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CHAPTER 20 & 21
Politics of the Roaring 20s and Education and Popular Culture
CHAPTER 20: POLITICS OF THE 20S
SECTION 1
Post-War widespread beliefsNativism IsolationismFear of the spread of Communism
Led to the Red Scare
Began in 1919 because of the Bolshevik Revolution Communist Party in US
Palmer Raids1919Palmer and his assistant, Hoover, hunted
down suspected Communists, socialists, and anarchists
Sacco and VanzettiVictims of the Red Scare and its nativist
feelingsMay, 1920
Both arrested and charged with robbery and murder of a factory paymaster and his guard (Massachusetts) The eyewitnesses said the criminals looked Italian Evidence circumstantial Presiding judge made prejudicial remarks
Jury found them both guilty and sentenced them to death
Protests in U.S., Europe, and Latin America Thought the accused were mistreated b/c they were
immigrants poet Edna St. Vincent Millay donated proceeds from her
poem “Justice Denied in Massachusetts” to their defense
Both died in the electric chair on August 23, 1927
Limiting Immigration “Keep America for Americans” became the
prevailing attitude This attitude had been growing since 1880’s Attitude was because the immigrants:
Worked for lower wages and now that unskilled labor was needed less, the immigrant would take jobs from native born
Some people involved in postwar labor disputes included immigrant anarchists and socialists Led to racism and fueled people’s nativist attitude
KKK Devoted to “100 percent Americanism 1924- Membership reached 4.5 mil of “white male persons,
native-born gentile citizens” Also believed in:
Keeping blacks “in their place” Destroying saloons Opposing unions Driving Roman Catholics, Jews, and foreign-born people out
of the country By the end of the decade too much criminal activity led to a
decrease in power
The Quota System 1919 to 1921, the number of immigrants had grown
almost 600 percent (from 141,000 to 805,000 people) Congress decided to limit immigration from certain
countries (mostly S. and E. Europe) Emergency Quota Act of 1921
Established the maximum number of people who could enter the United States from each foreign country
The goal of the quota system was to decrease European immigration to the United States
Amended in 1924 Law limited immigration from each European nation to 2%
of the number of its nationals living in the U.S. in 1890• Discriminated against people from S. and E. Europe
(mostly Roman Catholics and Jews) Later the base year was shifted to 1920 The law also reduced the total number of persons to be
admitted in any one year to 150,000 The law also prohibited Japanese immigration
The quota did not apply to immigrants from the Western Hemisphere
Labor Unrest During the war, the workers were not allowed to
strike b/c AFL pledged not to 1919- more than 3,000 strikes (about 4mil workers
walked off the job) Employers unwilling to give raises nor let
employees join unions Thus, employers attempted to label union members as
Communists and say they were planning a revolution
Three Biggest and Most Remembered Strikes of this Time The Boston Police Strike
The employees had not been given a raise since before WWI Also complained that they could not unionize
When some officers asked for a raise, they were fired on the spot made others want to strike even more National guard sent in to stop strike It ended, but they were not
allowed to return to work and others were hired The Steel Mill Strike
Workers wanted the right to negotiate: Shorter working hours A living wage Union recognition Collective bargaining
Labor Unrest Cont. Sept 1919- US Steel Corp. refused to meet with union reps
over 300,000 workers walked off their job Companies hired strikebreakers (employees who agreed to work
during the strike) and used force Striking workers were beaten by police, federal troops, and state
militias• Propaganda campaigns were used to link strikers to Communists
Oct. 1919- negotiations btwn labor and management produced deadlock • Finally decided on an 8-hour work day but no labor union• Strike ended in Jan 1920 and in 1923 report of the harsh
working conditions in steel mills shocked the public Coal Miners’ Strike
Unionism more successful here 1919- the United Mine Workers of America (organized in 1890) and
got a new leader, John L. Lewis. • He calls his union’s members to strike to protest low wages and
long workdays Nov. 1, 1919• Attorney General Palmer got a court order to send the miners
back to work Lewis publicly declared it over but secretly said it would continue and
the workers did not go to work for another month Pres. Wilson finally appointed an arbitrator to put an end to the
dispute• COAL MINERS GOT A 27% WAGE INCREASE BUT DID NOT GET A
SHORTER WORKDAY NOR A FIVE-DAY WORKWEEK UNTIL THE 1930S
Labor Movement Loses Appeal The 1920s hurt the labor movement badly
Labor union membership dropped This was because:
• Much of the work force consisted of immigrants willing to work in poor conditions
• Since immigrants spoke a multitude of languages unions had difficulty organizing them
• Farmers who had migrated to cities to find factory jobs were used to relying on themselves
• Most unions excluded African Americans 1929
