Business Research Slides_2

8/12/2019 Business Research Slides_2

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

MODULE -PRESENTATION

by

Prof. Philip AE Serumaga-Zake

UNISA SBL

27 March28 March 2014


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Role of research in the MBL

programme

The module MBL925R prepares you for the research project that you

have to complete during your final year.

The importance of this individual research project is highlighted by the

fact that it contributes 60% towards your final yearsmarks.


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Role of Research in the business

environment

This module (MBL925-R) prepares you to both conduct and critically

evaluate business or market research in your working environment.

Zikmund, et al. (2000) defines business research as the application of the

scientific method in searching the truth about business phenomena. Theseactivities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating

and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and

organizational performance.

Business research helps to provide managers with the knowledge regardingtheir organizations, the market, the economy or any other area of uncertainty,


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The concept of scientific research: key

components of the research process

Science: Dfn. by Websters Dictionary Knowledge attained throughstudy or practice OR knowledge covering general truths of the operation

of general laws, concerned with the physical world.

Purpose of science concerns expansion of knowledge and search for

building theories.

ResearchDefinitions:

A systematic inquiry that provides information for solving a problem.

A methodology in an attempt to describe, explain and change

(improve) human behaviour.

A formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the problem.

The research processis built on three key features: (1) Clearly stated

research questions/objectivesto be addressed. (2) A research context

for the questions and a rationale for why it is important that these

questions should be answered or explored. (3) Research methodsforaddressing and answering the research questions.


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Research starts by the selection of a topic, a domain phenomenon to be

studied.

You may for e.g., be curious about an interesting phenomenon, a problem or

a concern to be addressed; to test some existing theory or to generate new

models or hypothesis.

Steps of the scientific method:

Start from general questions or problems

Narrow down to focus on one specific aspect. A research report generally

begins with an overview of the previous research and real-world

observations, the researcher then states how this led to defining a research

problem.

Design a research study

Collect data

Analyze this aspect

Finally conclude, and

Generalize to the real world.
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Choosing a topic

Research starts by the selection of a topic, a domain

phenomenon to be studied. You may for e.g., be curious about an interesting

phenomenon, a problem to be solved or a concern to be

addressed or you may want to test some existing theory or

you may want to generate new models or hypothesis, for

e.g., to come up with new ideas.

Some points about topics for research:

Topics should not have yes/no answers, they should

preferably provoke a rigorous analytical work.. Topics should not have obvious answers.

When choosing a topic, it should not matter to you what you

find outyou must be unbiased and not expect a particular

findingyou may be wrong and will need to explain your

results.


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Cont. with Choosing a topic

Your topic should have a basis in business ormanagement.

Your topic should be something you can getexcited about, or at least are interested in.

Particularly with qualitative research, you shouldenter the field with an open mind and with no

preconceived ideas.

Your topic should be doable in the time available,

so the scope needs to be carefully defined nottoo broad and not too narrow.

Title should not be too long, preferably not morethan 16 words.


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Cont. with choosing

Your title should add at least some value or new knowledge to

what is already knownit should reflect the research problem

and the scope of the study.

Do not re-invent the wheel or try to cause a revolution in thescientific community.

Your topic should have a basis in or related to business (i.e.

leadership, business or management science)

The topic you choose should be something you can getexcited about, or at least are interested in.


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Cont. with choosing a topic Practical Problem: You may start off with choosing a broad topic in

a field of study where your passion or expertise lies. Then read

literature around this topicor/and ask your colleagues,

employer, supervisor/lecturer or friends etcetera, to identify all

the practical problems that need to be solved.

OR

After choosing a broad topicin the academic field which you are

interested in, read literature to find out where a knowledge gap

exists, that is, what is still needed to be done or found. The fillingof this gap then will be your contribution to knowledge.


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Sources of research topics Existing Research Reports

Application of an existing theory in a different setting or a different context.

An investigation into whether a particular early theory regarding say, strategy,leadership, customer relations, diversity management, the financial markets,

globalisation, economic theory etc still applies today.

Exploration of a gap or contradiction in existing theory /research.

An exploration of factors affecting a certain situation, e.g. identification of the

factors promoting the success of small businesses in Adiss Ababa.

Investigating a business problem or issue

Any contemporary or emerging issue in your area of interest, e.g. as reported in

journals.

Ask an academic or lecturer in your area of interest about topics he/she is

researching and perhaps take a portion of that.

Ask your business colleagues, your manager or someone senior in yourorganisation, your customers, suppliers or other stakeholders for ideas or

issues/problems being experienced .


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What isgood research? Clearly defined purpose, scope, limitations, and precise meaning

of the termsused.

Research procedureshould be described in sufficient detail to

enable another researcher to repeat the research, otherwise it will

not be possible to estimate the validity and reliability of the data.

Research designshould be planned to yield objective results.

Ethical standardsshould be fully explained as to how physical or

psychological harm, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and guard the

welfare of the participants and organisation, their clients, their

colleagues, and themselves were taken care of.


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Cont. with Good Research

Limitationsany flaws should frankly be reported in procedural

design and their

effect on the findings should be estimated.

Adequate analysisappropriate statistical methods should be

applied.

Unambiguous findingsshould be clear and precise, easily

understood by the decisionmaker.

Conclusionsshould be limited to those for which the data

provide adequate basis. Recommendationsshould be confined to the scope of the study.


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Literature Review

Literature review helps you to (Blumberg et al, 2008):

Establish the context of the problem or topic by reference to

previous work

Understand the structure of the problem

Relate theories and ideas to the problem

Identify the relevant variables and relations

Show the reader what has been done previously

Show which theories have been applied to the problem

Show which research designs and methods have been chosen

Rationalise the significance of the problem and the studypresentedcontribution


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Cont. with literature..

Synthesize and gain a new perspective on the problem

Show what needs to be done in the light of the existing

knowledge

Know about the findings of the previous studies done on the

same or a similar topic

Know the methods that were used and can therefore be used in

the current research

Formulate your questions or hypothesis; it can help you not

duplicate the research or to avoid doing it again


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Cont. with literature..

