C H A P T E R 2

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1

C H A P T E R 2

Cognitive and Language Development


Learning Goals

1. Define development and explain the main processes, periods, and issues in development as well as links between development and education.

2. Discuss the development of the brain and compare the cognitive developmental theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.

3. Identify the key features of language, biological and environmental influences on language, and the typical growth of a child’s language.



An Overview ofChild

Development

Processes and Periods

Development and Education

Developmental Issues

Exploring What Development Is


An Overview of Child Development

Development: The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues through the life span.


Developmental Processes

Biological processes and genetic inheritance Development of the brain Gains in height and weight Changes in motor skills Puberty’s hormonal changes

Cognitive processes Changes in the child’s thinking Intelligence Language acquisition


Socioemotional processes Changes in the child’s relationships

with other people Changes in personality

Developmental Processes


Developmental Issues

Nature-Nurture Issue

Continuity-Discontinuity Issue

Early-Later Experience Issue


Development and Education

Developmentally appropriate teaching practices

Splintered development



Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Theory

The Brain Vygotsky’s Theory


Synaptic Density in the Human Brain


Myelination

Myelination increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.


Brain Lateralization

…the specialization of functions in each hemisphere of the brain.

Verbal Processing

In most individuals, speech and grammar

are localized in the left hemisphere.

Nonverbal Processing

Spatial perception,visual recognition,

and emotion are localized

in the right hemisphere.


Brain and Children’s Education

Role of early and later experiences Dramatic changes in synaptic connections Prefrontal cortex development into

adolescence Cognitive control challenges in adolescence Brain functioning along specific pathways

and integrated


Piaget’s Cognitive Processes

Schemas

Assimilation

Accommodation

Organization

Equilibration

Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge

Incorporating new information into existing schemas

Adjusting existing schemas to fit new information and experiences

Grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system

A shift, a resolution of conflict to reach a balance


Cognition unfolds in a sequence of four stages.

Each stage is age-related and distinctive.

Each stage is discontinuous from and more advanced than the previous.

Piaget’s Four Stages


Piaget’s Four Stages


Coordination of sensory experiences with motor actions.

Object permanence involves the realization that objects continue to exist over time.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage


Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Symbolic Function Substage

Symbolic Thought: Ability to represent mentally an object that is not present.

Limitations: Egocentrism: The inability to distinguish between

one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective.

Animism: The belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities and are capable of action.


The Three Mountain Tasks


Piaget’s Preoperational StageIntuitive Thought Substage

Intuitive Thought rather than logical thinking

Centration: Focuses on one characteristic to the exclusion of others.

Lack of Conservation

Classification: Ability to classify objects according to only one characteristic at a time.


Conservation of Liquid


Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Conservation The idea that some characteristics of an object stay the same even though the object might change in appearance.

Classification Coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object.

Seriation Order stimuli along some quantitative dimension.

Transitivity Combine relations to understand certain conclusions.If A>B, and B>C, then A>C.

Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning, but only in concrete situations.


Hierarchical Classification

When shown afamily tree of fourgenerations, the

concrete operationalchild can classify

the members vertically,

horizontally,and obliquely.


Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage

Abstract reasoning: Think in abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: Ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and systematically reach a conclusion.

Adolescent egocentrism: Heightened self-consciousness and a sense of personal uniqueness.


Piaget’s TheoryTeaching Strategies

Preoperational Thinkers

Concrete Operations

FormalOperations

Manipulate groups of objects Reduce egocentrism Draw conclusions and explain why Encourage children to discover concepts and principles Assign operational tasks

Propose problems and encourage hypothesis formation Suggest alternative approaches to problems Develop projects and investigations


Enter the DebateShould teachers allow preschool,

kindergarten, and first-grade students to play for the bulk of their day?

YES NO


Jennifer, James, and several of their classmates are playing hide-and-go-seek during indoor recess one rainy day. Jennifer carefully conceals her entire body behind Mrs. Johnson’s long smock. In contrast, James hides only his upper body behind a jacket hanging on a hook. He giggles, sure that his classmates will never see him.

Piaget’s Cognitive ConstructivismTheory into Practice

Q: Based on the information given above, at which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is James most likely operating? Explain.


Mr. Jackson has a sand table in his kindergarten classroom. He provides his students with many containers of different sizes and shapes to play with in the sand. He watches as his students carefully pour sand from one container to another. One little girl, Michelle, seems amazed when she pours sand back and forth between two containers. The sand always fills up one container and only half-fills the other, yet the containers are the same height.

