CORE 2 – FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

CQ1: How does training affect performance?

ENERGY SYSTEMS

o Human body requires a continuous supply of energy to meet the needs of its systems and organs and to power muscular contraction for movement

o Energy stored in the chemical bonds that joins atoms is released only when needed ⇒ Efficient way of storing fuel because it is lightweight and occupies small amount of space ⇒ Chemical energy = energy stored In bonds between atoms ⇒ Mechanical energy = is motion or movement energy

o E.g. Fuel required for runner to complete marathon would weight at least as much as the runner yet food weighing only a fraction is ingested prior to race

o Transformation of food (chemical) to energy that the muscles can use (mechanical) is role of energy systems o Energy provided by food measured in kilojoule o Food digested breaks down into sugars/amino acids/fatty acids/substances useable as form of energy ATP or

adenosine triphosphate produced representing the most importance in energy production ▪ ATP is a high energy compound that stores and transfers energy to body cells, allowing them to perform

their specialised functions, such as muscle contraction o ATP does not become waste product that is discharged it has ability to resynthesise o Three systems make the ATP available

⇒ The Alactacid system known as ATP/PC ⇒ The lactic acid (Is a by-product of the incomplete breakdown of carbs in the absence of oxygen ⇒ Aerobic

o The ATP/PC system and lactic are both anaerobic pathways as they do not need oxygen for the resynthesis of ATP whilst aerobic system is oxygen dependant it relies on sufficient O2 in body cells

o Called Energy pathways because they each supply ATP but use different processes to do so each has a way of resynthesising and partly destroying ATP how well it does this = its efficiency in energy production

Alactacid System (ATP/PC)

o Initial energy system, anaerobically occurring during the first few moments of exercise o Residual supplies of ATP in body are very limited only enough for one explosive muscular contraction o Explosive movement caused ATP molecule to split providing energy for muscular contraction o Further muscle work relies on creatine phosphate (CP) breaking down to creatine and phosphate back to ADP so it

can once again become a triple phosphate

o Once reformed ATP can break down again and process goes on o CP supplies exhausted within 10-12 seconds and takes 2 mins to restore

Lactic Acid System e.g. the glycolytic system

o Secondary energy system, anaerobically occurring after CP supplies are exhausted and before sufficient oxygen is obtained

o Following 10-12 seconds of maximal exercise CP supplies are exhausted o Energy Sources: Blood sugar = glucose as it circulated freely in the bloodstream and its level is regulated by the

pancreas ⇒ Glucose: break down of carbs ⇒ Glycogen: storage of glucose ⇒ Glycolysis: is the process of using glycogen or glucose as a fuel/the breakdown

o Glycogen is more abundant than CP and can be used whether O2 is there or not o Lactic acid is produced as the insufficient oxygen results in the partial breakdown of glucose providing quick but

limited ATP production and lactic acid o Anaerobic Glycolysis is a process where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy o As not enough o2 lactic acid levels rise and continue to rise as intensity increase

Aerobic System e.g. the oxygen system

o Tertiary Energy system, aerobically occurring after a few mins of physical exercise when oxygen rich blood becomes available

o Activity lasting more than a few minutes needed O2 more the continuation of muscular contraction o O2 gradually becomes available as the oxygen-rich blood fills the muscle cells allowing for the aerobic

pathway/oxidative system to become predominant supplies of ATP o Process of fuel degradation is sometime called aerobic metabolism because glucose and fat are broken down in

the presence of oxygen to produce ATP

Analyse each energy system by exploring:

Alactacid System (ATP/PC) Lactic Acid System Aerobic System

Source of Fuel ● 90 grams of ATP in our body (to

power ONE explosive movement or 1 -2 secs of hard work)

● After that we need 120g of reserve fuel, CP, stored in our cells

● Then CP is the fuel of the ATP/PC system

● CP breaks down releases energy used to drive free phosphate to ADP to make ATP

● Carbohydrate existing as either; glucose in the blood OR in the storage form of glycogen

● Is broken down to produce ATP and energy for muscular contraction

● Carbohydrate, Fat, Protein ● During early stages carbs is

preferred fuel but after an hour fat becomes important and protein

● Glucose and fat broken down to produce ATP

Efficiency of ATP production

● The ATP/PC system functions to make ATP available

● Occurs whether or not O2 is there

● Rapid supply is enabled by concentration of CP within muscles which is 5x greater than ATP

● ATP supply is very limited if demand is high

● System is able to recover quickly

● Provides ATP quickly but requires large amounts of glucose

● ATP is rapidly available at a considerable cost

● E.g. 3mols of ATP is the most that can be manufactured from the breakdown of 180 grams of glycogen during anaerobic glycolysis

