o t h c o n t e x t s , t h o u g h

t h e d i f f e r e n t J P S t r a n s l a t i o n c o m m i t t e e s f o r T o r a h a n d N e v i ' i m t r a n s l a t e d i t

d i f f e re n t l y , o b s c u r i n g t h i s i s s u e .

3 . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s m a d e b y Y e h e z k e l K a u f m a n , The Religion of Israel ( t r a n s .

M o s h e G r e e n b e r g ( N e w Y o r k: S c h o c k e n , 1 9 7 2 ) .

4 . T h i s i s a m a j o r t h e m e o f W e l l h a u s e n ' s Prolegomena.

5 . F o r o n e s u c h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , s e e W o l f f , J o e ! and Amos, 1 0 6 - 1 3 .

6 . S e e M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " T h e U s e o f t h e A n c i e n t V e r s i o n s f o r I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e

H e b r e w T e xt : A S a m p l i n g f r o m E z e k ie l 2 : 1 - 3 : 1 1 , " i n M o s h e G r e e n b e r g ,

Studies in the Bible and Jewish Thought, J P S S c h o l a r o f D i s t i n c t i o n S e r i e s

( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S oc ie ty , 1 9 9 5 ) , 2 0 9 - 2 5 . F r o m a d i f f e r e n t

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p e r s p e c t i v e , E h u d B e n Z v i h a s e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of l o o k i n g a t t h e

p r o p h e t i c b o o k ; s e e e s p e c i a l l y E h u d B e n Z v i , " T h e P r o p h e t i c B o o k : A K e y

F o r m o f P r o p h e t i c L i t e r a t u r e , " i n M a r v i n A . S w e e n e y a n d E h u d B e n Z vi ,

e d s . , The Chang ing Face of Form C riticism for the Twen ty-First Century ( G r a n d

R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 3 ) , 2 7 6 - 9 7 .

7 . T h e u n p o l i s h e d r h e t o r i c o f m a n y p r o p h e t s i s s u r p r i s i n g . O n t h i s , s e e

S t e p h e n A . G e l l e r , "W e r e t h e P r o p h e t s P o e t s ? " Prooftexts 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 1 .

8 . S e e t h e s i m i l a r s e n t i m e n t i n M i c a h 6 : 6 - 7 : " (6 ) W i t h w h a t s h a l l I a p p r o a c h

t h e L O R D , / D o h o m a g e to G o d o n h i g h ? / S h a l l I a p p r o a c h H i m w i t h b u r n t

o f f e r i n g s , / W i th c a lv e s a y e a r o ld ? ( 7 ) W o u ld t h e L O R D b e p l e a s e d w i th

th o u s a n d s o f r a m s , / W i t h m y r i a d s o f s t r e a m s of o i l? S h a l l I g iv e m y f i r s t -b o r n f o r m y t r a n s g r e s s io n , / T h e f r u i t o f m y b o d y f o r m y s in s ? "

9 . W . R a n d a l l G a r r , Dialect Geograp hy of Syria-Israel, 1000-586 B.C.E.

( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v . o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 8 - 3 9 .

1 0 . S c h o l a r s c o n t i n u e t o d e b a t e w h e n t h e n o t i o n o f " c o v e n a n t " e n t e r e d I s r ae l i te

r e l ig i o n , a n d w h e t h e r w e m a y a s s u m e a c o v e n a n t a l b a s e m e t a p h o r e v e n i n

c a s e s w h e r e t h e w o r d bent i s a b s e n t . O n t h e s e is s u e s , s e e N i c h o l s o n , God and

His People.

1 1 . S e e " D e u t e r o n o m y a s a T r e a ty " i n c h a p t e r 1 0 ; G e o r g e E. M e n d e n h a l l a n d

G a r y A . H e r i o n , " C o v e n a n t , " ABD, 1 . 1 1 7 9 - 1 2 0 2 .

1 2 . H e r e t h e E t h i o p i a n s s e rv e a s a n e x a m p l e o f a f a r a w a y p e o p l e .

1 3 . S e e S h a l o m S p i e g e l , " A m o s v s . A m a z i a h , " in J u d a h G o l d i n , e d . , The Jewish

Expression ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 3 8 - 6 5 .

1 4 . H e r e a n d i n 3 : 1 5 t h e r e f e r e n c e s a r e t o i t e m s i n l a id w i th iv o r y. S u c h i t e m s

h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d f r o m S a m a r i a — s e e t h e s u r v e y i n A m i h a i M a z a r , e d . ,

Archaeology of the Land of the Bible 10,000-586 B.C.E., A B ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y :

D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 0 ) , 5 0 3 - 5 ; a n d K i n g , Amos, Hosea, Micah, 1 3 9 - 4 9 .

1 5 . T h e r e is a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l a g r e e m e n t t o t h i s p o i n t , t h o u g h M e i r W e i s s , " T h e

O r i g i n o f t h e ' D a y o f t h e L o r d ' — R e c o n s i d e r e d , " HUCA 3 7 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 2 9 - 6 0 ,

in an exce l len t a r t i c le su rvey ing the Day of the LORD, d i s sen ts .

1 6 . A c o l l e c t i o n o f t e x t s o n t h i s t o p i c w i t h s o m e s e c o n d a r y r e a d i n g is f o u n d i n

R ic h a r d H . H ie r , "D a y o f t h e L O R D , " ABD, 2 . 8 2 - 8 3 . S e e a l s o t h e b ib l i o g r a -

p h y i n P a u l , Amos, 1 8 3 , n n . 7 - 1 1 .

1 7 . W e c a n n o t te ll c l e a rl y w h e t h e r A m o s d i r e c t l y r e p e a t e d t h e w o r d s t h a t h e

t h o u g h t h e h e a r d , o r w h e t h e r h e e m b e l l i s h e d t h e m . ( S ee M o s h e G r e e n b e r g ,

" J e w i s h C o n c e p t i o n s o n t h e H u m a n F a c t o r i n B i b l i c a l P r o p h e c y , " i n M o s h e

G r e e n b e r g , Studies in the Bible and Jewish Thought, 4 0 5 - 1 9 . ) N o r d o w e k n o w

o v e r h o w l o n g a p e r i o d , a n d o n w h a t s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s , A m o s u t t e r e d h i s

o r a c l e s .

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18 . See Pau l , Amos, 35 , η . 32 ; Ph i l ip J . K ing , Am os , Hosea, Micah: An Archaeo-

logical Commentary ( P h i l a d e lp h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 1 - 2 2 .

1 9 . S e e M . B r o s h i, " T h e E x p a n s i o n o f J e r u s a l e m i n t h e R e i g n s o f H e z e k i a h a n d

M a n a s s e h , " IEJ 2 4 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 1 - 2 6 .

C h a p t e r 1 7

1. W h i l e t h e B o o k o f I s a i a h h a s m o r e c h a p t e r s , t h e B o o k o f J e r e m i a h is s l i g h t -

l y l o n g e r i n t e r m s o f v e r s e s .

2 . S e e e s p . H . G . M . W i l l i a m s o n , The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah's Role inCom position and Redaction ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 9 4 ) ; R o y Ε M e l u g i n a n d

M a r v i n A . S w e e n e y , e d s . , New Visions of Isaiah, J S O T S u p 2 1 4 ( S h e f f i e l d ,

U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e ss , 1 9 9 6 ) .

3 . S e e t h e s u m m a r y i n B r e v a r d S . C h i l d s , Isaiah, O T L ( L o u i s v i l l e , K Y :

W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 2 0 0 1 ) , 2 6 0 - 6 6 .

4 . S c h o l a r s c o n t i n u e t o d e b a t e th i s i s s u e , h o w e v e r ; n o t al l o f t h e m a g r e e t h a t

t h i s c h a p t e r s h o u l d b e r e a d a s a p r o p h e t i c d e d i c a t i o n o r i n i t i a t i o n .

5 . W h e n 1 a t t r i b u t e w o r d s t o " I s a i a h ," I d o s o f o r c o n v e n i e n c e . I d o n o t m e a n

t o i m p l y t h a t t h e s e w e r e t h e a c t u a l w o r d s s a i d b y I sa i a h s o n of A m o z ; s e e

" A m o s t h e B o o k V e r s u s A m o s t h e P r o p h e t " i n c h a p t e r 1 6 .

6 . H e r e i n 4 : 1 a n d 4 : 2 , t h e p h r a s e " i n t h a t d a y " s e r v e d a s a c a t c h w o r d o r c a t c h -

p h r a s e , l e a d i n g a n e d i t o r t o c o m b i n e t w o u n i t s t h a t w e r e o r i g i n a l l y u n r e l a t -

e d . T h r o u g h o u t I s a ia h , s u c h c a t c h p h r a s e s h e l p u s u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e

o f t h e b o o k , a n d t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e b o o k is n o t o r d e r e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y .

7 . F o r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f b i b l i c a l p o e t r y , s e e A d e l e B e r l i n , " R e a d i n g B i b l i c alPoetry ," in JSB, 2 0 9 7 - 2 1 0 4 . F o r h e r l o n g e r , m o r e t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s s i o n w i t h

b i b l i o g r a p h y , s e e " P a r a l l e l i s m , " ABD, 5 . 1 5 5 - 6 2 . T h e c la s s ic w o r k is t h a t of

L o w t h f r o m 1 7 5 3 , w h o f ir st u s e d t h e t e r m " p a r a l l e li s m " ; i m p o r t a n t m o d i f i -

c a t i o n s t o h i s t h e o r y a r e o f f e r e d in J a m e s K u g e l , The Idea of Biblical Poetry:

Parallelism and Its History ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y a le U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) ; R o b e r t

A l te r , The Art of Biblical Poetry ( N e w Y o r k : B a s i c , 1 9 8 5 ) . A f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f -

f e r e n t a p p r o a c h t o b i b l i c a l p o e t r y , w h i c h w i l l n o t b e f o l l o w e d h e r e , w a s

d e v e l o p e d b y F r a n k M . C r o s s a n d D . N . F r e e d m a n — s e e e s p ec i a ll y D a v i d

N o e l F r e e d m a n , Pottery, Poetry, and Prophecy: Studies in Early Hebrew Poetry

( W i n o n a L ak e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s , 1 9 8 0 ) .

8 . T h e fi r s t -c e n t u r y - c . E . J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n J o s e p h u s m a d e t h i s e r r o r, w h e n h e

a s c r i b e d v a r i o u s G r e e k m e t e r s t o b i b l i c a l p o e t r y . S e e K u g e l , The Idea, 1 4 0 .

9 . T h e r e is , h o w e v e r , s o m e d e b a t e a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t m e t e r e x i s t s i n b i b l i -

c a l p o e t r y . S c h o l a r s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e t h a t H e b r e w p o e t r y ( a s n o w v o c a l i z e d )

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h a s n o f o r m of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e d a n d u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s. S o m e b e l i e v e

t h a t a n e a r l i e r f o r m , w h i c h m a y b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d , h a d m e t e r . M a n y p a r a l l e l

p h r a s e s i n t h e s a m e b i b l i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n a r e o f r o u g h l y e q u a l l e n g t h , s u g -

g e s t i n g t o s o m e t h a t a n o r i g i n a l m e t e r w a s l o s t . O t h e r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s s i m -

p l y i n d i c a t e s a p r i n c i p l e of b i b l i c a l p o e t r y : l i n e s s h o u l d b e of a p p r o x i m a t e -

l y e q u a l l e n g t h .

1 0 . T h e r e a r e s o m e t r i c o l a , b u t t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e .

1 1 . F o r a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f p a r a l l e l is m a n d w o r d - p a i r s u s i n g m o d e r n l i n g u is t ic s ,

s e e A d e l e B e r l i n , The Dyna mics of Biblical Parallelism ( B l o o m i n g t o n : I n d i a n a

U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) .

1 2 . T h e s e s c h o l a r s f o l l o w t h e l e a d o f K u g e l a n d A l t e r . S e e e s p . K u g e l , The Idea,5 1 - 5 8 ; t h e q u o t a t i o n is f r o m 5 8 .

1 3 . S e e S t a n l e y G e v i r t z , Patterns in the Early Poetry of Israel, S t u d i e s i n A n c i e n t

O r i e n t a l C i v i l i z a t i o n , 3 2 ( C h i c a g o : U n i v . o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) ; M e n a h e m

H a r a n , " T h e G r a d e d N u m e r i c a l S e q u e n c e a n d t h e P h e n o m e n o n of

A u t o m a t i s m ' i n B i b l i c a l P o e t r y , " VTS 2 2 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 3 8 - 6 7 .

1 4. F r a m i n g a n n o u n c e m e n t s t e n d t o b e s e p a r a t e m o n o c o l a — s i m p l e s e n t e n c e s

w i t h o u t a p a r a l l e l m a t e o r m a t e s .

1 5 . U n l i k e s o m e o t h e r s c h o l a r s , J a m e s K u g e l w o u l d c l a s s if y t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e

v e r s e n o t a s a " t r i c o l o n " b u t a s a n " u n b a l a n c e d b i c o l o n " ; o n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f

a n c i e n t H e b r e w p o e t r y , s e e a b o v e , n . 7.

1 6 . S i m i l a r l y , t h r e e o u t o f t h e f o u r b i b l i c a l o c c u r r e n c e s o f s hear am ם) ע ר א ש ),

" t h e r e m n a n t o f t h e p e o p l e , " a r e f o u n d i n I s a i a h ( 1 1 : 1 1 , 1 6 ; 2 8 : 5 ) . T h e

p r o p h e t e v e n b e l i e v e d t h a t G o d a s k e d h i m t o n a m e o n e o f h i s c h i l d r e n

S h e a r - ja s h u b ( ב ו ש י ר א ש ) , m e a n i n g " A - R e m n a n t - S h a ll - R e tu r n " ( 7 : 3) .

1 7 . S o m e o l d e r t r a n s l a t i o n s r e n d e r t h i s " at t h e e n d o f d a y s , " w h i c h i s i n c o r -

r e c t — s e e " T h e D a y W i l l C o m e " in c h a p t e r 1 6 .

1 8 . T h e c l as si c w o r k o n b ib l i c al m e s s i a n i s m i s S i g m u n d M o w i n c k e l , He That

Cometh: The Messiah Concept in the Old Testament and Later Judaism, t r a n s . G .

W . A n d e r s o n ( N a s h v i l l e , T N : A b i n g d o n , 1 9 5 4 ) ; m o r e re c e n t ly , s e e J o h n J .

C o l l i n s , The Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and

Other Ancient Literature, A B ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 5 ) , e s p .

2 0 - 4 8 .

C h a p t e r 1 8

1. B. D u h m a n d S . M o w i n c k e l e m p h a s i z e d w h a t t h e y s a w a s a b i o g r a p h i c

" s t r a n d " ; f o r a s u m m a r y , s e e W i l l i a m L . H o l l a d a y , Jeremiah 2 ( M i n n e a p o l i s ,

M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 1 - 1 2 .

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2 . E v e n t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n h a s n o t r e m a i n e d b e y o n d s u s p i c i o n . A t l e a s t a s

d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e B i bl e, J o s i a h s r e f o r m t u r n e d t h e n a t i o n u p s i d e

d o w n ; t h e r e f o r e , if J e r e m i a h t r u l y w a s a c t iv e d u r i n g t h a t r e f o r m , h e p r e -

s u m a b l y w o u l d h a v e m e n t i o n e d i t. Y et h e n e v e r e x p l i c it l y d o e s . I n a d d i t i o n ,

o n l y o n e p r o p h e c y is d a t e d d u r i n g J o s i a h ' s r e i g n , a n d t h e d a t e f o r m u l a t h e r e

i s u n u s u a l l y v a g u e ( 3 : 6 ) . B o t h f a c t s s u g g e s t t o s o m e t h a t J e r e m i a h b e g a n t o

p r o p h e s y l a te r t h a n t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n i n d i c a t e s .

3 . It d o e s , h o w e v e r , a p p e a r o n o c c a s i o n i n t h e S e p t u a g i n t ' s G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f

J e r e m i a h , t o r e n d e r t h e t e r m nevi'im ( ם י א י ב נ , " p r o p h e t s " ) .

4 . Inc id en ta l ly , th e f i r s t c l au se o f 3 : 14 i l lu s t r a t es m y c la im ( in ch ap . 16 ) tha t th e

I s r a e l i t e p r o p h e t s l o v e d w o r d p l a y : shuvu vanim shovavim ( ם י ב ב ו ש ם י נ ב Ώ Ι $).S u c h a l l i t e r a t i o n i s f e a t u r e d a l s o i n 1 2 : 1 1 : s amah li-shmam ah, avelah alai

sh'memah, nashammah kol ha-aretz

( ץ ר א ה ־ ל כ ה מ ש נ ה מ מ ש י ל ע ה ל ב א ה מ מ ש ל ה מ ש ) .· ν T T τ τ - τ τ ι - τ τ : τ τ τ ι · T T

5 . J o a n O a t e s , Babylon ( L o n d o n : T h a m e s a n d H u d s o n , 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 2 8 .

6 . A l t h o u g h B a b y l o n i s a c t u a l l y n o r t h e a s t o f t h e l a n d of I s ra e l , t h e i n t e r v e n i n g

d e s e r t w a s s o v a s t t h a t i t p r e v e n t e d d i r e c t t r a n s i t . H i s t o r i c a l l y , a r m i e s f r o m

t h e e a s t w o u l d s k i r t t h e d e s e r t a n d r e a c h t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l v i a S y r i a — t h u s

e n t e r i n g f r o m t h e n o r t h .

7 . S e e W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, 1 4 3 - 4 6 .

8 . O n t h i s " c u p o f w r a t h , " s e e R o b e r t Ε C a r r o l l , The Book of Jeremiah, O T L

( P h i l a d e lp h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 0 1 - 2 .

9 . A c t u a l l y , t h e " m i s s i n g " v e r s e i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r s t r a n g e w i t h r e g a r d t o

J e r e m i a h . I n g e n e r a l , t h e S e p t u a g i n t o f J e r e m i a h r e f l e c t s a m u c h s h o r t e r

H e b r e w t e x t t h a n t h e M a s o r e t i c T e x t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i ts u n i t s a p p e a r in a d i f -

f e r e n t o r d e r . T h u s t h i s f i rs t G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n m u s t h a v e b e e n m a d e f r o m ad i s t i n c t e d i t i o n ( t e c h n i c a l l y , a " r e c e n s i o n " ) o f J e r e m i a h — o n e t h a t is a l s o

a t t e s t e d a m o n g s o m e o f t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s . S e e Τ ο ν , Textual Criticism of the

Hebrew Bible, 3 1 9 - 2 7 .

1 0 . T h i s T a r g u m m a y d a t e f r o m t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y c .E . o r e a r l i e r ; s e e H o l l a d a y ,

Jeremiah 2 , 10 .

1 1 . T h e s a m e c i p h e r m e c h a n i s m i s u s e d i n t h e B ib le o n l y i n o n e o t h e r p l a c e ,

J e r e m i a h 5 1 : 1 . T h e r e , L e b - k a m a i [ י מ ק ב ל ] = t h e C h a l d e a n s [ ם י ד ש ב ] , t h e

n a m e f o r a n A r a m e a n t r ib e t h a t w a s i m p o r t a n t i n t h e n e o - B a b y l o n i a n p e r i -

o d , w h i c h i s o f t e n u s e d a s a n a m e f o r t h e B a b y l o n i a n s . I n t h a t v e r s e , h o w -

e v e r , t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e c o n d e m n e d p o p u l a c e i s n o se c r e t . F o r a d i f f e r e n t

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e t w o c i p h e r s , s e e M a r k L e u c h t e r , " J e r e m i a h ' s 7 0 - Y e a r

P r o p h e c y a n d t h e י מ ק ב ל / ך ש ש Atbash C o d e s , " Bib 8 5 ( 2 0 0 4 ) , 5 0 3 - 2 2 .

1 2 . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e p o s i t i o n to a c c o u n t f o r t h i s e v i d e n c e — t h a t J e r e m i a h w a s

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i n f l u e n c e d b y J o s ia h ' s r e f o r m a n d t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c s c h o o l — i s m u c h l e s s

l i k e l y . T h a t h y p o t h e s i s d o e s n o t e x p l a i n w h y o n l y t h e p r o s e — n o t t h e p o e t -

r y — i s s o c l o s e t o D e u t e r o n o m y . I n a d d i t i o n , a s n o t e d e a r l i e r, t h e b o o k o f f e r s

l it tl e e v i d e n c e t h a t J e r e m i a h a f f i li a t e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

J o s i a h ' s r e f o r m a n d t h e " d i s c o v e r y " o f D e u t e r o n o m y .