Know the research that has been done. When you read the

literature, you may find that there is no reason for doing it

again, if it was done already (ie, the research question may

have been answered already.

Improve on the methods if you find that the methods used inthe previous research were not adequate.

A theory for your topic. Your work must not be a theoretical

study but grounded in appropriate theory.


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Cont. with Literature review The literature review chapter should be well structured, may be

according to the subproblems or subtopicsof the researchstarting broadly and finishing narrowly (inverted funnel).

Literature should be critically reviewed and discussed

indicating how it relates to the research topicit must be

relevant. It should have a summary or conclusion, indicating a gap

in the literature that will be filled by the suggested research (

making a contribution to the existing body of knowledge).

Avoid plagiarism.Do not quote or cite without acknowledging

the author.


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Identifying theconcepts to be measured and/or observedthat will enable

them to answer a research question - operationalisation

A conceptor constructis a generalized idea about a class of objects,attributes, occurrences or processes that has been given a name (Zikmund, et

al., 2000).

Operationalizationis then used to give some indication of the exact definitions

of the variables, and the type of scientific measurementsto be used.

Literature reviewalso helps with the test to be used, or the methodology,

and helpsthe researcher to refine the research process.

Operationalizationis to take a concept, such as 'helping behavior', and try to

measure it by specific observations, e.g. how likely are people to help a

stranger with problems.

Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variablesinto measurable

factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured,

empirically and quantitatively. Operationalization sets down exact definitions

of each variable, increasing the quality of the results, and improving the

robustness of the design.

It determines how the researchers are going to measure an emotion or concept,such as the level of distress or aggression.
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pera ona za onOperationalization is to take a concept, such as 'helping behavior', and try to

measure it by specific observations, e.g. how likely are people to help a stranger

with problems.

Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable

factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically

and quantitatively. Operationalization sets down exact definitions of each

variable, increasing the quality of the results, and improving the robustness of the

design.

It determines how the researchers are going to measure an emotion or concept,

such as the level of distress or aggression.

The Operational Definitions

The operational definition is the determining of the scalar properties of the

variables.

If a researcher is measuringabstract concepts, such as intelligence, emotions,

and subjective responses, then a system of measuring numerically needs to be

established, allowing statistical analysis and replication.

For e.g., Human responses could be measured with a questionnaire from 1-

strongly disagree, to 5 strongly agree. These measurements are always

subjective, but statisticscan be used in analysis. Such measurements are arbitrary, but allow others to replicate the research.
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Fuzzy concepts

Fuzzy concepts are vague ideas, concepts that lack clarity or are only

partially true.

It is important to define the variables to facilitate accurate replication of

the research process.

Example 5

A scientist might propose the hypothesis:

Childrengrow quicker if they eat vegetables.

What does the statement mean by children?

Are they from America or Africa?

What age are they? Are the children boys or girls?

There are billions of children in the world, so how do you define the

sample groups?

How is growthdefined?

Is it weight, height, mental growth or strength? The statement does not

strictly define the measurable, dependent variable.
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What does the term quickermean?

What units, and what timescale, will be used to measure this?

A short-term experiment, lasting one month, may give wildly different

results than a longer-term study.

The frequency of samplingis important for operationalization, too.

If you were conducting the experiment over one year, it would not be

practical to test the weight every 5 minutes, or even every month.

The first is impractical, and the latter will not generate enough

analyzable data points.

What are vegetables?

There are hundreds of different types of vegetable, each containing

different levels of vitamins and minerals.

Are the children fed raw vegetables, or are they cooked?

How does the researcher standardize diets, and ensure that the childreneat their greens?
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The above hypothesis is not a bad statement, but it needs clarifying and

strengthening, a process called operationalization.

The researcher could narrow down the range of children, by specifying age, sex,

nationality, or a combination of attributes. As long as the sample group is representative of the wider group, then the

statement is more clearly defined.

Growth may be defined as height or weight.

The researcher must select a definable and measurable variable, which will form

part of the research problemand hypothesis.

Quicker would be redefined as a period of time, and stipulate the frequency of

sampling.

The initial research design could specify three months or one year, giving a

reasonable time scale and taking into account time and budget restraints.

Each sample group could be fed the same diet, or different combinations of

vegetables. The researcher might decide that the hypothesis could revolve around vitamin C

intake, so the vegetables could be analyzed for the average vitamin content.

Alternatively, a researcher might decide to use an ordinal scale of measurement,

asking subjects to fill in a questionnaireabout their dietary habits.

In this way, the fuzzy concept has undergone a period of operationalization, and the

hypothesis takes on a testableformat.
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Ontology and epistemology

Ontological: How people view the world. Assumptions about how

the world is made up and the nature (being) of things.

Lee Barron Dfn: Aconcept concerned with the existence of, and

relationship between different aspects of society, such as socialactors, cultural norms and social structures.

Ontology deals with questions pertaining to the kinds of things

that exist within society. E.g., The existence of patriarchal socialrelations and the negative implications these have for women.


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Cont. with ontology. Epistemology has to do with our beliefs about how one might

discover knowledge about the world.

Epistemology deals with the issue of knowledge, and specifically,

who can supply the required valid information

In social research, whilst epistemological issues are concerned with

the question of what is or what should be regarded as acceptable

knowledge, ontological issues are concerned with the nature of

social bodies or entities.


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Cont. with ontology

The ontological principles underpinning quantitative researchbelong to

that branch of social thought dubbed the objectivist perspective such aspositivism, within which, the ontological nature of society is based upon

the view that society is a separate entity, existing quite distinctly from

the social actors that comprise a given society.

Ontological assumptions, in social research, research is guided by thedesire to investigate the differing ways in which social actors are

constantly interpreting the social world from their own particular

perspective.

Note: Ontology and epistemology assumptions guide the researchmethodology to use.


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Research design

A master planthat specifies the methods and procedures for

collecting and analyzing the needed information.

A framework or plan of actionfor the research.

oosing an appropr ate researc


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oosing an appropr ate researcmethodology:Quantitative approach versus

qualitative approach:

Which Research Method to choose? What design you choose depends onfollowing factors:

What information do you want?