Q: Based on the information given above, what skill is Michelle most likely developing? Explain.



Mr. Welby teaches high school English. He always asks his students to find the symbolism in the great works of literature he assigns. Some students do this with relative ease. For others it is a real struggle. Many are only able to parrot back what he has told them in class.

Q.1: At which of Piaget’s stages are those who understand the symbolism in literature likely operating?

Q.2: At which of Piaget’s stages are those who cannot

understand the symbolism in literature likely operating?



Marsha refuses to go to school one morning because she is having a “bad hair day” and is certain that everyone will stare at her all day. Her mother assures her that she looks just fine. However, Marsha races back to the bathroom to attempt to fix her “awful hair.”

Q: What would Elkind say is happening here?



Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Estimates of children’s competence Stages Training children to reason at a higher

level Culture and education


Crack the CaseThe Case of the Book Report

1. Drawing on Piaget’s theory, explain why Cindy understood the book.

2. Based on Piaget’s theory, explain why Lucy did not understand the book.

3. What could Mr. Johnson do to help Lucy understand?

cont’d


4. How could Mr. Johnson have presented this assignment differently so that Lucy did not need to rush through a book?

5. At which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is Cindy operating?

6. At which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is Lucy operating?

Crack the CaseThe Case of the Book Report


Zone of Proximal DevelopmentScaffolding: Teacher adjusts the

level of support as performance rises.

Language and Thought:Develop independently of each

other, then merge.Have external or social originsSelf-talk

Vygotsky’s Theory


Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

ZP

D

Tasks too difficult for child to master even with assistance

Tasks child can master alone


Peter is having difficulty with his math assignment. His teacher, Ms. Jacobs helps him work through the first problem step-by-step. Peter begins to understand the concepts and begins the other problems. Suzanne also struggles with the assignment. However, even when Ms. Jacobs works through the first problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the remaining problems. Meanwhile, Clarice has breezed through the assignment with no difficulty at all.

Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism Theory into Practice

Q.1: What would Vygotsky say about the assignment for Peter?

Q.2: What would Vygotsky say about the

assignment for Suzanne?


Peter is having difficulty with his math assignment. His teacher, Ms. Jacobs helps him work through the first problem step-by-step. Peter begins to understand the concepts and begins the other problems. Suzanne also struggles with the assignment. However, even when Ms. Jacobs works through the first problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the remaining problems. Meanwhile, Clarice has breezed through the assignment with no difficulty at all.

Q.3: What would Vygotsky say about the assignment for Clarice?

Q.4: What would Vygotsky call the assistance Ms. Jacobs gives Peter and Suzanne? Explain.

Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism Theory into Practice


Reflection & Observation

Reflection: Identify an experience in which a more competent person helped you learn something you were unable to do alone. How did this person scaffold your learning?



Language Development

How Language Develops

What IsLanguage?

Biological andEnvironmental

Influences


Language is …

Phonology Sound system of a language

Morphology Units of meaning involved in word formation

Syntax Rules for combining words into phrases/sentences

Semantics Meaning of words and sentences

Pragmatics Appropriate use of language in different contexts

…a form of communication, spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols.


Children are neither exclusively biological linguists

nor social architects of language.

Biological and Environmental Influences

Interactionists emphasize the contribution of both.


How Language DevelopsInfancy

Babbling One two words


How Language DevelopsEarly Childhood

Phonology Sensitive to sounds, rhymes

Morphology Overgeneralize rules

Syntax Complex rules for ordering words

Semantics6-year-old: 8,000 to 14,000-word vocabulary

PragmaticsTalk in different ways to different people


How Language DevelopsMiddle & Late Childhood

PhonologyAlphabetic principle: letter-sound correspondence

Morphology Appropriate application of rules

SyntaxComplex grammar; metalinguistic awareness

Semantics12-year-old: 50,000-word vocabulary

PragmaticsCulturally appropriate language use


How Language DevelopsAdolescence

Increased sophistication in use of words

Greater understanding of metaphors, satire, and complex literary works

Better writers Dialect includes jargon and

slang


Supporting Vocabulary Development Through Technology

Computers Relate the new to the known Promote active, in-depth

processing Encourage reading

Audio Books

Educational Television

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