1 1

Week 4

Elements of Research Design

Negotiating Access and Research Ethics

CBEB2105

Business Research

2

Research Design

CBEB2105

Business Research

Purpose of the Study

Exploration

Description

Hypothesis Testing

3 CBEB2105

Business Research

Purpose of the Study

Exploratory study: is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at

hand, or no information is available on how similar problems

or research issues have been solved in the past.

Example: A service provider wants to know why his customers are

switching to other service providers?

4 CBEB2105

Business Research

Purpose of the Study

Descriptive study: is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the

characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation.

Example: A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individuals who have loan

payments outstanding for 6 months and more. It would include details of

their average age, earnings, nature of occupation, full-time/part-time

employment status, and the like. This might help him to elicit further

information or decide right away on the types of individuals who should be

made ineligible for loans in the future.

5 CBEB2105

Business Research

Purpose of the Study

Hypothesis testing: Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the

nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences

among groups or the independence of two or more factors in

a situation.

Example: A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the

company will increase if he doubles the advertising dollars.

6 CBEB2105

Business Research

Type of Investigation

Causal Study it is necessary to establish a definitive cause-and-effect

relationship.

Example: Does smoking cause cancer?

Correlational study identification of the important factors associated with the

problem.

Example: Are smoking, drinking and chewing tobacco associated with cancer?

7 CBEB2105

Business Research

8

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation tells us two variables are related

Types of relationship reflected in correlation X causes Y or Y causes X (causal relationship)

X and Y are caused by a third variable Z (spurious relationship)

CBEB2105

Business Research

9

Correlation vs. Causation Example

The correlation between workers education levels and wages is strongly positive

Does this mean education causes higher wages? We dont know for sure !

Recall: Correlation tells us two variables are related BUT does not tell us why

CBEB2105

Business Research

10

Correlation vs. Causation

Possibility 1 Education improves skills and skilled workers

get better paying jobs

Education causes wages to

Possibility 2 Individuals are born with quality A which is relevant for

success in education and on the job

Quality (NOT education) causes wages to

CBEB2105

Business Research

11

Correlation vs. Causation (contd)

Correlations can be very suggestive, but cannot on their own establish causality

Correlations can be due to either causation or common response

In economics, the concept of correlation can be used in conjunction with common sense or a convincing economic theory to establish causality

CBEB2105

Business Research

Correlation vs. Causation

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zyruPbgxyM&feature=player_detailpage

12 CBEB2105

Business Research

Extent of researcher interference

This depends on whether the study is Causal or Correlational

Minimal interference (correlational study)

Moderate interference (causal study)

Excessive interference (causal study)

13 CBEB2105

Business Research

Study Setting

Contrived: artificial setting causal studies i.e. Field experiments / Lab experiments

Non-contrived: the natural environment where work proceeds normally correlational studies

i.e. Field studies

14 CBEB2105

Business Research

Population to be Studied

Unit of analysis: Individuals

Dyads

Groups

Organizations

Cultures

15 CBEB2105

Business Research

Time Horizon

Cross-sectional studies Snapshot of constructs at a single point in time

Use of representative sample

Multiple cross-sectional studies Constructs measured at multiple points in time

Use of different sample

Longitudinal studies Constructs measured at multiple points in time

Use of same sample = a true panel

16 CBEB2105

Business Research

Exercise

A foreman thinks that the low efficiency of the machine tool operators is directly linked to the high level of fumes emitted in the workshop. He would like to prove this to his supervisor through a research study.

1) Would this be a causal or a correlation study? Why?

2) Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing (analytical or predictive) study? Why?

3) What kind of a study would this be: field study, lab experiment, field experiment? Why?

4) What would be the unit of analysis? Why?

5) Would this be a cross-sectional or a longitudinal study? Why?

17 CBEB2105

Business Research

Gaining access to data (1) Physical access key issues

Organisations may not wish to allocate resources

Requests for access may not be of sufficient interest

Failure to reach those who can give permission

Concerns about sensitivity and confidentiality

Perceptions about the researchers credibility

Doubts about the researchers competence

18 CBEB2105

Business Research

Gaining access to data (2)

Points to consider

Access as an iterative process

Obtaining consent from managers and participants

Obtaining cognitive access

The nature and extent of the required access

Obtaining sufficient scope to answer the research question

19 CBEB2105

Business Research

Gaining access to data (3)

Virtual access - four types of online community

Bulletin boards for particular products or services

Independent web pages

Themed email lists

Multiuser chat rooms

Adapted from Kozinets (2002)

20 CBEB2105

Business Research

Gaining access to data (4)

Checklist Box 6.8

Complete the Checklist in Box 6.8

to help you gain access

Saunders et al. (2009, p. 183)

21 CBEB2105

Business Research

Strategies to gain access (1)

Areas for consideration

Ensuring familiarity and understanding

Allowing sufficient time

Using existing contacts and developing new ones

Giving a clear account of purpose

22 CBEB2105

Business Research

Strategies to gain access (2)

Areas for consideration

Overcoming organisational concerns

Identifying possible organisational benefits

Appropriate forms of communication

Incremental access

Establishing researcher credibility

23 CBEB2105

Business Research

Research Ethics (1)

Definition

The appropriateness of your behaviour in

relation to the rights of those who become the

subject of or are affected by your work

Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

24 CBEB2105

Business Research

Research Ethics (2) Ethical issues at different stages of research

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different stages of research (part 1) 25 CBEB2105 Business Research

Research Ethics (3) Ethical issues at different stages of research

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different stages of research (part 2) 26 CBEB2105 Business Research

Research Ethics (4)

