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C HAPTER 3 Biochemistry http://www.bowdoin.edu/biochemistry/information/images/chloroa-bowdoin-biochemistry.jpg

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S ECTION 1 P RETEST Organic Compound Functional Group Monomer Polymer Macromolecule Condensation Reaction Hydrolysis ATP A.A simple molecule that combines with other molecules to make a larger molecule B.The main energy molecule for organic processes. C.Reaction when two molecules combine to produce water. D.The portion of a molecule that is active in a chemical reaction E.Carbon containing compound F.A large molecule formed when smaller units combine G.Chemical reaction involving water and another substance to produce something new H.Very large molecules formed from hundreds or thousands of atoms

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A NSWER KEY Organic Compound E Functional GroupD MonomerA PolymerF MacromoleculeH Condensation ReactionC HydrolysisG ATPB

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T HE E LEMENT OF L IFE : CARBON Carbon is regarded as the element of life Organic Compounds contain carbon (and hydrogen) Carbon can form the large, complex molecules common to all living things because of its structure. Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell. The shell can hold 8. Carbon needs 4 more electrons to become stable, creating up to four covalent bonds. http://www.chemistrydaily.com/chemistry/upload/d/d9/Covalent.png

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Carbon also has a tendency to bond with itself. This can result in big biological molecules based around chains or rings of carbon atoms. http://www.succeed.ufl.edu/content/abe2062/lect/lect_02/3_01.gif

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Many complex biological molecules will be formed using double and triple covalent bonds. Double share 2 pair of electrons Triple share 3 pair of electrons Each line represents a covalent bond. Carbon must have four covalent bondsor four lines

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F UNCTIONAL G ROUPS Functional group the portion of a molecule that is active in a chemical reaction and that determines the properties of many organic compounds. Example Hydroxyl OH Makes molecules polar, this means they are hydrophilic (soluble in water) Called alcohols

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Hydroxyl (Alcohols) Functional Group Structural FormulaExample -OH Carbonyl (on end) (Aldehydes) - C=O H Carbonyl (in middle) (Ketone) C O Carboxyl (Organic Acids) COOH Amino (Amino Acids) NH 2 Phosphate (Nucleic Acids) PO 4 2-

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L ARGE C ARBON M OLECULES The building of large molecules occurs as follows: Monomers small, simple carbon molecules Polymers consists of repeated, linked monomers Macromolecules large polymers: ( Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids ) http://kenpitts.net/bio/human_anat/monomer.jpg

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C ONDENSATION R EACTIONS Polymers form during condensation reactions In these reactions; water is released

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Example: Glucose and Fructose combine to form Sucrose

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H YDROLYSIS Polymers break down by a hydrolysis reaction In these reactions; water is used http://imcurious.wikispaces.com/file/view/hydrolysis_reaction.jpg/113609729/hydrolysis_reaction.jpg

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T HE E NERGY M OLECULE : ATP Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a molecule that stores a large amount of energy in its overall structure. This is a major source of energy for most living cells Named the energy currency for living cells because it is nearly a universal molecule of energy transfer in living things Energy can be stored as carbohydrates or lipids, but that energy (in chemical bonds) must be transferred to ATP before it can be used in the cell

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S TRUCTURE OF ATP ATP is made of Adenine and Ribose and three phosphate groups Adenine = nitrogen containing compound Ribose = 5-carbon sugar Phosphate groups = PO 4 - http://www.bio.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/metab/sf6x1a.jpg

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The Hydrolysis of ATP is used by the cell to provide the energy needed to drive chemical reactions. It happens according to the following diagram: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/cm1504/atp.htm -ATP can lose its end phosphate which releases the energy stored in it. and makes adenosine diphosphate (ADP). -This energy is used to do work in the cell. -Adding the phosphate back to make ATP requires that we add energy

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S ECTION 2 P RETEST Carbohydrate Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide Protein Amino acid Peptide bond Enzyme Substrate A.Organic compound made of amino acids B.Organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen C.Proteins that speed up chemical reactions. D.Simple sugar E.Double sugar F.Buiding blocks of proteins G.Holds amino acids together when forming proteins H.Sugar formed from three or more monosaccharides I. The reactant in a chemical equation that is acted upon by enzymes

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Active site Lipid Fatty acid Phospholipid Wax Steroid Nucleic Acid DNA RNA Nucleotide J.Unbranched carbon chains that make up lipids K.Type of lipid forming protective layers on plants and animals L.Type of lipid found in many hormones M.Deoxyribonucleic acid N.Folds found in enzymes that fit into a specific substrate O.Ribonucleic acid P.Large organic compounds that do not dissolve in water Q.Type of lipid found in the cell membranes of living things. R.Large organic compounds that store and transfer information in cells S. Part of a DNA molecule

