Business Research Notes

8/14/2019 Business Research Notes

1/26

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

RESEARCH PROCESS :1. Fact gathering2. Relating facts with focus idea.3. Analysis. !raw conclusion". Act # $%&le%ent

Characteristics of Research:WHAT? Intelligent GatheringWHY? Research

1. Research is 'ased on an o&en syste% of thought.2. Researchers e(a%ine data critically.3. Researchers generali)e and s&ecify the li%it of their generali)ations.

Nature:1. Research should 'e e%&irical.2. Research should 'e *alid.3. Research should 'e relia'le.. Research can ta+e a *ariety of for%s.

THREE PARAIG!S OR STY"ES O# CARRYING O$T RESEARCH :First paradigm Theory

Rooted in Mathe%atics.

Four ste&s in the de*elo&%ent of a coherent *alid theory.

i. ,haracteri)e o'-ects of study definition/.ii. 0y&othesi)e &ossi'le relationshi&s a%ong the% theore%/.iii. !eter%ine whether the relationshi&s are true &roof/.i*. $nter&ret result.

Second paradigm Abstraction or Modeling Rooted in e(&eri%ental scientific %ethod.

Four ste&s followed in in*estigation of a &heno%enon.

i. For% a hy&othesis.ii. ,onstruct a %odel and %a+e a &rediction.iii. !esign an e(&eri%ent and collect data.i*. Analy)e result.

Third paradigm Design

Rooted in engineering.

,onsists of four ste&s followed in the construction of a syste% or de*ice/ to sol*e the

gi*en &ro'le%.i. tate reuire%ents.ii. tate s&ecifications.iii. !esign and i%&le%ent the syste%.i*. est the syste%.

4age 1 of 25


2/26


TYPES O# RESEARCH :$n scientific research6 the e%&hasis is on o'taining e*idence to su&&ort or re&ort &ro&osedfacts or &rinci&les.

1. 7(&eri%ental ResearchMost conclusi*e of scientific %ethods6 'ecause the researcher actually

esta'lishes different treat%ents and then studies their effects. Results of thisty&e of research leads to the %ost clear cut inter&retation.2. ,orrelational Research

o deter%ine relationshi&s a%ong two or %ore *aria'les. 8hether they gotogether or not9 And not whether one goes due to the other./

3. ,ausal,o%&arati*e Researcho deter%ine the cause for or the conseuences of differences 'etween grou&sor indi*iduals

. ur*ey Researcho o'tain data to deter%ine s&ecific characteristics of a grou& throughinter*iews6 uestionnaires6 etc.

ifficulties:1. 7nsure that the uestions are clear cut and not %isleading.2. ;etting sufficient nu%'er of the uestionnaires co%&leted and returned so

that %eaningful analysis can 'e %ade.". 0istorical Research

o%e as&ect of the &ast is studied either 'y &erusing docu%ents of the &eriodor 'y inter*iewing indi*iduals who ha*e li*ed# e(&erienced during that ti%e. Anatte%&t is then %ade to reconstruct as accurately as &ossi'le what ha&&enedduring that ti%e and to e(&lain why it did.

5.


3/26


A constant is a characteristic that is the sa%e for all indi*iduals in a study. A*aria'le is a characteristic that ta+es on different *alues or conditions fordifferent indi*iduals or circu%stances.

$nde&endent C !e&endent *aria'les and ,ontrol *aria'le.

ther &ossi'le ty&es of *aria'les: rgani)ational6 rganis%ic6inter*ening6 %oderator6 etc.

An Operational Definition s&ecifies the o&eration on characteristicsnecessary to identify the *aria'le on condition 'eing defined.

0y&othesis and the state%ent of the &ro'le%:

A calculated guess of the solution to a &ro'le% or the status of the situation atthe co%&letion of the research Acce&ted or Re-ected/. &erational definitiongi*es a co%&lete &icture or scenario. A hy&othesis is a &ro&osition a'out thesolution to a &ro'le%6 the relationshi& of two or %ore *aria'les6 or the nature ofso%e &heno%enon.

