C FORMAT

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1 Advance C Concepts

CONTENTS

C DATA TYPES

OPERATORS

ARRAYS

PASSING ARRAYS TO FUNCTIONS

STRUCTURES

POINTERS

MEMORY ALLOCATION

FILE HANDLING

MACROS

UNION

HARDWARE RELATED C-COMMUNICATING THROUGH UART

DATA STRUCTURES

C PROGRAMMING

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C is middle level language developed AT&T belllaboratory.

CPL- combined programming language wasdeveloped at Cambridge university. It was so big and

hard to learnBPCL- Basic combined programming language was

developed by Martin Richards of Cambridgeuniversity. Too less powerful and too specific

B was developed by Ken Thompson. Too specific

Later Dennis Ritchie developed C inheriting theproperties of B and Bpcl

Introduction to C

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Constants, variables and data types

Constants entity whose value does not change duringprogramming execution

Variables entity whose value changes with program execution

Data types int, char, float, double, long,

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Processor directives

Function declaration and definitions

Any C program must have a main function which isthe entry point for all the program

The main function can call other library functions

and user defined functions.

Structure of C Program

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Signed charater - %c

Unsigned character - %c

Short signed int - %d

Short unsigned int - %ulong signed int - %ld

long unsigned int - %lu

float - %f double - %lf

long double - %Lf

Format control

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The binary arithmetic operators are +, -, *, /, and themodulus operator %. Integer division truncates any

fractional part. The expression x % y produces the

remainder when x is divided by y, and thus is zerowhen y divides x exactly.

The *, / and % have same priority which has higher

priority that binary operators + and - .

In case of expression containing the equal

precedence it gets evaluated from left to right

Arithmetic Operators

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The relational operators are > >= <

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&& - logical AND. Returns 1 when both end are same

| | - logical OR . Returns 1 when both the end are

non- zero.

! - inverting

Expressions connected by && or || are evaluated left

to right, and evaluation stops as soon as the truth or

falsehood of the result is known.

Most C programs rely on these properties.

The Logical Operators

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++ - increments the operand value by 1.

-- - decrements the operand value by 1.

Post fixing used after the variable. (eg) x++

Prefixing used before the variable. (eg) ++x

?: is called ternary operator

Exp1 ? Exp1 : Exp2

Requires three operators.

Can be taken as the alternate way for if condition.

Unary and Ternary operator

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Binary operators like +,* have a correspondingassignment operator of the form

op= where op is the one of +,-,*,/,%,&,|,^.

Example if i=15

i+=3 changes the value of i to 18. i-= 3 change the value of i to 12.

i*= 3 change the value of to 45.

I/= 3 change the value to 5

Size of operator

returns the number of bytes the operand occupies.

Compound Assignment Operator

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Precedence of operation

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& - bitwise AND

| - bitwise OR

^ - bitwise EXOR

This can be applied to any data type.

Bitwise operator

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When an operator has operands of different types, they

are converted to a common type according to a small

number of rules.

Type Conversion

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Explicit type conversion can be forced in any

expression with unary operator is called as cast.

The expression is converted to the named type of

conversion rules.

Type Casting

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Control Statements

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Used to specify the conditional execution of a

program statements enclosed in braces.

If Condition

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If - Else Condition

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The switch is multi way decision that tests whether anexpression matches one of a number of constant

integer values.

Switch Case

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This allows a sequence of program statements to be executedseveral times, either for specific number of times or until a

particular condition is satisfied.

It has three parts loop variables, loop continuation condition,

loop body and an exit point.

There are three main loops

The while loop

Do while loop

For loop

Pre- test loop while and for loops

Post test loop do while loops

Loop Control

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If the expression evaluated is a non-zero the body loopis executed.

After execution of body , it again evaluates the

expression and if it is true again the body loop isexecuted.

While loop

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In case of Do- while the body is executed once andthe expression is evaluated once.

If expression is true the body is executed again.

Do While

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The most preferred loop is for loop when we havesimple initialization and increment.

One or more variable can be initialized and

decremented.

For loop

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Loop interruption are required when we want to exitfrom a loop other then by testing the loop terminationcondition at the top or bottom.

There there are three interruption commands Break Continue Exit Goto is a control directive where the program

control is transferred. C provides the infinitely-abusable goto statement, and

labels to branch to. Formally, the gotostatement isnever necessary, and in practice it is almost alwayseasy to write code without it.