1 3 . F o r o n e v i e w , s e e E . W N i c h o l s o n , Preaching to the Exiles: A Study of the Prose

Tradition in the Bo ok of Jeremiah ( N e w Y o r k : S c h o c k e n , 1 9 7 0 ) ; m o r e r e c e n t ly ,

s e e L o u i s S t u h l m a n , The Prose Sermons of the Book of Jeremiah: A Redescription

of the Correspondences with the Deuteronomistic Literature in the Light of Recent

Text-critical Research, S B L D S 8 3 ( A t l an t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 6 ) ; a n d t h e s u m m a -

r y i n C a r r o l l , Jeremiah, 3 8 - 5 0 , e s p e c i a ll y h i s c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s t h a t " t he

p r o b l e m s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d r e d a c t i o n of t h e b o o k o f

J e r e m i a h p e r s i s t a n d a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e r e s o l v e d i n f a v o u r o f o n e o v e r a r c h -

i n g t h e o r y . "

1 4 . S e e L e v i n s o n , Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation, 1 8 - 2 0 .

1 5 . S e e H o l l a d a y , Jeremiah 2, 3 6 - 4 0 , 5 3 - 6 2 .

1 6 . M i c h a e l A . C a r a s i k , " T h e o l o g i e s o f t h e M i n d i n B i b l i c a l I s r a e l " ( P h D d i s s . ,

B r a n d e i s U n i v . , 1 9 9 7 ) 8 5 .

1 7 . F o r a v e r y d i f f e r e n t e a r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s " n e w c o v e n a n t , " s e e2 C o r i n t h i a n s 3 : 1 - 6 i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t .

1 8 . O n t h e " c o n f e s s i o n s , " s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s , a s w e l l a s

K a t h l e e n M . O ' C o n n o r , The Confessions of Jeremiah: Their Interpretation and

Role in Chapters 1-25, S B L D S 9 4 (A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 8 ) .

1 9 . A g l a n c e at t h e K i n g J a m e s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s p h r a s e s u g g e s t s t h e v a l u e o f

u s i n g m o d e r n , i d i o m a t i c b i b l ic a l t r a n s l a t i o n s .

2 0 . O c c a s i o n a ll y , h o w e v e r , J e r e m i a h d o e s s e e k r e t r i b u t i o n , e s p e c ia l l y u p o n h i s

e n e m i e s . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , " O L O R D o f H o s t s , Ο j u s t J u d g e , / W h o t e s t t h e

t h o u g h t s a n d t h e m i n d , / L e t m e se e Y o u r r e t r i b u t i o n u p o n t h e m , / F o r I l ay

m y c a s e b e f o r e Y o u " ( 1 1 : 2 0 ) .

2 1 . F o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s e e e s p . W i l l i a m M c K a n e , Jeremiah, I C C ( E d i n b u r g h :

Τ & T C l a r k , 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 . 3 5 7 - 5 8 .

2 2 . T o b e m o r e s p e c i f i c , l i tt l e o f s u c h " a n g s t " i s v i s i b l e i n I s a i a h , w h o v o l u n -

t e e r e d t o b e c o m e a p r o p h e t ( se e I s a i a h 6 : 8 ) , w h e r e a s t h i s " p r o f e s s i o n " w a s

f o r c e d u p o n J e r e m i a h (s ee 1 : 4 - 1 0 ) .2 3 . P e r h a p s J e r e m i a h , l i k e m o s t p e o p l e in h i s d a y, d i d n o t k n o w h o w t o w r i t e

a n d t h e r e f o r e n e e d e d t h e s e r v i c e s o f a s c r i b e . T h e e x t e n t of r e a d i n g a n d w r i t -

i n g a b i l i t i e s i n a n c i e n t I s r a e l i s d e b a t e d ; s e e t h e r e a s o n a b l e d i s c u s s i o n i n

J a m e s L . C r e n s h a w , Education in Ancient Israel: Across the Deadening Silence,

A B ( G a r d e n C ity , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 8 ) , 2 9 - 4 0 .

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2 4 . T o d a y w e h a v e t w o d i f f e r e n t H e b r e w e d i t i o n s ( " r e c e n s i o n s " ) of t h e B o o k o f

J e r e m i a h ; s e e a b o v e , n o t e 9 .

C h a p t e r 1 9

1 . O n t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p r i e s t s a n d T o r a h t r a d i t i o n s , s e e t h e p r e v i o u s

chap te r . See a l so Risa Lev i t t Kohn , A New Heart and a New Soul: Ezekiel, the

Exile and the Torah, J S O T S u p 3 5 8 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s ,

2 0 0 2 ) .

2 . J a c o b Z. L a u t e r b a c h , tr a n s , a n d e d . , Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e t y , 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 . 4 .

3 . F o r m o r e o n t h i s f o r m , s e e e s p . N o r m a n H a b e l , " T h e F o r m a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e

o f t h e C a ll N a r r a t i v e s , " Z A W 7 7 ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 2 9 7 - 3 2 3 ; a n d K l a u s B a lt z er ,

" C o n s i d e r a t i o n s R e g a r d i n g t h e O f f i c e a n d C a l l i n g o f t h e P r o p h e t , " HTR 6 1

( 1 9 6 8 ) , 5 6 7 - 8 1 .

4 . S e e m y b o o k God is King: Understanding an Israelite Metaphor, J S O T S u p 7 6

( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 8 9 ) , 8 3 .

5 . T o M o s e s M a i m o n i d e s — w h o l i v ed s o m e 1 7 0 0 y e a r s a f t e r E z e k i e l — d i v i n e

i n c o r p o r e a l i t y w a s a b a s i c p r i n c i p l e ( a l t h o u g h i t w a s s ti ll d i s p u t e d e v e n i n

h i s d a y ) . T h u s s t a t e s t h e v e r s io n o f h i s T h i r t e e n P r in c ip l e s r e c i t e d a f t e r t h e

m o r n i n g p r a y e r s : "I b e l i e v e w i t h p e r f e c t fa i t h t h a t o u r c r e a t o r — b l e s s e d b e h i s

n a m e — i s n o t a b o d y a n d n o b o d i l y q u a l it i e s a p p l y t o H i m , a n d H e h a s n o

a p p e a r a n c e w h a t s o e v e r . " O n t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n , s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n L a w r e n c e

A . H o f f m a n ' s My People's Prayer Book: Traditional Prayers, Mo dern

Commentaries, vol . 6 , Tachanun and Concluding Prayers ( W o o d s t o c k , V T :J e w i s h L i g h ts , 2 0 0 2 ) , 1 6 2 . O n t h e c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n b i b l ic a l a n d p o s t b i b l i -

c a l im a g e s o f t h e d iv in e , s e e M ic h a e l F i s h b a n e , Biblical Myth and Rabbinic

Mythmaking ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 3 ) .

6 . F o r a s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t i n g v i ew , w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y z e s t h e p r o p h e t , s e e

D a v i d J . H a l p e r i n , Seeking Ezekiel: Text and Psychology ( U n i v e r s i t y P a r k :

P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a te U n i v . , 1 9 9 3 ) .

7 . T h i s p h r a s e , f o u n d 9 4 t im e s i n E z e k i e l ( o u t of a t o t a l o f 1 3 9 i n t h e B ib l e)

c r e a t e s a v e r y h u m a n i m a g e o f E z e k i e l a s a p r o p h e t w h o f e lt d i s t a n t f r o m

G o d , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h s o m e o t h e r p r o p h e t s , es p e c i a l l y I s a i a h , w h o i n c h a p -

t e r 6 m o v e s q u i t e c o m f o r t a b l y a m o n g t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t .

8 . W e n o w h a v e e n o u g h e v i d e n c e t o k n o w t h a t t h e s y n a g o g u e d i d n o t a ri s e

u n t i l se v e r a l c e n t u r i e s a f te r E z e k i e l. T h i s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n o b v i o u s f r o m t h e

t e x t o f E z e k i e l i t s el f , w h ic h d o e s n o t s a y t h a t t h e p e o p l e s h o u ld b u i l d a n y -

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t h i n g . S e e t h e e x c e l l e n t s u m m a r y i n L e e I . L e v i n e , The Ancient Synagogue:

The First Thousand Years ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 0 ) , 1 - 4 1 ; a n d

B i rg e r O l s s o n a n d M a g n u s Z e t t e r h o l m , The Ancient Synagog ue from Its Origins

Until 200 C.E., C B N T 3 9 ( S t o c k h o l m : A l m q v i s t & W i k s e l l , 2 0 0 3 ) .

9 . O n J u l y 3 0 , 2 0 0 4 , at 6 p . m . , a G o o g l e s e a r c h f o r " E z e k i e l s p a c e c r a f t " y i e l d -

e d 1 , 7 0 0 h i t s .

1 0 . S e e H a l p e r i n , Seeking Ezekiel: Text and Psychology.

1 1 . T h i s c h a p t e r is s p e a k i n g a b o u t n a t i o n a l r e s u r r e c t i o n , a n d h a s l it t le o r n o

b e a r i n g o n t h e i s s u e o f p e r s o n a l r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h i c h l i k el y w a s a l a t er b e l ie f .

1 2 . S e e J o e l S . K a m i n s k y , Corporate Responsibility in the Hebrew B ible, J S O T S u p

1 9 6 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s, 1 9 9 5 ) .1 3 . U g a r i t w a s a c it y i n n o r t h e r n C a n a a n t h a t f l o u r i s h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e B r o n z e

A g e , o n l y t o b e d e s t r o y e d a r o u n d 1 2 0 0 B . C . E . W h e n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s e x c a v a t e d i t s r e m a i n s , t h e y d i s c o v e r e d a v a s t C a n a a n i t e l i t er -

a t u r e , w r i t t e n i n a l a n g u a g e c l o s e t o b i b l i c a l H e b r e w . S ee M i c h a e l D a v i d

C o o g a n , Stories from Ancient Canaa n ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 7 8 ) ,

2 7 - 4 7 ; o r C O S , 1 . 3 4 3 - 5 6 .

1 4 . O n t h e s e c h a p t e r s , s e e S . T a m a r K a m i o n k o w s k i , Gender Reversal and Cosmic

Chaos: A Study on the Book of Ezekiel, J S O T S u p 3 6 8 ( S h e f f i el d , U K : S h e f f i e ld

A c a d e m i c P r e ss , 2 0 0 3 ) .

1 5 . T h i s t r a n s l a t i o n f o l l o w s M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , Ezekiel 1-20, A B 2 2 ( G a r d e n

C i t y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 7 1 . T h e t r a n s l a t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s i s f r o m M o s h e

G r e e n b e r g , Ezekiel 21-37, A B 2 2 a ( G a r d e n C i ty : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 7 ) , 4 7 1 . I n

c o n t r a s t , th e J P S t r a n s l a t i o n h a s s o m e w h a t b o w d l e r i z e d t h e s e p a s s a g e s .

16. See : w w w . b i b l e . o rg / d o c s / o t /b o o k s / e z e / e zk - i n t r .h t m . 

1 7 . F o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f h i s s i l e n c e , s e e E l l e n F D a v i s , Swallowing the Scroll:Textuality and the Dynam ics of Discourse in Ezekiel's Prop hecy, J S O T S u p 7 8 :

S h e f f i e l d , U K : A l m o n d P r e s s, 1 9 8 9 ) , 4 8 - 5 8 .

1 8 . S e e M o r t o n C o g a n , Imperialism and Religion: Assyria, Ju dah an d Israel in the

Eighth and Seventh Centuries B.C.E., S B L M S 1 9 ( M is s o u l a , M T : S c h o l a r s P r e s s ,

1 9 7 4 ) , 1 2 ; s e e m o r e g e n e r a l ly 9 - 2 1 .

1 9 . W h a t E z e k i e l d e s c r i b e s i s n o t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e B o o k o f K i n g s , w h i c h g e n -

e r a l l y d id n o t h e s i t a t e t o n o t e c u l t i c s i n s . T h e y l o o k m o r e l i k e a c t i v i t i e s

s p o n s o r e d b y t h e m u c h ea r li e r K i n g M a n a s s e h t h a n a ct i v it i es p e r f o r m e d

d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f Z e d e k i a h , t h e la s t k i n g o f J u d a h . Se e M o s h e G r e e n b e r g ,

" P r o l e g o m e n o n , " i n C h a r l e s C u t l e r T o r r e y , Pseudo-Ezek iel and the Original

Prophecy ( N e w Y o r k : K tav , 1 9 7 0 ) , x v i i i - x x ix .

2 0 . T h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t d e b a t e o n w h e t h e r t h i s r e f l e c t s a r e al T e m p l e , o r i s i m a g -

i na ry . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s , s ee J o n D o u g l a s L e v e n s o n , Theology

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of the Program of Restoration of Ezekiel 4 0 - 4 8 , H S M 1 0 ( M i s s o u l a , M T.:

S c h o l a r s , 1 9 7 6 ) ; S t e v e n S h a w n T u e l l , The Law of the Temple in Ezekiel 40-48,

H S M 4 9 ( A t a l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 2 ) ; a n d K a l i n d a R o s e S t e v e n s o n , The Vision

of Transformation: The Territorial Rhetoric of Ezekiel 40-48, S B L D S 1 5 4

( A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) .

2 1 . G o g i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y L y d i a n k i n g G y g e s .

2 2 . It i s d i f f i c u l t t o k n o w h o w l i t e r al l y t o r e a d t h i s p a s s a g e , w h i c h s e e m s t o s u g -

g e s t t h a t D a v i d h i m s e l f , r a t h e r t h a n a D a v i d i c d e s c e n d a n t , w i l l b e k i n g !

2 3 . A c l as s ic t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s f o r m u l a i s W a l t h e r Z i m m e r l i , " K n o w l e d g e o f G o d

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e B o o k o f E z e k i e l , " i n h i s I Am Yahweh, t r a n s . D o u g l a s W

S t o t t ( A t l a n ta : J o h n K n o x , 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 9 - 9 8 .

C h a p t e r 2 0

1 . F o r a d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y o f t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , s e e L e s t e r L . G r a b b e , Judaism

from Cyrus to Hadrian ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 2 ) .

2 . See COS, 2 . 3 1 4 - 1 6 .

3 . S e e J . F A . S a w y e r , " I s a i a h , B o o k o f , " i n J o h n H . H a y e s , e d . , Dictionary of

Biblical Interpretation ( N a s h v il l e , T N : A b i n g d o n , 1 9 9 9 ) , 5 5 2 - 5 4 ; a n d

C h r i s t o p h e r R . S e i t z , " T r i t o - I s a i a h , " ABD, 3 . 5 0 1 - 7 .

4 . A r e a s o n o f t e n g i v e n , t h a t t h e s e l a t e r s e c t i o n s c o m p l e m e n t t h e w o r d s of F i r s t

I s a ia h , d o e s n o t h o l d u p t o s c r u ti n y . I s a ia h 4 0 - 6 6 s h o w s m o r e c o n t i n u i t y

w i t h J e r e m i a h , a s B e n j a m i n D . S o m m e r h a s o b s e r v e d i n h i s A Prophet Reads

Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40-66 ( S t a n f o r d , C A : S t a n f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) .

5 . I n f a c t , i t i s l i k e ly t h a t t h i s v e r s e i n D e u t e r o n o m y c o m e s f r o m a n e x i l i cD e u t e r o n o m i s t .

6 . S e e K a u f m a n n , The Religion of Israel, 1 6 - 1 7 .

7 . See th e e s sa ys in Mic ha e l B. D ic k , ed . , Born in Heaven, Made on Earth: The

Mak ing of the Cult Image in the Ancient Near East ( W i n o n a L a k e , I N :

E i s e n b r a u n s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

8 . S e e F i s h b a n e , Biblical Myth and Rabbinic Mythmaking, 3 7 - 9 2 .

9 . A c l a ss i c d i s c u s s i o n is f o u n d i n B e r n a r d W . A n d e r s o n , " E x o d u s T y p o l o g y i n

S e c o n d I s a ia h , " i n B. A n d e r s o n a n d W H a r r e l s o n , e d s . , Israel's Prophetic

Heritage: Essays in Hono r of James Muilenburg ( H a r p e r &r B r o t h e r s , 1 9 6 2 ) ,

1 7 7 - 1 9 5 .

1 0 . S e e O t t o E i s s f e l d t , " T h e P r o m i s e s of G r a c e t o D a v i d i n I s a i a h 5 5 . 1 - 5 , " i n

A n d e r s o n a n d H a r r e l s o n , e d s . , Israel's Prophetic Heritage, 1 9 6 - 2 0 7 .

1 1 . S e e M a y e r I. G r u b e r , " T h e M o t h e r h o o d o f G o d i n S e c o n d I s a i a h , " i n h i s The

Motherhood of God and Other Studies ( A t l a n ta : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 2 ) , 3 - 1 5 .

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1 2 . A n o l d , b u t e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m a n y p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e

s e r v a n t is C h r i s t o p h e r R . N o r t h , The Suffering Serva nt in Deutero-Isaiah: An

Historical and Critical Study ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v. P r e s s, 1 9 4 8 ) .

1 3 . O n e d e f i n i t i o n of c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e is "a p s y c h o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n o n

w h i c h r e f e r s t o t h e d i s c o m f o r t f el t a t a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n w h a t

y o u a l r e a d y k n o w o r b e l i e v e , a n d n e w i n f o r m a t i o n o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " S e e

J . S . A t h e r t o n , Learning and Teaching: Cognitive Dissonance ( U K , 2 0 0 3 ) ;

h t t p : / / w w w . l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g i n fo / l e a r n i n g / d i s s o n a n c e . h t m . P s y c h o l o -

g i s t s f i rs t u s e d t h e i d e a of c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e i n t h e l a te 1 9 5 0 s t o h e l p

e x p l a i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f p e r s o n s i n c u l t s . B ib l ic a l s c h o l a r s l a te r a p p l i e d t h e

c o n c e p t t o b i b l i c a l o r a c l e s . S e e R o b e r t Ρ C a r r o l l , When Prophecy Failed:Cognitive Dissonance in the Prophetic Traditions of the Old Testament ( N e w

Y o r k : S e a b u r y P r e s s, 1 9 7 9 ) .

1 4 . C a r r o l l , When Prophecy Failed, 161 .

1 5 . W h i l e v e r s e s a r e n u m b e r e d t o a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r l o c a t i o n i n " E z r a " o r

" N e h e m i a h , " t h e t w o a re c o m b i n e d a s a s i n g le b o o k a c c o r d i n g t o J e w i s h

r e c k o n i n g — s e e n . 1 5 i n c h a p t e r 2 .

1 6 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n C h r i s t i n e E . H a y e s , Gentile Impurities and Jewish

Identities: Intermarriage and Conversion from the Bible to the Talmud ( N e w

Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 2 ) , 2 7 - 3 3 .

1 7 . S ee F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel, 1 1 5 - 2 3 .

1 8 . T h e c e s s a t i o n o f p r o p h e c y is a c o m p l e x i s s u e — s e e B e n j a m i n D . S o m m e r ,

" D i d P r o p h e c y C e a s e ? E v a l u a t i n g a R é é v a l u a t i o n , " JB L 1 1 5 ( 1 9 9 6 ) , 3 1 - 4 7 .

C h a p t e r 2 1

1 . M o s t s c h o l a r s a g r e e t h a t t h e l a t t e r p a r t of Z e c h a r i a h i s a l a t e r a d d i t i o n . S e e

M . S a e b 0 , " Z e c h a r i a h , B o o k o f , " i n J o h n H . H a y e s , e d . , Dictionary of Biblical

Interpretation, 6 6 6 - 6 9 .

2 . S i m i l a r t o Z e c h a r i a h s v i s i o n s w i t h a n a n g e l i c g u i d e — a n d c l o s e t o t h e m

c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y — i s E z ek i el 's v i s i o n f e a t u r i n g a s u p e r n a t u r a l g u i d e , "a m a n

w h o s h o n e li k e c o p p e r " ( E z ek . 4 0 : 3 ) .

3 . T h i s i s c i t e d f r o m Semeia 1 4 i n t h e s u r v e y o f J o h n J . C o l l i n s , The Apocalyptic

Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, 2 n d e d . ( G r a n d

R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 9 8 ) , 5 . F o r a d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n , s e e K l a u s K o c h ,

" W h a t I s A p o c a l y p t i c ? A n A t t e m p t a t a P r e l i m i n a r y D e f i n i t i o n , " i n P a u l D .

H a n s o n , e d . , Visionaries and Their Apocalypses ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) ,

1 6 - 3 6 .

4 . F o r a m o r e e x t e n s i v e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e c h a p t e r s a s a p o c a l y p t i c , f r o m a d i f -

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f e r e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t , s e e S t e p h e n L . C o o k , Prophecy and Apocalypticism: The

Postexilic Social Setting ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 5 ) , 1 2 3 - 6 5 .

5 . T h e s e b o o k s a r e e x a m i n e d i n d e t a i l i n C o l l i n s , The Apocalyptic Imagination.

6 . T h e P e r s i a n i n f l u e n c e i s h a r d t o t r a c e b e c a u s e o u r e a r l i e st e x t a n t m a n u -

s c r i p t s o f b o t h l i t e r a t u r e s t e n d t o d a t e f r o m m u c h l a t e r t h a n t h i s p e r i o d .