● Aerobic system is efficient in the metabolism of fuel and provision of energy

● Lactic only able to generate 3 moles/180grams of glycogen of ATP aerobic is able to generate 39mols/180 grams

● Enables the production of much more energy from glycogen enabling sustained

● Importance in short movements is paramount

work over long periods of time

Duration that the System can operate

● ATP exhausted after 2 seconds of hard work

● CP exhausted in a further 10-15 seconds

● At rest CP supplies fully restored within 2 mins

● Depends on intensity ● Maximal effort causes

exhaustion in 30 seconds ● 70-80% effort only for 3-4mins ● Produces energy for high

intensity actives lasting from 10 seconds – 1min

● Very efficient long 3+ mins ● Total amount of glycogen in

body is approx. 350 grams ● Sufficient for 12 hours of

rest or one hour of hard work

● Depending on the work ● Ie. 4-6 hours for

soccer/netball and 2 hours for marathon

● Well-trained athletes = body mixes carbs and fat as a fuel (glycogen sparing)

Cause of fatigue ● Caused by the inability of

system to continually resynthesise ADP from CP because CP supplies quickly exhausted

● Why we are unable to rune at maximal effort for distances longer than 100 m

● When lactic acid levels build up within muscles

● Linked to its rate of removal varying from person to person

● The faster you work, the more rapidly lactic acid accumulates

● High levels of LA caused fatigue but tolerable levels can enhance performance

● When lactic acid is formed it separate into lactate ion and hydrogen ion (H+)

● H+ ion build up is responsible for impairing performance as it contains acid

● Lactate ion is fast fuel and is preferred due to easy removal from blood

● Fatigue = accumulation of lactic acid quantities fast than it can be removed

● Depends on lactic threshold of the person (a point at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the blood)

● Other factors contribute to the fatigue

● During endurance work slow-twitch muscle fibres do most of work with many capillaries and a rich oxygen supply Before run saturated with glucose

● Activity beyond 1 hours results in depilation of fuel and glycogen is exhausted (which is premium fuel for muscles and when it runs body tires)

● Exhaustion of carbs and reliance of secondary fuel fat is another reason

● “hitting the wall” point where body changes main fuel supply from glycogen to fat, fatigue happens bc fat needs more O2 for metabolism than carbs and thus increases persons body temp and rate of respiration

By-products of energy production

● Heat during the process of muscular contraction ● Pyruvic acid

● Lactic Acid ● Heat

● Carbon Dioxide ● Water ● Not harmful to performance

Process and rate of recovery

● Recovers quickly from exercise ● Within 2 mins, most ATP and

CP supplies fully resorted with 50% of CP replenishment occurring within first 30 seconds of rest recovery

● During post-exercise lactic acid diffuses from the muscle into the bloodstream where its use as a by-product is importance

● Liver LA is reconverted to glycogen where it can be used again

● Takes 30 seconds – 1 hour

● Depends on duration of use ● In short time it recovers

quickly bc glycogen stores have not been depleted

● But if used for hours it could be exhausted

● May take few hours to days to fully replenish glycogen reserves

● 6-48 hours

Examples ● 100m sprint ● Golf swing ● Lawn bowls ● High jump ● Weight lifting

● 200m freestyle ● Snowboarding ● 400 m running ● 800 m running ● Gymnastics

● Rugby league ● Cross country skiing ● Triathlon ● AFL mid field

TYPES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS

Aerobic e.g. continuous, Fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit

o Any method of training that uses the aerobic energy system as the main source of energy supply o Main objective improve the efficiency of the athlete’s cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen to the

working muscles o Involves training larger muscle groups with the cardiovascular system o Cardiorespiratory/Cardiovascular endurance achieved through aerobic training o Aerobic training should follow FIIT principles

Method Explanation Example

Continuous o Training where there is sustained effort without rest intervals o Moderate intensity – HR arrive above aerobic threshold and remain

within target o 20 minutes+ (optimal for jogger e.g. greater than 30 mins) o During, the heart rate must rise above the aerobic threshold and remain

with the target zone for the duration must rise above the aerobic threshold and remain within the target zone for the duration of the session steady intensity

1. Long, slow distance training: ● This is standard for those who need to improve general

condition ● Subjects work at between 60% and 80% of their MHR

and focus on distance rather than speed 2. High intensity work of moderate duration:

● Demanding as the athlete works 80% to 90% of maximal heart rate.

● Requires work at or near competition pace to develop leg speed.