About 82,000 of African Americans (less than 1% of their pop) held union memberships
Just over 3% of all whites were union members
Struggles for Peace1921- Meeting of major powers in the
Washington Naval Conference Russia left out because of its communist gov’t Charles Evens Hughes (secretary of state)
Urged no more warships built for 10 years Suggested the major naval powers (US, Great Brit,
Japan, France, Italy) scrap many battleships, cruisers, and aircrafts
First time that powerful nations agree to disarm
1928- 15 countries sing Kellogg-Briand Pact Renounced war as a national policy Pact was futile b/c it was not enforced
Reparations Cost Conflicts begin when Britain and France have to pay $10
billion that they had borrowed from America Could be done in 2 ways:
Selling goods to US• Fordney-McCumber Tariff
Raised taxes on US imports to protect US business Made it impossible for France and Britain to sell goods to the US to
repay debts Had to look to Germany
Collecting reparations from Germany• Germany failed to make payments
French troops march into Germany, but stopped by American banker Charles G. Dawes sent in to avoid another war• NEGOTIATED LOANS
Dawes Plan America loaned Germany $2.5 billion to pay back Britain
and France with annual payments on a fixed scale France and Britain could now pay back America
Solution caused resentment from all Britain and France thought the US a miser for not paying their
fair share of reparations of WWI and b/c the US had benefited from the defeat of Germany, while Europeans had paid for the victory with millions of lives
The US considered Britain and France financially irresponsible
The Harding AdministrationHarding favored limited roles in business
affairs and social reform Still set up Bureau of the Budget to run the
government more efficiently Urged US Steel to get rid of 12 hour workday
His Cabinet Charles Evans Hughes- Secretary of State (later chief
justice of Supreme Court) Herbert Hoover- Secretary of Commerce Andrew Mellon- Secretary of the Treasury (Country’s
wealthiest men) Ohio Gang- the president’s poker-playing cronies
Scandal During Harding’s Presidency Ohio Gang corrupt
Unraveled Harding’s Administration with grafts
Teapot Dome Scandal Government set aside oil-rich public lands at Teapot
Dome, Wyoming and Elk Hills, California To be used Albert B. Fall (Secretary of the Interior)
He secretly leased the land to private oil companies The first American to be convicted of a felony while
holding a cabinet post
August 2, 1923 President Harding dies of a stroke or heart attack VP Calvin Coolidge assumes the presidency and is
elected president in the next year
SECTION THREE: THE BUSINESS OF AMERICA American Industries Flourish
Calvin Coolidge (new president)kept taxes low & business profits up w/ more available credit to expand; keep gvmt interference to min.; high tariffs on foreign imports
The impact of the automobile Construction of paved roads (Route 66) & traffic signals Houses w/ garage & driveway smaller lawns Gas stations, repair shops, public garages, motels, tourism,
shopping centers urban sprawl-workers able to travel miles to jobcities
spread in all direction Symbolized success of free enterprise system & Coolidge era
The Young Airplane Industry Began as mail carrying service for U.S. Post Office Tri-motor airplane- Ford in 1926 Pan American Airways- 1927, first transatlantic passenger
flights
America’s Standard of Living Soars Average income rose +35% Electrical Conveniences
Alternating electrical current-distribute power over longer distances suburbs
Well- to do families uses refrigerators, cooking rangers & toasters
Made lives of housewives easier community & leisure activities; working
The Dawn of Modern Advertising A Superficial Prosperity
Producing Great Quantities of Goods Numerous mergers of companies of automobiles, steel,
electrical, public utilities Chain stores clothes, drugs, shoes, groceries, national
banks Growing distance between workers & managers New machinery drove down prices left farms suffering
Buying Goods on Credit Installment plan- allowed ppl. To buy goods over
extended period buy more
CHAPTER 21:THE ROARING LIFE OF THE 1920S
SECTION 1: CHANGING WAYS OF LIFE Rural and Urban Differences
Population Increases & “Cities were the place to be” The New Urban Scene
Chicago was an industrial powerhouse; home to native-born whites, african americans, & immigrant Poles, Irish, Russians, Italians, Swedes, Arabs, French, and Chinese
Small-town migrants: urban environment demanded change in thinking
City→ world of competition & change; tolerated drinking & gambling (sinful in small towns.
The Prohibition Experiment 18th Amendment: Passed in 1920, launched the Prohibition era,
during which the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages were prohibited (outlawed)
Reformers thought liquor was main cause of corruption; lead to crime, abuse, accidents on job & other social problems
Supports came from rural South, West & native protestants Volstead Act: Established the Prohibition Bureau in 1919 to patrol
18,700 miles of coastline, inland borders, track down illegal stills, monitor highways for truckloads of illegal alcohol, and oversaw all industries that legally produced alcohol. Because it was underfunded, it ultimately helped end Prohibition.