Loop Interruption

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The break statement provides and early exit fromfor,do, while just as switch.

Break Statement

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A function is a self-contained block of program thatperforms some specific, well-defined task.Separating a program into multifunction aid in

maintenance and enhancement of programs bylocalizing the effect of changes.

There are two types function Library function User-defined function

Commonly used functions written,compiled,and

placed in libraries are called Library function[eg Printf(), scanf()]

User has the freedom to choose the function name,return data type and the arguments.

Function

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The general form of a function declaration is

Where return-type data type of the value returnedFunction name name of the function definedArgument deceleration types and names of the

parameters of the function, separated by commas.

Function declaration is also called as functionprototype.

Ex. int func1(int);

Function declaration and Prototype

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A function definition introduces a new function bydeclaring the type of the value it returns and itsparameters, and specifying the statements that areexecuted when the function is called.

Function definition

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Function Call

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If the program contains multiple functions, their

definitions may appear in any order. Though they mustbe independent of one another.

The function cannot be embedded with another

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Functions which require a return value shoulduse the return statement.

On executing the return statement, the value ofthe expression, which is just after the return keyword,

is returned to the calling function. If the expression is not present, it returns an integer or

void depending on the compiler thatyou use.

Return Statement

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The function parameters are a means ofcommunication between the calling and the calledfunction.

Conditions for function call The list of arguments in the function call and

function declaration must be the same. The data type of each of the actual parameter

must be the same as that of the formal parameter. The order of the actual parameters must be the

same as the order in which the formal parametersare specified.ie

Function Argument

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Passing arguments has two mechanism- Passing arguments by value (call by value)

Passing arguments by address or pointers (call by

reference)

Call by value the contents of the arguments in thecalling function are not changed, as the contents of the

variable are copied to the formal parameters of the

function definition.

Call by reference memory address of the variable ispassed to the function definition, so the argument

value changes.

Passing Arguments to a Function

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Recursion is a process by which the function can call itself

repeatedly, until some specified condition is satisfied . Direct if the call to the function occurs inside the function

itself. Indirect if a function calls another function and which in turn

calls the first one.

Recursion

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The storage class determines the life time of theshortage associated with the variable.

There are two types locations store c can store

Memory CPU registers

There are four storage classes

Automatic storage class Static storage class

Register storage class

External storage class

Storage Glass

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A variable is said to automatic if it isallocated storage upon entry to a segmentof code, and the storage is reallocated uponexit from the segment.

Syntax auto data type variable name;

Automatic Variables

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A variable is said to static , if it is allocated storage atthe beginning of the program execution and thestorage remains allocated until the program executionterminates.Syntax static data type variable name;

Static Variables

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Variables will be placed in the internal CPU registers, asaccessing internal registers take less time thanaccessing memory.

When a variable is is used at many places in a program itis better to declare its storage class as registerSyntax register data type variable name;

Register Variables

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If the declared variable is needed in another file, or inthe same file but at a point earlier than that at which ithas been defined , it must be declared of storage classexternal.Syntax extern data type variable name;

External Variable

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An ordered finite collection of data items, each of thesame type, is called an array and the individual data

items are its elements.

Arrays, whose elements are specified by one subscript ,

are called one dimensional arrays. They are commonly

known as vectors.

Arrays, whose elements are specified by more than one

subscript , are called mulit dimensional arrays. They

are commonly known as matrix.

Arrays

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Elements of an array can be assigned a initial value by

the following the array the array definition with a list

of initializers enclosed braces and separated bycommas.

Single Dimensional Array

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They are defined the same way as single dimensionalarrays, except that a separate pair of of square brackets is

required for each subscript (dimension).

Multi Dimensional Array

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Initializations of Two Dimensional Array

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A string is one dimensional array of charactersterminated by '\0' character.

String are used to store text information and to

perform manipulations on them.example char name[6];

character arrays

Char name[] = {'S', 'N' , 'A' , 'D', 'S' }

Strings

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Built-in string functions

The header file string.h provides a useful set of stringfunctions.

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Pointers

Pointers enable us to achieve parameter by passing byreference , deal concisely and effectively either arrays,represent complex data structures and work withdynamically allocated memory.