● Only well conditioned athletes use this training and, even then, intervals of relief are required

E.g. jogging, cycling, 1500 swim, endurance athletes, marathon

Fartlek o Speed Play – training where participants vary their speed and terrain on

which they are working o Ultimately engaging both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems o The varying intensity and speed makes it a combination of continuous

and interval

e.g. good for most athletes, but particularly beneficial for game players who are frequently asked to spring, stop, jog, change direction and accelerate

o Amount of effort is not predetermined as a % of heart rate, but rather by ‘feel’ according to how the body is responding

o Used as a pre-season training o Incorporating speed play can include;

● Regular bursts of speed every 2 or 3 minute throughout a long, slow run

● Running up and down hills ● Cross country running

as part of the activity. These frequent changes in dominant energy systems are common in sports such as rugby basketball and soccer. This training is common in pre-season training.

Aerobic Interval

o Alternating periods of work and recovery o Athlete performs a given amount of work e.g. 400m run, in a particular

time or at a specific level of intensity o This is followed by a short recovery period before the task is repeated a

number of times in this same manner o The rest period is important in differentiating aerobic interval from

anaerobic interval o Aerobic interval training had a short rest period of say 20 seconds o Rest period not allowing time for full recovery and thus maintains

stress on the aerobic system

Effectively develops aerobic endurance as;

o This sustained effort of moderate intensity ensures the aerobic system is stressed but not complete fatigued

o Intensity can be adjusted to achieve desired level of aerobic capacity ● E.g. intensity, time, repetition, and work-rest ratio can be

adjusted to apply the overload principle can match athlete’s sport or conditioning levels

Example; 400m run, 30 sec rest, and 3 sets good for tennis, soccer, rugby and netball

Circuit o Requires participants to move from one ‘station’ to another,

performing a succession of specified exercises in a set interval of time or repetitions.

o This involves little or no rest until they complete the circuit. o Develops aerobic capacity and has the potential to substantially

improve strength, endurance, flexibility, skill and coordination → ability to train certain skills for attributes in specific sports.

o Can be used as an anaerobic or aerobic training program depending on the type of activity, the time spent at each activity and the number of circuits required.

o Greatest benefits are gained through the use of the overload principle. ● Progressive overload can be achieved by alternating the

variables e.g. no. of stations, time, repetitions.

Example: soccer circuit may target agility, strength, power, speed, endurance etc, all skills required in the sport, with each station Good for variety of sports; tennis, marathon, soccer, short distance running

Anaerobic e.g. anaerobic interval

o Sprint over short distances with max intensity – best suited to speed/power athletes and good for tennis, 100m sprinter and rugby

Anaerobic Training

o Aims to enhance anaerobic system, develop greater tolerance for lactic acid and speed (and technique = longer rest periods)

o Uses high intensity work coupled with limited recovery to develop the anaerobic energy systems, that is, the ATP-PC and lactic acid energy supplies, as well as enhance lactic acid tolerance.

o Short duration <2 mins o Maximal effort followed by short rest periods that do not allow full recovery of systems that supply energy o Types include:

1. Short anaerobic: less that 25 seconds and develops ATP/PC systems of energy supply 2. Medium anaerobic: from 25 seconds to one-minute → lactic acid. ‘ ‘ 3. Long anaerobic: from two minutes → lactic acid/aerobic. ‘ ‘

Method Explanation

Anaerobic Interval o Sprinting over short distances using maximal effort

o High intensity activity is completed with minimal recovery allowing the athlete to train as close as possible to the anaerobic threshold → higher muscle tolerance to the build up of lactic acid.

o This involves sprint training over short distances using maximal effort o Directed at development of speed and power o To develop speed whilst focusing on technique, the rest period may need to be slightly extended to

allow lactate to disperse, as lactate build up inhibits the development of quality with the sprinting action.

o Example: 100m sprint, 45 seconds rest, 10 sets.

Interval Use Work Duration

Rest Duration

Work- rest ratio

Reps %of max speed

%max of Heart Rate

Long Anaerobic Threshold training

2-5 min 2-5 min 1:1 4-6 70-80 85-90

Medium

Anaerobic Training 60-90 sec 120-180 sec

1:2 8-12 80-90 95

Short High Energy Training 30-60 sec 90-180 sec 1:3 15-20

95 100

Sprints Speed Training 10-30 sec 30-90 sec 1:3 25+ 100 100

Flexibility e.g. static, ballistic, PNF, and dynamic

o Flexibility is the range through which joints and body parts are able to move. o Enhances muscle length prior to exercise (warm up) o It is effective in;

▪ Preventing injury ▪ Improving coordination ▪ Relaxing muscles ▪ Decreasing tightness following exercise ▪ Increasing range of motion. ▪ Lengthening of muscle

⇒ I.e. Stretching, is essential in sports where muscles to do not undergo full range of movement, with multiple contractions in shortened state possibly leading to muscle shortening → e.g. netball, football and sprinters.