Speakeasies and Bootleggers Speakeasies- underground hidden saloons and nightclubs where
people could drink liquor illegally Called this because people spoke quietly inside so they wouldn’t
be found Used by middle and upper-class men and women
Allowed for medicinal and religious purposes (prescriptions for alcohol and sales of sacramental wine soared)
Bootleggers-smuggled alcohol from Canada, Cuba, and the West Indies and sold it to people in the US Named this because they were known to smuggle it by carrying
the alcohol in the legs of their boots Organized Crime
Prohibition made people disrespect the laws (gave way to more organized crime)
Chicago became notorious for organized crime b/c of Al Capone Al Capone
1925-1931: bootlegged whiskey from Canada ran illegal breweries in Chicago had a network of 10,000 speakeasies
Bootlegging Empire netted over $60 million a year Took control of the empire by killing his opponents
By the end of the 1920’s only 19% of Americans supported Prohibition most believed it caused more problems than solutions 18th Amendment still stayed until 1933
Science and Religion Clash Growing rift between traditional and modern
ideas, fundamentalist religious groups vs. secular thinkers
American Fundamentalism Fundamentalism: Protestant movement that believed
in a literal and non symbolic interpretation of the bible. Rejected theory of evolution (b/c God made the
world and all it’s living things in six days) Followers grew and revivalists became popular
i.e.: -Billy Sunday- baseball player turned preacher
-Aimee Semple McPherson- theatrical women who dressed in white robes to get Midwestern migrants
and others who were devoted followers of her radio broadcasts to listen
The Scopes Trial 1925- Tennessee passed first law that made it a crime
to teach evolution American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) promised to
defend any teacher who challenged the law John T. Scopes accepted challenge & read passage
from Civic Biology→ arrested ACLU hired Clarence Darrow (most famous trial lawyer
of the day) Williams Jennings Bryan (devout fundamentalist) hired
as a special prosecutor Scopes Trial- fight over evolution and science and
religion’s role in public schools and American society• Trial opened on July 10, 1925• Scopes was found guilty and fined $100
Later, the verdict was changed on a technicality but law that outlawed the teaching of evolution stayed in effect
SECTION 2: WOMEN OF THE 20S
Young Women Change the Rules The US began to have a more rebellious and
pleasure-loving atmosphere during the 1920’s → women began to assert their independence and reject the old values of the 19th century… demanded the same freedom’s as men
The Flapper Flapper- emancipated young women who not only
wore, but also embraced the new fashions and city attitudes of the 20’s Were usually more risque and assertive too
i.e. smoked cigarettes, drank in public, talked about sex openly, danced the tango and other dances with disregard for other’s opinions (other new fads on pg.650-651)
Views towards marriage also change → now a more equal partnership But housework and taking care of the children is still
agreed on as a woman’s job The Double Standard
While magazines and other advertisements promoted the ideal of the flapper, it was more an image than a reality for most young women It did not reflect the attitudes and beliefs of many
young people (morals only loosened so far) Traditionalists in schools and churches disagreed with
the new values of 1920’s women and although casual dating was more accepted, a double standard arose
Double Standard- a set of principles granting greater sexual freedom to men than to women. It meant that women would still have to have stricter standards of behavior than men did
Women Shed Old Roles at Home and Work New work Opportunities for Women
After WWI female workers were replaced with men Female college graduates began to look for “women’s
professions” Teachers, nurses, librarians, typists, filing clerks,
secretaries, store clerks, factory workers Others broke old stereotypes by doing jobs once only
reserved for men Pilots, taxi driver, oil drillers
But wherever they worked, they were earning less than men
The Changing Family Birthrate declines
Due in part to the wider availability to birth-control info (Margaret Sanger and The American Birth Control League founded in 1921)
Social and technological innovations make both family life and chores easier (stores with ready-made clothes and food)
Marriages based more on love and companionship Children no longer made to work in the adult world in
factories, farms, or apprenticeships → get to go to school and spend time in organized activities with others their own age With this new type of socializing for teens, many
became even more rebellious and resisted parental control like the flappers resisted societal restraints
SECTION 3: EDUCATION AND POPULAR CULTURE
Schools and the Mass Media Shape Culture School Enrollments
Increase in students going to high schoolà higher educational standards for industry jobs
High schools began offering vocational training (for industrial jobs)
Immigrant children began going to school Expanding News Coverage
Growing mass media shaped mass culture Newspaper & mass-circulation magazines rose
Radio Comes of Age Most powerful way of communication in 1920s Everyone across the nation hearing news as it
happened
America Chases New Heroes and Old Dreams Many people had money, and time to spend it Leisure activities: crossword puzzles, games etc Lindbergh’s Flight
Charles A. Lindbergh- pilot who made the first nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic, in the Spirit of St. Louis
Became nations hero; stood for honesty and bravery Entertainment and the Arts
The Jazz Singer- 1st major movie with sound in 1927 Steamboat Willie- 1st animated film with sound in 1928
(Disney) Called “talkies”à movie attendance doubled
George Gershwin- A famous concert music composer who merged traditional elements with American jazz, creating a distinctive “American” sound
Georgia O’Keeffe- Famous painter who produced intensely colored canvases, capturing New York’s grandeur
Writers of the 1920s Sinclair Lewis- 1st American to win a Nobel Prize in
literature; one of the most outspoken critics of American culture. In Babbitt, he ridicules American conformity & materialism.