T h e r e f o r e w e c a n n o t te ll t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e a r l y a n d la t e d e v e l o p -

m e n t s . F o r v a r i o u s s u g g e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r i g i n o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , s e e

t h e e s s a y s i n J o h n J . C o l l i n s , The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism, vol . 1 , The

Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity ( N e w Y ork : C o n t i n u u m ,

1 9 9 8 ) , 3 - 1 6 1 .

7 . See th e es sa ys in Co l l in s , The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism, v o l . 1 , 2 6 7 - 4 1 4 .8 . F o r m o r e d e t a i l s o n t h e s e a n d o t h e r i n t r o d u c t o r y i s s u e s , s e e J o h n J . C o l l i n s ,

Daniel, H e r m e n e i a ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t re s s , 1 9 9 3 ) , 1 - 1 2 3 .

9 . F o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , s e e o u r d i s c u s s i o n of Z e c h a r i a h

e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

1 0 . S e e C o l l i n s , Daniel, 3 3 1 .

1 1 . A g a i n , j u s t t o b e c l e a r : t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e d o u b l i n g of

t h e w o r d sh-v-'-m ( ם י ע ב ש — H e b r e w w a s w r i t t e n w i t h o u t v o w e l s i n t h is p e r i -

o d ) , o n c e a s " s e v e n t y " ( ם י ע ב ש —s h i v ' i m ) a n d o n c e a s " w e e k s " ( ם עי ב $ —

shavu'im).

1 2 . T h i s t e r m i s b o r r o w e d f r o m th e Is ra e li s c h o l a r J o s e p h H e i n e m a n n , w h o s e

m a j o r w o r k h a s n o t b e e n tr a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h .

1 3 . S e e K u g e l , The Bible as It Was, 1 8 : " T h e f i rs t a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a ll a n c i e n t

i n t e r p r e t e r s s e e m t o s h a r e i s t h a t t h e B ib le i s a f u n d a m e n t a l l y c r y p t i c d o c u -

m e n t . "

1 4 . S e e M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel ( O x f o r d :C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 8 5 ) . A c o n d e n s e d v e r s i o n of t h i s i s M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e , " I n n e r

B i b l ic a l E x e g e s i s : T y p e s a n d S t r a t e g i e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n A n c i e n t I s ra e l " in

M id ra sh and Literature, e d . G e o f f r e y H . H a r t m a n a n d S a n f o r d B u d i c k ( N e w

H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 9 - 3 7 .

1 5 . S e e L e o n a r d J . G r e e n s p o o n , " T h e O r i g i n of t h e I d e a o f R e s u r r e c t i o n , " i n

B a r u c h H a l p e r n a n d J o n D . L e v e n s o n , e d s . , Traditions in Transformation:

Turning Points in Biblical Faith ( W i n o n a L a k e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s , 1 9 8 1 ) ,

2 4 7 - 3 2 1 ; K la as S p r o n k , Beatific Afterlife in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient

Near East, A O A T 2 1 9 ( K e v e l a e r : B u t z o n & B e r c k e r , 1 9 8 6 ) .

1 6 . T h e o r i g i n s o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f r e s u r r e c t i o n a r e n o t c l e a r . I t m i g h t b e a r e a c -

t i o n to t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s b e t w e e n 1 6 7 a n d 1 6 4 , w h e n J e w s w e r e fi rs t

p u n i s h e d f o r t h e i r s p e c i f i c r e l i g i o u s b e li e f s , w h i c h m a y h a v e l e d t o t h e i d e a

t h a t G o d w a s p o s t p o n i n g t h e r e w a r d f o r f a i t h f u l n e s s , t o a t i m e a f t e r d e a t h .

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A l t e r n a ti v e l y , i t m i g h t r e f l e c t G r e e k i n f l u e n c e ; s e e m y " Is T h e r e M a r t y r d o m

i n t h e H e b r e w B i b le ? " i n M a r g a r e t C o r m a c k , e d . , Sacrificing the Self: Perspec-

fives on Martyrdom and Religion ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 2 ) , 3 - 2 2 ,

e s p . 1 5 .

1 7 . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o m m e n t a r i e s o n D a n i e l , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e b o o k s a r e e s p e -

c i a l l y h e l p f u l : D a n n a N o l a n F e w e l l , Circle of Sovereignty: A Story of Stories in

Daniel 1-6, J S O T S u p 7 2 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 8 8 ) ;

P a m e l a J . M i l n e , Vladimir Propp and the Study of Structure in Hebrew Biblical

Narrative ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : A l m o n d P r e s s , 1 9 8 8 ) a n d L a w r e n c e M . W i l l s , The

Jew in the Foreign Court, H D R 2 6 ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 0 ) .

1 8 . T h i s i s t h e o n l y b i b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e t h a t s u g g e s t s th a t G o d r e q u i r e s m e m b e r so f t h e C o v e n a n t t o d r i n k s p e c i a l w i n e . ( I t w o u l d b e a n a c h r o n i s t i c t o u s e t h e

w o r d " k o s h e r " i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f o o d t h a t D a n i e l a n d h i s f o u r f r i e n d s e a t . )

1 9 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " r o y a l t a l e " g e n r e i n t h e w o r k s c i t e d i n n . 1 7 ,

a b o v e , a n d i n C o l l i n s , Daniel, 3 8 - 5 2 .

2 0 . O n t h e a h i s t o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e B o o k o f J o n a h , s e e A m o s F u n k e n s t e i n ,

Perceptions of Jewish History ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 9 3 ) ,

6 4 - 7 0 .

2 1 . S e e W L e e H u m p h r e y s , " A L i f e - S t y l e f o r D i a s p o r a : A S t u d y o f t h e T a l e s o f

E s t h e r a n d D a n i e l , " JB L 9 2 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 3 . T h e S e p t u a g i n t v e r s i o n o f E s t h e r ,

w h i c h h a s m a n y a d d i t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e H e b r e w t e x t , t e ll s a s i m i l a r s to r y .

Ch ap t e r 2 2

1 . F o r a s u r v e y o f g e n e r a l i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g P s a l m s , s e e K l a u s S e y b o l d ,Introducing the Psalms, t r a ns . R . G r a e m e D u n p h y ( E d i n b u r g h : Τ & Τ C l a r k ,

1 9 9 0 ) .

2 . O n t h e s e , s e e M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , Biblical Prose Prayer as a Windo w to the

Popular Religion of Ancient Israel ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) ,

e s p . 5 9 - 6 0 ( f o r t h e e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h e n i n e t y - s e v e n p r o s e p r a y e r s ) .

S c h o l a r s a n d s t u d e n t s o f t e n s t u d y p r o s e a n d p o e t i c p r a y e r s s e p a r a t e ly , b u t

t h i s i s u n f o r t u n a t e s i n c e t h e t w o g e n r e s m a y b e m u t u a l l y e n l i g h t e n i n g .

3 . F o r t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s , s e e G r e e n b e r g , Biblical Prose Prayer.

4 . F o r t h e a n a l y s i s t h a t f o l l o w s , s e e m y " W o m e n a n d P s a l m s : T o w a r d a n

U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e R o l e o f W o m e n ' s P r a y e r i n t h e I sr a e li t e C u l t , " i n V i c t o r

H . M a t t h e w s e t a l . , e d s , Gender and Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient

Near East, J S O T S u p 2 6 2 ( S h e f f i e ld , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r es s , 1 9 9 8 ) ,

2 5 - 5 6 , e sp . 4 5 - 4 8 .

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5 . S p e c if ic a ll y , t h i s p s a l m f e a t u r e s t w o t y p e s of p a r a l l e l i s m : s y n o n y m o u s ( e . g .,

" H e r a is e s t h e p o o r f r o m t h e d u s t , / L i f ts u p t h e n e e d y f r o m t h e d u n g h i l l " ;

v. 8 ) , a n d a n t i t h e t i c a l ( e . g ., " T h e b o w s of t h e m i g h t y a r e b r o k e n , / A n d t h e

f a l t e r i n g a r e g i r d e d w i th s t r e n g th " ; v. 4 ) . A s f o r f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e , i t r e f e r s

t o G o d v i a t h e m e ta p h o r " r o c k " ( v . 2 ) .

6 . O n w h y t h i s m a y b e s o , s e e K n o h l , "B e tw e e n V o ic e a n d S i l e n c e . "

7 . S ee t h e t e r m s u s e d i n E r h a r d S. G e r s t e n b e r g e r , Psalms Part 1 With an

Introduction to Cultic Poetry, F O T L X IV ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s ,

1 9 8 8 ) , 9 - 2 1 .

8 . F o r m o r e o n t h i s t y p e of a n a l y s i s s e e C l a u s W e s t e r m a n , Praise and Lamen t in

the Psalms, t r a n s . K e i t h R . C r i m a n d R i c h a r d N . S o u l e n ( A t l a n t a : J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 8 1 ) , t h o u g h h e h a s a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e l a m e n t ' s

s t r u c t u r e .

9 . S c h o l a r s d e b a t e w h e t h e r b i b l i c a l H e b r e w e x p r e s s e s t e n s e s . S o m e h o l d t h a t

t h e v e r b a l f o r m s i n s t e a d i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r a c t i o n s a r e c o m p l e t e o r n o t .

H o w e v e r , t h a t d e b a t e is n o t i m p o r t a n t f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t ex t , s i n c e h e r e t h e

H e b r e w m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t t h e s e a r e a c t i o n s c o m p l e t e d i n t h e p a s t .

1 0 . F o r o n e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s i n f e r r e d f u n c t i o n a r y i n I s ra e l' s s h r i n e s , s e e

A u b r e y R . J o h n s o n , The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel (Ca rd i f f : Univ . o f

W a l e s P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) .

1 1 . F o r a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d iv in e r e s p o n s e s t o p r a y e r s , s e e

P a t r i c k D . M il l e r , They Cried to the L O R D : The Form and Theology of Biblical

Prayer ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 3 5 - 7 7 .

1 2 . O n t h e g e n r e of " e n t r a n c e li tu r g y ," s e e H e r m a n n G u n k e l , A n Introduction to

the Psalms, t r a n s . J a m e s D . N o g a l s k i ( M a c o n , G A : M e r c e r U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) ,

3 1 3 .1 3 . O f t h e p s a lm s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e "K o r a h i t e s , " P s a lm 4 3 l a c k s a n e x p l i c i t

s u p e r s c r i p t i o n , b u t o n t h e g r o u n d s o f c o n t e n t a n d st y le , m o s t s c h o l a r s

a s s u m e t h a t it i s t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f P s a l m 4 2 . O n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s u p e r -

s c r i p t i o n s th a t m e n t i o n D a v i d , s e e A l a n M . C o o p e r , " T h e L if e a n d T i m e s of

K in g D a v id A c c o r d in g t o t h e P s a l t e r , " i n The Poet and The Historian, ed. R. E.

F r i e d m a n ( C h i c o , C A : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 1 7 - 3 1 . H i s t o r i a n s d o n o t v i e w

K i n g D a v i d a s t h e t r u e i n v e n t o r o f p s a l m o d y , b e c a u s e p s a l m g e n r e s e x is t i n

e v e n o l d e r l i t e ra t u r e f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a .

1 4 . S e e N a h u m M . S a r n a , Songs of the Heart: An Introduction to the Book of Psalms

( N e w Y o rk : S c h o c k e n , 1 9 9 3 ) , 1 9 - 2 0 .

1 5 . S e e G a r y A . R e n d s b u r g , Linguistic Evidence for the Northern Origin of Selected

Psalms, S B L M S 4 3 ( A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 0 ) . H e l i k e ly o v e r s t a t e s t h e c a s e f o r

N o r t h e r n p s a l m s .

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1 6 . S e e L o r e n D . C r o w , The Songs of Ascents (Psalms 1 20-134): Their Place in

Israelite History and Religion, S B L D S 1 4 8 ( A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 9 6 ) , 1 - 2 7 .

1 7 . S ee G e r a l d H e n r y W i l s o n , The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter, S B L D S 7 6

( C h i c o , C A: S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 5 ) ; a n d J . C l i n t o n M c C a n n , The Shape and Shaping

of the Psalter, J S O T S u p 1 5 9 ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e ss , 1 9 9 3 ) .

1 8 . A s w e s a w in c h a p t e r 1 1 , a s e c o n d a r y i n s e r t i o n a t t h e s t a r t of J o s h u a a l s o

i n s e r t s T o r a h i n t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e B i b le ,

N e v i ' i m .

C h a p t e r 2 3

1 . A "p r o v e r b " i s a t y p e o f s a y in g , w h i l e "P r o v e r b s " i s t h e n a m e o f a b o o k .

2 . T h e n a t u r e of a n c i e n t w i s d o m s c h o o l s i s e x p l o r e d i n J o h n G . G a m m i e a n d

L e o G . P e d u e , e d s . , T h e Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East ( W i n o n a

L a k e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s , 1 9 9 0 ) .

3 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , R o l a n d E. M u r p h y , T h e Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical

Wisdom Literature, A B ( G a r d e n Ci ty , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 1 5 - 1 8 .

4 . T h e t w o m a j o r i n t r o d u c t i o n s to t h e g e n r e o f w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e a re : J a m e s L.

C r e n s h a w , Old Testament Wisdom : An Introduction ( A t la n t a: J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 8 1 ) ; a n d M u r p h y , The Tree of Life.

5 . R a t h e r t h a n " w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e , " R . N . W h y b r a y p r e f e r s t o s p e a k i n s t e a d o f

" th e i n t e l l e c tu a l t r a d i t i o n . " S e e h i s T h e Intellectual Tradition in the Old

Testament, B Z A W 1 3 5 ( B e r li n : d e G r u y t e r , 1 9 7 4 ) .

6 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e e s s a y s i n J o h n D a y et a l ., e d s . , Wisdom in Ancient Israel

( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv . P r es s , 1 9 9 5 ) , 9 4 - 1 6 9 .7 . F o r o t h e r s u c h i d e n t i c a l p a i r s , s e e D a n i e l C . S n e l l , Twice-Told Proverbs and

the Composition of the Book of Proverbs ( W i n o n a L a k e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s ,

1 9 9 3 ) , e s p . 3 5 .

8 . See Sne l l , Twice-Told Proverbs.

9. S e e R . B . Y. S c o t t , "W is e a n d F o o l i s h , R ig h t e o u s a n d W i c k e d , " VT 29 ( 1 9 7 2 ) :

1 4 5 - 6 5 .

1 0 . S e e W i l l i a m M c K a n e , Proverbs, O T L ( P h i l ad e l p h i a: W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 0 - 2 2 .

1 1 . S e e K la u s K o c h , " I s T h e r e a D o c t r i n e of R e t r i b u t i o n i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t? "

i n J a m e s L . C r e n s h a w , e d . , Theodicy in the Old Testament ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

F o r t re s s , 1 9 8 3 ) , 5 7 - 8 7 .

1 2 . F o r a d d i t i o n a l e x a m p l e s , s e e R . B . Y. S c o t t , "F o lk P r o v e r b s o f t h e A n c i e n t

N e a r E a s t , " i n J a m e s L . C r e n s h a w , e d . , Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom

( N e w Y o rk : K ta v, 1 9 7 6 ) , 4 1 7 - 2 6 .

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1 3 . It i s u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r " f o r e i g n " i n t h i s c o n t e x t m e a n s n o n - I s r a e l i t e , o r a n y

w o m e n o u t s i d e o f o n e ' s w i f e .

1 4 . A c c o r d i n g t o s o m e s c h o l a r s , w i s d o m i s h y p o s t a s i z e d h e r e a s a d e it y. F o r d i f -

f e r e n t v i e w s , s e e B e r n h a r d L a n g , Wisdom and the Book of Proverbs: An Israelite

Goddess Redefined ( N e w Y o r k : P i l g r i m P re s s , 1 9 8 6 ) ; C l a u d i a V C a m p ,

Wisdom and the Feminine in the Book of Proverbs ( S h e f fi e ld , U K : A l m o n d

P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) ; a n d M i c h a e l V F o x , Proverbs 1-9, A B ( G a r d e n C ity, N Y , 2 0 0 0 ) .

1 5 . F o r o n e p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n , s e e J o s e p h B l e n k i n s o p p , " T h e S o c ia l C o n t e x t

o f t h e O u t s i d e r W o m a n ' i n P r o v e r b s 1 - 9 , " Bib 7 2 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 4 5 7 - 7 3 .

1 6 . S ee C O S , 1 . 1 1 5 - 2 2 .

1 7 . S o m e s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t a l a t e r e d i t o r a d d e d t h e c lo s in g p a s s a g e s o a s t oc o u n t e r t h e m i s o g y n i s t i c i n t r o d u c t i o n . S ee R i c h a r d J . C l i f f o r d , Proverbs , O T L

( L o u is v il le , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 9 ) , 2 7 3 - 7 4 .

1 8 . S e e J a m e s L . C r e n s h a w , Education in Ancient Israel, 6 2 .

1 9 . F o r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f h o w p r o v e r b s f u n c t i o n , s e e J a m e s G . W i l l i a m s ,

"T h e P o w e r o f F o r m : A S t u d y o f B ib l ic a l P r o v e r b s , " Semeia 1 7 ( 1 9 8 0 ) ,

3 5 - 5 8 ; f o r a l o n g e r d i s c u s s i o n s ee h i s Those Wh o Ponder Proverbs: Aphoristic

Thinking and Biblical Literature ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : A l m o n d P r e ss , 1 9 8 1 ) .

2 0 . S e e f o r e x a m p l e , M u r p h y , The Tree of Life, 7 8 - 7 9 .

2 1 . F o r t h e m a i n s t r e a m v i e w , s e e , e . g . , M i c h a e l V F o x , T h e JPS Bible

Commentary: Ecclesiastes ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y , 2 0 0 4 ) ,

8 2 - 8 3 . P e t e r M a c h i n i s t e x p r e s s e s a c o n t r a r y v i e w i n t h e JSB, 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 .

2 2 . S e e R o b e r t G o r d i s , " Q u o t a t i o n s i n W i s d o m L i t e r a t u r e , " i n C r e n s h a w , e d . ,

Studies in Ancient Israelite W isdom, 2 2 0 - 4 4 ; a n d R. N . W h y b r a y , " T h e

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d U s e o f Q u o ta t i o n s i n E c c l e s i a s t e s , " SVT 3 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 4 3 5 - 5 1 .

2 3 . T h e b e s t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o E c c l e s ia s t e s, w h i c h a l s o c o n t a i n s a d e t a i l e d c o m -m e n ta r y , i s M ic h a e l V F o x , A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A

Rereading of Ecclesiastes ( G r a n d R a p i d s . , M I ; E e r d m a n s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

2 4 . L i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t E c c l e si a s t e s i s a m u c h l a t e r b o o k , f r o m t h e

S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . A p p a r e n t l y it s a u t h o r w a n t e d t o l e n d t h e p r o t a g o n i s t

t h e a u r a of S o l o m o n ' s w e a l t h a n d w i s d o m . A l t h o u g h t h e b o o k d o e s n o t c o n -

t a i n a n y G r e e k w o r d s , m a n y s c h o l a r s b e l ie v e t h a t it r e f l e c t s t h e i n f l u e n c e of

G r e e k t h o u g h t .

2 5 . B a s e d o n t h i s p a s s a g e i n E c c l e s i a s t e s , t h e f o lk s in g e r P e t e S e e g e r c o m p o s e d a

s o n g t h a t t h e B y r d s m a d e f a m o u s i n 1 9 6 5 :

T o e v e r y t h i n g — t u r n , t u r n , t u r n

T h e r e is a s e a s o n — t u r n , t u r n , t u r n

A n d a t i m e fo r e v ' ry p u r p o s e u n d e r h e a v e n

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A t ime to ga in , a t ime to lose

A t im e t o r e n d , a t im e t o s e w

A t ime to love , a t ime to ha te

A t im e of pe ace : I sw ea r it 's no t to o la te !

I r on i ca l ly , t h e s e l y r i c s — w h i c h A m e r i c a n p r o t e s t e r s s a n g o f t e n d u r i n g t h e

V i e t n a m W a r — d r a m a t i c a l l y a l t e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l p o i n t o f E c c l e s i a s t e s .

2 6 . T h e d e t e r m i n i s m i n E c c l e s i a st e s c o n t i n u e s i n t h e D e a d S e a S c r o ll s . ( T h i s

s h a r e d f e a tu r e i s o n e a s p e c t t h a t s c h o l a r s c i t e i n d a t i n g t h i s b ib l i c a l b o o k t o

t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . ) S ee J e a n D u h a i m e , " D e t e r m i n i s m , " i n L a w r e n c e H .

S c h i f f m a n a n d J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m , e d s ., Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls

( N e w Y o rk : O x f o r d U n i v. P r e ss , 2 0 0 0 ) , 1 9 4 - 9 8 .