▪ Increase performance ⇒ Promotes greater amount of force of a greater range of motion, and more precise and aesthetic

movements. o An athlete’s level of flexibility can be affected by age, gender, temperature, specificity and exercise history o If there is not a full ROM then muscle tightness/shortening need stretching to INCREASE flexibility

Method Explanation

Static o Most basic form o Safe form of stretching where the muscle is slowly stretched to its further

point, which is then held for a period of 10 -30 seconds. o Movement is smooth and performed slowly, taking the muscle to the

point where there is stretch without discomfort. o This controlled and safe manner makes it the most common flexibility

technique, commonly used in the rehabilitation of injury and the warm-up and cool-down phases of training.

o Example: sitting down with legs extended, gently reaching forward and holding the position for 30 seconds.

Ballistic o Form of dynamic stretching o Repeated movements of the body such as swinging and bouncing to force it further than its

normal range of motion. o Activates a mechanism in the muscle called the ‘stretch flex’

▪ STRETCH FLEX: an involuntary muscle contraction that prevents fibre damage if muscles are lengthened beyond their normal range.

o The force and momentum of the movement can be potentially harmful if not executed with care as the contracted muscle is then stretched well beyond its preferred length

o This is why the training should be used only by advanced athlete o Example: touching toes using a bouncing motion.

PNF o PNF stretching is progressive cycle incorporating a static stretch, an isometric contraction and a

period of relaxation in the lengthened position. o A partner or object usually provides this resistance in isometric contraction o It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the muscle in safe movement. o Specificity of muscles groups. o Useful in rehabilitation programs as the isometric

component strengthens the muscle fibers during the stretching process.

o Also used in warm-up and cool-down as can provide added stretch is safe conditions. o Example: static stretch, isometric 10 seconds, relaxed in isometric 5 seconds, further static

stretch applied followed by isometric.

Dynamic o Uses speed and momentum with movements experienced IN A GAME to increase flexibility o Involves actively moving parts of the body being stretched to increase the length of the muscle

and prevent tightness. o Popular for warm ups and pre training routines as it attempts to imitate movements experienced

in the game → sport-specific. o Uses speed together with momentum to gradually warm muscle fibers o Different from ballistic as bouncing movements are avoided, and unlike static, uses continuous

movement with no held position. o Not as safe as static or PNF due to tension exerted by specific movements on muscles and across

joints. o Example: moving arms around in circles to the side, rolling chin left

to right, ankle circles, lunges, squ.

Strength Training e.g. free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic

o Strength Is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert a force against a resistance o Muscle hypertrophy is a term than refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells o Involves muscular contractions resisted by calculated loads. o It is designed to improve strength → the maximum force that can be exerted by a muscle or group against a set

resistance in a single contraction. o Builds strength as resistance causes muscle hypertrophy o Many ways to create resistance: free weights, fixed-weight machines, elastic + hydraulic forces o Develop;

▪ strength ▪ Power e.g. for a 100m runner would do leg strength training for legs to increase explosiveness ▪ muscular endurance ▪ muscle tone ▪ rehab injury ▪ improve the overall strength of body structures, preventing injury and assisting in rehabilitation

following injury. e.g. following muscle atrophy after an ACL injury the individual needs to increase muscle

▪ General health e.g. to decrease risk of falls for elderly o Fundamental in improvement in most sports, particularly those in which lifting a weight or opposing force is

involved e.g. rugby league. o Principles of strength training include:

1. Target specific muscle groups. 2. Progressive overload. 3. Volume - avoid injury and overtraining 4. Variety - different training methods, muscle groups and exercises 5. Rest. 6. Repetition speed: power – fast, strength – slow, endurance – medium) 7. Repetition numbers: strength – 3 to 8 reps, power – 10 to 12 reps, endurance – 15 to 20 reps 8. Recovery – allow a day between training.

Isotonic

Raise/lower or pull/push free weights to contract/lengthen fibres Contracting muscle shortens against constant load e.g. lifting a weight

- Concentric contraction – most common Muscle shortens causing movement E.g. up phase of bicep curl

- Eccentric contraction Muscle lengthens under tension Often happens with assistance of gravity E.g. bicep lengthens while lowering weigh

Isometric ar contractions occur but

muscle length does not change and movement does not occur

nk, wall sit esistance which length doesn’t

change

Isokinetic

n throughout whole range of motion, resistance whole way through

chines and elastics

TERMS:

Isotonic contraction: muscles fibers are contracted, lengthening and shortening. Usually performed by raising/lowering or

pushing/pulling free weights

Eccentric contraction: lengthening of muscle fibers.

Concentric contraction: shortening of muscle fibers.