Feasibility

How reliableshould the information be?

Is it ethicalto conduct the study?

The cost of the design

The selection of the research method is crucial for what conclusions you can

make about a phenomenon.

It affects what you can say about the cause and factors influencing the

phenomenon.

It is also important to choose a research method which is within the limits of what

the researcher can do.

Time, money, feasibility, ethics and availability to measure the phenomenon

correctly are examples of issues constraining the research.
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Examples

Some methods are better suited to the study of certain questions than others.

Some methods might be clearly inappropriate to your research question.

Example iConsider for example the case of a researcher interested in studying the influence

of Nazism and neo-Nazism on racial attacks in the UK.

This research problem might be studied by sending a questionnaire or doing

interviewsto researchers and historians of Nazism on the roots of neo-Nazism.

This would be an empirical approach to the research problem/question. Alternatively one could read and analyse the writings of historians and

come-up with some new or innovative interpretation on the roots of neo-

Nazism.

This would not be an empirically-based approach because one is not generating

data, one is analysing and studying data produced by others and based on thatdata one produces a theoryor a model.

These methods will allow us to trace the influence of Nazism on neo-Nazism

but they will not allow us to investigate the second part of the question i.e.

racial attacks in the U.K.


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Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research (see Lee)


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Ser.

No.

QuantitativeAssumptions Qualitative - Assumptions

Creswell

1

2

3

4

5

Ontological: a single objective world

Epistemological: independence from

variables under study

Axiological: act in a value-free and

unbiased manner

Rhetorical: Most often use impersonal,

formal and rule-based text

Tends to apply deduction, limited cause-

effect relationships and context free

methods

Multiple subjectively derived realities can

exist

Researchers must interact with their studied

phenomena

Overtly act in a value-laden and biased

fashion

Use personalized, informal and context-

based language

Tends to apply induction, multivariate and

multiprocess interaction and context

specific methods

Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research (see Lee)


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Cassell and Symon

Numbers or quantificationbias towards counting

Often seeks objective (or less biased) and freelycalibrated descriptions

- Researchers favor a more detached, impersonal

orientation to data

More rule driven

- Enter with relatively clear mental models to

follow

- Usually want to anticipate and eliminate

problems before they occur, say thru research

design

Focus more on predicting outcomes and less on

process variables

A more context-free

- More generalizable

Less explicit aboutparticipantsreaction

No numbers or interpretation

- Endeavor to describe organizational phenomena

- Counting only if necessary

Researchers explicitly and overtly apply their ownsubjective interpretation

- Personal investment in the data

Maximally responsive to the constraints imposed by

their immediate situation and empirical data

- Prefer to have the maximal degree of flexibility

Focus more on understanding organizational processes

and less on predicting outcomes

Heavily grounded within local context in which the

phenomena of interest occur

- Generalization is problematic

More explicit aboutparticipantsreaction

- Recognize and integrate the effects of the researchrocess itself into the stud sresults

K l


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Kvale

Involve more intensive calibration of

organizational parts and its analysis

include at least equal interval scaling

Better suited to questions of differences

in degree within and across these

categorical states

Most often focus on the identification of

meaningful categories (or parts) of

organizational phenomena

- Often involve content analysis andnominal or ordinal calibration

Best suited to questions concerning

differences in categorical states

Other differences:

Quantitative research is better suited to theory testing and qualitative research is better

suited to theory creation

Note: there are exceptions. E.g. factor analysis can be used to generate theories

Summary

Qualitative research is often taken to mean inductive, theory generating, subjective and

nonpositivist.

Quantitative research is often taken to mean deductive, theory testing, objective and

positivist.

Both approaches can be used in a study. E.g. Quantitative study followed by a qualitative


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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Seeks to understand peoples meanings placed on their living

experiences (Cooper & Schindler, 2008)

Requires techniques that delve deeply into peoples hidden

interpretation, understandings and motivations.

Designed to tell the researcher how(process) and why(meaning)

things happen as they do


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Cont. Qualitative research: the

research process1. Discover the management dilemma

2. Define the management question

3. Define the research questionThis may involve an

exploratory study (including: literature review, organisational

records, interviewing experts and info gatekeepers)


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Example (from Cooper &

Schindler) Management dilemma: Increasing no. Of letters & phone

complaints about post purchase services

Management question: What should be done to improve

product repairs & service?

Research question: Should the technical support operators be

given more intensive training? Or Should the repair diagnostic

& repair sequencing operations be modified/s


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Cont. Research process

Then, formulate investigative questions that will help to

answer the research question. E.g., what the manager feels

he/she needs to know to arrive at a conclusion about the

management dilemma

Then, formulate measurement questions. These are thequestions participants in the research area asked (say in a

questionnaire) or what specifically is observed in a research

study

Then, a research designis made.a blue print for fulfilling the

study objectives & answering the research question. E.g., asecondary data study, case study, survey, field experiment, etc.


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Cont. The research process

Techniques used are for e.g., focus groups, individual in-depth

interviews, ethnography, grounded theory, action research,

case study and observation.

Sources of data:- People (individuals or groups)

- Organisation or institution

- Texts (published)

- Settings & environments- Objects, artefacts, media products

- Events & happenings

Qualitative research designs


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Qualitative research designs

Qualitative research produces in-depth and comprehensive

information.

It uses subjective informationand participant observation or

nonparticipant observation to describe the context, or natural

setting, of the variables under consideration, as well as the

interactions of the different variables in the context.

It seeks a wide and deep understandingof the entire situation. The problem with qualitative research is that the very subjectivity

of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the reliability and

validity of the strategies and information. It is very difficult to

prevent or detect researcher induced bias.


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Cont. with Research design

Its scope is limited due to the in-depth and comprehensive data

gathering approaches required.

There are several different strategies that can be used but they all

focus on phenomena in their natural settings in the real world

and involve studying the phenomena in all their complexities,multifaceted and all their dimensions.

The researcher must keep his or her perceptions, impressions and

biases to him or herself. What matters is to get the truth.


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Delimitation of the scope of a

research study

Delimitations are used to narrow the scope of the study.