Pointer variable address of a data item is called pointer

to the data item and a variable that holds an address iscalled a pointer variable.

Uses of pointers

Keep track of address of memory location

By changing the address in the pointer type variableyou can manipulate data in different memorylocations.Allocation of memory can be done dynamically

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Pointers are also variables and hence, must be definedin program like any other variable.

Pointer Declaration

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The declaration of the pointer may be accompaniedwith the initializer.

Type * identifier = initializer

E.g., float *fp=null;Pointer arithmetic can be performed only for addition

and subtraction .

Pointer Initialization

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A function can take a pointer to any data type, as

argument and can return a point to any data type

Pointer and Functions

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The values of the argument are used to initialize

parameters of the called function.

Call By Value

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50Advance C Concepts

Here the address of the variable are supplied to the

calling function and changes to the parameter valuesin the called function cause changes in the value of the

variable in the calling function.

Call By Reference

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A pointer to function can be defined as a the addressof the code executed when the function is called.

Pointer to function are used in

Writing memory resident programsWriting viruses, or vaccines to remove the viruses

Declaration of pointer to function -

Pointer to Functions

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Pointer to Functions

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Pointer and array

Any operation that can be done by array can also be

done with pointers.

Pointer and Array

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Array as Function Arguments

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An array of pointer is a collection of address.

The address present in the array of pointers can be

addressed of isolated variables or addresses of array

elements or any otheraddress.

Ex char *day[7];

Char * day[7] = {sun,mon,tue,wed,thur,

fri,sat};

Array of Pointers

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Functions Returning Pointers

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Any operation that can be done by array can also be

done with pointers.

Pointer and Array

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An array of pointer is a collection of address.

The address present in the array of pointers can beaddressed of isolated variables or addresses of array

elements or any other address.Ex char *day[7];

Char * day[7] = {sun,mon,tue,wed,thur,fri,sat};

Array of Pointers

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A multidimensional array can be expressed in termsof an array of pointers rather than as a pointer to agroup of contiguous arrays.

A two dimensional array can be defined as as one

dimensional array of pointers like

- data type-*array[exp1];

rather thandata type array [exp1][exp2];

Multi dimensional array as array of pointers

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Functions returning pointers

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C provides a collection of dynamic memory management

functions enable storage to be allocated as needed andreleased when no longer required.

Header files required- malloc.h, alloc.h

Void *malloc(size) to obtain storage for a data item

Void *calloc(nitems,size) storage for more than on dataitem

Void *realloc(void *block, size) allocates memory for thenew size. If the new size is larger than the older one , the

original contents are preserved and the remaining space isuninitialized; if smaller the contents are unchanged up to thenew size.

free(ptr) clear the memory allocated.

Dynamic memory allocation

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Pointer Declaration

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Structure is collection of logically related data items

grouped together under a single name called structure.

Structure

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Individual members of a structure may be any of thecommon used data types (such as int,float, etc.),pointers, array, or even other structures.

Structure variables -

Structure variable can also be declared as

Struct tag variable list

ex struct student student1 , student2

Declaration Individual Member of Structure

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With the help of dot operator (.), individual elementsof the structure can be accessed and syntax is of theform

Structure variable . Member- nameEx student1.name

Accessing structure members

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These are commonly used when a large number of

similar records are required to be processed together.Ex struct item motor[100] ;

Arrays of structure

i S

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The beginning address of a structure can be accessed in

the same manner as any other address, through the use

of the & operator.

The member variables can be accessed by

Pointer name -> member variable

Pointers to Structures

S d F i

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A structure type definition may be local to a functionor it may be external to any function.

Structures may be passed as function arguments andfunctions may be return structures.

Structure as function arguments. There are threemethods

Passing structure member to function

Passing entire structure to function Passing structure pointers to function

Structure and Functions

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P i ti t t t f ti

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Passing entire structure to a function

St t F ti V l

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Structure as Functions Values

P i t t i t t F ti

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Passing structure pointers to Functions

Fil H dli

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C provides functions to get data from a file stored indisk.

These function are classified as

High level file I/O functions also called as standard

I/O or stream I/O functions.Low-level file I/O functions also called as system

I/O functions.