Isometric contraction: contractions made in which muscle length doesn’t change. Usually performed by applying a static

force/resistance.

Isokinetic contraction muscle contractions occurring at a constant speed

Repetition (reps) number of times an exercise is repeated without rest

Set the number of repetitions completed makes a set

Resistance the weight you are using as a load. E.g. 3 sets x 12 reps

Repetition maximum (RM)

the maximum number of times you can lift a given resistance

Recovery (rest) the time taken between each set.

Principles;

▪ Target specific muscle groups. Only those muscles that encounter the resist- ance will benefit from the work. ▪ Progressive overload. The load (resistance) needs to be progressively increased as adaptations take place. ▪ Volume. Lifting more by increasing the number of days on which you train or the amount per session is of benefit

to a point. Care needs to be taken to avoid injury and overtraining, and to allow periods of time for muscles to rest.

▪ Variety. Using different methods (free weights/machine weights), changing muscle groups, introducing new exercises and utilising a circuit format adds interest and enhances motivation.

▪ Rest. Allow rest between sets. The amount varies according to your program aims, such as power or endurance. ▪ Repetition speed. To increase power, perform repetitions quickly. Focusing on strength or bulk necessitates

slower speeds. ▪ Repetition numbers. Generally, absolute strength is developed by low repetitions (3–8), anaerobic strength

endurance by medium range repetitions (10–20) and aerobic strength endurance by high range repetitions (20–40 or more).

▪ Recovery. Train every second day to allow muscles to recover. If training each day, target different muscle groups to those of the previous day.Well balanced isotonic programs include a range of exercises that address

Method Explanation

Free/Fixed Weights o Muscle overcomes resisted calculated load of dumbbell/barbell/weight stack on machine

o Targets and isolates specific muscle or groups, where athletes can choose certain exercises that mimic the movement patterns and muscular contractions used in competition, developing strength where needed

o Need good technique to ensure you are doing the movement correctly and safely. o TWO TYPES

1. Free weights: allows for a greater range of motion than machines and involves the use of dumbbells, barbells and other objects.

2. Fixed weights: such as weight stacks and machines are highly specialized. The machine restricts the way each movement can be performed. Thus, correct positioning must be used.

o Examples: a rugby league player may target the quadriceps muscles in the upper leg as this will enhance their tackling and charging during play.

Elastic o Tension in resistance band provides opposition to contraction; resistance is greatest at end of

movement when tension is highest o Use of resistance bands bands anchored to walla, the strong bands are stretched creating

resistance o Light band = small muscle groups o Heavy band = large muscle groups

Hydraulic o Effort required through full range of motion (gravity does not assist return). o Effort made is opposing force o Bicep curl and tricep curls o The faster the movement, t o Gravity does not assist in return making effort necessary through full ROM o the greater resistance o Example: a rower would benefit from hydraulic training, as gravity does not affect return of the oars.

Which types of training are best suited to different sports?

o Absolute strength – weightlifting o Power – sprinters o Muscular endurance – endurance athletes

Type Weight Reps Sets Speed Rest

Strength Heavy 2-6 3-5 Slow to Medium 3-5 min between each set

Power Medium to heavy 2-10 3-8 Fast 2-3 min between each set

Endurance Light to medium 15+ 2-3 Medium 1-3 min between each set

Lean Body Mass Medium to Heavy 6-10 3-5 Slow to medium 1-3 min between each set

Marathon 100m Sprint

Which types of training are best suited?

o Predominately aerobic training o Some anaerobic, flexibility and small amounts of

resistance training

o Anaerobic o Circuit training o Plyometric

Which training method(s)

would be most appropriate?

1. Continuous aerobic 2. Fartlek 3. Aerobic intervals 4. Anaerobic lactate threshold intervals 5. Lighter weight high rep resistance 6. Static and PNF stretching

1. Anaerobic 2. Plyometric 3. Circuit training

Why is this the most

appropriate training

method?

1. Builds a base of fitness and muscular endurance in legs as well as improve oxygen transport.

2. Trains the lactic acid system for higher energy required at terrain changes during the race

3. Trains body to use fat as energy source when glycogen runs out, preventing hitting the wall.

4. Improves lactate recycling during races 5. Increases muscular endurance in legs and arms

for long distances 6. Increases range of motion stride length and

reduce chance of injury.

1. Uses high intensity work couples with limited recovery to develop the anaerobic energy systems, that is, the ATP-PC and lactic acid energy supplies, as well as enhance lactic acid tolerance. Builds strength as resistance causes muscle hypertrophy, which refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells. This is as muscles fibers are activated to perform movement. 3. Ability to train certain skills for attributes in specific sports.