2 7 . S e e R . N . W h y b r a y , " Q o h e l e t h , P r e a c h e r of J o y, " JSOT 2 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 8 7 - 9 8 .

C h a p t e r 2 4

1 . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e v a r i o u s c o m m e n t a r i e s c i te d b e l o w , s e e E d w i n M . G o o d , In

Turns of Temp est: A Reading of Job with a Translation ( S t a n f o r d , C A : S t a n f o r dU n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 9 0 ) .

2 . F o r a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f J o b , se e J o n a s C .

G r e e n f i e l d , " T h e L a n g u a g e o f t h e B o o k " i n M o s h e G r e e n b e r g e t a l . , The Book

of Job: A New Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew Text

( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o ci et y , 1 9 8 0 ) , x i v - x v i .

3 . F o r a d i f f e r e n t v i e w , s e e D a v id J . A . C l in e s , "T h e A r g u m e n t s o f J o b ' s T h r e e

Fr ien ds , " in D . J . A . Cl in e s e t a l. , ed s . , Art and Meaning: Rhetoric in Biblical

Literature, J S O T S u p 1 9 ( S h e f f ie l d , U K : J S O T P r e ss , 1 9 8 2 ) , 1 9 9 - 2 1 4 .

4 . F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s e x p o s i t i o n , t h e c o n t e n t of E l i h u ' s s p e e c h e s w i l l b e

i g n o r e d , f o l l o w i n g t h e m o d e l of M a t i t i a h u T s e v a t , " T h e M e a n i n g o f t h e B o o k

o f J o b , " i n The Meaning of the Book of Job and Other Biblical Studies: Essays on

the Literature and Religion of the Hebrew Bible ( N e w Y o r k: K ta v, 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 - 3 7 ,

a l o n g w i t h m a n y o t h e r s . S o m e s e e E l i h u 's s p e e c h e s as " r e t a r d i n g " t h e a c t i o n ,

w h i l e o t h e r s n o t e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e m a n d G o d ' s s p e e c h e s i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r — b o t h d e a l e x t e n s i v e ly w i t h G o d 's p o w e r in n a t u r e .5 . F o r e x a m p l e , J o b 2 8 r a i s es s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s : W h o is s p e a k i n g , J o b o r t h e

n a r r a to r ? D o e s t h e c h a p t e r r e f l e c t t h e w o r k o f o n e a u th o r o r s e v e r a l ? I s i t

o r i g i n a l o r s e c o n d a r y ? A ll o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a ff e c t t h e m o s t b a s i c q u e s t i o n :

w h a t d o e s i t r e a l l y m e a n ?

6 . F o r a d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s a n d o t h e r s o u r c e - c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s ,

s e e t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s .

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7 . F o r t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , s e e , a m o n g o t h e r s , R o b e r t G o r d i s , The Book of God and

Man: A Study of Job ( C h i c a g o : U n i v . o f C h i c a g o P r e ss , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 3 .

8 . O n t h i s u n i t , s e e N a h u m M . S a r n a , " E p i c S u b s t r a t u m i n t h e P r o s e o f J o b , "

Studies in Biblical Interpretation, 4 1 1 - 2 4 .

9 . S o m e w o u l d d i s c u s s t h i s i n t e r m s o f " c o r r e c t i o n s of t h e s c r i b e s " o r " a s c r i b -

a l e u p h e m i s m " ( e. g ., S a m u e l R o l le s D r i v e r a n d G e o r g e B u c h a n a n G ra y, The

Book of Job, I C C [ E d i n b u r g h : Τ «Sr Τ C l a r k , 1 9 7 1 ] , 8 ; M a r v i n H . P o p e , Job,

A B [ G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 7 3 ] , 8 ) , b u t t h i s i s n o t c o r r e c t — s e e Τ ο ν,

Textual Criticism, 6 4 - 6 7 .

1 0 . S a r n a , " E p i c S u b s t r a t u m i n t h e P r o s e o f J o b . "

1 1 . S t e p h e n M i t c h e ll , The Book of Job ( S a n F r a n c i s c o , C A : N o r t h P o i n t , 1 9 8 7 ) , 5 .

1 2 . I s a i a h p o r t r a y e d G o d as s u r r o u n d e d b y a n g e l s ( Is a . 6 : 1 - 8 ; s e e " L o c a t i o n ,

L o c a t i o n , L o c a t i o n " i n c h a p t e r 1 9 ) . E l s e w h e r e t h e p r o p h e t M i c a i a h e x p r e s s -

e s t h e s a m e i d e a : " I s a w t h e L O R D s e a t e d u p o n H i s t h r o n e , w i t h a l l t h e h o s t

o f h e a v e n s t a n d i n g in a t t e n d a n c e t o t h e r i g h t a n d t o t h e le f t o f H i m " ( 1 K i n g s

2 2 : 1 9 ) .

1 3 . S e e t h e c o m m e n t i n E . D h o r m e , A Comm entary on the Book of Job, t r a n s .

H a r o l d K n i g h t ( N a s h v i l l e , T N : T h o m a s N e l s o n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 5 .

1 4 . F o r t h e s t o r y o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , s e e E l a i n e P a g e l s , The Origin of Satan

( N e w Y o rk : R a n d o m H o u s e , 1 9 9 5 ) . F o r m o r e o n t h e S a t a n i n t h e H e b r e w

Bible , see Peggy L. Day, An Adversary in Heaven : Satan in the Hebrew Bible,

H S M 4 3 ( A t l a n t a : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 8 ) .

1 5 . A vi H u r v i t z , " T h e D a t e of t h e P r o s e - t a l e o f J o b L i n g u i s t i c a l l y R e c o n s i d e r e d , "

HTR 6 7 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 7 - 3 4 .

1 6 . F o r m o r e o n t h i s p o i n t , s e e m y b o o k God Is King, 1 0 5 .

1 7 . T h e r e f e r e n c e i s t o " M o t h e r E a r t h , " s e e N o r m a n C . H a b e l , The Book of Job,O T L ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 5 ) , 9 3 .

1 8 . F o r a d i f f e r e n t , ( o v e r l y ) c l o s e r e a d i n g o f t h i s s e c t i o n , s e e M e i r W e i s s ,

The Story of Job's Beginning: A Literary Analysis ( J e r u s a l e m : M a g n e s P r e s s ,

1 9 8 3 ) .

1 9 . S e e M i c h a e l B r e n n e n D i c k , " T h e L e g a l M e t a p h o r i n J o b 3 1 , " CBQ 4 1 ( 1 9 7 9 ) ,

3 7 - 5 0 a n d " Jo b 3 1 , T h e O a t h of I n n o c e n c e , a n d t h e S a g e, " Z A W 9 5 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,

3 1 - 5 3 .

2 0 . S e e H a b e l ,Job, 5 3 5 - 3 6 .

2 1 . O n g i r d i n g o n e ' s l o i n s , s e e H a b e l , Job, 5 3 6 .

2 2 . O n t h e s t r o n g fo r e n s i c b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e b o o k , s e e H a b e l , Job, 5 4 - 5 7 a n d

p a s s i m .

2 3 . F o r t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , s e e ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o m -

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m e n t a r i e s ) M i c h a e l V F o x , " J o b 3 8 a n d G o d ' s R h e t o r i c , " Semeia 1 9 ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,

5 3 - 6 1 .

2 4 . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e v e r y d i f f e r e n t t r e a t -

m e n t s o f t h e s e s p e e c h e s a r e h e l p f u l : R . A . F M a c K e n z i e , " T h e P u r p o s e of t h e

Y a h w e h S p e e c h e s i n t h e B o o k o f J o b , " in Studia Biblical et Orientalia, A n O r

1 0 ( R o m e : P o n t i f i c a l B i b li c al I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 5 9 ) , 1 . 3 0 1 - 1 1 ; T s e v a t , " T h e

M e a n i n g o f t h e B o o k o f J o b " ; a n d A t h a l y a B r e n n e r , " G o d ' s A n s w e r t o J o b , "

V T 3 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 2 9 - 3 7 .

2 5 . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s , se e B. F B a t to , " B e h e m o t h , " D D D 1 6 5 - 6 9

a n d C . U e h l i n g e r , " L e v i a t h a n , " D D D , 5 1 1 - 1 5 . O n U g a r i t , s e e n . 1 3 i n c h a p -

te r 19 .2 6 . F o r o n e a t t e m p t t o r e s o l v e t h i s a m b i g u i t y , s e e J o h n B r i g g s C u r t i s , " O n J o b ' s

R e s p o n s e t o Y a h w e h , " JBL 9 8 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , 4 9 7 - 5 1 1 .

2 7 . M i t c h e l l , The Book of Job, 8 8 , 1 2 8 - 2 9 .

2 8 . T h i s i s t h e t h e s i s o f C a r o l A . N e w s o m , The Book of Job: A Contest of Moral

Imagination ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 3 ) ; s h e s p e a k s t h r o u g h o u t o f

J o b a s a " p o l y p h o n i c c o n s t r u c t i o n . "

C h a p t e r 2 5

1 . T h i s c h a p t e r i s b a s e d o n m y f o r t h c o m i n g a r t ic l e "A L o c k W h o s e K e y I s L o s t :

U n r e s o l v e d a n d U n r e s o l v a b l e P r o b l e m s i n I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e S o n g " i n Scrolls

of Love: Reading Ruth and the Song o f Songs, e d . P e t e r S . H a w k i n s a n d L e s l e i g h

C u s h i n g S t a h l b e r g ( B r o n x , N Y : F o r d h a m U n i v . P r e s s , f o r t h c o m i n g ) ; s e e f u r -

t h e r l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e .2 . R e a d e r s i n E n g l i s h m a y f i n d it f r u i t f u l t o c o n s u l t m o r e t h a n o n e t r a n s l a t i o n ,

s u c h a s M a r v i n H . P o p e , Song of Songs, A B 7 C ( G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : D o u b l e d a y ,

1 9 7 7 ) ; M a r c i a F a l k , Love Lyrics from the Bible: A Translation and Literary Study

of The Song of S on gs ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : A l m o n d P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 ) ; A r i e l a n d C h a n a

B l o c h , The Song of Songs ( N e w Y o rk : R a n d o m H o u s e , 1 9 9 5 ) .

3 . T h e t e x t m e n t i o n s a " k i n g " i n 1 : 4 , 1 2 ; 3 : 9 , 1 1 ; a n d 7 : 6 . It m e n t i o n s " S o l o -

m o n " i n 1 : 5 ; 3 : 7 , 9 , 1 1 ; a n d 8 : 1 1 .

4 . O n t h e wasfs, s e e t h e e s s a y s i n A t h a l y a B r e n n e r , e d . , A Feminist Companion

to The Song of Songs ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 9 3 ) ,

2 1 4 - 5 7 .

5 . S c h o l a r s h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f e m a l e a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e S o n g ;

f o r a d i s c u s s i o n , se e A . B r e n n e r a n d Ε v a n D i j k - H e m m e s , On Gendering

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Texts: Female and M ale Voices in the Hebrew Bible ( L e id e n : B r i l l , 1 9 8 6 ) , e s p .

7 1 - 8 1 . F o r a c r i t i q u e , s e e m y a r t ic l e " L o c k W i t h o u t a K ey ."

6 . F o r a b r o a d e r v i e w o f t h e J e w i s h a t t i t u d e , s e e J o n a t h a n M a g o n e t , e d . , J ew i s h

Explorations of Sexuality ( P r o v i d e n c e , R I: B e r g h a h n B o o k s , 1 9 9 5 ) .

7 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y M ic h a e l V F o x , The Song of Songs and the Egyptian Love Songs

( M a d i s o n : U n i v . o f W i s c o n s i n P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) .

8 . M i r i a m L i c h t h e i m , Ancient Egyptian Literature ( B e r k e l e y : U n iv . o f C a l i f o r n i a

P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 2 . 1 8 2 .

9 . R ob e r t D . Biggs , Sà.zi.ga: Ancient Mesopotam ian Potency Incantations ( L o c u s t

Va lley , NY: J . J . A ug us t i n , 19 67 ) , 30 .

1 0 . T h i s i s q u o t e d f r o m M a r v i n H . P o p e , Song of Songs , 79 .

1 1 . P o p e , Song of Songs, 5 1 6 .

1 2 . A p o s s ib l e e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s i n 8 :6 , w h e r e shalhevetyah ( ה י ת ב ה ל ש ) m a y b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s e i t h e r " t h e f l a m e o f G o d " o r " a g r e a t f l a m e " ; s e e P o p e , Song of

Songs, 6 7 0 - 7 1 .

1 3 . D e s p i t e s o m e i n t e r p r e t e r s ' c l a i m s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t ( a t

l e a s t i n m o s t p a s s a g e s ) t h e l o v e r s a r e u n m a r r i e d , a n d a r e n o t b r i d e a n d

g r o o m . F o r e x a m p l e , i n 1 : 6 t h e f e m a l e s p e a k e r i s u n d e r h e r b r o t h e r s ' , n o t

h e r h u s b a n d ' s , c o n t r o l .

1 4 . W o m e n ' s s e x u a l r i g h t s a c c o r d i n g t o b i b l i c a l l a w a r e e x p l a i n e d m o s t c l e a r l y

i n J u d i t h R o m n e y W e g n e r , Chattel or Person? Th e Status of Wom en in the

Mishnah ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 8 8 ) , 4 0 - 4 1 . W i d o w s a n d

d i v o r c e e s w e r e e x c e p t i o n a l , i n t h a t t h e y c o n t r o l l e d t h e i r o w n s e x u a l i t y .

1 5 . T h e b r i d e - p r i c e m u s t n o t b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e d o w r y . T h e b r i d e - p r i c e g o e s

f r o m t h e g r o o m ' s f a m i l y to t h e b r i d e ' s f a m il y , w h e r e a s t h e d o w r y i s b r o u g h t

b y t h e b r i d e i n t o t h e m a r r i a g e . B i b l i c a l l a w d o e s n o t m a k e c l e a r w h e t h e r t h ed o w r y b e c o m e s t h e g r o o m ' s p r o p e r t y o r n o t ; in r a b b i n i c la w, t h e g r o o m m a y

e n j o y t h e b e n e f i t s f r o m o r i n t e r e s t o n t h e d o w r y , b u t t h e d o w r y b e l o n g s t o

t h e b r i d e .

1 6 . F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d r e a d i n g of t h i s p a s s a g e ( 5 : 2 - 6 ) , se e m y a r t i c le " S e n s u a l

o r S u b l i m e : O n T e a c h i n g t h e S o n g o f S o n g s , " i n Approaches to Teaching the

Hebrew Bible as Literature in Translation, e d . B a r r y N . O l s h e n a n d Y a e l S .

F e l d m a n ( N e w Y o rk : M o d e r n L a n g u a g e A s s o c i a ti o n , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 3 3 - 3 5 .

1 7 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y M a r c i a F a l k , Love Lyrics from the Bible, 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 .

1 8 . S e e V i c t o r H . M a t t h e w s , " P e r f u m e s a n d S p i c e s , " ABD, 5 . 2 2 6 - 2 8 , e s p . 2 2 7 .

1 9 . S ee F r a n k M o o r e C r o s s , Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic ( C a m b r i d g e , M A :

H a r v a r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) , 5 5 - 5 6 , n . 4 4 , e s p e c i a l l y h i s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

" G r a n d T e t o n r a n g e " a s i t m a y r e l a t e t o t h e d i v i n e n a m e Shaddai.

20. See b . S a n h é d r i n 1 0 1 a .

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C h a p t e r 2 6

1 . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s b e l o w o n R u t h a n d E s t h e r a r e l a rg e l y b a s e d o n D a n n aN o l a n F e w e l l a n d D a v i d M i l l e r G u n n , Com promising Redem ption: R elating

Characters in the Book of Ruth ( L o u i s v i ll e , KY: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 9 0 ) ; K i r s t e n N i e l s o n , Ruth, O T L ( L o u i s v i ll e , K Y: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x ,

1 9 9 7 ) ; M i c h a e l V. F o x , Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther

( C o l u m b i a : U n i v . o f S o u t h C a r o l i n a P r e s s , 1 9 9 1 ) ; J o n D . L e v e n s o n , Esther,

O T L ( L o u i s v i ll e , K Y: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) ; a n d A d e l e B e r l i n , The

JPS Bible Comm entary: Esther ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c ie ty ,

2 0 0 1 ) .

2 . S o m e c o n s id e r t h i s s i n g l e v e r s e ( 4 :7 ) t o b e a l a t e r g lo s s a d d e d o n t o a m u c h

e a r li e r b o o k . S c h o l a r s a r e c o n t i n u i n g a h e a l t h y d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g R u t h 's

d a t e .

3 . See m y The Creation of History, 8 - 1 9 .

4 . S e e A n d r é L a c o q u e , The Fem inine Uncon ventional: Four Subversive Figures in

Israel's Tradition, O B T ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 0 ) , 5 1 .

5 . W h a t H a m a n o f f e r s i s a s u m l a rg e r t h a n a n y o n e p e r s o n c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e

p o s s e s s e d . F o x , Character and Ideology, 5 2 , e s t i m a t e s t h i s a m o u n t a s

" 5 8 % - 6 8 % o f t h e a n n u a l r e v e n u e of t h e e m p i r e . "

6 . See Sa nd ra Be th Be rg , The Book of Esther: M otifs, Them es and Structure, S B L D S

4 4 ( M i s s o u l a , M T : S c h o l a r s, 1 9 7 9 ) , 3 1 - 3 5 ; f o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s , s e e 1 0 6 - 1 3 .

7 . K e n n e t h C r a i g s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e s t h e v i e w t h a t P u r i m p r e c e d e d t h e B o o k o f

E s t h e r ; s e e h i s Reading Esther: A Case for the Literary Carnivalesque

( L o u i s v i l l e , K Y: W e s tm in s t e r J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 5 ) . S e e a l s o A d e l e B e r l i n , i n

Esther, x x v i i , a n d i n t h e JSB , 1 6 2 3 .8 . S e e A th a ly a B r e n n e r , The Israelite Wom an: Social Role and Literary Type in

Biblical Narrative ( S h e f f i e l d , U K : J S O T P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 1 - 3 2 .

9 . S e e S h a y e J . D . C o h e n , The Beginnings of Jewishness: Bounda ries, Varieties,

Uncertainties ( B e r k e l e y : U n iv . o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

C h a p t e r 2 7

1 . A m o r e d e t a i l e d o v e r v i e w o f m a n y of t h e i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d h e r e i s J o h n

B a r to n , "T h e S ig n i f i c a n c e o f a F ix e d T e xt a n d C a n o n , " i n M a g n e S a e b 0 , e d . ,

The Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: The History of Its Interpretation, vol . 1

( G ö t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k & R u p r e c h t , 1 9 9 6 ) , 6 7 - 8 3 .

2 . P h i l i p R . D a v i e s e m p h a s i z e s t h e r o l e o f t h e p o p u l a c e i n h i s Scribes and

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Schools: the Canon ization of the Hebrew Scriptures ( L o u i s v i l l e , K Y : W e s t m i n s t e r

J o h n K n o x , 1 9 9 8 ) , w h i c h is s u m m a r i z e d i n h i s " T h e J e w i s h S c r i p t u r a l

C a n o n i n C u l t u r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , " i n L e e M a r t i n M c D o n a l d a n d J a m e sA . S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate ( P e a b o d y , M A : H e n d r i c k s o n , 2 0 0 2 ) ,

3 6 - 5 2 .

3 . S e e L ee M a r t i n M c D o n a l d a n d J a m e s A . S a n d e r s , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " i n L e e

M a r t i n M c D o n a l d a n d J a m e s A . S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate, 1 1 .

4 . S ee M o s h e H a l b e r t a l , People of the Book: Canon , M eaning, and Authority

( C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) ; E u g e n e U l r i c h , " T h e N o t i o n

a n d D e f i n i t i o n of C a n o n , " in M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon

Debate, 2 1 - 3 5 .

5 . See J a m e s Ba r r , Holy Scripture: Canon , Authority, Criticism ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :

W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 3 ) .

6 . F o r t h e r a b b in i c t e r m s u s e d f o r " t h e B ib l e , " s e e S id Z . L e im a n , The

Cano nization of Hebrew Scripture: The Talmud ic and Midrashic Evidence

( H a m d e n , C T : A r c h o n , 1 9 7 6 ) , 5 3 - 7 2 .

7 . S ee m y a r ti c le c o a u t h o r e d w i t h T h o m a s R ö m e r , " D e u t e r o n o m y 3 4 a n d t h e

C a s e f o r a P e r si a n H e x a t e u c h , " J B L 1 1 9 ( 2 0 0 0 ) , 4 0 1 - 1 9 .

8 . S e e L e i m a n , The Canon ization of Hebrew Scripture, 3 1 - 3 3 ; S t e v e M a s o n ,

" J o s e p h u s a n d H i s T w e n t y - t w o B o o k C a n o n , " i n M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s ,

e d s . , The Canon Debate, 1 1 0 - 2 7 .