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A NSWER K EY Carbohydrate B MonosaccharideD DisaccharideE PolysaccharideH ProteinA Amino acidF Peptide bondG EnzymeC SubstrateI Active siteN LipidP Fatty acidJ PhospholipidQ WaxK SteroidL Nucleic AcidR DNAM RNAO NucleotideS

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T HE M OLECULES OF L IFE Four main groups of organic compounds: Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acid http://ez002.k12.sd.us/Chapter%20One%20Science.htm

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C ARBOHYDRATES Composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Make up about 1% of a cell Used for energy and structural materials Three types: Monosaccharides simple sugar Disaccharides double sugar Polysaccharides three or more monosaccharides

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Monosaccharides Contain C,H and O in a ratio of 1:2:1 (CH 2 O) n Note: N = whole # from 3-8 Examples Glucose (energy for cells) Fructose (fruit sugar) Galactose (milk sugar) Note: All three have the same molecular formula C 6 H 12 O 6 just different structures therefore they are called isomers

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Disaccharides two monosaccharides combine in a condensation reaction. Example: Sucrose (table sugar) Formed when glucose and fructose combine Sucrose

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Example: Glucose and Fructose combine to form Sucrose

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Polysaccharide three or more monosaccharides form a much more complex molecule. Examples: Glycogen hundreds of glucose molecules joined in a large branching chain. Stored in the liver and muscles of most animals and is used for quick energy Starch glucose molecules joined together and stored in plants for energy. Cellulose thousands of glucose molecules joined together in a straight chain. Provides the structure for plant cell walls

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P ROTEINS Composed of C, H, O and N Make up about 15% of a cell Found in hair, horns, skin, muscles, and enzymes Chains of amino acids (building blocks of proteins) 20 different amino acids with similar structures Only their R group varies The R groups determine their different shapes and functions Carboxyl Group http://cornellbiochem.wikispaces.com/23.2

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Dipeptide two amino acids joined by a peptide bond. Peptide bonds are formed by condensation reactions in which water is released Polypeptide long chains of amino acids. They fold and bend themselves into large protein molecules. Temperature and solvent type can influence the shape of proteins. Ex: egg whites

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Enzymes special types of proteins that act as catalysts The enzyme can attach only to a substrate (reactant) with a specific shape. The enzyme changes and reduces the activation energy of the reaction so reactants can become products. The enzyme is unchanged and is available to be used again. http://intranet.broadfordsc.vic.edu.au/yr12biol/enzymes_as_biological_catalysts_files/image003.gif

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L IPIDS Composed of C, H and O but in a higher ratio of carbon and hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms than carbohydrates have: therefore, they store more energy Make up about 10% of a cell Used to store extra energy and in cell membranes Nonpolar do not dissolve in water Most are made of fatty acids bonded to other molecules Examples: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, waxes, and pigments

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F ATTY A CIDS To fully understand how lipids work, we need to first understand their fatty acid component Fatty acids long, unbranched carbon chains with a carboxyl group on one end. Carboxyl end = polar and reacts with water (hydrophilic water loving) Hydro-carbon end = nonpolar and does not react with water ( hydrophobic water fearing) http://library.med.utah.edu/NetBiochem/mml/fa_polypatt01.gif

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Saturated Fatty Acids each carbon is covalently bonded to four atoms (NO DOUBLE BONDS) Unsaturated Fatty Acids not all carbons are bonded to four other atoms (HAS DOUBLE BONDS) http://www.biology.lsu.edu/introbio/Link2/fatty%20acids.gif

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C LASSES OF L IPIDS Triglycerides ( fats ) three molecules of fatty acid joined to one molecule of glycerol. Saturated triglycerides the 3 fatty acids are saturated: hard at room temp: found in butter and red meat: bad fats Unsaturated triglycerides the 3 fatty acids are unsaturated: soft at room temp: found in plant seeds: good fats Phospholipids two fatty acids joined to glycerol. They also have a phosphate group. Important part of all cell membranes Waxes fatty acid chain joined to an alcohol chain: waterproof: form protective layers in plants and animals Steroids four fused carbon rings with a functional group: include many hormones and cholesterol

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N UCLEIC A CIDS Composed of C, H, O, N, and P Make up 4% of a cell Consists of repeating monomers called nucleotides Each nucleotide has a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar and a nitrogen base Important in the transfer of information in the cell Types: DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid : determines the characteristics of an organism and directs cell activities RNA Ribonucleic acid : transfers information from DNA to ribosomes: helps manufacture proteins: can act as enzymes

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Nucleotide DNA Strand