How would this training affect performance?

o Delays onset of fatigue and improves endurance meaning improved performance over longer periods

o Improves speed over distance meaning faster times

o Improves flexibility means less injury o Improves lactate recycling meaning less fatigue o Improves glycogen transport and fat

metabolisation

o Able to improve strength o Enhance lactic acid tolerance which helps to

improve the time taken to complete a 100m race

Sport Training Type and Method Justification

Basketball Anaerobic

Team sport that needs a speed component, fast acceleration and agility

Soccer Anaerobic, aerobic, fartlek

Depends on athlete's position

High Jump Strength, flexibility

Needs power and range of motion

Surfing Flexibility

Movement from laying to standing in a quick motion

Sport Training type and

method Justification

Basketball Aerobic (Fartlek) Basketball usually involves players running around the court at varying intensities. For example, at times, they will be jogging back and forth when they do not possess the ball, while at other times they may be required to sprint while chasing an attacker. This type of training would improve a basketballer’s performance, as it would recruit both fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres, enabling them to sprint when needed, and maintain continuous, slower effort when required.

Triathlon Aerobic (continuous)

Triathlons involve a continuous effort to swim, cycle and run, therefore this type of training would recruit slow-twitch muscle fibres, enabling a triathlete to endure activity for long periods of time.

Soccer Aerobic (Fartlek, interval, continuous)

Some positions in soccer require predominantly continuous running, such as centre midfield, while others predominantly involve sprinting, such as striker and winger. Therefore, soccer players would benefit from all types of aerobic training, to recruit both fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres.

High jump Aerobic (interval), strength

The run-up involves a sprint, so the athlete will benefit from some interval training to build up fast-twitch muscle fibres to assist in performing an explosive run-up. Power in the legs is needed for the jump, therefore high jumpers will also benefit from resistance training of the legs.

Surfing Strength (isometric) Surfing involves continuous isometric contraction of the hamstrings to remain balanced on the surfboard, therefore isometric resistance training is most beneficial.

100 m hurdles

Aerobic (interval), strength (isotonic)

This is a sprint event, and so the athlete would benefit from interval training to recruit fast-twitch muscle fibres to help perform an explosive run. The athlete would also require power in the legs for explosive jumps over the hurdles, thus the athlete will need to undergo an isotonic resistance training program for the legs to develop power (usually loads are moderate to high: 60–80 per cent of 1 RM).

Rugby Aerobic (Fartlek) Rugby involves periods of interspersed effort on the field. At times, players may be required to sprint, for example, when making a break in attack. At other times, they may need to jog around the field when the ball is in play somewhere far from them. Thus, they would benefit mainly from Fartlek training to recruit both fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

Progressive Overload

o The overload principle implies that gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur.

o Training produces certain physiological changes that allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity. o Could change intensity, distance, sets, time etc → improve o More specifically, as the body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to it and

further training is insufficient and stressing the system. o A higher level of intensity is then needed for further improvement. o Improvement will only occur when athlete undertakes a training load exceeding what the body is normally

accustomed to. o Achieved through varying FIT (frequency, intensity, time/duration) o Training load can’t be too high, though → onset of fatigue and possible injury. o Most important principle in aerobic, strength and flexibility training programs If there is no overload, the rate

of improvement decreases and performance plateaus. o ‘no pain, no gain’ o Is necessary to gain improvement for example; put on a load adaptation increase load further adaptation

increased load EVEN further adaptation SO ON o Slowly working up every few weeks, slow increase to improve o E.g.

▪ Small stimuli – useless ▪ Moderate stimuli – useful ▪ Excessive stimuli – harmful – Coutts et al 2007 a, b

o Should be different based on how the person ‘percieves it internally’

Specificity

o Implies that the greatest gains are made when activity in the training program RESEMBLES the movements in the game or activity because the body adapts to stresses in a very specific way

o The specificity principle implies that the effects of a training program are specifically related to the manner in which the program is conducted.

o Replicates movement in activity o The principle draws a close relationship between activities selected for training and those used in the game or

event, implying that the greatest gains made when the training resembles the activities performed throughout the event.

o What is being performed at training vs what is anticipated during the game o Here, exercise is most often aimed at specific fitness components, muscle groups and the energy systems used in

the sport. o Example: A 100m sprinter would not benefit from a heavy aerobic training program, as it targets the wrong

energy system. They would also need to focus on the legs and core, not arms, and the components of power and speed.

o 3 TYPES: 1. Metabolic specificity

⇒ Refers to identifying the energy system or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training procedures

⇒ Identified by assessing the intensity and the time in which it extends. ⇒ E.g. short term, explosive activity to develop anaerobic system

⇒ E.g. continuous, moderate and sustained activity to develop the aerobic system 2. Muscle group specificity

⇒ Suggests that those groups used for the activity need to be the same as the groups used during training.