F. Scott Fitzgerald- Wrote This side of Paradise and The Great Gatsby, revealing the negative side of the period’s gaiety and freedom; coined the “Jazz age”
Many writers discussed important issues (The Age of Innocence by Edith Wharton, depicts clash of traditional and modern values)
Edna St. Vincent Millay- wrote poems that celebrated youth, and independent life away from traditional society and constraints.
Lost Generation- Writers such a Fitzgerald and Hemingway who shoes to live in Europe (mainly in France), to escape from the “sour” American culture.
Ernest Hemingway- Wrote novels such as The Sun also Rises and A Farewell to Arms, where he criticized the glorification of war (he was wounded in WWI)
SECTION 4: THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
African-American Voices in the 1920s The Move North
The Great Migration- A movement between 1919 and 1920 when hundreds and thousands of African Americans from the south moved to the big cities in the north for jobs.
By 1930 over 40% lived in cities Northern cities did not welcome them, culminating
approximately 25 urban race riots. African-American Goals
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)- founded in 1909, urged African Americans to protest racial violence.
W. E. B. Du Bois (founding member), organized protests against violence
James Weldon Johnson- led NAACP; made fighting for legislation to protect African Americans one of their main priorities.
Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Marcus Garvey- immigrant from Jamaica, believed
Africans Americans should create a separate society founded Universal Negro Improvement
Association (UNIA) in 1914; used mass meetings, parades and pride. Promoted African-American business and encouraged them to return to Africa.
convicted of mail fraud & jailedà popularity declined left legacy of black pride, economic independence
and reverence for Africa
The Harlem Renaissance in NY Many African Americans moved to Harlem in
Manhattan 1920’s Harlem becomes the world’s largest black urban
community Still suffered from problems like overcrowding and poverty,
but the Harlem Renaissance allowed the problems to be looked over Harlem Renaissance- literary and artistic movement
that celebrated African-American culture. It represented great social and cultural change in American during the 1920’s that was also characterized by: Economic prosperity New ideas Changing values Personal freedom New developments in art, literature, and music
African American Writers Harlem Renaissance mostly a literary movement that was
led by well-educated, middle-class African Americans who expressed a new found pride in “the African American experience”
Celebrated their heritage and the trials of being black in a white world
Writers were pushed by people like W.E.B. Du Bois, James Weldon Johnson, and Alain Locke The New Negro- A collection of literary works by young
African American writers published by Locke in 1925 Claude McKay- novelist, poet, and Jamaican immigrant who
wrote to urge African Americans and told them to resist prejudice and discrimination
Jean Toomer- wrote the book Cane--had both poems and sketches about blacks in the N and S (among the first full-length literary publications of the Harlem Renaissance
Langston Hughes- The movement’s best known poet; many of his 1920’s poems illustrated the difficult lives of working-class African Americans
Zora Neale Hurston- Her writing portrayed the lives of unschooled S. blacks and it celebrated the simple folkways and values of people who had survived slavery with their ingenuity and strength
African-American Performers Shuffle Along- A black musical comedy popular in the early
1920’s. Some thought it launched the Harlem Renaissance movement.
Paul Robeson- The son of a slave, he became a major actor. Famous for performance in Othello, but he could not take the racism he felt in the US because of his support of the Soviet Union and the Communist Party → moves to England and later the Soviet Union
African Americans and Jazz Jazz- Born in New Orleans during the early 1900’s; was music
blended with instrumental ragtime and vocal blues Louis Armstrong- A young trumpet player who first joined
Joe “King” Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band in 1922. Later, he joined Fletcher Henderson’s Band in 1924 (most important big jazz band in NYC during this time)
Jazz was big in Harlem and attracted many white people to the clubs there (among them, was the famous Cotton Club)
Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington- One of the greatest jazz pianist and composer of the 20th century. Conducted a 10-piece orchestra at the Cotton Club)
Bessie Smith- A female blues singer that recorded on black-oriented labels produced by major record companies. In 1927, she became the highest-paid black artist in the world