Unformatted high level disk I/O functions.

fopen () functionFILE *fp;

fp=fopen(file_name, type/mode);

File Handling

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Fil R l t d F ti l

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fclose function

fclose(fp);Character I/O in files

fgetc(fp);putc(c,fp);

String line I/O in filesChar *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *fp);Int fputs(const char *s, FILE *fp);

Formatted high level disk I/O functionsfprintf(fp, format,s);

fscanf(fp, format,s);Disk I/O

fread(ptr,size,nitems,fp);fwrite(ptr,size,nitems,fp);

File Related Functions-general

Fil R l t d F ti l

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Error handling functions

Int feof (FILE *fp);Int ferror (FILE *fp);

void perror(const char *s);

File positioning functions

Int fseek (FILE *fp, long offset, int ptrname);

File Related Functions-general

C P P

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It is a program that process the source text of a C program

before the program is passed to the compiler. It has four major functions-

Macro replacement Conditional compilation File inclusion

Error generation

C Pre Processor

C Preprocessor offers several features called Preprocessordirectives. Each of the preprocessor begin with #symbol.

#define directive

include directive undef directive #error directive Conditional compilation directives

M S b tit ti

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# define macro-name sequence-of-tokensMacros with arguments

#define AREA (r) (3.14*r*r)

Nesting of macros

#define SQUARE(x) x*x#define CUBE(x) (SQUARE(x) * x)

We can use one macro in the definition of another

macro.

Undefining a Macro# undef identifier

Macro Substitution

File Inclusion

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This preprocessor directive causes one file to be

included in another. This feature is used in two cases

If we have a large program, it is good programming

practice to keep different sections in separate file.

These file are included at the beginning of mainprogram file.

Many a times we need some functions or some

macro definitions almost in all programs that we

write. In such a case, commonly needed functionsand macro definitions can be stored in a file and

that file can be included wherever necessary.

File Inclusion

Conditional Compilation

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This feature allows selective inclusion of lines ofsource text on the basis of computed condition.

Conditional compilation is performed using the

preprocessor directives

#ifdef

#ifndef

#elif

#else

#endif

Conditional Compilation

Error generation

Error Generation

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Error generation

# error token sequence

We can display the error message on occurrence of

error.

User defined data types

typedef type new-type

(Ex) typedef int age;

Error Generation

Enumerations

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This provide the facility to specify the possible values

of a variable by meaningful symbolic means. This can

help the program more readable.

enum tag {member1, member2, ., member n};

Enumerations

Unions

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Unions are like structure, contain members whose

individual data types may differ from one another.

However, the members that compose a union all share

the same storage area within the computers memory,

whereas each member within a structure is assigned its

own unique storage area.

The compiler allocates sufficient memory to hold the

Largest data item in the union.The member variable of union can be accessed same

way as a structures member variable are accessed.

Unions

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Asynchronous communication

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RS232 is an asynchronous communication protocol

It does not have a seperate clock signal

The clock recovery is done by including a known

transition event in the data,so as to synchronise

the transmitter and the receiver

Asynchronous communication

Bit Timing and Bit Rate

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The bit time is the time from the start of one serial

bit date to the start of another data.

The inverse of bit time is the Baud rate

RS-232 are integer multiples and sub multiples of

9600bps.

Bit Timing and Bit Rate

Electrical Specification

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The UART input/output 0V for logic 0 and 5V for

logic 1.

The RS-232 STANDARD uses +12v for logic 0

and -12V for logic 1

We convert this voltage levels by a level converter

MAX232.

Electrical Specification

Parts of RS-232 Frame

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A FRAME transmits a single character and is

composed of:

1 start bit

8 data bits

1 stop bit

1 parity bit

Parts of RS 232 Frame

Hardware Proporties

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Devices which use serial cables for their

communication are split into two categories.

DCE (Data Communications Equipment) and

DTE(Data Terminal Equipment.)

Data Communications Equipment are devices such

as your modem Data Terminal Equipment is the Computer or

Terminal.

Hardware Proporties

Flow Control

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Flow control has two basic types:Hardware and

Software flow control.

Software flow control ,buffer will transmit the

data, and the control is accompanied by xon/xoff

bit.

Hardware flow control,two additional lines for

RTS, CTS.When the terminal wants to be

transmitted, pulls RTS high,dce sends the

response back by sending CTS high.