$dentification of Research &ro'le%:1. election of a research &ro'le%.

2. tate%ent of the research &ro'le%.3. ,onstants6 aria'les and &erational definition.

a. y&es of aria'lesi. $nde&endent used as a researcher %ani&ulates/ii. !e&endent de&ends on other *aria'les/iii. ,ontrol *aria'le

. 0y&othesis ,alculated guess a'out the outco%e of a research/ C the state%ent of&ro'le%.

a. Null 0y&othesis 0y&othesis of no difference/'. Alternate 0y&othesis

y&es of For%s and 0y&othesis: tatistical D analysis of data/

u'stance or research D indicate the direction of result/

!irectional # Nondirectional

Null 0y&othesis D 0y&othesis of no difference or no relationshi&

,o%%ents a'out hy&othesis a&&ly %ore to uantitati*e research thanualitati*e research.

Hypothesis of no difference: Eou say that change of 'oo+ will ha*e no effect.Alternative Hypothesis:Ees6 this 'oo+ will definitely change the effect.

4age 3 of 25


4/26


"ITERAT$RE SEARCH :A syste%atic search &rocess that reuires careful and &erce&ti*e reading and attention todetail.

he researcher atte%&ts to deter%ine what others ha*e learned a'out si%ilar research

&ro'le%s.

;ather infor%ation rele*ant to the research &ro'le%.

he re*iew of related literature ser*es %ulti&le &ur&oses and is essential to a well

designed research study.

$t generally co%es early in the research &rocess and it can contri'ute *alua'le

infor%ation to any &art of the research strategy.

.. followed 'y research 4ro' or vice versa

4lagiaris%

A4A# British For%ats.

4ri%ary # econdary sources.

References # Bi'liogra&hy.


5/26


,$A"ITATI-E RESEARCH :8hat do &eo&le thin+ a'out this9 ur*ey Research8hat %ight ha&&en if $ do this9 7(&eri%ental Research


6/26


!alitative "esearch:tends to 'e associated with words and &ictures.!antitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with nu%'ers as the unit of analysis.

!alitative "esearch:tends to 'e associated with descri&tion.!antitative "esearch:tends to 'e associated with analysis.

!alitative "esearch:tends to 'e associated with s%all scale studies.!antitative "esearch:tends to 'e associated with large scale studies.

!alitative "esearch:holistic &ers&ecti*e.!antitative "esearch:s&ecific focus.

!alitative "esearch:researcher in*ol*e%ent 'iased/.!antitative "esearch:researcher detach%ent un'iased/.

!alitative "esearch:e%ergent research design.!antitative "esearch:&redeter%ined research design.

!alitative "esearch:Fle(i'le research design.!antitative "esearch:Rigid research design.

Salient features of ,$ANTITATI-E RESEARCH :1. y&es of


7/26


echniues of &resentation data:

a'le catter &lot

Bar chart ine gra&h

0istogra% 4ie chart

. Basic statistics.

a. !escri'ing freuencies.'. howing connections# correlation.c. ,oordination # &ercentages.

". !escri&ti*e tatistics:!escri'ing the freuencies C their distri'utionsI,haracteristics of


8/26


CORRE"ATIONA" RESEARCH : &Associational research+he research in which one is co%&aring relationshi&s is ter%ed as correlational research.e.g. a' and &1#

$n correlational research6 we continue only till the esta'lish%ent of the relations and do

not &ro*e the% to 'e eual to so%ething. ,orrelational research is also called Associational research.

Atte%&ts to in*estigate &ossi'le relationshi&s a%ong *aria'les without trying to

influence the%.

here is no %ani&ulation of *aria'les in correlational research.

,orrelation %eans one thing or &heno%enon *aries in association with another. 7.g.

tides with %oon &hases6 s%o+ing with lung cancer6 etc.

8hen correlation is found to e(ist 'etween two *aria'les6 it %eans that scores within a

certain range on the first *aria'le are associated with scores within a certain range onthe second *aria'le.

he fact that two *aria'le correlate does not necessarily %ean that one causes theother.