9 . L e i m a n , C a n o n i z a t i o n , 3 3 .

1 0 . F o r t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c a n o n of J o s e p h u s , s e e L e i m a n , Canonization,

3 2 - 3 3 .

1 1 . O n d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t d i d a n d d i d n o t h a p p e n a t J a m n i a , s e e J a c k Ρ L e w i s ,

" J a m n i a R e v i s i t e d , " i n M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate,

1 4 6 - 6 2 .

1 2 . F o r t e x t s a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f " d e f i l i n g t h e h a n d s , " se e L e i m a n , Canonization,

1 0 2 - 1 2 0 .

1 3 . L e i m a n , Canonization, 5 3 - 5 6 .

1 4 . I n a d d i t i o n t o L e i m a n , Canonization, s e e J a c k N . L i g h t s t o n e , " T h e R a b b i s '

B i b l e : T h e C a n o n o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e a n d t h e E a r l y R a b b i n i c G u i l d , " i n

M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate, 1 6 3 - 8 4 .

1 5 . L e i m a n , Canonization, 9 2 - 1 0 2 .

1 6 . L e i m a n , Canonization, 9 7 .

1 7 . F o r t h e l a t e S e c o n d - T e m p l e p e r i o d , s c h o l a r s u s e t h e t e r m " s e c t " t o r e f e r t o

o n e o f t h e m a n y g r o u p s of J e w s w h o a d h e r e d t o d i s t i n c t iv e d o c t r i n e a n d

t h e i r o w n a u t h o r i t i e s . F o r a c o g e n t d e f e n s e o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

Q u m r a n ( D e a d S ea S c r ol ls ) c o m m u n i t y w i t h J o s e p h u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e

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p a r t y t h a t h e c a l l e d E s s e n e s , s e e J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m , The Dead Sea Scrolls

Today ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n n s , 1 9 9 4 ) , 7 1 - 9 8 .

1 8 . H o w e v e r , s o m e o f t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s d o r e l a t e t o E s t h e r ; s e e S i d n i e W h i t e

C r a w f o r d , " E s t h e r , B o o k o f , " i n S c h i f f m a n a n d V a n d e r K a m , e d s . ,

Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2 6 9 - 7 0 . F o r a li st o f t h e n u m b e r of m a n -

u s c r i p t s o f e a c h b i b l i c a l b o o k f o u n d a t Q u m r a n , s e e E s t h e r E s h e l , " T h e B i b l e

i n t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l l s , " JSB, 1 9 2 2 .

1 9 . S e e J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m , " Q u e s t i o n s of C a n o n V i e w e d t h r o u g h t h e D e a d

S e a S c r o l l s , " i n M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate , 9 1 - 1 0 9 .

2 0 . F o r a h i s t o r y of t h e p l a c e of t h e c o d e x i n J u d a i s m , s ee M o r d e c h a i G l a t z e r ,

" T h e B o o k o f B o o k s — F r o m S c ro ll t o C o d e x a n d i n t o P r i n t ," i n M o r d e c h a iG l a t z e r , e d . , The Jerusalem Crown: Companion Volume ( J e r u s a l e m : N . B e n -

Z vi, 2 0 0 2 ) , 6 1 - 1 0 1 .

2 1 . S e e N a h u m M . S a m a , " A n c i e n t L i b r a r i e s a n d t h e O r d e r i n g o f t h e B i b l ic a l

B o o k s , " i n h i s Studies in Biblical Interpretation, 5 3 - 6 6 .

2 2 . W h e n t h e s c r i b e s o f t h e D e a d S ea S c r o l l s s o m e t i m e s c o p i e d G e n e s i s a n d

E x o d u s o n t o a s i n g l e l o n g s c r o l l, t h e y s k i p p e d s e v e r a l l i n e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o

b o o k s , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h o s e b o o k s w e r e v i e w e d a s s e p a r a t e .

2 3 . L e i m a n , Canonization, 5 3 - 7 2 .

2 4 . T h e m a i n d e f e n d e r o f a n a l t e r n a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n — a n o r i g i n a l t w o - p a r t

c a n o n — i s J o h n B a r to n , Oracles o f God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in

Israel after the Exile ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v. P r e ss , 1 9 8 6 ) , 3 5 - 9 5 . O n p r o b -

l e m s w i t h m a n y of t h e s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o r o f a n o r i g i n a l o r e a r l y

t r i p a r t i t e c a n o n , s e e J u l i o C . T r e b o l l e B a r r e r a , " O r i g i n s of a T r i p a r t i t e O l d

T e s t a m e n t C a n o n , " i n M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate,

1 2 8 - 4 5 ; E u g e n e U l r i c h , " T h e N o n - A t t e s t a t i o n o f a T r i p a r ti t e C a n o n i n4 Q M M T , " CBQ 6 5 ( 2 0 0 3 ) , 2 0 2 - 1 4 .

2 5 . T h e o l d e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a n A l e x a n d r i a n v s . a P a l e s t i n i a n c a n o n is n o t

v i a b l e ; s e e A l b e r t C . S u n d b e r g J r . , " T h e S e p t u a g i n t : T h e B i b l e o f H e l l e n i s t i c

J u d a i s m , " i n M c D o n a l d a n d S a n d e r s , e d s . , The Canon Debate, 7 9 .

2 6 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , L e i m a n , Canonization, 1 3 1 .

2 7 . O n v a r i a t i o n i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e L a t t e r P r o p h e t s a n d i n K e t h u v i m , s e e

C h r i s t i a n C . G i n s b u r g , Introduction to the M assoretico-Critical Edition of the

Bible ( N e w Y o r k : K t av , 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 - 8 .

2 8 . F o r a s u m m a r y o n t h e " B ib l e" o f t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l ls c o m m u n i t y , s ee Τ ο ν,

Textual Criticism, 1 0 0 - 1 1 7 ; se e a l so t h e sp e c i f i c e v i d e n c e t h a t E u g e n e U l r i c h

c i t e s i n m a n y o f t h e e s s a y s i n h i s The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origins of the

Bible ( G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 9 9 ) .

2 9 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y n o t e d i n J a m e s H .

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C h a r l e s w o r t h , e d . , The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew , Aramaic, and Greek Texts

with English Translations. Vol . 6b , Pesharim, Other Com mentaries, and Related

Documents ( L o u is v i ll e , KY, W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 2 0 0 2 ) .

3 0 . S e e P e s h e r H a b a k k u k 4 : 9 - 1 6 , a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n W i l l i a m H . B r o w n l e e ,

The Midrash Pesher of Habakkuk, S B L M S 2 4 ( M i s s o u l a , M T . : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 7 9 ) ,

8 0 - 8 3 .

3 1 . M o s h e G r e e n b e r g , " T h e S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e T ex t o f t h e H e b r e w B i b le ,

R e v i e w e d i n L i gh t o f t h e B i b li c al M a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e J u d e a n D e s e r t , " r e p r i n t -

e d i n S i d Z . L e i m a n , The Canon and Masorah of the Hebrew Bible: An

Introductory Reader ( N e w Y o r k : K t av , 1 9 7 4 ) , 3 1 4 .

3 2 . O n t h e d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n of h o w v a r i o u s c o m p e t i n g te x t u a l v e r s i o n s r e s o l v e do v e r t i m e i n t o o n e " o f f i c ia l " v e r s i o n , s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f M . H . G o s h e n -

G o t t s t e i n , " H e b r e w B i b l i c a l M a n u s c r i p t s : T h e i r H i s t o r y a n d T h e i r P l a c e i n

t h e H U B P E d i t i o n , " i n F r a n k M o o r e C r o s s a n d S h e m a r y a h u T a l m o n , e d s . ,

Qum ran and the History of the Biblical Text ( C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i v.

P r es s , 1 9 7 5 ) , 4 2 - 8 9 .

3 3 . R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e s t h e m i d r a s h i c m o v e of i n t e r p r e t i n g v a r i -

a n t s p e l l i n g s — m a l e i ( א ל מ , " f u l l "; L a t i n : " p l e n e " ) v e r s u s chaser Ρ Ο Π , " sh or t "

o r " d e f e c t i v e " ) — w i t h R . A k i v a .

3 4 . O n t h e v a r i a n t T a l m u d i c ( a n d l a t e r ) r e a d i n g s o f b i b l i c a l t e x t s , s e e B . B a r r y

Levy, Fixing God's Torah: The Accuracy of the Hebrew Bible Text in Jewish Law

( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) .

3 5 . F o r a s u m m a r y o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t , s e e D a v i d E . S . S t e i n ' s

p r e f a c e t o t h e JPS Hebrew-English Tanakh ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n

S o c i e t y , 1 9 9 9 ) , i x - x i x .

3 6 . T h e s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e w o r k o n t h e M a s o r e t e s i s I s r a e l Y e i v i n , Introductionto the Tiberian Masorah , t r a n s . E . J . R e v e l l , M a s o r e t i c S t u d i e s 5 ( M i s s o u l a ,

M T : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 0 ) ; o n t h e v i c t o r y of t h e T i b e r i a n t r a d i t i o n a s r e p r e s e n t e d

i n t h e A l e p p o C o d e x , s e e Y o s e f O f e r , " T h e H i s t o r y a n d A u t h o r i t y o f t h e A l e p p o

C o d e x , " i n G l a t z e r , e d . , The Jerusalem Crown: Companion Volume, 2 5 - 5 0 .

A f t e rwo r d

1 . O n t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f c o n c e p t i o n s i n t h e B i b l e , s e e t h e e s s a y s i n J a s o n Ρ

R o s e n b l a t t a n d J o s e p h C . S i t t e r s o n , J r ., e d s . , "Not in Heaven": Coherence and

Com plexity in Biblical Narrative ( B l o o m i n g t o n : U n i v e r s i t y o f I n d i a n a P r e s s ,

1 9 9 1 ) , e s p e c i a l l y B e r n a r d M . L e v i n s o n , " T h e R i g h t C h o r a l e : F r o m t h e

P o e t i c s t o t h e H e r m e n e u t i c s of t h e H e b r e w B i b le ," 1 2 9 - 1 5 3 .

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2 . I n t h i s b o o k I h a d o r i g i n a l ly i n t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e c h a p t e r s o n t h e s e m o d e s of

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e e s s a y s " C l a s si c a l R a b b i n i c

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n " ( Y aa k ov E l m a n ) , " M i d r a s h a n d M i d r a s h i c I n t e r p r e t a t i o n "

( D a v i d S t e r n ) , a n d " M e d i e v a l J e w i s h I n t e r p r e t a t i o n " (B a r r y D . W a l f i s h ) i n

J SB , 1 8 4 4 - 1 9 0 0 , t h i s i s n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y

1 p e r c e i v e o n l y m i n i m a l c o n t i n u i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e m o d e s of B ib le

s t u d y a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y c ri t ic a l s t u d i e s . E a r l ie r s c h o l a r s d i d a n t i c i p a t e

i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of h i s t o r i c a l - c ri t i c a l s t u d y , i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e o f o t h e r

S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s ( s o m e c l a s s i c a l r a b b i s a n d S p a n i s h e x e g e t e s ) , t h e i d e a t h a t

s o m e s m a l l p a r t s o f t h e T o r a h a r e n o t M o s a i c ( A b r a h a m ib n E z r a ) , c e r t a i n

a s p e c t s o f " l o w e r " t e x tu a l c r i t i c i s m ( v a r io u s S p a n i s h e x e g e t e s ) , a n d t h e i d e at h a t s i m i l a r b i b l i c a l l a w s i n d i f f e r e n t b o o k s s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d i n d e p e n d e n t -

l y o f e a c h o th e r ( R a s h b a m ) . Yet t h o s e r a b b i s a p p l i e d s u c h i d e a s o n ly t o a

s m a l l n u m b e r of t e xt s . N o si n g l e p r e m o d e r n s c h o l a r e v e r c o m b i n e d t h e m

t o g e t h e r . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y n e v e r e m p l o y e d o t h e r k e y f e a t u r e s o f t h e h i s t o r -

i c al - c ri t ic a l m e t h o d , s u c h a s c o n d u c t i n g s y s t e m a t i c s o u r c e a n a l y s i s o r c o n -

s u i t i n g a n c i e n t v e r s i o n s s u c h a s t h e S e p t u a g i n t . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , p r e m o d e r n

J e w i s h s c h o l a r s h ip f o c u s e d o n t h e p l a c e of t h e B ib le i n J e w i s h l i f e , n o t o n i t s

p l a c e a s a n a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n d o c u m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i n t e r p r e t a -

t i o n s ( a n d m o d e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) i n t h e s e J e w i s h s o u r c e s a r e r i c h , p r o -

f o u n d , a n d v a r i e d .

3 . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t t h e B i b le " m e a n t " a n d w h a t it " m e a n s " i s c e n -

t r a l t o t h e p r o g r a m o f K r i s t e r S t e n d a h l ( S w e d i s h b i s h o p , t h e o l o g i a n , a n d

H a r v a r d p r o f e s s o r e m e r i t u s ) ; s e e e s p . " B ib li ca l T h e o l o g y : A P r o g r a m , " in h i s

Meanings: The Bible as Document and as Guide ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 4 ) ,

1 1 - 4 4 , e s p . 1 4 - 1 6 . I n J e w i s h c ir c l es d u r i n g t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a l e a d i n g

e x p o n e n t o f t h i s a p p r o a c h w a s M o r d e c a i M . K a p l a n ( p r o f e s s o r o f h o m i l e t i c s

a t t h e J e w i s h T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y a n d f o u n d e r of R e c o n s t r u c - t i o n i s m ) ,

w h o c a l l e d i t " r e v a l u a t i o n . "

4 . T h i s is a p r i m a r y e x a m p l e u s e d i n J a m e s L. K u g e l , " Tw o I n t r o d u c t i o n s t o

M i d r a s h " i n G e o f f r e y H . H a r t m a n a n d S a n f o r d B u d i c k , e d s ., Midrash and

Literature ( N e w H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n iv . P r e s s . 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 7 - 1 0 3 ; s e e e s p . 7 8 .

5 . O n K a r a i t e s , a g r o u p t h a t d o e s n o t u p h o ld t h e s a n c t i t y of t h e "o r a l l a w " ( r a b -

b i n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) , s e e M e i r a P o l l i a c k , " M e d i e v a l K a r a i s m , " i n M a r t i n

G o o d m a n e t a l . , e d s . , The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d

U n i v. P r e ss , 2 0 0 2 ) , 2 9 5 - 3 2 6 .

6 . S e e m y e a r l i e r d i s c u s s io n o n t h i s i s s u e i n "B ib l i c a l H i s to r y a n d J e w i s h

Bib l ica l Theo logy , " JR 7 7 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , 5 6 3 - 8 3 , e sp . 5 7 4 - 7 7 .

7 . Pesikta de-Rav Kahana, " I n t h e t h i r d m o n t h , " p a r a g r a p h 2 5 ; p . 2 2 3 o f

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M a n d e l b a u m e d i t i o n ; f o r t h e c o m p l e t e t e x t s a n d a d i s c u s s i o n , s e e m y " T h e

M a n y F a c e s of G o d i n E x o d u s 1 9 , " i n A l i c e O g d e n B e l li s a n d J o e l S.

K a m i n s k y , e d s . , Jews, Christians, and the Theology of the Hebrew Scriptures,

S BL S y m p o s i u m s S e r i e s 8 ( A t l a n t a : S o c i e t y o f B i b li ca l L i t e r a t u r e , 2 0 0 0 ) ,

3 5 3 - 6 7 , e sp . 3 5 3 .

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Sources Ci ted*

A c k r o y d , P R . e t a l . , e d s . , The Cam bridge History of the Bible. 3 v o l s. C a m b r i d g e :

C a m b r i d g e U n i v e rs it y . P r e ss , 1 9 6 3 - 7 0 .

A h a r o n i , Y o h a n a n . The Archaeology of the Land of Israel from the Prehistoric

Beginnings to the End of the First Temp le Period. T r a n s l a t e d b y A n s o n R a in e y.

P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r , 1 9 8 2 .

.The L and o f the Bible: A Historical Geograp hy. T r a n s l a t e d b y Α . Ε R a in e y .L o n d o n : B u r n s & O a t e s , 1 9 7 9 .

A h a r o n i , Y o h a n a n e t a l . , e d s . The Carta Bible Atlas. 4 t h e d . J e r u s a l e m : C a r t a ,

2 0 0 2 .

A l b r e k t s o n , B e r t i l . History and the Gods: An Essay o n the Idea of Historical Events

as Divine Man ifestations in the Ancient Near East and in Israel. C B O T 1 . L u n d :

G l e e r u p , 1 9 6 7 .

A l b r i g h t , W i l l i a m F o x w e l l . From Stone Age to Christianity: Mo notheism and the

Historical Process. G a r d e n C i ty , N Y : A n c h o r , 1 9 5 7 .

A l t , A l b r e c h t . " T h e O r i g i n s o f I s r a e l i t e L a w . " I n h i s Essays on Old Testament

History and Religion, 1 0 1 - 7 1 . G a r d e n City , N Y: D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 6 7 .

A l t e r , R o b e r t . The Art of Biblical N arrative. N e w Y o r k : B a s i c , 1 9 8 1 .

. The Art of Biblical Poetry. N e w Y o r k : B a s i c , 1 9 8 5 .

A n d e r s o n , B e r n a r d W " E x o d u s T y p o l o g y i n S e c o n d I s a i ah . " I n Israel's Prophetic

Heritage: Essays in Hono r of fames Mu ilenburg, e d i t e d b y B. A n d e r s o n a n d W

H a r r e l s o n , 1 7 7 - 9 5 . N e w Y o rk : H a r p e r , 1 9 6 2 .. " T h e P r i e s t l y C r e a t i o n S t o r y : A S t y l i s t i c S t u d y . " I n h i s From Creation to New

Creation, 4 2 - 5 5 . O B T . M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 4 .

A n dr es , J . C . e t a l . , Chronicles and Its Synoptic Parallels in Samue l, Kings, an d

Related Biblical Texts. C o l l e g e v i l l e , M N : L i t u r g i c a l P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 .

*Only works in Engl ish have been included.

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D u h a i m e , J e a n . " D e t e r m i n i s m . " I n Encycloped ia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, e d i t e d b y

L a w r e n c e H . S c h i f f m a n a n d J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m , 1 9 4 - 9 8 . N e w Y o rk :

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. " T h e P r o m i s e s o f G r a c e t o D a v i d i n I s a i a h 5 5 . 1 - 5 . " I n Israel's Prophetic

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El l is , Peter Ε The Yahwist: The Bible's First Theologian. L o n d o n : G . C h a p m a n , 1 9 6 9 .

E p h ' a l , I. " T h e W e s t e r n M i n o r i t i e s i n B a b y l o n i a i n t h e 6 t h - 5 t h C e n t u r i e s B . C .:

M a i n t e n a n c e a n d C o h e s i o n . " Orientalia 4 7 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 7 4 - 9 0 .

F a l k , M a r c i a . Love Lyrics from the Bible: A Translation and Literary Study of The

Song of Songs. S h e f f i e l d , U K : A l m o n d P r e ss , 1 9 8 2 .

F e r n a n d e z M a r c o s , N a t a l i o . The Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the Greek

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F e w e l l , D a n n a N o l a n . Circle of Sovereignty: A Story of Stories in Daniel 1-6.

J S O T S u p 7 2 . S h e f f i e l d , U K : S h e f f i e l d A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1 9 8 8 .

F e w e l l , D a n n a N o l a n , a n d D a v i d M i l l e r G u n n . Compromising Redemption:

Relating Characters in the Book of Ruth. L o u i s v i l l e , K Y : W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n

K n o x , 1 9 9 0 .

F i n k e l s t e i n , I s r a e l , a n d N e i l A s h e r S i l b e r m a n . The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's

New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. N e w Y o r k :

T o u c h s t o n e , 2 0 0 1 .

F i n k e l s t e i n , J . J . The Ox That Gored. T A P S 7 1 / 2 . P h i l a d e l p h i a : A m e r i c a n

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F i s h b a n e , M i c h a e l . Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 8 5 .. Biblical Myth and R abbinic Mythmaking. O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

2 0 0 3 .

. " I n n e r B ib l ic a l E x e g e s i s : T y p e s a n d S t r a t e g i e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n A n c i e n t

I s r ae l . " In Midrash and Literature , e d i t e d b y G e o f f r e y H . H a r t m a n a n d

S a n f o r d B u d i c k , 1 9 - 3 7 . N e w H a v e n , C T : Y ale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 6 .

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. "T o r a h a n d T r a d i t i o n . " I n Tradition and T heology in the Old Testament, e d i t -

e d b y D o u g l a s A . K n i g h t , 2 7 9 - 8 0 . P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e ss , 1 9 7 7 .