State what will be included and what will be excluded, e.g. your

research topic may focus on a specific market sector, organisation

type, level of employees in an organisation, methodology, etc.

The sample that you plan to use may be drawn from a specificgeographical area (e.g. Gauteng),


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Ethical Issues

Due to the subjective nature of data collection, interpretation, and

analysis in qualitative research, there appear to be more ethical

dilemmas and concerns with confidentiality associated with qualitative

research than with quantitative research.

It is the researcher's ethical responsibility to maintain confidentiality

The deception of respondents by researchers is an ethical issue in

ethnographic studies. For e.g., in a study of people living in homeless

shelters, a researcher may become a participant, interacting withresidents while giving them the impression that he/she too is homeless.


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Cont. Ethical Issues

Diversity

To enhance the validity of results in research with diverse

populations, research questions must be clearly constructed and

must not be subject to different cultural interpretations.

Also, due to the subjective nature of qualitative research it is

important for the researcher to continually engage in self-

examination to be certain that his or her own biases and

stereotypes are not influencing the interpretation of the

findings.


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Sampling

Non-probability sampling: This includes all methods of sampling in

which the probability of selection of population elements is unknown or

undeterminable.

With these methods, no indication of possible bias and of the error

bounds of estimates in respect of population characteristics can be done.

But this does not imply that good results cannot be obtained. The

problem is that the user is unable to give any indication of the reliability

of the results that have been obtained. They can somehow also, thoughrarely, be generalized to the population.


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Cont. Sampling

Social science is often conducted in situations where you cannot

select the kind of probability samples used in large scale surveys.

For e.g., if you wanted to study street children in JHB. There is no

list of these children. It is almost impossible to create such a list.In addition to that, there are times when probability sampling

would not be appropriate even if it were possible.

Examples are; Judgmental non probability sampling or purposive,

snowball and quota.

i li


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Convenient Sampling

Obtaining people or units that are conveniently available

E.g. it would be more convenient and economical to set up an

interviewing booth from which to intercept consumers at a

shopping mall.

A lecturer using his/her students for a research study

Note: Projecting or generalizing to the results beyond the specific

sample is inappropriate.

J d P i li


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Judgment or Purposive sampling

A non probability sampling procedure when an experienced researcher

selects the sample based on his/her judgment about some appropriate

characteristic required of the sample member.

Researchers select samples that satisfy their specific purpose even if

they are not fully representative

E.g., CPI is based on a judgment sample of market basket items

A fashion manufacturer selects a sample of key accounts that it believes

are capable of providing information needed to predict sales Can be used to predict election results

Q S li


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Quota Sampling

Probability sampling may underrepresent or overrepresent

certain subgroups in the population

The researcher may wish to ensure that certain subgroups are

included proportionately to the sample

The purpose is to ensure that the various subgroups in a

population are represented on pertinent sample characteristics to

the exact extent that the investigator desires He/she has a quota to achieve


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Cont. Quota sampling

Advantages:

Speed of data collection, lower costs and convenience

Carefully selected data collections may provide a representative

sample of the various subgroups within a population

May be appropriate if the researcher knows that certain

demographic group is more likely to refuse to cooperate with a

survey

S b ll S li


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Snowball Sampling

Involve using a probability sampling for an initial selection of

respondents and then obtaining additional respondents through

information provided by the initial respondents

Used to locate members of rare population by referrals

Bias is likely to occur because the person suggested by someone

also in the sample has a higher probability of being similar to the

first person


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Data collection

For Qualitative researchers: E.g., Approachesin collecting data:

grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology.

Methods: e.g., Observation, and interviewing and focus group

discussion.

Forms of the data collected: interviews and group discussions,observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and

other materials.

Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the

primary basis for organizing, interpreting and reporting results. Quantitative research: scientific experiments or surveys to collect

primary data or use already collected (and processed) data called

secondary data in their studies.

Methods of Data Collection


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Data Collection

Methods include interviews and focus group discussions, observation

(Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation), field notes, various

texts, pictures, and other materials, Structured Interview, Unstructured

Interview, Analysis of documents and materials.

Observations (Key, 1997)

In qualitative research, observations are intentionally unstructured and

free-flowing.

Very flexible.

Draw backs are:

Observation can be time wasting for a novice researcher recording

even irrelevant information.

The presence of an interviewer may bias the data collected

Written notes are always insufficient to capture the richness of thephenomenon, yet audiotapes and videotapes are not always completely

dependable either because their presence may make participants

uncomfortable.

Participant Observation


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Systematically seeks out and organizes data concerning what is being

studied based on a social science theory and methodology rather than

focusing on achieving a situationally defined goal.

Keeps detailed records of what occurs, including those things

characteristically taken for granted.

Periodically detaches self from the situation to review records from the

neutral position of a social scientist.

Constantly monitors observations and records for evidence of personal biasor prejudice.

Interviewing


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The researcher should control his reactions or emotions. The purpose of the

interview is to find out what views people hold; their views should be

unbiased by evaluative responses on the researcherspart.

The researcher should choose an interview environment and conditions in

which the participants feel comfortable, secure, and at ease enough to speak

openly about their point of view. The researcher should avoid presenting "yes" or "no" questions which tend

to stifle detail.

The researcher should be flexible in his or her approach to the informants.

Group interviews can be useful, particularly in initial interviews.

The researcher should consider to what degree the interview questioning is

"recursive." As applied to interviewing, what has been said in an interview

is used to determine or define further questioning.

Interview


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Interview

To ask about events, the interviewer must be aware that participants

rely on their memories, which may bring in distortions.

Interviews are either open-ended or semi structuredrevolving around

a few central questions. To conduct a focus group, researchers gather several people less that

10 or 12 to discuss a particular issue for 1 or 2 hours.

When conducting a focus group discussion, make sure that no one

dominates the discussion and keep people focused.

Focus groups are useful when:

Time is limited

People feel more comfortable talking in a group than alone

Interaction among participants may be more informative than

individually conducted interview.

Researcher is having difficult interpreting what he/she observes. When interviewing, both parties, the interviewer and the interviewee must be

on equal footing and there must be mutual trust between them.