$ositive #orrelation %&ve slope':e.g. O?@6 slo&e P*e0i on one %atches with 0i on othero on one %atches with o on other

(egative #orrelation %)ve slope':e.g. Q?@6 slo&e D*e.0i on one *aria'le %atches with o on othero on one *aria'le %atches with 0i on other

lo&e P1 or 1 %a(i%u% correlation

@.@ to @.2 No correlation

@. to @.5 Needs further in*estigation

@.> to 1.@ trong ,orrelation

Pur(oses of Correlational Research:1. o clarify understanding of &heno%ena through identification of relationshi&s a%ong

*aria'les.2. 4rediction: $f a relationshi& of sufficient %agnitude e(ists 'etween two *aria'les6 it

'eco%es &ossi'le to &redict a score on either *aria'le if a score on other *aria'le is+nown.

4age > of 25


9/26


,orrelational Research

7(&eri%ental Research

Mani&ulate the inde&endent*aria'le/

,ausal ,o%&arati*eResearch e.g. ethnic

'ac+grounds/Mani&ulation of the

inde&endent *aria'le 'yresearcher is not &ossi'le/

E0PERI!ENTA" RESEARCH :1. he 'est way to esta'lish cause and effect relationshi& 'etween *aria'les.2. $t is the only ty&e of research that directly atte%&ts to influence a &articular *aria'le.3. Researchers %ani&ulate the inde&endent *aria'le. hey decide the nature of the

treat%ent i.e. what is going to ha&&en to the su'-ects of the study/. After the treat%enthas 'een ad%inistered for a&&ro&riate length of ti%e6 researchers o'ser*e or %easurethe grou&s or *aria'les recei*ing different treat%ents to see if they differ.

Acid PBase alt P 8ater

Characteristics of E1(eri'ental Research:1. ,o%&arison of grou&s *aria'les/.2. Mani&ulation of $nde&endent *aria'le3. Rando%i)ation

Setu(2 Write3u(:

4ur&ose#ustification a%&ling !ata Analysis

!efinitions $nstru%entation Results

4rior Research $nternal alidity $nter&retation#!iscussion

0y&othesis 4rocedure

Grou( esign in E1(eri'ental Research:*ea+ Designs:

1. ne grou& si%&le design or one shot case studyS reat%ent e(&eri%ent/ 'ser*ation/

2. ne grou& &retest &ost test design S

3. tatic grou& co%&arison designS1 S2

. tatic grou& co%&arison &retest &ost test design S1 S2

4age ? of 25


10/26


Tr!e Designs:". Rando%i)ed &ost test only ,ontrol grou& design

reat%ent grou& R S1 ,ontrol grou& R S2

5. Rando%i)ed &retest &ost test ,ontrol grou& designreat%ent grou& R S1

,ontrol grou& R S2 =. Rando%i)ed olo%on four grou& design

reat%ent grou& R S1 ,ontrol grou& R S2 reat%ent grou& R S1 ,ontrol grou& R S2

CA$SA" CO!PARATI-E RESEARCH :

Allows researchers to in*estigate the &ossi'ility of causal relationshi& a%ong *aria'les

that cannot6 as in e(&eri%ental research 'e %ani&ulated.

Atte%&ts to deter%ine the cause for or conseuences of differences that already e(ist

'etween or a%ong grou&s of indi*iduals. Also referred to as e( &ost facto after the fact/ research.

he grou& difference *aria'le in causal co%&arati*e research cannot 'e %ani&ulated

such as ethnicity/ or one that %ight ha*e 'een %ani&ulated6 'ut for so%e reason6 hasnot 'een such as teaching style/.

Ste(s in Causal Co'(arati.e Research:1. 4ro'le% for%ulation 0y&othesis if any/2. a%&le 0o%ogeneous grou&s/3. $nstru%entation. !esign

Wea4nesses in Causal3Co'(arati.e Research:1. ac+ of rando%ness Reason: ;rou& already for%ed/.2. $na'ility to %ani&ulate the inde&endent *aria'le Reason: ;rou& already e(&osed to

$nde&endent *aria'le/.