Flow Control

Programming Addresses and IRQ

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32E8COM4

43E8COM3

32F8COM2

43F8COM1

IRQADRESSNAME

Programming Addresses and IRQ

Serial Port Registers

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The uart has only eight port address, but uart can able to access twelve

registers with the help ofdlabbit.Registers:

Interrupt Enable Register (IER)

Interrupt Identification Register (idr)

First In/First Out Control Register (FCR)

Line Control Register (LCR)Modem Control Register (MCR)

Line Status Register (LSR)

Modem Status Register (MSR)

Transmitor holding buffer

Receiver Buffer

Divisor Latch Low Byte

Divisor latch high byte

Scratch register

Serial Port Registers

Interrupt Enable Registers

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Enable Received Data Available InterruptBit0

Enable TransmitterHolding Register Empty

Interrupt

Bit1

Enable Receiver Line status InterruptBit2

Enable Modem Status InterruptBit3

Enables Sleep ModeBit4

Enables Low Power ModeBit5

ReservedBit6

ReservedBit7NotesBit

Interrupt Enable Registers

Interrupt identification register

Interrupt Identification Register

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p g

No Interrupt Pending0

Interrupt Pending

16550 Time-out Interrupt Pending

Reserved on 8250, 16450

FIFO Enabled but Unusable10

FIFO Enabled11

00

1

0

1

0

Receiver Line Status Interrupt1

Received Data Available Interrupt1

Transmitter Holding Register Empty

Interrupt

1

0

Modem Status Interrupt

No FIFO

0Bit 0

0Bit 2:1

0Bit 3

ReservedBit 4

Enable 64 Byte FIFO (16750 only)Bit 5

BIT 7:6

notesBit

Interrupt Identification Register

First in/First out control register

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Interrupt Trigger Level , 14BYTE

Interrupt Trigger Level , 8 BYTE

Interrupt Trigger Level , 4BYTE

Interrupt Trigger Level , 1 BYTE

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

Enable FIFO'sBit0

Clear Receive FIFOBit1

Clear Transmit FIFOBit2

DMA Mode Select. Change status of RXRDY & TXRDY pins

from mode 1 to mode 2.

Bit3

RESERVEDBit4

Enable 64 Byte FIFO (16750 only)Bit5

0Bit7

NotesBit

First in/First out control register

LINE CONTROL REGISTER

Line Control Register

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8 BITS

6 BITS

11

10

LOW PARITY

HIGH PATITY

EVEN PARITY

111

101

110

ODD PARITY

NO PARITY

1

0

7 BITS

5 BITS

01

0

0

X

FIFO Enabled but Unusable0

1

2 Stop bits for words of length 8 Bits

0

0

1 STOP BIT

No FIFO

0Bit 1:0

0Bit 2

XBit 3:5

ReservedBit 5

Enable 64 Byte FIFO (16750 only)Bit 6

BIT 7

notesBit

Line Control Register

Modem Control Register

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Force Data Terminal ReadyBit0

Force Request to SendBit1

Aux Output 1Bit2

Aux Output 2Bit3

Loop Back ModeBit4

Auto flow Control Enabled (16750 only)Bit5

ReservedBit6

ReservedBit7

NotesBit

Modem Control Register

Line Status Register

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10

0

Advance C Concepts

Data readyBit0

Overrun errorBit1

Parity ErrorBit2

Framing ErrorBit3

Break InterruptBit4

Empty Transmitter Holding RegisterBit5

Empty Data Holding RegistersBit6

Error in received fifoBit7

NotesBit

g

MODEM STATUS REGISTER

Modem Status Register

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10

1

Advance C Concepts

MODEM STATUS REGISTER

Delta Data Set ReadyBit0

Delta Data Set ReadyBit1

Trailing Edge Ring IndicatorBit2

Delta Data Carrier DetectBit3

Clear To SendBit4

Data Set ReadyBit5

Ring IndicatorBit6

Carrier DetectBit7

NotesBit

g

Programming Steps

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10

2

Advance C Concepts

There are two methods of programming.

Polling : to see if the new data is available.

Interrupts :an interrupt handler to remove the data

from the uart when it generates an interrupt.

Polling the UART is a lot slower method, which isvery CPU intensive thus can only have a maximum

speed of around 34.8 KBPSbefore you start losing

data.

The other option is using a Interrupt handler, andthat's what we have used here. It will very easily

support 115.2K BPS, even on low end computers.

g g p

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