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Cont. with interview

Unstructured interviewso No set format but interviewer may have questions formulated in

advance

o Friendly conversation provided you know what to look for,

informal, open ended, flexible and free flowing.

o Questions can be changed or adapted to meet the respondents

intelligence or belief.

o Interview schedule/guide may be used.

o Lack of reliability of a structured interview

Semi-structured interviewscombination of unstructured and

structured interviews

Commonly employed in survey research


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y p y y

Standardized interviews, Exactly same (closed ended) Questions in the

same order. Open ended questions may also be included.

Limited time and financial resources may lead some qualitative

researchers to pursue other data collection techniques, such as astructured interview schedule with open-ended questions.

Drawing on the theoretical and research literature, such questions may

be formulated and organized in advance to address a specific research

topic.

Interviewers are expected to take field notes or to keep a field diary of

observations made during the interview.

For focus groups, key informants are interviewed. It involves a

moderator to facilitate a small group discussion between selected

individuals on a particular topic.

This is a popular method in market researchand testing new initiatives

with users/workers.

Wh h Q li i R h
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When to choose Qualitative Research

Qualitative research serves the following purposes:

Descriptivereveal nature of certain situations, settings, processes,

relationships, system or people.

Interpretationto gain new insights about a phenomenon, develop

new concepts and theoretical perspectives, etc., and discover the

problem that exists within the phenomenon. Verificationit allows the researcher to test the validity of certain

assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within the real world.

Evaluationa means through which a researcher can judge the

effectiveness of a particular policy, practice or innovation.

Qualitative Research Designs (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005)

Case study, Ethnography, Phenomenological, Grounded theory, and

Content analysis

We dig deep to get a complete understanding of the


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We dig deep to get a complete understandingof the

phenomenon.

We collect different forms of dataand examine them

from various angles to construct a rich and meaningful

picture of a complex, multifaceted situation.

Brief notes on the Research Designs

Case Study

A particular event, programme or individual studied in depth.e.g., a medical researcher studying the nature, course and

treatment of a rare illness.

Focuses on a single case - can be generalized to similarsituations.

May focus on 2 or 3 cases to make comparisons, build a

theory or propose generalization.


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Case study design

Purposeunderstanding a complex issue or object

Emphasizes detailed contextual analysis of a limited number

of events, or conditions and their relationships.

Dfn. Yin defines a case study method as an empirical inquiry

that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and

context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple sources

of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p.23).

Case studies are detailed investigations of individuals, groups, institutions


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or other social units. The researcher conducting a case study attempts to

analyze the variables relevant to the subject under study (Hungler & Polit,

1983).

The principle difference between case studies and other research studies

is that the focus of attention is the individual case and not the whole

population of cases.

Most studies search for what is common and pervasive. However, in the

case study, the focus may not be on generalization but on understandingthe particulars of that case in its complexity. A case study focuses on a

bounded system, usually under natural conditions, so that the system

can be understood in its own habitat(Stake, 1995; 1988).

Method Extensive data, Observation, Interviews, Documents, etc, Past records

Audiovisual materials (photographs, video tapes, audio tapes)

The researcher may spend extended period of time on the site and interact

with the participants.


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Cont. with case study..: steps

1. Determine and Define the research question

Establish the focus and purpose of the study

2. Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis

techniques

Must determine whether to study cases which are unique in someway or cases which are considered typical and may select cases to

represent a variety of geographical regions, etc.

Multiple sources of data and techniques must be used

Multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources are needed to

uncover convergent lines of inquiry. Data collection is largely qualitative but may also be quantitative.

Tools of data collection may include surveys, interviews, documents,

observation and physical artefact's.


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Cont. with case study steps

3. Collect data in the field

4. Evaluate and analyse data

Triangulate to strengthen research findings and conclusion

Categorise, tabulate, use flow charts and recombine data o

address the initial proposition or purpose of the study.

Cross-case search for patterns

Conclude answering questions how and why.

5. Prepare the report


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More about Data analysis

Organizing of details about the case

Categorizing of datacluster into meaningful groups

Interpretation of single instancesspecific documents, occurrences

Identification of patterns underlying themes characterizing the case

more broadly

Synthesis and generalization an overall portrait of the case is

constructed. Conclusion and implication beyond the case.

The researcher must look for convergence from a triangulated study,

that is, separate pieces of data must point to the same conclusion.

More about Writing the Report

In report writing, the researcher records details about the context surrounding the

case, that is, information about the physical environment and historical, economic

and social factors that have a bearing on the situation.

This helps other researchers who read the report draw conclusions about the

extent of generalization to other situations.

Rationaleworthiness of in-depth study and contribution about the real


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p y

world.

Detailed description of the facts related to the case

Description of data collected, i.e., What observations, whom

interviewed, what documents examined, etc. Discussion of the patterns found any trends, themes, personality

characteristics, etc. You have to convince the reader by also describing

contradictory information as well.

Must be as complete and unbiased as possible A connection to the larger scheme of things. In what way does the case

study contribute to the knowledge about some aspects of the human

experience?

Compare to previous studies, etc.

Ethnographic design


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Ethnographic design

Dfn. Ethnographyfrom Greek, ethnosfolk/people and grapho = to

write A qualitative research design used to explore cultural phenomena

culture of people.

The purpose is to describe and interpret the shared andlearnt patterns

of values, behaviours, beliefs and language of a culture sharing group.

Resulting research report reflects the knowledge and the system ofmeanings in the lives of a cultural group.

It was pioneered in the biological, social and cultural branches of

Anthropologynow it has popular in Social sciences, especially

Sociology and Communication.

A typical ethnographic study is a holistic studyincluding a brief history,

climate and habitat from the point of view of the subject.

Cont with Ethnography


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Cont. with Ethnography The researcher looks at the entire group that shares a common culture

in depth.

Natural setting Length of time periodeven up to several years.

Focus is on everyday behaviours (e.g. interactions, language, rituals)

with an intent to identify:

Cultural norms

Beliefs

Social structures

Other cultural patterns.

Mainly done in sociology, psychology and education.

Method Sitebased field work

Prolonged engagement with people to observe and record processes..