Write3u(:

4ur&ose#ustification $nstru%entation

!efinition !ata Analysis

4rior Research Results

0y&othesis !iscussion

a%&le

$nternal alidityHISTORICA" RESEARCH :yste%atic &rocess of searching for facts and then using the infor%ation to descri'e6analy)e6 and inter&ret the &ast.

1. For %ost &art6 historical research is considered a ty&e of ualitati*e research althoughuantitati*e %ethods %ay also 'e a&&lied.

2. $nter&retation is central to the research &rocess when conducting historical research.

4age 1@ of 25


11/26


3. he *alue of historical research co*ers a wide s&ectru%6 fro% &ro*iding anunderstanding of the &ast to accurate descri&tion to &ro*iding &ers&ecti*es for decision%a+ing and &olicy for%ation.

. o%eti%es uantitati*e research is also &ossi'le with the hel& of the a*aila'le &astdata.

Pur(oses of Historical research:1. o %a+e &eo&le aware of what has ha&&ened in the &ast so that they %ay learn fro%&ast failures and successes6 to learn how things were done in &ast6 to see if they %ight'e a&&lica'le to &resent day &ro'le%s and issues.

2. o assist in &rediction.3. o test hy&othesis concerning relationshi&s or trends.. o understand &resent &ractices and &olicies in a 'etter way.

Sources of Historical research:1. 4ri%ary source First hand account of e*ent or e(&erience under study/.2. econdary source Accounts at least one ste& away fro% the e*ent or e(&erience/.

Categories of Sources:1. !ocu%ents D written # &rinted %aterial that has 'een &roduced in so%e for% or

another.2. Nu%erical Record D !ata uantitati*e/3. ral state%ent D tories6 %yths6 tales6 legends6 songs6 etc.. Relics D &hysical # *isual o'-ect. 7.g. furniture6 'uilding6 artwor+6 %onu%ent6 etc.

!etho5olog6 of Historical Research:1. $dentification of Research 4ro'le%.

a. For%ulation of 0y&otheses and


12/26


". 4re&aration of instru%ent uestionnaires/5. 4re&aration of co*er letter $nstructions a'out the use of instru%ent/=. raining inter*iewers if needed/>. Ksing an inter*iew to %easure a'ility scoring/?. Nonres&onse # otal nonres&onse # $te% nonres&onse

Write3u( for Sur.e6 Research:1. 4ur&ose # ustification2. !efinition3. 4rior research. 0y&othesis". a%&le5. $nstru%ent=. !ata Analysis>. Results?. !iscussions

WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSA" :

Research &ro&osal is a written &lan for a study.4ur&ose:

Research &ro&osal co%%unicates the intentions of the researcher.

$t states the i%&ortance of the intended research.

$t gi*es a ste& 'y ste& &lan for conducting the study.

4ro'le%s are identified.


13/26


14/26


Ran5o' Sa'(le Pur(oseful Sa'(le

i%&le

tratified

,luster

yste%atic

,o%&rehensi*e

Ma(i%u% ariation

7(tre%e ,ase

y&ical ,ase

INSTR$!ENTATION 2 !ETHOS:

,ollection of data is an e(tre%ely i%&ortant &art of all research acti*ities.

hree as&ects:

o Tinds of data to 'e collected.

o Methods of collection to 'e used.

o he scoring of the data ,on*ersion to infor%ation/

What is ata?Raw score fro% which infor%ation on the su'-ect of research is to 'e o'tained. $%&ortantdecision is ta+en during &lanning &hase of research6 as to what +inds of data is to 'ecollected.

Instru'ent:he de*ice the researcher uses to collect data is called instru%ent. 7.g. test6 uestionnaire6etc. %ost6 'ut not all6 research acti*ities reuires use of instru%ent. No instru%ent is neededwhen data is o'tained fro% e(isting record although there would ha*e 'een an instru%entinitially//.