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F o x , M i c h a e l V Character and Ideo logy in the Book of Esther. C o l u m b i a : U n i v e r s i t y

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. " J o b 3 8 a n d G o d ' s R h e to r i c . " Semeia 1 9 ( 1 9 8 1 ) : 5 3 - 6 1 .

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F r i e d m a n , R i c h a r d E l l i o t t . The Bible with Sources Revealed. S a n F r a n c i s c o :

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. Com mentary on the Torah with English Translation and Hebrew Text. S a n

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F r i t z , V o l k m a r . 1 & 2 Kings. T r a n s l a t e d b y A n s e l m H a g e d o r n . M i n n e a p o l i s , M N :F o r t r e s s , 2 0 0 3 .

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F u n k e n s t e i n , A m o s . Perceptions of Jewish History. B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f

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G a m m i e , J o h n G . , a n d L e o G . P e d u e , e d s . The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near

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G e l l e r , S t e p h e n A . " W e r e t h e P r o p h e t s P o e t s ? " Prooftexts 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 1 1 - 2 1 .

G e r s t e n b e r g e r , E r h a r d S . Psalms Part 1 With an Introduction to Cultic Poetry. F O T L

X IV G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 8 8 .

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G e v i r t z , S t a n l e y . Patterns in the Early Poetry oj Israel S t u d i e s i n A n c i e n t O r i e n t a l

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C A : S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 0 .G o r d i s , R o b e r t . The Book of God and Man: A Study of Job. C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f

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C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P re s s, 1 9 7 5 .

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. Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian. M i n n e a p o l i s , M N : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 9 2 .

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G r a y , J o h n . Joshua, Judges, Ruth. N C B C . G r a n d R a p i d s , M I : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 8 6 .

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. Ezekiel 21-37. A B . G a r d e n C ity, N Y : D o u b le d a y , 1 9 9 7 .

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the British Empire. L o n d o n : N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l f or J e w i s h R e l ig i o u s E d u c a t i o n ,

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. " F o r w a r d . " P p . v - x v i i n t h e r e p r i n t o f J u l i u s W e l l h a u s e n , Prolegomena to

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. " I n t e r m a r r i a g e , S o ci a l C o m p l e x i t y , a n d E t h n i c D i v e r s i t y i n t h e G e n e a l o g yo f J u d a h . " J B L 1 2 0 ( 2 0 0 1 ) : 1 5 - 3 0 .

. " R e t h i n k i n g t h e R e l a t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n D e u t e r o n o m y a n d t h e D e u t e r o n -

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Vol. 1, The Em ergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y

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H a v e n , C T: Y ale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 .

. " G e n e a lo g y , G e n e a l o g i e s . " A B D , 2 . 9 2 9 - 3 2 .

. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel. P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 0 .

W i l l i a m s o n , H . G . M . Israel in the Books of Chronicles. C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 .

W o l f f , H a n s W a l t e r . Joel and Amos. T r a n s l a t e d b y W . J a n z e n e t a l. H e r m e n e i a .

P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 7 .

W r i g h t , C h r i s t o p h e r J . H . " J ub i le e , Y e ar o f ." A B D , 3 . 1 0 2 7 - 2 8 .

W r i g h t , D a v i d Ρ " T h e L a w s o f H a m m u r a b i a s a S o u r c e f o r t h e C o v e n a n t

C o l l e c t i o n ( E x o d u s 2 0 : 2 3 - 2 3 : 1 9 ) . " Maarav 1 0 ( 2 0 0 3 ) : 1 1 - 8 7 .. Ritual in Narrative: The Dynam ics of Fasting, Mourning, and Retaliation Rites

in the U garitic Tale of Aqhat. W i n o n a L a k e , I N : E i s e n b r a u n s , 2 0 0 1 .

Yeiv in , I s r ae l . Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah . Tr an s la ted by E . J . R eve l l .

M a s o r e t i c S t u d i e s 5 . M i s s o u l a , M T : S c h o l a r s , 1 9 8 0 .

Z e v i t , Z i o n y . " A C h a p t e r in t h e H i s t o r y of I s r a e l i t e P e r s o n a l N a m e s . " BASOR 2 5 0

( 1 9 8 3 ) : 1 - 1 6 .

Z i m m e r l i , W a l t h e r . Ezekiel 1. H e r m e n e i a . P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 9 .

. " K n o w l e d g e o f G o d A c c o r d i n g t o t h e B o o k o f E z e k i e l . " I n h i s I Am Yahweh,

2 9 - 9 8 . T r a n s l a t e d b y D o u g l a s W . S t o t t. A t l a n t a : J o h n K n o x , 1 9 8 2 .

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Index of Subjects

not predic t ing fu ture , 150

puns , use of , 153

rhe t o r i c a nd ge n re o f , 152 -153

vis ions of , 211

A mos , book o f

p r e d a t i n g T o ra h , 1 5 0 - 1 5 1

s t r u c tu r e o f , 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 , 1 5 7 - 1 6 0

a n g e l s , 2 1 1 , 2 1 3

a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m , 4 2 - 4 4

An t ioc hus IV, 26 , 2 13

ant iquar ian in te res t , 117

ant i the t i ca l pa ra l l e l i sm, 164, 236 , 326

apoca lypse , e tymology, 211

apoca lypt i c l i t e ra ture , 211-213, 215 . see also

escha to logy

A poc rypha , 11

a podos i s , 139

archeology, in re la t ion to the Bible , 20-21,

9 6 , 1 2 4

Ark of the Lord, 78, 308

aseret ha-dibrot, 6 4 . see also D e c a l ogue

A s hurba n i pa l , 93

Assyria, see also Babylonia ; Mesopotamia

c a p t u r i n g M a na s s e h , 13 3

c o n q u e r i n g N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m , 2 5 , 1 3 1

fai led cap tur e of Jer usa lem , 12 6, 168

for tu nes as wo r ld power , 28 , 173

i n s t r u m e n t of G o d s p u n i s h m e n t , 1 6 6 ,

17 5

prophe c y i n , 140

pun i s hme n t o f , 175

s u z e r ai n of J u d a h , 9 1 - 9 2 , 9 4 , 1 2 4 - 1 2 5

A

A a ro n , 7 8 - 8 1 , 1 3 0 - 1 3 1

A bi hu , 78 , 81

A b r a h a m

as navi, 141

as warr ior , 53

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f , 4 9 - 5 0

no t de p i c t e d as r o le mod e l , 5 0 -5 3

pre - t e l l ing so journ in Egypt , 54

re ne w a l o f c ove na n t w i t h , 5 7 -5 9

ad ha-yom ha-zeh, 3 0 8

Adoni jah , 121 , 132

adul te ry , 63 , 233

Adversary, in Jo b, 24 7

Ahab, 25 , 119 , 131 , 146

A h a s u e r u s , 2 7 0 - 2 7 1

Ai, 103

Akiva, R. , 336

A kka d i a n , 76 , 142 , 300

al ken, 1 0 3

Albr ight , Wi l l i am Foxwel l , 20

A l e ppo C ode x , 30

Alexander the Grea t , 26 , 199 , 213

al l i tera t ion, 40

Amalek , 112

Amenemope, Instruction of, 2 3 4 , 2 3 7

A mnon a nd T a ma r , 132

A m o s

a t t i tude toward poor , 233

escha to logy of , 179

irony, use of, 153

na t u r e o f p rophe c y , 138 , 142 , 1 54 -1 57

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s t ab i l iz a t ion o f, 27 7 - 27 8 , 29 3

theological nature of , 22

transmiss ion of , 22, 34, 66, 108,

1 5 1 - 1 5 2 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 2 - 1 8 3 , 2 7 7 - 2 7 8

verses as divis ions of , 30

voca l i za t ion of , 278

Bickerman, El ias , 131

b i c o l a , 1 6 4 - 1 6 5

b i na r y r e pe t i ti on , 16 3 - 16 4

b l ood , c l e a ns i ng na t u r e o f , 79 - 80

Boaz, 268

br i de - p r i c e , 263

B r i g h t , J o h n , 1 0 8 - 1 0 9

Buber , Mart in, 98

Burkert , Wal ter , 39

c a non , de f i n i t i on o f , 273 - 274

Carchemish, Bat t le of , 176

ch-kh-m, 2 3 1

ch-r-p, 108

chapters , dividing Bible into, 29

chattat, 7 9

chavvah, 4 6

cheirem, 72, 95

c h i l d s a c r i f i c e , 296 - 297

chok, 3 0 3

chokhmah, 231 , 236

chozeh, 142

C hr on i c l e r

def in i t ion of , 311

es tabl ishing legi t imacy, 136

i nve n t i ng f a c t s , 129 - 131

r e mov i ng f a c t s , 131 - 132

c i rcumcis ion , 105

c lo th ing , a s imagery , 1 09 -1 10

c o d e w o r d s i n J e r e m i a h , 1 7 6 - 1 7 7

c ode s , l e ga l , 67 - 68

c ode x , 276cogna te words , 75

c ogn i ti ve d i s s ona nc e , 20 6 - 2 0 8

colon , 164

c ompl a i n t s , 223

c onf e s s i ons of p r oph e t s , 18 1 - 18 2

c o n s o l a t i o n , 1 9 5 - 1 9 7

c o n t e x t , 1 3 - 1 7

c onv e n t i ons fo r r e a d i ng , 13 - 1 7

a u t onomy , 235

avi, 110

A z a z e l , 80 - 81

Β

b-d-l, 41

b-r-', 32, 33 , 41 , 47

b-r-kh, 2 4 6

b-sh-l, 3 1 2

Babylonia

c o n q u e r i n g j u d a h , 1 7 5 - 1 7 6

d e s t r u c t i o n o f , 1 9 9 - 2 0 2

p u n i s h m e n t o f , 1 7 7

w a r t i me c onduc t , 25

Balaam, 141

Bar Ko khb a , 2 78

B a r uc h s on o f N e r i a h , 182 - 183

B a t hs he ba , 66 , 122 , 131 - 132

B e h e m o t h , 2 5 2 - 2 5 3

ben adam, 187

Ben-Asher , Aaron , 278

Ben-S i rach , 238 , 275

benei ha-nevi'im, 14 5

beni, 110

Benjamini t es , 113

bent, 91, 155

Bible

a r r a nge m e n t o f book s , 10, 27 6 - 27 7 , 2 88 ,

2 8 9

as t ex tb ook , 28 0

chapters as divis ions of , 29

c las s ica l in te rpre ta t ion of , 1 -3 (see also

rabbinic interpreta t ion of Bible)

de f i l ing ha n ds , 275

etymology, 7, 287

f o r m a t i o n o f , 2 7 4 - 2 7 6

in te rpre t ing , 282

l imi ta t ions as h i s tor ica l source , 2 0 -2 3 ,

9 6 , 9 8 , 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 , 1 2 4l i terary uni ts of , 31

na me s f o r , 8 - 9

n u m b e r of b o o k s i n , 2 7 4 - 2 7 5

pa r a g r a phs , d i v i s i ons a s , 29 - 30

reading us ing h i s tor i ca l -c r i t i ca l me thod,

3 - 5

r e le va nc e f o r m od e r n t i me s , 2 81 - 2 82

s e l e c t i ng me a n i ng f u l t e x t s , 281 - 282

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Deute ronomic Law Col lec t ion , 72

Deu te ronom is t i c His tory, see DtrH

D e u t e r o n o m y

as forgery, 87authors of , 92

d i f fe r e nc es f r om o t he r books , 86 - 8 7 , 94

e d i t o r o f , 101 - 102

emphas iz ing one p lace of worsh ip ,

8 9 - 9 0 , 9 4

e t ymol ogy of na m e , 8 5 - 8 6

huma n i t a r i a n t he me o f , 89

i nc ons is t e nci e s w i t h A mos , 15 0 - 15 1

s imi la r i ti e s to Je rem iah , 17 7- 17 8similar i t ies to Jo sh ua , 100

s t r uc t u r e o f , 90 - 9 2 , 94

Diatessaron, 36

dibber sarah, 178

dietary laws, 90, 102, 215, 303

d i vi n e a b a n d o n m e n t , 1 9 4 - 1 9 5

d i v ine c om mu ni c a t i on , 139

div ine forg iveness , 196-197

Divine Presencemoving from Saul to David, 111

no t s e e i ng , 78 - 79

dowry, 332

doxo l ogy , 228 - 229

dr e a ms , 215

Dt rH

author of Kings , 122

de s c r i p t i on o f , 99 - 100

revision of by Chronicler, 136

Ε d o c u m e n t , 3 4

e a r t hqua ke s , 158

E c cl es ia st es , 23 1 - 23 2 , 2 39 - 2 41

E d e n , 4 4 - 4 7

Egypt

control over Is rael , 96

first external reference to Israel , 24

l ove poe t r y i n , 260 - 261

slavery and exodus , his tor ic i ty of , 96

eileh, 3 3

eishet chayil, 238 , 268

El i jah, 142, 143, 145, 146

Elisha, 142, 143, 145, 146

En-gedi , 264

convers ion , 271

C ope nha ge n S c hoo l , 21

C ove na n t C o l l e c t i on , 67 - 69 , 88

cov enan t of gran t , 155covenant wi th Is rael

e ternal i ty of , 157

na ture of , 232

new, 180

renewal of Abraham's , 5 7- 59

crea t ion s tory , 31-32 , 39-42 , 47 , 86

c r e a t i on i s m, 37 - 38

creat ive phi lology, 215, 281

cul t i c prophe t , 224C us ha n - r i s ha t ha i m , 113

C yr us , 25 , 27 , 19 9 - 2 02

C yr us C y l inde r , 20 0 - 20 1

D

D d o c u m e n t , 3 5

da-at, 4 5

Daniel , book of

as apocalypt ic l i tera ture , 213c r e d i b i l i t y o f , 217 - 218

desc r ib ing Ant iochus ' desec ra t ing

Temple , 213

hi s tor i ca l s e t t ing , 212-214

J e r e mi a h a s a s ou r c e , 2 14 - 2 15

Daniel , in l ion's den, 217

davar, 6 4

David

a nd G o l i a t h , 107 - 108 , 110

a nd J ona t ha n , 109

desc end ed f rom Tamar , 50

dynas ty of , 170

por t r aya l o f, 10 9 - 1 11 , 1 31 - 1 32

spell ing of, 132

successor to Saul , 109-110

D a y of t he L or d , 15 6 - 1 57 , 16 7 , 21 0

de Wet te , Wilhelm Mart in Lebrecht , 87

Dead Sea Scrol ls , 2 , 30, 34, 273, 275, 277,

2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 2 9 . see also Genes i s

A p o c r y p h o n ; P e s h e r H a b a k k u k

D e c a l ogue , 61 - 63 , 64 - 67 , 86

de i ty , names of , 32 , 34-35 , 227 , 292

de t e r mi n i s m, 240

Deute ro- I sa iah , 201-206. s ee also Isaiah

deute rocanonica l books , 11

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Fox, Everet t , 98

free choice , rem oval f rom Israel, 1 8 0 -

181

G a rde n of E de n , 4 4 - 4 7

genealogies , 49, 56, 129

G e ne s is A po c rypho n , 52

g e n r e , 1 3 - 1 7 , 3 7 , 5 5 , 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 , 2 1 7 ,

2 2 3 - 2 2 4 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 , 2 6 0 , 2 6 7 - 2 6 9

G i be a h , c onc ub i ne o f , 113 -115

Gibeoni tes , 103

Gi lgamesh, 34

Ginzberg, Louis , 52

G o d . see also deity, names of

and the Adversary, 247

as female , 204

as male , 294

as source of law, 61

a s s up re m e ru le r , 92 -9 3

d i s c ou rs e w i t h J ob , 25 1 - 25 4

exi s t ing out s ide of Temple , 18 7- 18 8

l imits of power, 253

mul t ip le pe rcept ions of , 283

n a t u re of , 4 7 , 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 , 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 , 2 1 8

obedience to , 104

pow e r o f, 21 5 - 21 7 , 235 , 240 , 248 , 25 0 ,

2 5 2

punish ing I s rae l , 150 , 153 , 204

re la t ionship wi th I s rae l , 154-155, 157

universal i ty of , 154, 166

usi ng f i rs t pe rso n plu ral , 42

worshipping out s ide of I s rae l , 185-186

Gog and M agog, 196

G ol i a t h , 107 -108 , 110

gor i ng ox , 69 -7 1

Grae tz , He inr ich , 275

Greece , 26 , 328

Greenberg , Moshe , 277

H

ha-adam, 4 3

ha-ishah, 4 6

ha-satan, 2 4 7

Haggai , 207

H a m a n , 2 7 1

H a mmura b i , l a w s o f , 62 , 68 -70 , 91

entrance l i turgy, 326

E s a r h a d d o n

inscr ipt ion of , 176, 194

treaties of, 91, 93

Esau, 51

escha to logy

Amos , 179

Isa iah , 169-170, 180

J e r e m i a h , 1 7 9 - 1 8 1

Essenes , 276

Esther , book of

de s c r i b ing w om e n in s oc ie ty , 2 69 -2 70 ,

2 7 2

g e n r e o f , 2 6 8 - 2 6 9

humor i n , 269

in te rmarr i age in , 272

miss ing from Dead Sea Scrol ls , 275

n o n - J e w s i n, 2 7 0 - 2 7 1

Ethiopians , 155

e t io logies , 102-103, 105

E v e , 4 6 - 4 7

exile

e f fect on prophecy , 18 7- 18 8

impact of , 27

e xpe r i e nc e , de f i n i ng w i s do m, 251

Ezekiel

bawdy speech of , 191

de s c r i b ing G od , 1 86 -18 7

d iv in e a b a n d o n m e n t , 7 6 - 7 7 , 1 9 4 - 1 9 5

establ ish ing authori ty, 186, 18 8

re fu t i ng popu l a r be l ie f s, 18 8 - 19 1

silence of, 193

Ezekiel , book of

s t r u c t u r e , 1 9 1 - 1 9 4

t ime and locat ion, 185

E z r a , 2 0 7 - 2 0 8

fa iry t al e, Job as , 2 4 6 -2 4 7

false pro ph ets , 1 71, 174, 1 78

false testimony, 66

festivals , t imes of, 86

f i r s tborn , 56

fo lk e t ymol og ie s , 10 2 - 10 3

fo rei gne rs , 236 , 2 70 -2 72

forg iveness , d iv ine , 1 96 -1 97

form-cr i t i ca l ma rkers , 162

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r id icu l ing idola try , 2 0 2 -2 0 3

s u f f e r ing s e rva n t, 20 5 - 20 6

Isaiah, book of

genre , 152lack of form-cri t ical markers , 162

lack of h i s tor i ca l contex t , 16 2- 16 3

s t ru c t u r e o f, 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 , 1 6 2 - 1 6 3

vocabulary of , 162

ish Elohim, 142, 144

Israel

c leans ing s ins of , 80-81

d i f fe r e n t f r om M e s opo t a mi a , 70 -7 2

earl ies t external reference to, 24

e ar ly h i s to ry o f, 23 -2 4 , 9 5 -9 6

guilt feeling s of, 20 4

re la t ionship wi th God, 154-155, 157 ,

1 8 0 , 1 9 6 - 1 9 7

re turn to , 206

vassa l of God, 92-94

J

J doc ume n t , 34

J a b n e h , 2 7 4 - 2 7 5

J a c o b

fight ing angel , 102

not depicted as role model , 51

J a m n i a , 2 7 4 - 2 7 5

J e h o i a k i m , 1 8 2 - 1 8 3

J e h o s h a p h a t , 2 9 8

J e r e mi a h

an d fa lse pro ph ets , 178

c onfe s s i ons o f, 1 81 -1 82

de s t ruc t i on of T e mpl e , 1 75 -1 76

e s c ha t o l ogy o f , 179 -181

ps yc ho l ogy o f , 181 -182

ri tuals , importance of , 178

vis ions of , 211

Jeremiah , book of

c ode w ords i n , 176 -177

h i st o ri c al ba c k grou nd , 17 3 - 17 4

s imi la ri t ie s to Deute ronom y, 17 7- 17 8

s imi la r i ti e s to Torah , 17 8- 17 9

s ourc e fo r D a n ie l, 2 14 -2 1 5

s t ruc ture of , 174

Jer icho , 98

J e rus a l e m, see also T e mpl e

de s t ruc t i on o f , 175 -176

H a n n a h , 2 2 0 - 2 2 2

hapax legomena, 162, 174 , 243

ha pp i ne s s , 240

Hexa teuch , 100H e z e k i a h , 1 2 4 - 1 2 6

Higher Cri t ic ism, 3, 4

h i s tor i cal probabil ity , 13 0- 13 1

his tor i ca l -c r i t i ca l method, 3-5 , 279 ,

2 8 2 - 2 8 3 , 2 8 6 , 3 3 7

his tory, nature of in ancient world, 101,

136

Hitt i tes, 91

H obbe s , T homa s , 3Hoffman, R. David Zvi , 286

hol idays , names of , 72

Hol iness Col lect ion, 72

H ol i ne ss S c hoo l , 81 -8 2

Holy of Hol ies , 77-78

homi c i de , 82 -8 3 , 110

h u m a n n a tu r e , 2 5 0 - 2 5 1

huma n i t a r i a n i s m, 89

huma ns , c r e a t i on o f , 42 -43

I

ibn Ezra , R. Ab rah am , 2, 26 2, 33 7

id ol atr y, 6 6 , 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 , 2 1 6

incense, prevent ing s ight of Divine Presence,

7 8 - 7 9

i nc l us i o , 32 -33 , 239

i n t e rge ne ra t i ona l pun i s hme n t , 66 -67 , 72 ,

1 8 9 - 1 9 0

i n t e rma r r ia ge , 123 , 20 7 - 20 8 , 27 2

irony, in Amos, 153

I sa ac , 50 , 2 96 -2 97

Isaiah

and Davidic dynas ty, 170

as c las s ica l pro ph e t , 16 6- 16 7

d e s c ri b in g G o d s po w e r , 2 0 3 - 2 0 4

di f fe rence be tw een prop hecy and rea li ty ,

2 0 6 - 2 0 8

dis regard ing repen tance , 171

escha to logy of , 169-170, 180

invio lab il ity of Je rusa lem , 16 8- 16 9

J ude a n e mpha s i s o f , 168

per form ing symbo l ic ac t s, 1 68

radica l monothe i sm of , 202

re de m pt i on of I sr ae l, 2 0 4 - 2 05

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Κ

k-p-r, 7 5 - 7 6

Kaplan , Mordeca i , 337

Karaites, 282kesitah, 2 4 6

Kethuvim, etymology, 9

ketz, 2 1 3

k i ngs

l a w s o f , 12 2 - 12 3

re la t ions wi th prop he t s , 143 , 146

Kings, book of

as h i s tor i ca l record , 12 6- 12 7

in te rna l incons i s t enc ies , 11 8- 11 9

kitvei ha-kodesh, 2 7 4

k n o w l e d g e , 4 5 - 4 6

koamar, 141

kol, 9 7 - 9 8

korchah, 3 1 4

Kugel , Jam es , 14

Lachish, 124

Lam enta t ions , pa r t of J e rem iah , 274

l a me n t s , 223

laws, see also Covenant Col l ec t ion ;