Better when the researcher is a stranger to avoid bias

To gain entry the researcher often go through a gatekeeper such as a tribal

chief, the person who can provide a smooth entrance into the site.

The researcher must be open about why he/she is there.


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Initially, the researcher uses a big net approach, intermingling with

everyone and getting an overall sense of the cultural context.

Gradually he identifies key informants to provide relevant information. Participant observation can do; the disadvantage however is that the

researcher can become emotionally involved and lose the ability to

assess the situation accurately.

Throughout the field work he/she must be a careful observer,interviewer and listener while taking extensive field notes.

Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using

audiotapes or videotapes.

Can also collect artifacts and records e.g. accounting ledgers.

Great patience and tolerance and being sociable are necessary.

Data Analysis


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y

DescriptiveData organized into logical structures

Describing events in chronological order

Describing a typical day in the life of the group or an individual

Focusing on a critical event

Developing a story, with plots and characters.

Analysis data categorized according to their meanings, patterns,

regularities and critical events identified.

InterpretationThe general nature of the culture is inferred from the

categories of meanings and patterns identified.

Existing theoretical frameworks may help

Note: Total objectivity is impossible.

Report writing

Often personal literary narrative designed to engage the readers attention


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Often personal, literary narrative designed to engage the reader s attention

and interest. It Includes:

Introductionrationale and context.

Present your research question

Describe the nature of the study

Importance of the study

A description of the setting and methods used

Describe the group and systems and rituals, the name of the place, etc.

An analysis of the culture studied

Describe the patterns and themes observed, norms and conventions for

behaviour, the social hierarchy, belief system.

Present evidence to support your claim

Use the participants actual words

Conclusion

Relate findings to the research question and concepts and theories in the

discipline

Avoid making judgments, (even small changes in the wording can make a

significant difference in this regard).

Should be sufficiently detailed.

h l l h d


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Phenomenological research design

PurposeTo describe or explain phenomena thru how peopleperceive them.

Done by gathering deep information and perceptions of subjects

thru inductive, qualitative methods such as interviews, focus

groups, discussions/conversations and participant observation,

action research, etc.

Powerful for understanding subjective experience, gaining

insights into peoples motivations and actions.

Particularly effective at bringing to the fore the experiences and

perceptions of individuals from their own perspectives.

Cont with phenomenological design


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Refers to a personsperception of the meaning of an event.

Attempts to understand peoples perceptions, perspectives and

understandings of a particular situation. E.g. experiences of peoplecaring for a dying relative, living in abusive relationship.

By looking at multiple perspectives, on the same situation the

researcher can make some generalization.

Method Carefully selected sample of participants

Lengthy interview e.g., 1 or 2 hrs.

Often very unstructured

The researcher listens closely as participants describe their daily

experiences related to the phenomenon.

Typically an interview tool like informal conversation - as participants do

most of the talking.

Cont. with phenomenological design

Data analysis

To identify common themes:


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To identify common themes:

Steps:

identify statements that relate to the topic

The researcher breaks information into small segments (e.g., phrasesor sentences) that each reflects a single, specific thought.

Group statements into meaningunitscategories.

Seek divergent perspectives

Construct a composite

Develop overall description of the phenomenon or peoplesexperience. The focus is on common themes.

Research report

No specific structure

Present your research problem or question Describe the methods used for data collection and analysis

Draw conclusions

Relate your findings to an existing body of theory and research.

Discuss any practical implications of the findings.

Grounded theory research design


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Grounded theory research design Least likely to start from a particular theoretical framework

Major purpose of this approach is to begin with the data and use

them to develop a theory.

Term grounded gives an idea that the theory is derived from and

grounded in data collected in the field rather than taken from literature.

Focuses on a process related to a particular topic, with ultimate goal of

developing a theory about that process.

Method

Field based

Interviewing, observations, documents, etc are used

Data collected must include the perspectives and voices of the people

being investigated.

Cases are selected by a sampling process in which the researcher

identifies new cases that are similar to previous cases.

When these cases generate no new insights, the process is repeated

with newly selected cases that yield different insights again until no new

insights are noted.

Data analysis Categorize to classify the data


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Identify interrelationships

Data analyzed may lead to later data collection for revision.

Theory developed includes numerous concepts and interrelationships.

The theory is written in the form of a verbal statement, visual model orseries of hypotheses explaining the phenomenon.

The research report

A description of the research question

A review of the related literature A description of the methodology and data analysis done

A presentation of your theory

A discussion of implications

Show how your theory is similar or dissimilar to existing theory

Explain how it is related to existing body of knowledge Give implications

Content analysis


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Content analysis A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular

body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or

biases. Used in a wide range of disciplines.

Can be used with another approach

Method

identify the specific body of material to be studied a random sample may be used

Define the characteristics or qualities to be examined in precise,

concrete terms.

You may break down items of a complex material into small,

manageable segments to be analyzed separately.

Scrutinize the material

When the material is entirely objective, one single judgment is enough,

but if subjective, more judgments, may be, 2 or 3 are required, and then

a composite of the judgments is used.

Data analysis


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Data analysis

Tabulate the frequencies of each characteristic foundimplying the use

of both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Appropriate statistical analysis can then be done on the frequencies to

interpret the data as they reflect on the research problem.

Research reporting

Describe the body of the material and sampling procedure used

Give a precise definition and description of the characteristics you

looked for.

Describe the coding or rating procedure used

Tabulation and graphing report the frequencies and percentages

obtained.

Give a description of the patterns and trends that the data reflected.

How to analyse qualitative data

It depends upon the type of questions used


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It depends upon the type of questions used.

Analyzing results for a case study tends to be more opinion based than

statistical methods.

The usual idea is to try and collate your data into a manageable form

and construct a narrative around it. Use examples in your narrative whilst keeping things concise and

interesting.

It is always a good idea to assume that a person reading your research

may not possess a lot of knowledge of the subject so try to write

accordingly. Unlike a scientific studywhich deals with facts, a case study is based on

opinion and is very much designed to provoke reasoned debate.

There really is no right or wrong answer in a case study.