⇒ This is because the body ‘recruits’ the type of muscle fibre that is best able to do this task. ⇒ E.g. A 100m runner would require the work of white/fast twitch muscles fibres to do most of the

world, but if extended work, then the red/slow twitch muscle fibres will have a great role 3. Components of fitness specificity:

⇒ Coach’s need to construct training programs incorporating drills and exercises that require the same movements as those required in the related competition.

⇒ E.g. in netball the centre must be able to do short, sharp movements – so their training would focus on activies that target agility, reaction time, power and coordination

o Metabolic specificity = energy system specific o Training needs to be sport specific otherwise there is no gain o E.g. a swimmer would swim freestyle NOT goal kick, a soccer player would train leg muscles not triceps, discus +

shot put throwers are chunky b/c they do not need aerobic training

Reversibility

o The effects of training programs are reversible. o In the same way that the body responds to training by improving level of fitness, lack of training causes the

opposite to occur - a loss of gains. o This is referred to as the detraining effect. o Applies equally to all types of training. o Must be actively participating in the training program to maintain the training benefits and level of performance

- This means extended periods of rest should be avoided o If athletes are injured it is difficult to maintain training, thus substitute training should occur e.g. rugby league

players running in deep end of pool after injury o Lose benefits after 2 weeks of training o Faster gains → faster losses o Reversibility means that you lose your fitness/strength – once you stop training o You train, you gain, but once you stop it reversed back to pre-training levels o 2-3 weeks greater loss in strength than in aerobic fitness o Several months – ALL usually lost o No train, no gain o 2 sessions a week to maintain aerobic training

Variety

o Using the same drills and routines to develop fitness components in every training session is not productive, as repetition without creativity leads to boredom and a depletion of motivation

o It is important to continually strive to develop the required attributes using different techniques to ensure that athletes are challenged not only by the activity, but also by initiative and implementation.

o Therefore, coaches need to investigate different way to meet training objectives to maintain mental well being, which is vital to maximize effort in physical training.

o Example: necessary for footballers to pass, tackle and practice tactics each and every training session. General endurance, strength and power can be developed using a variety of techniques such as swimming, polymeric and resistance programs to make the training experience more interesting.

o Athletes need to be challenged → makes training fun and interesting o Used for psychological purposes → team bonding through motivation o Variety means that training needs to have a variety of training types of methods o If not – leads to boredom – make sure that athlete complete develops fitness o Plyometric – jump training to improve POWER – strength and speed, isotonic (usual), isometric (push against the

wall, contractions o Aerobic: fartlek, continuous, interval etc. o E.g. Rugby players conditioning in the pool – increase variety and changes environment so that athletes remain

interested

Training Thresholds

o The magnitude of improvements/adaptations in our physical condition from training is approx. proportion to the threshold level at which we work

o Thresholds generally refer to a specific point that, when passed, take the person to a new level o Levels of exercise intensity that are sufficient to produce training effect o Explained in terms of HR in relation to VO2 max o When we train, we expect an improvement in our physical condition. However, for a measure of improvement

to occur, we must work at a level of intensity that causes our bodies to respond with adaptations and fitness gains.

o The magnitude of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold level at which we work. o Thresholds are determined by work intensity, which can be calculated using heart rate. o A person’s maximal heart rate is estimated at 220 beats per minute minus age. o For exercise to be effective it must be performed frequently, at a high enough intensity for sufficient duration,

20 minutes as a minimum. o Target heart rate zone between 60-80% MHR meaning if athlete works within this zone they are getting the

maximum health benefits from their cardiovascular activity. o During training, 3 factors are important in relation to thresholds

1. HR - beats per minute 2. Ventilation - air breathed in 1 min 3. Blood lactate - by product of lactate system

All increase in proportion to intensity of exercise

o Thresholds 1. Aerobic threshold

▪ Refers to the minimal level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training effect (lowest level we can work and still have fitness gains)

▪ This is approximately 70%-80% (zone) of a person’s maximal heart rate. 2. Aerobic training zone:

▪ When athletes train at a level of intensity above aerobic threshold and below anaerobic threshold. ▪ Exercise here is referred to as steady state exercise and is at a level of intensity high enough to cause

significant improvements in aerobic endurance. ▪ Approx. 65-70% of VO2 max

3. Anaerobic threshold or Lactate inflexion point (LIP): ▪ Refers to a level of intensity in physical activity where the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood

increases very quickly, and once the LIP is reached, further effort is characterized by fatigue. ▪ A high LIP reflects a strong balance between lactate entry and removal from the blood. ▪ 80% of MHR – 80-90% of MHR (zone)