Research conduct is affected by

Code of ethics

Research ethics committees

General ethical issues

Netiquette

27 CBEB2105

Business Research

Research Ethics (5)

Issues during design and gaining access

Obtaining consent - implied and informed

Using participant information sheets

Consent for observation and online observation

28 CBEB2105

Business Research

Research Ethics (6) The nature of participant consent

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 6.2 The nature of participant consent 29 CBEB2105 Business Research

Research Ethics (7)

Issues during data collection

General issues applying to techniques

Awareness of participants rights

Keeping to the project aims

Safety of the researcher

30 CBEB2105

Business Research

Research Ethics (8)

Issues during data collection

Maintaining objectivity, confidentiality and anonymity

Appropriate interview behaviour

Use of observation techniques

Undertaking a covert study

31 CBEB2105

Business Research

Data processing and storage

Personal data must be

Processed fairly and lawfully

Obtained for specified purposes

Adequate and relevant

Accurate, updated and kept securely

Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

32 CBEB2105

Business Research

Data analysis and reporting

Related issues

Sensitive personal data

Confidentiality and anonymity

Protection of research participants

Ethical use of data analysis and conclusions

33 CBEB2105

Business Research

Dealing with ethical issues

Checklist Box 6.18

Complete the Checklist in Box 6.18

to help you anticipate and deal with

ethical issues

Saunders et al. (2009, p. 201)

34 CBEB2105

Business Research

Ethical Issues in Business Research

Business ethics

The application of morals to behavior related to the exchange environment.

Moral standards

Principles that reflect beliefs about what is ethical and what is unethical.

Ethical dilemma

A situation in which one chooses from alternative courses of actions, each with different ethical implications.

35 CBEB2105

Business Research

Ethical Issues in Business Research

(contd)

Relativism

A term that reflects the degree to which one rejects moral standards in favor of the acceptability of some action.

This way of thinking rejects absolute principles in favor of situation-based evaluations.

Idealism

A term that reflects the degree to which one bases ones morality on moral standards.

example: the Golden Rule

36 CBEB2105

Business Research

General Rights and Obligations of

Concerned Parties

Everyone involved in research can face an ethical dilemma:

The people actually performing the researchthe doers.

The research client, sponsor, or the management team requesting the researchthe users.

The research participantsthe actual research respondents or subjects.

Each party has certain rights and obligations toward the other parties.

37 CBEB2105

Business Research

EXHIBIT 5.7 Interaction of Rights and Obligations

38 CBEB2105

Business Research

Rights and Obligations: Research

Participant

Rights: To be informed

To privacy

Protected from harm

Obligations: To be truthful

Informed Consent The individual understands

what the researcher wants

him/her to do and consents to

the research study.

Confidentiality The information involved in the

research will not be shared

with others.

39 CBEB2105

Business Research

Deception in Research Designs And the

Right To Be Informed

Experimental Designs Placebo

A false experimental effect used to create the perception of a true effect.

Debriefing

Research subjects are fully informed and provided with a chance to ask any questions they may have about the experiment.

40 CBEB2105

Business Research

Protection from Harm

Questions to ask to help avoid harming a research participant:

Has the research subject provided consent to participate in an experiment?

Is the research subject subjected to substantial physical or psychological trauma?

Can the research subject be easily returned to his or her initial state?

Human subjects review committee

Reviews proposed research designs to ensure that no harm can come to any research participant.

41 CBEB2105

Business Research

Rights and Obligations of the

Researcher

The researcher should:

Understand that the purpose of research is research (no sales pitch to research participants)

Maintain objectivity

Not misrepresent research

Be honest in reporting errors

Protect the confidentiality of both subjects and clients

42 CBEB2105

Business Research

Research That Isnt Research

Pseudo-research

Conducted not to gather information for decisions but to bolster a point of view and satisfy other needs.

Push poll

Telemarketing under guise of research.

A type of pseudo-research whose intention is to change opinions (usually on voting) rather than measure them, often by asking leading questions.

For example "When did you first become aware that Candidate A is the

son of a criminal?"

Service monitoring

Contacting customers about their experience with a product, there is no selling attempt.

43 CBEB2105

Business Research

EXHIBIT 5.9 How Results Can Be Misrepresented in a Report or Presentation

A) Researcher points to a large difference in quality ratings. Men

report much higher quality service

than do women. In contrast, women

report only slightly less satisfaction than do men.

B) The researcher points to a trivial difference in quality perceptions

between men and women. There is

no difference in the satisfaction

ratings of men and women.

44 CBEB2105

Business Research

Rights and Obligations of the Client

Sponsor (User)

Issues in the client-researcher relationship

Ethical behavior between buyer and seller

An open relationship with research suppliers

An open relationship with interested parties

Advocacy researchresearch undertaken to support a specific claim in a legal action or represent some advocacy group.

Privacy rights of research participants

45 CBEB2105

Business Research

Privacy on the Internet

Controversial issue

Many researchers argue that they dont need to know who the user is, but they do want to know certain things

(e.g., demographics, product usage) associated with an

anonymous profile.

Researchers should not disclose private information without permission from consumers who provided that

information.

46 CBEB2105

Business Research

Summary

Access and ethics are critical aspects of research

Access may be physical, cognitive or continuing

Feasibility is an important determinant

Potential ethical issues should be recognised

47 CBEB2105

Business Research

Summary

Ethical concerns can occur throughout the research

Both qualitative and quantitative research have associated ethical issues

Use of the Internet and email for data generation raises specific ethical issues

Data protection legislation requires researchers to comply with legal requirements

48 CBEB2105

Business Research