For multiple choice questions it is a matter of counting up the answers to

each question and using statisticsfor analysis. Rating type question require a little more work but the follow broadly the

same principle.

For opinion questions, you can devise some way of judging the

responses numerically.

The next step is to devise which statistical test you are going to use.

Research Implications or Recommendations
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Research Implications or Recommendations

The final stage is the researchers recommendations based upon the

results.

This area of the research processcan be based around the researchers

personal opinion, and will integrate previous studies.

It is critical in determining the direction taken by the scientific community,

but the researcher will have to justify their findings.

Summary

The key to drawing a validconclusion is to ensure that the deductiveandinductiveprocesses are correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific

methodwere followed.

If your research had a robust design, questioning and scrutiny will be

devoted to the conclusion, rather than the methods.

What has been learnt?

Generally, a researcher will summarize what they believe has been
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y, y

learned from the research, and will try to assess the strength of the

hypothesis.

Even if the null hypothesisis accepted, a strong conclusion will analyze

why the results were not as predicted. In observational research, with no hypothesis, the researcher will analyze

the findings, and establish if any valuable new information has been

uncovered.

Future Research Very few studiesgive clear-cut results, and most research uncovers more

questions than answers.

The researcher can use these to suggest interesting directions for further

study.

If, for e.g., the null hypothesiswas accepted, there may still have been

trends apparent within the results.

These could form the basis of further study, or study refinement and

redesign.

Descriptive research designs
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Descriptive research designs

A descriptive research design is a scientific method which involvesobserving and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it

in any way.

Many scientific disciplines, especially social science and psychology,

use this method to obtain a general overview of the subject.

Some subjects cannot be observed in any other way; for example, a

social case study of an individual subject is a descriptive research

design and allows observationwithout affecting normal behavior.

It is also useful where it is not possible to test and measure the large

number of samples needed for more quantitative types of study. It is also used by market researchers to judge the habits of customers,

or by companies wishing to judge the morale of staff.

The results from a descriptive research can in no way be used as a

definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.

Advantages The subject is being observed in a completely natural and
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unchanged natural environment.

A good example of this would be an anthropologist who

wanted to study a tribe without affecting their normal

behavior in any way.

Descriptive research is often used as an exploratory study to

more quantitatively research designs, the general overview

giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worthtesting quantitatively.

Disadvantages

Because there are no variables manipulated, there is no wayto statistically analyze the results.

Many scientists regard this type of study as very unreliable

and unscientific.

More on Qualitative research designs


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More on Qualitative research designs

Qualitative research design is a research method used extensively byresearchers studying human behavior and habits.

Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in

that it is often used to generate possible leads and ideas which can be used to

formulate a realistic and testable hypothesis.

This hypothesis can then be comprehensively tested and mathematically

analyzed, with standard quantitative research methods.

Design

The design of qualitative research is probably the most flexible of the various

research techniques.

There is no standardized structure.

Case studies and survey designs are the most commonly used

methods.

Advantages
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Advantages

Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too

complex to be answered by a simple yes or no hypothesis.

These types of designs are much easier to plan and carry out.

Qualitative research methods are not as dependent upon sample sizes

as quantitative methods. Normally, small sample sizes are used.

Disadvantages

Whilst not as time or resource consuming as quantitative experiments,

qualitative methods require a lot of careful thought and planning, toensure that the results obtained are as accurate as possible.

Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analyzed in the same

comprehensive way as quantitative results, so can only give a guide to

general trends.

It is a lot more open to personal opinion and judgment.

Any qualitative research design is usually unique and cannot be exactly

recreated, meaning that they do lack the ability to be peer reviewed.

Data analysis of qualitative data in
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Data analysis of qualitative data in

general

Interview questions and responses are typically tape-recorded and then

transcribed verbatim before analysis is begun.

Qualitative researchers often categorize data into patterns as the

primary basis for organizing and reporting results.

Transcription is extremely time-consuming (Marlow, 1993). Due to the

large amount of data that can be generated in qualitative research, a data

reductionprocess must be used to aid analysis.

This procedure includes: organizing the data; identifying emergingthemes, categories, and patterns; and testing hypotheses against the

data.

Cont. Data analysis


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We categorise the data and derive themes, patterns and

trends.

Alternatively, we analyseit narratively with interestingquotes of the respondents.

Content analysis can also be used.

The relevant theories and literature help the researcher todo the interpretation. Then, discussion of the results and

conclusions follow. This is the stage when the researcher

reflects on the research problem and objectives and sees

whether the objectives are achieved and the research

question is answered.

Then recommendations are made.

Either indigenous or analyst-constructed typologies may be

constructed


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constructed.

In indigenous categories, the language of respondents is used to label

types of processes (Marshall & Rossman, 1989; Patton, 1990).

In analyst-constructed categories, the researcher attaches a label toobserved recurring events.

Narrative descriptionsof data collected through interviews, observations,

and case records are also used in qualitative analysis.

Content analysisis often used in qualitative and quantitative research

methods.

Some researchers view content analysis as a technique to quantify

manifest (surface-level) descriptive data (Allen-Meares, 1985), in which

categories are developed, content is coded, and category counts are

conducted.

Qualitative content analysis typically does not transform the content into

numeric patterns; instead, recurrent themes, and typologies and

illustrations of particular issues, are used.

The following are interpretive techniques:


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Observer impression

The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression.

Expert or bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an

impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimesquantitative form.

Coding Helps to interpret the data by organizing the data and providing a

means to introduce the interpretations of it into certain quantitative

methods.

In most cases, coding requires the analyst to read the data and

demarcate segments within it.

Each segment is labeled with a code usually a word or short phrase

that suggests how the associated data segments inform the researchobjectives.

When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of:

summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and


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g p , g

differences in related codes across distinct original sources/contexts, or

comparing the relationship between one or more codes.

Computer programmes can assist in this regard.

The criticism of the coding method is that coding seeks to transform

qualitative data into quantitative data, thereby reducing the detail (i.e. its

variety, richness and individual character).

Careful definition of the codes and linking them to the underlying datacan address this concern.

Recursive abstractionSome qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding.