Deute ronomic Law Col lec t ion ;

Hol iness Col lect ion

apodic t i c , 68

casuist ic, 68

f o r k i ngs, 12 2 - 12 3

na t u r e o f , 61 - 64

secular and re l igious , 62

secular basis for, 90

l e a d i ng w or ds , 9 7 - 9 8

Leitwort, 9 7 - 9 8

Levi , los ing bi r thr ight , 56,

129

L e v i a t h a n , 2 5 2 - 2 5 3

life, value of, 7 1

li teracy in Israel , 319

Lot, 58

love

as obed ience , 93

in Song of Songs , 260

Lower Cri t ic ism, 3

J e r us a l e m (Continued)

inv io lab i l i ty of , 168-169

rebui ld ing of , 195

s ie ge by S e nna c he r i b , 12 4 - 12 6si te of wo rsh ip, 31 , 120, 151

Jews, e tymology, 199

J o b

d i s c ou r s e w i t h G od , 251 - 254

t he o l ogy o f , 231 - 232

J o b , b o o k o f

as fa iry t a le , 2 4 6 -2 4 7

language of , 243

s t ru c t u r e o f, 2 4 3 - 2 4 6 , 2 5 1 - 2 5 2

J ona t ha n , 109

J o s e p h

ances tor of Nor the rn k ings , 129

s tory of , 55-57 , 63 , 233

J o s e p h u s, 8 7 , 2 7 3 - 2 7 4 , 3 1 6

Joshua , book of

conques t s tory, 97

e t io logies in , 1 02 -1 03

mul t i p l e a u t ho r s o f, 98 - 9 9 , 105

obedience theme in , 104

s imilar i t ies to Deuteronomy, 100

J o s ia h , 8 7 , 1 0 0 , 1 3 5 , 3 1 8 , 3 1 9

Jubi lee year , 72

Jubi l ees , 275

J u d a h

and Tamar, 50, 55

ga i n i ng b i r t h r igh t , 56 - 5 7

leg i t ima te ances tor of k ings , 114-115,

129

J uda h , k i ngdom o f

conf l i c t wi th Nor th e rn K ingdom , 57 , 11 3 ,

131

de s t r uc t i on o f , 175 - 176

references in Amos, 159

re la t ionship wi th God, 166

revolt against Babylonia, 25, 27

source of J do cu m en t , 34

vassal of Assyria , 91-92, 94

J uda i s m, e vo l u t i on o f , 282 - 283

judges , as leaders , 112

Judges , book of , as his tor ical source ,

1 1 2 - 1 1 3

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N e b u c h a d n e z z a r , 17 6 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 5 - 2 1 6

nefesh, 7 9

nega'im, 54

N e h e m i a h , 2 0 7 - 2 0 8Nevi'im, etymology, 9

New Tes tament , e tymology, 7-8

Nor the rn I s rae l

Amos l iving in, 151

confl ic t wi th Ju da h, 57, 113, 131

des t ruc t ion of, 25 , 27 , 131 , 15 8- 15 9

in Psalms, 226

or ig i n of Ε doc um e n t , 34 - 3 5

pronunc ia t ion of Hebrew in , 153Noth , Mar t in , 100

Ο

obe d i e nc e , 93 , 104 , 112 , 166 - 167

Old Tes tament , e tymology, 7-8

o m e n t e x t s , 1 3 9 - 1 4 0

O m r i , 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 , 1 3 1

Othnie l , 113

ove r popu l a t i on , 45 , 46ox , go r i ng , 69 - 7 1

Ρ d o c u m e n t

emphas i s on c i rcumcis ion , 105

nature of , 35

paragraphs , d iv id ing B ib le in to , 29-30

para l l e l i sm, 164-166

Passover, see PesachPatriarchal History, 50

patr iarchs , represent ing a l l Is rael , 53-55

Perez, 50

periodizat ion of Is rael ' s his tory, 24-28

Pers ia , 25-26 , 212

Pesach, 82, 135

Pesher Habakkuk, 2 , 285 , 336

Peshitta, 7 5

Pesikta de-Rav Kahana, 2 8 3pe t i t ions , 223

petuchah, 30

Phi l is t ines , 24, 96

Phi lo, 52

Phoenic ians , 141

M

m-sh-l, 4 6

Maimonides , 30 , 320

Ma jor P rophe t s , 2 88Malachi , 141

Manasseh , King , 87 , 92 , 132-133, 321

M a r d u k , 1 7 6 , 1 9 9 - 2 0 3 , 2 1 5

M a r i , 140 - 141

mashiach, 170

Masoret ic text , 277, 336

mat r i a rchs , 296

Mekhilta, 2 8 1

Mendenha l l , George E , 91me r i s m , 45

Merneptah S te le , 24

Mesha Inscr ipt ion, 120

M e s opo t a mi a

in ancient world, 25

love poe t ry in , 260-261

p r o p h e c y a n d o m e n s , 1 3 9 - 1 4 1

messenger formula , 141 , 209 , 231

mess iah , 170me t a phor s , 39

meter , in poetry, 163

mezuzah, 93 , 305

mi-lifnei, 185

m i d r a s h , 13 5 , 2 7 7 - 2 7 8 , 2 8 1

mikdash me'at, 187

mikra, 2 7 4

Mi lgrom, Jacob , 76

M i nor P r ophe t s , 10 - 11 , 276 , 288miracles , 145

misogyny, 236 , 238

Mi tche l l , S tephen , 247 , 254

mizmor, 2 1 9

Moab, 22 , 120 , 123 , 154 , 271-272

Moore, G. E, 36

myths , 38-40 , 42 , 47 , 59 , 117 , 253

Ν

N a b o n i d u s , 2 5 , 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 1 2

N a buna i d . s e e N a bon i dus

N a c hma n i de s , 54

N a d a b , 7 8 , 8 1

navi, 141, 142

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mood swings in , 224

s t ruc ture of , 220

supersc r ip t ions of , 225

Psalms, book ofcol l ec t ion of co l l ec tions , 2 2 6 -2 2 8

genres of , 223

hi s tor i ca l s e t t ing , 225-226

orga n i z a t i on o f , 228 -229

paral le l to Torah, 229

paral le l isms in, 164

social sett ing of, 224

P s e ude p i g r a pha , 297

p u n i s h m e n tc o rpo ra t e a nd i nd i v idua l , 19 0 -1 91

i n J o b , 2 4 8 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 5

of evi ldoers , 249

of Is rael , 150, 153, 15 6- 15 7, 175,

2 0 7 - 2 0 8

v i c a r i ous , 66 -67 , 72 , 189 -190 , 206

puns , 153

Q

Q u m r a n , 2 , 3 3 4 . see also Dead Sea Scrolls

Rra'iti, 2 3 9

rabb inic interp reta t io n of Bible , 2, 123, 135,

2 1 5 , 2 8 2 - 2 8 3

ra d i c a l mono t he i s m, 202 , 305

Rashbam, 2 , 337Rashbam (R. Samuel ben Meir) , 2

r e a d i ng

c onve n t i ons o f , 13 -15

social aspects of , 15-17

Rebekah, 50

re da c t o r , 35 -36 , 307

r e d e m p t io n , 2 0 4 - 2 0 5 , 2 1 7 - 2 1 8

rem na nt of Is rael, 154, 157, 167, 2 10

re pe n t a nc eAm os enco uragin g , 150 , 171

etymology, 75

Isaiah pre ven t ing , 171

J e r e mi a h e nc oura g i ng , 19 0 - 19 1

possibil i t ies for, 133

resumpt ive repe t i t ion , 102

resur rec t ion , 215

poe t ry

B ib lic al, 9 - 1 1 , 1 5 , 3 1 , 2 2 1

H a nna h ' s p r a ye r a s , 220 -222

in Genesis , 43in Isaiah, 163

i n J o b , 2 4 5

in Song of Songs , 258

poor , p rov i d i ng fo r, 23 2 - 23 3 , 237

pornogra phy , 191

pra ye r , 220 , 222 -223 , 325

pr ies t s

out look of , 83

pe d i g r ee o f , 129 -1 31puri ty of , 79

pro nu nc ia t ion of anc ient Hebrew, 153, 292 ,

3 1 0

p r o p h e c y

dec l ine of, 20 8 , 21 4

defini t ion, 137, 147

exi le , e f fec t on , 18 7- 18 8

na ture of , 211

outside of Israel , 185prophe t s , see also prophets , c lass ical ;

prophe t s , nonc las s ica l

as intercessor and messe nger , 141

symbol ic behavior of , 168

prophe t s , c l as s ica l , 142 , 147 , 149 , 154-157,

1 6 6 - 1 6 7 , 1 8 3 , 2 0 9 - 2 1 1

proph e t s , nonc l a ss i ca l , 14 1 -1 42 , 1 43 -1 47

protas is , 139

prove rbs

Ezekie l re fu t ing , 1 88 -1 91

in Ecclesiastes, 239

outs ide of Proverbs , 236

Proverbs , book of

adul t e ry in , 233

Amenemope as a source, 237

a t t i tude toward poor , 233

col lect ion of col lect ions , 23 5

misogyny in , 236 , 238t he o l ogy o f , 231 -232

va ry i ng pe r s pe c t i ve s i n , 234 -235

w i s dom i n , 236

p s a l m s

def in i t ion , 219

e tymology, 219

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seventy

as h um an l i fe span , 176

y ea rs , 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 , 2 7 4 , 2 8 2

s exual it y, 45 -4 7 , 26 3 - 26 4 , 33 2

sh-l-ch, 186

S ha l ma ne s e r V, 2 5

shavu'im shiv'im, 2 1 4

she'aram, 3 1 7

Shema, 9 2 - 9 3

S h e s h a c h , 1 7 6 - 1 7 7

shiv'im, 2 1 4 - 2 1 5

shojetim, 112

Shr ine , 78

S h u n a m m i t e w o m a n , 1 4 4

si Hufe, 3 0

Simeo n, losing b i r thr ight , 56 , 129

s i n , 2 5 0 - 2 5 1

Sitz im Leben, 222 , 224

s l a v e s , 7 1 , 8 8 - 9 0

so/ pasuk, 3 0

S o l o m o n

archeolog ical f ind s an d, 124author of Song of Songs , 257

de d i c a t i ng T e mpl e , 13 4 - 13 5

por t r a ya l o f , 120 -122

successor to David, 132

vio la t ing k ings ' l aws , 122-123

Song of Ascent , 227

Song of Deborah , 19 , 290

Song of Songs

as a ll egory , 2 6 2 -2 6 3cannoniza t ion of , 265

co m pa red to ancie nt love poetry,

2 6 0 - 2 6 1

d o u b l e e n t e n d r e s i n , 2 6 3 - 2 6 4

mul t i p l e a u t ho r s o f , 258 -260

w o m e n a s a u t h o r, 3 3 1 - 3 3 2

source c r i ti c i sm, 3 4 -3 6

Speiser , Ephraim Avigdor , 19-20

Spinoza, Baruch, 3, 262Stendahl , Kris ter , 337

s u f f e r ing s e rva n t, 20 5 - 20 6

s u f f e ri ng , e xp l a na t i on o f , 24 8 - 24 9 , 255

S ukko t , 82 , 86 , 13 4 - 13 5

suzerain, 155, 180

synagogues , 188

r e t r i b u t i o n , 2 0 7 - 2 0 8

return to Is rael , 206

R e ube n , l o s ing b i r t h r i gh t , 56 , 12 9 - 13 0

revelat ion, nature of , 63

rhe t o r ic , i n A mos , 15 2 - 15 3

rituals

i mpo r t a nc e o f , 73 -7 4 , 15 5 -1 56 , 178 ,

1 95

na ture of , 83

on Y om K ippur , 7 4 - 82

ro'eh, 142

Rosenzweig , F ranz , 98

royal tales, 217royal we, 42

Ruth

g e n r e o f , 2 6 7 - 2 6 8

na me s i n , 268

n o n - J ew s i n , 2 7 0 - 2 7 1

part of Jud ges , 2 74

w ome n i n , 270 , 272

Sabba th , 65 , 86 , 178 , 207 , 297 , 299 , 300

Samaria , see Northern I s rae l

Samuel , ideology of , 108-111

S a rah , 51 -5 3 , 58

Sargon II, 25

Sargonides , 25

Satan, 247

Saul

d i sobedience to God, 112por t raya l of , 109-111, 110

t r iba l or ig ins of , 114-115

Schechte r , Solomon, 4

s c r i ba l e uphe mi s m, 330

scrol ls , 276

Sea People , 24, 96

sects , 334

Seeger, Pete, 328

sefarim, 2 7 4sefer ha-berit, 6 7 - 6 9

sefer ha-torah, 100

Semit ic languages , 287

S e n n a c h e ri b , 1 2 4 - 1 2 6 , 1 6 8 - 1 6 9

Septuagint , 10, 22, 75, 80, 177, 219, 289

setumah, 29

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t rans la t ions , types of , 97-98

treaties

as s t ruc ture of Deute rono my, 91 -9 2 , 9 4

suzerainty, 155, 180tr icolon, 166

Trito-lsaiah, 201. see also Isaiah

tzelem, 4 3 - 4 4

U

Ugari t , 74, 321

U ni ve r s a l M yt h , 49 - 50

Urtext, 3 0 4

V

Van Seters, Jo hn , 20

Vassal Treat ies of Esarhaddon, 91, 93

vav, pronunciat ion of , 292

ve-ad, 98 , 309

verses, dividing Bible into, 30

v i c a ri ous pu n i s hm e n t , 72 , 18 9 - 1 90 , 206

v i s i o n s , 2 1 1 , 2 1 3

Vulgate, 29

W

wasjs, 2 5 9 - 2 6 1

w a t c hma n o r a c l e s , 192 - 193

W el lhausen , Ju l ius , 3 , 73

wife-s is ter s tor ies , 20, 53-54

wine, r i tual ly pure , 215

w i s d o m , 2 3 5 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 8 , 2 3 9 - 2 4 0

wisdom l i t e ra ture , 92 , 234 , 239 , 251w o m e n

and Sabba th , 300

and slavery, 89

a s b i bl ic a l a u t ho r s , 29 5 - 29 6 , 33 1 - 33 2

as foreigners , 236

in Deute ronomy, 90

in Ruth and Es the r , 269-272

praying , 325

w or d pa i rs , 16 4 - 16 5

Y

y-ch-s, 129

y-tz-r, 32

Y a v n e h , 2 7 4 - 2 7 5

s ynonymous pa r a l l e l i s m , 164 - 166 , 326

synthe t i c pa ra l l e li sm, 16 4- 16 5

Syriac, 75

Τ

T a be r na c l e , 77 - 78 , 302

Tamar, 50, 55

Tanakh, e tymology, 8-9 . see also Bible

Targum, 177 , 262

Tatian, 36

tefillin, 93 , 305

Temple

absorb ing s ins , 76as only p lace of worsh ip , 89-90 , 94

cleans ing of , 82

de d i c a t i on o f , 134 - 135

desecra ted by Ant ioch us , 2 13

de s t r uc t i on o f , 175 - 176 , 182 , 194 - 195 ,

2 7 8

in escha to logy , 1 69 -1 70

mo de l for Tabernac le , 302

rebui ld ing of , 207worship in , 87 , 94

Temple Scrol l , 275

T en C o m m a n d m e n t s , see Deca logue

tenses , in Hebrew, 326

teshuvah, 7 5

The Lord Is The re , 195

theology

in w i s dom l i t er a tu r e , 2 31 - 2 32

part of historical record, 126t he onomy , 235

T h o m p s o n , T h o m a s , 2 0

Tiglath-Pileser III, 25

t o p o n y m s , 3 0 6

Torah

ba c kg r ound f o r C hr on i c le s , 13 4 - 1 35

date of redact ion, 36

equiva len t to wisd om , 23 8

etymology, 9, 179fence a ro un d, 123 , 20 7

pos t da t i ng A mos , 15 0 - 1 51

s imi la r i ti e s to Je rem iah , 17 8- 17 9

s tudy of , 208 , 229

Tower of Babe l , 33 ,49

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Zechar iah

apoca lypt i c l i t e ra ture in , 211-212

remnant of Is rael , 210

vi s ions of , 13 8- 13 9Zedekiah , 321

Z i m r i , 1 1 8 - 1 2 0

yehudim, 199

Yom Kippur , bibl ical pract ice of , 74-82

Ζ

z-n-h, 191

Zadok, 130

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Index of Biblical Passagesand Other References

2 - 3 3 2 , 4 5

2 : 3 3 9 , 4 4

2 : 4 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 5 , 4 0

2 : 4 - 3 : 2 4 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 4 4 , 4 7

2 : 5 - 3 : 2 4 3 3

2 : 7 3 2 , 4 7

2 : 7 - 2 3 3 1

2:17 45

2 : 1 8 - 2 0 3 2

2:20 32

2 : 2 1 - 2 3 3 2

3:7 45

3:8 32

3 : 9 - 1 1 3 2

3:14 45

3 : 1 6 4 5 , 4 6

3 : 17 45

3:20 46

3 : 2 1 3 2 , 4 7

3:22 46

4:1 46

10 49 

11 33

1 1 : 1 - 9 4 9

11:9 33

11:26 49

11:31 49

1 2 2 0 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 7 ,

1 0 0 , 2 9 7

12:1 50

1 2 : 1 - 3 5 8

1 2 : 4 - 9 5 8

H e b r e w B i b l e

T o r a h

G e n e s i s

1 2 9 , 3 2 , 8 6

1 : 1 3 2 , 3 3 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 4 5

1 : 1 -2 41

1 : 1 -2 : 3 32

1 : 1 - 2 : 4 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 4 ,

4 7

1 : 1 - 3 4 0

1 - 3 3 1 , 3 7 , 3 8 , 4 6

1 : 3 -31 39

1:4 41

1 : 6 3 9 , 4 1

1:7 41

1:9 39

1 - 1 1 4 9 , 5 0 , 2 9 4

1 : 1 4 3 9 , 4 1

1:18 41

1:20 39

1:24 39

1 : 2 4 - 2 5 3 2

1:26 42

1 : 2 6 - 2 8 3 1 , 3 2

1 : 2 6 - 3 0 4 2 , 4 4

1 : 2 7 3 2 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 2 9 4 , 2 9 5

1 : 2 8 4 2 , 4 5

1:31 42

2 2 9 , 4 3

2 : 1 - 3 4 1 , 5 0

2 : 1 - 4 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 1

2 : 2 - 3 4 0 , 2 9 5

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12:10 54 33:1 5 40

12:10-20 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 3 3 : 1 8 4 0

12:15 51 33 : 19 40 , 246

12:17 54 33 : 21 4012:19 51 33:23 4 0

1 2 - 5 0 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 8 , 5 9 33:24 4 0