Instru'entation:

he whole &rocess of collecting data is called instru%entation. $t in*ol*es selection6 designand conditions under which the instru%ent will 'e ad%inistered.Tey uestions:

8here ocation 0ow ften Freuency

8hen i%e 8ho Ad%inistration

Characteristics of Research Instru'ent:alidity6 Relia'ility6 '-ecti*ity and Ksa'ility of instru%ent/.

Valid Instrument (Earlier definition):Measures what it is su&&osed to %easure.

4age 1 of 25

SampleStatistics

PopulationParameters

Predictions

Re&resentati*e a%&le

$nstru%entation CMethod


15/26


(New definition):hat &er%its a researcher to draw warranted or *alid conclusion a'out thecharacteristics e.g. a'ility6 achie*e%ent6 attitudes6 etc./ of the su'-ect indi*idual6 grou&6etc./.

Reliable Instrument: ne that gi*es consistent results under the gi*en set of instructions/.

Objectivity:refers to the a'sence of su'-ecti*e -udg%ents without &ersonal 'ias/.

sability:0ow easy it will 'e to use the instru%ent90ow long will it ta+e to ad%inister9

Are the directions clear90ow easy is it to score9o inter&ret results9,ost9!o eui*alent for%s e(ist94ro'le%s re&orted 'y user97*idence of relia'ility and *alidity9

Classification of Instru'ents:

n the 'asis of Kser:

o Researcher $nstru%ents

o u'-ect $nstru%ents

o $nfor%ant $nstru%ents

n the 'asis of Res&onse:

o 8ritten res&onse ty&e instru%ents

o 4erfor%ance e*aluation instr

May %easure &rocedure #&roduct

n the 'asis of Mode of ,onduction:

o 4ower est

o &eed est

Researcher Instru'ents:

Rating cale 4erfor%ance ,hec+lists

$nter*iew chedules Anecdotal Records

ally sheets i%e and Motion og

Flow ,harts

Su87ect Instru'ents:


16/26


INSTR$!ENT -A"IITY AN RE"IA%I"ITY :,alidity: A&&ro&riateness6 %eaningfulness6 and usefulness of the inferences aresearcher %a+es.

"eliability: ,onsistency of scores or answers/ fro% one ad%inistration of instru%ent toanother6 and fro% one set of ite%s to another.

-ali5it6:

,ontentrelated e*idence of *alidity ,ontent /

,riterion related e*idence of *alidity ,riterion /

o ,oncurrent alidity

o 4redicti*e alidity

,onstruct related e*idence of *alidity ,onstruct /

#ontent ,alidity:Refers to content and for%at of instru%ent. A&&ro&riate9 ,o%&rehensi*e9 !oes it logicallyget at the intended *aria'le9

#riterion ,alidity:co%&arison with other si%ilar instru%ent/he relationshi& 'etween scores o'tained using the instru%ent and scores o'tained usingone or %ore instru%ent or %easures. 0ow strong is this relationshi&9 0ow well is the

instru%ent a'le to &redict &resent# future &erfor%ance of a certain ty&e9 8riting 8ritinga'ility/.

#onstr!ct ,alidity:&redicta'ility of instru%ent/Nature of &sychological construct or characteristics 'eing %easured 'y instru%ent. 0ow welldoes this instru%ent e(&lains differences in 'eha*ior of indi*idual or their &erfor%ance oncertain tas+s9

R: 0i score in 1statte%&t 0i score in 2ndatte%&t: coefficient e(&resses relationshi& that e(ists 'etween scores of the sa%e indi*iduals on

two different instru%ents.R: coefficient e(&resses relationshi& 'etween scores of the sa%e indi*idual in sa%e

instru%ent at two different ti%es or 'etween two &arts of the sa%e instru%ent.

Relia8ilit6: &consistenc6 of score+

estDRetest %ethod

a%e test gi*en twice to the sa%e grou& after a ti%e inter*al.