Datasets are summarized, those summaries are then further summarized,and so on.

The end result is a more compact summary that would have been difficult

to accurately portray.

The common criticism of this method is that the final conclusions are

several times removed from the underlying data such that poor initial


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summaries will yield an inaccurate final report.

What researchers do is to document the reasoning behind each

summary step and cite examples from the data where statements wereincluded and where statements were excluded from the intermediate

summary.

Mechanical techniques

The researcher uses a computer to scan and sort large sets of qualitativedata by counting the same words or phrases within the data.

This technique is particularly suitable for datasets that are too large for

a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis would be cost

prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain. The criticism of the technique is the absence of a human interpreter.

Threats to internal validity inli i h


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qualitative research In qualitative studies, the researcher is the data collection

instrument. That is, the researcher conducts (1) observations ofindividuals in naturalistic settings, taking extensive notes about

events, and (2) in-depth interviews of participants.

Two major potential threats to internal validity, therefore, are (1)data collector characteristics and (2) data collector bias. E.g.,

gender, age, ethnicity, language patterns or other characteristics

may influence the nature of the data that is obtained if the

characteristics are related to variables that are the focus of the

study.

C t ith th t


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Cont. with threats.

Data collector bias refers to the unconscious distortion of dataduring the data collection process.

Examples include phrasing questions in different ways for different

individuals, and asking leading questions.

In studies in which interviews are the primary data source, theresearcher should standardise the procedures.

C t ith th t


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Cont. with threats.

This includes:

asking the questions of all participants in the same way,

put the interviewees at ease by asking a general, easy-to-answer

question first, conduct all interviews in a location in which the individual feels

comfortable, and

to assure the interviewee that their particular answers cannot be

identified with them.

Cont ith threats


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Cont. with threats

To enhance the credibility of the data, one general strategysuggested is that of triangulation. The process consists of four

techniques used in data collection and analysis:

Implement multiple methods for obtaining data (eg, interviews,documents and observations)

Consult multiple data sources (eg, interview teachers, students

and staff)

Use more than one researcher to collect the data

Rely on additional researchers for analyses

Cont. with threats.


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Validity as concluded is not always accepted by others and perhaps

rightly so. Typical reasons why it may not be accepted include:

Inappropriate selection of constructs or measures.

Insufficient data collected to make valid conclusions.

Too great a variation in data.

Inadequate selection of target subjects.

Complex interaction across constructs.

Subjects giving biased answers or trying to guess what they

should say.

Research lacking rigour.

Forms of validity


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(a) Content validityof a measuring instrument is the extent to which it

provides

- adequate coverage of the investigative (or sub-questions) questions.- representative sample.

This form of validity can be addressed through a careful definition of the

research topic, the items to be scaled and the scale to be used, and/or by

using a panel of judges.

(b) Criterion-related validitythe degree to which the predictor isadequate in capturing the relevant aspects of the criterion.

(c) Construct validityto measure the presence of abstract-characteristics

for which no empirical validation is possible.

E.g., attitude scales, and aptitude and personality tests. To evaluate it, we

consider theory and the measuring instrument being used.

How to improve validity (i.e.,credibility and/or dependability)


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credibility and/or dependability)

Validity concerns quality, rigour and trustworthiness. It addresseswhether your research explains or measures what you said you

would be measuring or explaining.

Appropriateness of the methodused to answer the research

question. Your analysis has to have rigour, which is based on your

capability of tracing the sources and reasons for your

interpretations.

Literature can provide guidanceto provide the context with which

to interpret the data that has been generated.

Ways of increasing validity involve(see Lincoln and Guba 1985;


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(see Lincoln and Guba, 1985;

Schaffir and Stebbins, 1991): Member checkingYou can show the participants excerpts of

your interpretation of their interviews.

Disconfirming evidenceProcess where you first establish the

preliminary themes or categories in a study and then search

through the data for evidence that is consistent with or dispels

these themes.

Thick, rich descriptionTo describe the setting, the participants,

and the themes of a qualitative study in rich detail can also help to

increase credibility.

Cont with ways


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Cont. with ways

AuditingTurning to experts or individuals external to the project orreader to examine the narrative account and attest the studys

credibility.

CollaborationUsing or involving the participants in the research

process right from the planning stage as co-researchers or in less formalarrangements.

Researcher reflexivityResearchers to self-disclose their assumptions,

values, beliefs, and biases. They reflect on the social, cultural, and

historical forces that shape their interpretation. This helps the reader tounderstand the interpretation better.

Cont. with ways of


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Prolonged engagementin the fieldTo stay at the research site for a

prolonged period of time. By repeated observation the researchers build

trust with participants, find gatekeepers, establish rapport, etcetera. Peer debriefingReview of the data and research process by someone

familiar with the phenomenonchallenges the researchers

assumptions and methodology, etcetera.

Interviewer corroborationThe purpose of corroboration is not to

confirm whether peoples perceptions are accurate or true reflections ofa situation, but rather to ensure that the research findings accurately

reflect peoples perceptions, whatever they may be. The idea behind

this way of increasing validity is that research subjects are in a position

to corroborate or disapprove of your interpretations.

Cont with Ways


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Cont. with Ways

Bracketing, positioningor researcher reflexivity(role of theresearcher)to self-disclose your social, cultural beliefs and

values and biases to the reader.

Reliabaility (consistent results) To ensure reliability in qualitative research, examination of

trustworthinessis crucial.

Mixed method approach


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pp

When the phenomenon being investigated is not well understood, a qualitativeresearch can be used first to generate preliminary hypotheses, and then

quantitative research is used to test specific hypotheses.

For comprehensive studies, it is better to use both approaches (i.e. qualitative

and quantitative), a situation where, the quantitative method helps to test

hypotheses and to make the study more objective and the qualitative method

helps to give a complete understanding or in-depth information on the

phenomenon being studiedin all its dimensions.

Complex studies, having many different research questions may use both

approaches to answer particular questions or to address particular researchproblems.

Example

Poverty is multidimensional in nature, i.e., it has social, political and economic

dimensions.


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So, a poverty study may need both ap

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