13 5 8 33:25 4 0

13:11-13 52 33:30 4 0

14 53 , 58 33 : 31 40

15 58 34 56 , 308

17 58 35:22 56

17:10-14 105 36 55

1 8 - 1 9 5 8 3 7 5 118:22-33 190 37 : 2 5 7

19:30-38 271 37 : 13 57

2 0 2 0 , 5 4 , 5 8 , 2 9 7 37:21-22 5 6

20 : 7 141 37:25-27 55

21 58 37:26-27 5 6

21 : 1 5 8 37:28 55

22 51, 58 37:29-30 5 6

22 : 2 5 8 37-50 5 5

22 :13 89 38 50 , 55 , 5622:15-18 58,296 38:8-14 5 6

22:17-18 51 38:26 50

23 58 39:9 6 3 , 2 3 3

24 58 4 1 2 1 5

25:22 5 0 42:37-38 56

25:23 50 44:16-34 57

25:30 103 46:1 89

2 6 2 0 , 5 4 , 2 9 7 46 : 4 55 , 188

27 50 46:28 5727:36 51 49 : 4 56

29 : 31 2 2 0 49:5-7 56

30:22 2 2 0 50:24 57, 59

31:19-32 51

31:38-39 6 7 Exodus

32:33 102 3 :22 5 4

33 :4 40 10:2 64 , 65

33:5 40 10:3 6 4

33:6 40 10:4 64

33 :7 40 10:5 64

33:8 40 10:7 64

33:9 40 10:8 64

3 3 : 1 0 40 10:12 64

33 : 11 4 0 10 : 13 6 4 , 6 5

33:1 2 40 10:14 64

3 3 : 1 3 4 0 11:1 54

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11:2 54 24 : 10 44 , 187

12:8-9 135 25:8 8 3 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 4

12:9 2 8 1 2 5 - 3 1 8 3

12:31-32 54 30:1 0 302

12 : 35 54 31:12-17 4 4

12:48 105 31:1 7 50

19 6 1 , 6 2 , 3 3 8 3 2 : 1 3 51

1 9 - 2 4 6 1 , 6 2 34:6-7 6 6

2 0 65 , 85 , 86 , 298 34 :28 6 4

20:1 61 35-40 8 3

20:1-14 6 1 , 6 2 39:42-43 8 3

20:2 64

20:2 -14 64 ,6 6 Leviticus

2 0 : 3 6 2 1 - 1 6 3 0 2

20:5 190 3 :8 80

20:5-6 66 3 :13 80

20:8-11 65 4 :3 302

20:12 63 4 :4 80

2 0 : 1 3 62 , 66 4 : 29 80

20:15-18 62 4 : 33 80

2 0 : 1 9 61 10 78

20:19-23:33 62 , 67, 68 11 9 0

20:20-23:19 61 16 74 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 80 , 81 , 82 ,

20 : 21 89 206,302

20:23-23:19 301 16:1 81

21:1 67 16:1-19 74 , 78

21:2-11 8 8 16:1-28 74

21 : 4 8 9 16:2 78

21:5-6 72 16:2-3 7 8 , 8 1

21 : 6 2 , 8 9 , 2 8 1 16:3 79

21:15-17 6 8 16:3-4 79

21:20-21 71 16:5 79

21:28-32 62,69 16:6 79

21 : 31 71 16:7-8 79

22:15-16 68 , 263 16:8 80

22:17-19 6 7 16:9 79

22 : 18 68 16 : 10 79 , 80

22:20-23 63 16:11 79

23 86 16:12-13 78,79

23:1-4 62 16:14 79

23:14-17 62 16:15 79

23:14-19 85 16:1 6 76, 79, 80

23 : 16 86 16:17 79

23 : 17 86 16:18-19 8 0

2 4 62 , 187 16:19 80

24:7 67 16:20 76

24:9-11 6 3 16:20-22 8 1

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16:20-26 74 5 :19 86

16:21 8 0 6 : 4 - 5 3 0 5

16:22 8 0 6 : 4 - 9 9 2

16:23-25 81 6 :5 9 2 , 9 3

1 6 :2 6 8 0 , 8 1 7 1 2 3

16:27-28 7 4 , 8 1 7 : 3 - 4 1 2 3

16:29-31 8 1 7:9-10 6 6

16:29-34 81 9 :27 51

17:10-14 79 10:4 64

1 7 - 2 6 7 2 , 8 1 11:13-21 190

20:25-26 41 12 89,90 , 3 0 4

2 3 8 6 1 2 - 2 6 72 , 90

23:5-8 8 2 13:1 87

2 3 : 1 6 72 13:6 178

23:27 8 1 14 90

23:33-36 72 14:1 150

25 72 15:9-11 2 3 2

25:39-43 72 15:12 9 0

25:40 2 , 2 8 1 15:12-18 8 8

25:42 72 15:13-15 8 9

2 6 9 0 , 9 1 , 2 3 2 15:16-18 72

15:17 8 9 , 9 0

Numbers 16 85 , 86

13:2 86 16:3 55

1 3 - 1 4 8 5 16:7 135,281

19 303 16 : 13 134

22-24 141 16:13-15 72,86

33:52 4 3 16:16 8 6

17 100

Deuteronomy 17:8-13 2 9 8

1 8 5 17:14-20 2 9 8

1 : 1 -5 85 17:16-17 122

1 - 1 1 9 0 17:18-20 2 9 8

1:22-23 86 18:20 178

1:23 86 20:16-18 72,100

4:2 87 21:1-9 82

4:12 187 21:8 83

4 : 1 3 6 4 21:23 100

4 : 1 5 187 22:22 2 3 3

4 : 26 91 23:4-7 123,271

4 : 30 75 23:8-9 123

4 : 3 5 94,202 24:1-4 178

5 65 , 85 24:16 134

5:9 299 25:1 9 111

5:12-15 6 5 27-34 9 0

5 : 15 297 28 9 0 , 9 1 , 2 3 2

5:17 6 6 28:23 91

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28 : 61 100 24:32 2 4 6

29:20 100

30:10 100 Judges

31:9-13 92 1:1 112

3 1 : 2 6 92 2:8 112

32 : 1 9 1 3:7-11 1 1 3

34 304 , 307 , 334 5 19

8:22 115

Prophets 9 115

Joshua 13:22 78,187

1 102 14:3 308

1:1-11 101 18:30 113

1:5 -9 102 19:29 113

1 : 7 -9 101 20:28 1 1 3

1:8 100,308

5 : 2 - 9 1 0 5 1 Samuel

5:10 105 1:2 2 2 3

6 98 1 : 2 -5 22 3

6 : 21 95 1 : 5 -8 22 3

7 - 8 10 3 1:6 223

8:29 100 1:11 220

8:30-34 100 2:1-10 2 2 0

8:34 100 2 :2 3 2 6

9 : 27 103 2 :4 221 , 326

10 98 2 : 5 221

10:1 98 2 : 8 32 6

10:28 98 2 :10 2 2 1

10:30 98 2 :21 22 0

10 : 33 98 8 111,115

10:35 98 9:2 110

10:37 98 9 : 6 - 8 1 4 4

10:39 98 10:10 145

10:40 98 10:23 110

11 : 16 306 11:7 114

11:16-17 9 7 14:44 110

11 : 18 98 15 112

12 98 15:2-3 111

13:1-6 99 15:23 112

19 97 16:11 110

21 : 41 98 16:13-14 1 11

21:41-43 97,103 16:14 109

2 1 : 4 3 3 0 6 16:15-23 108

21:43-45 97 17 107,108, 110

2 3 9 7 , 1 0 4 , 3 0 8 17:7 108

23:12-16 104 17:10 108

24:3-13 1 04 17:14 1 10

24:14-15 104 17:25 108

24:20 104

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17 : 26 1 0 8 1 Kings

17:36 108 1 121

17:45 108 1 - 2 1 2 2

17:55-58 1 0 8 1:4 13218 110 1 - 1 1 120,124, 3 0 9

18:4 109 1:25 121

18:17 10 8 1:31 115

18 : 25 108,308 3 : 1 - 3 121

19:1 110 3:1-9:23 122

19:10-17 110 5:27 120

20:33 110 8:2 82

22 110 8 :65 134

2 3 110, 111 9:1 5 12423:2 111 9:20-22 121

23:17 109 9:24-25 121

24 110 9:26-11:40 122

24 : 7 111 9:28-10:25 122

2 4 : 1 2 11 0 10:14 122

2 4 : 1 7 110 10:26-29 122

26 110 11 123

2 6 : 1 1 111 11:1 123

2 6 : 1 7 110 11:1-2 12327:7-12 111 11:3 122,258

2 8 111 11:21 118

30 111 11:41-43 122

30:7-8 111 12:25-33 120

3 1 111 16:1 5 119

16:15-29 118

2 Samuel 16:19 120

1:13 111 16:21 119

1:20 308 16:22 1192:1 111 16: 23 119

3 111 16:24 119

4 111 16:27 120

7:14-16 117 16:29 119

8 111 17:1 146

11 122 18 146

12:1 132 20 : 11 236

12:2-29 132 21 : 19 146

12 : 13 300 21 : 55 13312:13-14 66 22 : 19 42 , 330

12:24 120 23:36 134

12:30-31 132 23:39 134

21:18-22 108

2 1 : 1 9 107,108 2 Kings

2 1 : 2 1 108 2 :9 145

2:23-25 138

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3:15 145 7 :14 168

4 14 6 9:11-15 1 69

4:8-37 144 10:5 166

4 : 23 144 10:5-6 1754 : 27 144 10:12 175

6:12 144 11:1-9 170

14:5-6 134 11:6-8 180

18:13-16 124,125 11 : 11 3 1 7

18:16 125 11:16 31 7

19:32-34 125 13:6-11 167

19 : 35 1 2 5 1 3 - 2 3 1 66

20:1 2 126 20:2 168

2 1 12 5 20:3-4 1 6 821:4-5 133 28:5 31 7

2 1 : 1 6 133 31:5 1 75

22 : 8 87 31:5-9 1 6 8

22-23: 3 0 4 36-39 162 , 171,310

23 87 40 200

5 1 182 40:2 20 4

52 182 40 :3 13

40:3-11 2 0 6

Isaiah 40-55 161,2011 163,166 40-66 199 , 201 , 202 , 204 , 2 0 6 ,

1 1 162 209,322

1 2 164,166 41:1-4 2 0 1

1 2 -4 165 44 : 1 205

1 3 166 44:9-20 2 0 2

1 8 163 45:1-6 2 0 1

1 1 0 - 1 7 73 , 74 45 : 4 2 0 1

1 11 -1 7 166 45 : 6 2 0 2

1 - 3 9 161,169,201 49:14-16 2 0 4

2 170 51:2 51

2 : 1 - 4 1 6 9 51:9-11 2 0 3

3:12 1 6 3 51:10-11 2 0 4

3:16 163 53:1-12 2 0 5

4 :1 163,316 53 : 4 2 0 6

4:2 163,316 53 : 5 206

5 262 53 : 6 206

5:7 2 6 2 53:11-12 2 0 6

6 42 , 163 , 167 , 186 55:1-5 3 2 2

6:1 186 55:3 2 0 4

6 1 - 8 3 3 0 56-66 161,201

6:7 186 5 9 : 2 1 3 0 8

6 8 186,319 63:3-6 2 0 3

6:10 171

6 : 1 3 157,167 Jeremiah

7 : 3 317 1 186

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7

180

181

182182182182182183

174

3 1 8

31:31-32

31:31-34

3 1 : 3 3

3 636:1

36 : 2

36 : 4

36:21-25

36:32

46 : 1

51:1

Ezekiel1 186,302

1:1 186,192

1 :1 -3 : 1 5 193

1:2 - 3 : 1 6 1 8 6

1 - 2 0 3 2 1

1:26-28 44,186

2:1 - 3 : 1 1 3 1 4

2:3 186

2:6 1863:2 186

3:9 186

3 : 16 192

3:16-24:27 193,194

3:17-21 192

3:26 193

4 - 5 188

6 :2 196

7:20 438 77

8:1 192

8:2 - 4 1 9 4

8:6 77

8:6-11 195

8:12 195

8 : 16 7 7

9:9 195

10:4 194

10:18 77

11 189

11 1 - 3 185

11 15 187

11 15 -1 6 189

11 16 187

11 22-23 194

1 : 1 -3 173

1:4-10 186,319

1:7 186

1:8 1861:9 186

1:11 211

2 317 

3 : 1 - 3 1 7 8

3:6 318

3 : 14 175,318

4:19-21 181

5:14 183

6:22 1767:9 66 , 178

7 : 16 313

8:21 181

11 : 14 313

11:20 319

12 : 11 318

14 : 11 313

15:19 182

16 183 17:19-27 178

17:27 207

18 296 

18:18 179

20 174

20:7 181

20:9 181, 183

20:14 181

21 17421:11 174

23:9 174

23:22 187

23:28 2 3 6

2 5 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 4

25:1-7 176

25:9 176

25:11-13 176

25 : 15 177

25:15-26 176

25:26 176,177

26:6 175

2 8 178,188

28 : 16 178

28:17 178

31:29 189

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11 : 23 77 40 : 3 32 3

12:22-25 189 40-48 195,322

14 196 45:18-20 82

14:1 188 48:35 19514:12-23 190

14:14 190 Hosea

14:18 190 2 150

14:20 190

16 191,262 Amos

16 : 17 4 3 1:1 158

16:25-26 19 1 1:2 15 9

18 66,189 , 190, 196 1:3-2:3 155

18:1-4 189 1 : 3 -5 138

18:4 66 , 133 2:1 154

18:5-20 190 2:4 155

18:2 0 190 2:6 152

18:32 1 9 0 2 : 6 - 7 2 3 3

19 204 2 : 6 - 8 1 5 5

20 : 1 188,192 2:10 151

2 1 - 3 7 32 1 3 : 1 157

22 195 3:2 155

2 3 1 9 1 3 : 3 - 6 152

2 3 : 3 191 3 :6 150

2 3 : 1 4 4 3 3 :8 181

2 4 : 1 192 3:12 157

25-32 1 9 3 3 : 15 315

26 : 1 192 4 : 4 - 5 153

29:1 192 4:11 151

29:17 192 5:2 282

30:20 192 5:3 157

3 1 : 1 192 5:5 153,159

32 : 1 192 5:6 150

3 2 : 1 7 192 5:18-20 156,167

33:7-9 193 5:21-24 155

33:2 1 192 5 :25 150

33:21-22 193 5 : 26 43

33:32 191 5 :27 159

33-48 193,194 6:4 156

34 196 6:7 159

34:2-10 196 6 :13 153

34:23-24 196 7 158

36:2 196 7:1 157,211

36:21-36 1 9 6 7 : 1 - 3 142

3 7 189 7 :10 157

37:11 189 7:10-17 1 58

38-39 196 7 :13 157

4 0 : 1 192 8 :2 153

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8:5 151 2:4 164

8:8 158 3 224,225

8:10 150 3:2 2 2 4

9 : 1 158 3 : 7 - 8 2 2 49 :5 158 6 222 , 224 , 225

9 :7 155 6:9-10 2 2 4

9:11-15 159 6:9-11 2 2 4

9 : 13 179 8 :2 3 3

18:21-22 171 8 : 10 33

14:1-7 2 2 6

Jonah 15 225

1:3 185 22 223,225

22 : 2 2 2 3Micah 22 : 11 224

4 : 1 - 3 1 6 9 22:23 2 2 4

6 : 6 - 7 3 1 5 2 3 2 1 9

23:1 164

Habakkuk 2 4 2 2 5

2 :3 2 1 3 24:3-4 2 2 5

4 1 : 1 4 2 2 8

Haggai 42 3 2 6

1:13 141 42-49 2 2 52 : 3 207 43 32 6

2 : 6 - 9 2 0 7 48-83 2 2 7

5 0 225,228

Zechariah 53:1-7 2 2 6

1:3 209 72 2 2 5

1:4 2 1 0 72:19-20 2 2 8

1 - 8 209,211 72:20 2 2 6

2 : 15 210 73-83 225,227

5 :5 2 1 1 80:2-3 2 2 65 :9 211 84 22 5

5:9-11 138 85 22 5

7:7 210 87 225

7:12 21 0 88 22 5

8 :3 2 1 2 89:53 2 2 8

8 :6 210 90 : 10 176

8:11-12 2 1 0 106:48 2 2 8

8:16-17 2 0 9 118:27 2 2 2

8 : 22 209 120-134 227,327

14:5 158 121 :6 165

1 5 - 1 9 209 127 2 2 5

137 225

Writings 137:4 186

Psalms 137:8 177

1 229 150:1-6 2 2 8

1:2 229,308

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Proverbs 1:21 246 , 247

1:1 2 3 4 2:5 2 4 6

1 9 4 7 , 2 3 6 , 3 2 8 2:9 2 4 6

3 : 1 3 2 3 8 2:10 2 4 73 : 18 2 3 8 2 : 11 2 4 4

6 : 1 - 5 2 3 3 3 181

6:32-35 2 3 3 3 :1 2 4 5

6:34-35 6 3 3:1-42:6 2 4 5

7:27 236,272 4 :2 2 4 8

10:1 2 3 8 4 :3 2 4 8

10:1-22:16 2 3 6 5:8-15 2 5 0

10:2 2 3 4 5:27 2 5 1

10:3 249 7:17-18 2 5 110:4-6 2 3 6 8 :8 2 5 1

11:4 2 3 5 12:7-8 2 5 1

11:22 2 3 8 12:13-25 2 5 0

12:21 2 4 9 19:17 2 4 5

13 : 14 2 3 5 2 1 : 2 9 2 5 1

13 : 25 249 22:4-23 2 4 9

14:12 2 3 4 22:5-7 2 4 8

14:27 2 3 5 22:13-14 2 4 4

15:20 164 24:1-12 2 4 9

16:25 234 25:2-6 2 5 0

21 : 31 2 3 5 2 8 3 2 9

22:17-21 2 3 6 30:20 2 4 8

22:17-24:34 2 3 7 31 248

22:20 2 3 7 31:21-22 2 4 8

22:22 2 3 7 32:18-20 2 4 4

22:28 2 3 7 32-37 2 4 4

23:1-3 2 3 7 38:1-40:2 251,252

23:10-11 2 3 7 38:2 2 5 4

24 : 6 2 3 5 38:2-3 2 5 2

25 : 1 234 , 237 3 8 : 3 2 5 4

30:21-23 2 3 8 39:30 2 5 2

31:10-31 2 3 8 40:3-5 251,252

3 1 : 3 0 2 7 2 40:6-41:26 2 5 1

40 : 7 252

J o b 40:7-14 2 5 2

1 - 2 4 2 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 7 40:10-14 2 5 3

1 5 2 4 6 40:15-24 2 5 2

1 10 2 4 6 40:25-41:26 2 5 2

1 11 2 4 6 41 : 1 2 5 3

1 15 2 4 6 4 1 : 1 7 2 5 3

1 16 2 4 6 42:1-6 251,254

1 17 2 4 6 42:2-6 2 5 4

1 18 2 4 6 42 : 6 2 5 5

1 19 2 4 6 42 : 7 244 , 245 , 246 , 2 5 5

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42:7-17 2 4 5 2:2 271

42 : 9 244 2 : 10 2 7 1

4 2 : 1 1 2 4 6 2 : 12 268

42:12-13 2 4 5 2 : 21 27142:16-17 2 4 6 3:9 268

3 : 11 268

Song of Songs 4 :5 2 7 1

1:1 258 4 :7 26 , 333

1:4 331 4 : 10 271

1:5 3 3 1 4:11-12 2 7 0

1:6 264,332 4:12 50

1:8 261 4 : 17 2 7 0

1:12 3 3 11:13 2 6 4 Lamentations

1:14 2 6 5 3 : 57 224

2:7 2 5 8

3 2 5 8 Ecclesiastes

3 :5 2 5 8 1 1 23 9

3 :7 3 3 1 1 -2 239

3:9 257,331 1 2 23 9

3 : 11 3 3 1 1 12 23 9

4 : 1 - 7 2 5 9 1 16 23 94 : 1 3 2 5 7 2 1 5 - 1 6 2 3 9

5 258 3 2 3 9

5:1 2 6 0 3 1 - 8 2 4 0

5 : 2 - 6 264,332 3 1 0 - 1 1 2 4 0

5 :3 262 3 12 -1 3 240

6 : 4 - 9 2 5 9 3 13 2 4 0

7:5 261 5 18 240

7:6 331 8 15 24 0

7:9 261 8 17 2 4 0

8 :4 2 5 8 9 1 3 - 1 5 2 3 9

8 :6 332 9 16 240

8 : 11 331 12 239

8 : 14 265 12:8 239

12:9-14 2 3 9


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