7ui*alent for%s %ethod

wo different 'ut eui*alent for%s of an instru%ent are ad%inistered to the

sa%e grou& during the sa%e ti%e &eriod. $nternal consistency %ethod Reuires only single ad%inistration/

o &lit 0alf &rocedures

o TuderRichardson A&&roaches

o Al&ha ,oefficients ,ron'ach Al&ha ,oeff./

!EAS$RE!ENT AN ATA CO""ECTION :y&es of cores:

1. Raw cores

4age 15 of 25


17/26


2. !eri*ed coreso 4ercentile Ran+s

o tandard Ran+s

Measure%ent cales:

No%inal cales

rdinal cales $nter*al cales

Ratio cales

UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU

$n the conte(t of research the uestions of %easure%ent are

1. 8hat is to 'e %easured92. 0ow is it to 'e %easured9

he thing to 'e %easured usually includes &ri%arily the de&endent *aria'le.

Measure%ent de*ices in research:

ests6 in*entories6 o'ser*ations schedules6 etc. he %easure%ent instru%ents %ust adeuately %easure the *aria'les6 conce&ts6 or

&heno%ena under study.

!efinition of %easure%ent: $t is the &rocess of assigning nu%erals according to rules.

he nu%erals are assigned to e*ents or o'-ects such as res&onses to ite%s or tocertain o'ser*ed 'eha*iors.

y&es of %easure%ent scales:No%inal: ,ategori)ation without orderrdinal: ow to high or least to %ost without esta'lishing inter*als.$nter*al: eual unit/ 7ual units or inter*als are esta'lished !ifference is eual in different

&arts of scale/.Ratio: 7ual unit &lus ha*ing true )ero that indicates total a'sence/.Relia'ility of Measure%ent:Relia'ility %eans consistency6 now here it %eans consistency of the instru%ent in %easuringwhate*er it %easures. $t is the degree to which an instru%ent gi*es si%ilar results for thesa%e indi*idual at different ti%es. Relia'ility coefficient *alues fro% @ to 1.@.

,o%%only used &rocedures for Relia'ility:

4arallel for%s or alternate for% %ore than one ad%inistration of testL ty&ically

estretest with si( %onths inter*al

&lit 0alf

TuderRichardson one ti%e ad%inistration ,ron'ach Al&ha

alidity of Measure%ent:he e(tent to which an instru%ent %easures what it is su&&osed to %easure6 ty&ically thecharacteristic6 trait6 or whate*er for which it was intended. r a&&ro&riateness of theinter&retation of the results of test or in*entory.,ontentL ,riterionL ,onstruct alidity.

i+ert cale:

4age 1= of 25


18/26


cale with a nu%'er of &oints or s&aces6 usually fi*e6 that re&resent a set of relatedres&onses6 one for each &oint. he indi*idual res&onds 'y chec+ing a &oint or circling a letteror nu%'er/ re&resenting a &oint on scale. here &rints are assigned nu%erical *alues6 1 to "or @ to 6 or 2 to P2 through @6 which are the totaled o*er the ite%s to gi*e the indi*iduals anattitude score.

Ge%antic !ifferentialH &ro*ides a series of 'i&olar ad-ecti*e scale relati*e to a word orconce&t6 the res&ondents indicate their feelings on the continuu% of each scale. Iscale D*e

@ P*e %ay 'e usedJ.

4age 1> of 25


19/26


4age 1? of 25


20/26


4age 2@ of 25


21/26


A&titude ests:A&titude is the &otential for general &erfor%ance. A&titude test gi*es indirect e*idence of thee(istence of the &otential.

Achie*e%ent ests:Achie*e%ent is the &otential for &erfor%ance in a s&ecific field# su'-ect.

ATA ANA"YSIS :

!escri&ti*e tatistics

$nferential tatistics

raw data stats info

Data Analysis:1. o &ro*ide the reasoning underlying the use of statistical analysis.2. o list the %ore co%%only used statistical &rocedures and the conditions under which

they a&&ly.

escri(ti.e Statistics:4rocedures and %easures 'y which we descri'e uantitati*e data.

istri8ution:he grou& or set of all scores or o'ser*ations on a *aria'le is called distri'utionL or to &ro*ideinfor%ation a'out location6 dis&ersion and sha&e.

#re9uenc6 5istri8ution:!istri'ution 'y freuency instead of listing all.

a'ular

0istogra%

Three re9uire'ents for 5escri8ing a 5istri8ution of scores on o8ser.ations:1. 8here the distri'ution is located on the scale of %easure%ent.2. $nfor%ation a'out how the distri'ution is s&read out D how it is dis&ersed.3. $dentification of its sha&e.

-ocation of Distrib!tion: Measures of ,entral endency.

No%inal !ata D Mode

rdinal !ata D Median

$nter*al and Ratio !ata Mean

Dispersion of Distrib!tion: Measures of aria'ility.

tandard !e*iation

ANA

AN,A

Stan5ar5 Scores:'tained 'y a transfor%ation so that the unit of %easure%ent is the standard de*iation andthe score is e(&ressed in standard de*iation units fro% the %ean Ico%%only used sy%'ol forstandard score is ) s%all )/.

4age 21 of 25


22/26


he distri'ution of standard scores has the sa%e sha&e as the original distri'ution6 a %ean of)ero6 and standard de*iation or *ariance/ of 1.

For%ula ) V 'ser*ed core D Meantandard !e*iation

Transfor'e5 Stan5ar5 Score &TSS+: V )!esignated td !e*/ P !esignated Meanest &u'lishers often use transfor%ed standard scores to a distri'ution6 with a designated%ean and standard de*iation. A %ean of "@@ and a standard de*iation of 1@@ are so%eti%esused. !istri'ution with a %ean of 1@@ and tandard de*iation of 1" ha*e 'een used forintelligence test scores.

,orrelation:A %easure of relationshi& 'etween two *aria'les. $t can ta+e *alues fro% 1.@@ to P1.@@6inclusi*e. Wero indicates no relationshi&.

A &lot of two *aria'les in 2! catter gra%

Inferential Statistics:tatistics are %easures of the sa%&le and &ara%eters are %easures of &o&ulation.$nferences are %ade a'out the &ara%eters fro% the statistics.

$n $nferential statistics6 a hy&othesis is a state%ent a'out one or %ore &ara%eters.

7sti%ating a &ara%eter in inferential statistics can 'e done 'y &oint esti%ation or

inter*al esti%ation. 4oint esti%ation consists of esti%ating the &ara%eters 'y a single*alue. $nter*al esti%ation consists of defining an inter*al confidence inter*al/ on thescale of %easure%ent that contains &ossi'le tena'le *alues of the &ara%eter. 7itherway6 the esti%ation is %ade fro% sa%&le data.

An ideal sa%&le would 'e the one whose %ean is eual to the &o&ulation %ean.

ignificance le*el or Xle*el6 a ter% associated with hy&othesis testing6 is a &ro'a'ility

such that if the &ro'a'ility that the statistic would a&&ear 'y chance if the hy&othesis istrue6 is less than this &ro'a'ility6 the hy&othesis will 'e re-ected. hus6 a significancele*el is a criterion used in %a+ing a decision a'out the hy&othesis I,o%%only usedsignificance le*el in research are @.@" and @.1J.

$ossible errors in Hypothesis Testing:

$n hy&othesis testing there are two &ossi'le errors6 re-ecting a true hy&othesis or failingto re-ect a false one. nce the decision is %ade in hy&othesis6 there is the &ossi'ilityof ha*ing %ade only one ty&e of error.

rue False

Acce&t ,orrect 7rror Y or y&e $$/

Re-ect 7rror X or y&e $/ ,orrect

4age 22 of 25

Researching!ecision


23/26


4age 23 of 25


24/26


4age 2 of 25


25/26


26/26


Date post:	04-Jun-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	1t4
View:	216 times
Download:	0 times

Business Research Notes

Documents