Warm up and Cool Down

o Each training session requires three essential components – warm up, training or conditioning and then cool down.

o A session that lacks one or more of these components may contribute to injuries or fail to achieve desired results. o Prepare body for readiness

Warm Up Cool Down

Purpose:

o Reduce the risk of injury. o Increase body temperature → makes muscles, ligaments,

tendons more elastic by increasing enzyme activity (powerful muscle contractions

o Increase range of motion around joints and muscle elasticity.

o Mentally prepare the athlete. o Stimulate the cardiorespiratory system. o Increased blood flow to working muscles o Activates motor neurons (switches players on task)

Procedure: should be sustained for 10 minutes (30 min for sprinters)

Purpose:

o Minimize muscle stiffness and soreness (removal of wastes + prevention of shortening of muscle fibres)

o Disperses and metabolizes lactic acid concentration.

o Replenishes the body’s energy stores. o Brings heart rate back to normal slowly so

strain is taken off the heart. o Prevents blood pooling in extremities. o Active recovery → body return blood to

heart rather than muscles o O2 blood flush out wastes (hydrogen ions)

1. General aerobic activity e.g. jogging to increase muscle tempt

2. Specific flexibility exercises to increase ROM and prevent muscle tears

3. Calisthenics using major muscle groups e.g. lunges, high knees etc to increase blood flow to the working muscles

4. Skill rehearsal and movements performed in game (e.g. sidesteps)

Procedure:

1. Aerobic work decreasing in intensity e.g. hogging to gradually lower intensity so body temp returns to normal

2. The stretching of muscle groups used.

❖ Analyse how the principles of training can be applied to both aerobic and resistance training

Principle Aerobic Training Resistance Training

Progressive Overload Adaptation:

Reflected in the heart’s ability to pump more blood to the working muscles (increased cardiac output) and the ability of the working muscles to take up more oxygen as it is delivered to the cells (increased oxygen uptake) Application: Load needs to be small (otherwise risk of stress injuries), such as a slight increase in frequency, intensity, type and time (FITT). The adaptations above take place slowly. This means that in endurance programs, gains are made over long periods of time

Adaptation: Results in an increase in the cross-sectional area of a muscle, commonly called muscle hypertrophy. This is directly related to an increase in strength Application: Increase in loads/resistance (weights) number of repetitions and sets, as well as allowed recovery time between sets

Specificity An athlete training for an endurance event must target the aerobic system in training. Most activity ensures that the aerobic energy system is used for 95% of the time or more. The same athlete would choose activities in training that recruit slow twitch muscle fibers so that aerobic enzymes become more efficient at utilizing oxygen

An athlete aiming to improve their biceps would exercise their biceps

Reversibility Gains made in aerobic fitness are gradually lost if training ceases. For example, the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered in the blood is reduced when training stops. You can avoid reversing this cardiorespiratory endurance by continuing regular training at 70% MHR on at least three occasions per week.

Gains made are quickly lost if minimal regular stimulation is not performed

Variety We can train the aerobic system using a variety of activities such as swimming, running, cycling and circuit training. Can also change training method, terrain and scenery

Isometric and isotonic methods increase strength, but so do using different equipment such as free weights, elastic bands and hydraulic devices

Training thresholds

The efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system is improved if the athlete works closer to the anaerobic threshold than the aerobic threshold. Working at this level increases the capacity and functioning o the cardiovascular system and the athlete’s ability to tolerate inevitable rises in performance crippling lactic acid

Bigger gains in strength are made as resistance is progressively increased. If training for absolute strength, the threshold is represented by a high resistance or load, ensuring that only a few repetitions can be completed. If training for strength endurance, the threshold is represented in terms of quantity; with a high number of repetitions being required to effectively challenge the threshold.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS IN RESPONSE TO TRAINING

o In response to training, the body makes adaptations to the levels of stress imposed on it. o These adaptations allow it to function more comfortably at existing levels of stress and respond more efficiently

to new levels of stress. o The time taken before progressive improvements are noticed varies from one individual to another, but generally

takes about 12 weeks for entire benefits to be realized

Explanation How training impacts this

Resting Heart Rate

Is the number of heartbeats

per minute while the

body is at rest.

o Low resting heart rate reflects a more efficient cardiovascular system an adaptation created from high aerobic fitness, often characteristic of trained and well-conditioned athletes.

o Heart experiences hypertrophy (like any other muscle)

o Adaptation means heart does not have to work as hard to meet the demands of the body

▪ THIS is b/c it is stronger and can pump more volume of blood with each thrust, reflected in a high stroke volume and high cardiac output.

o Leads to better recovery time → allows energy systems to restore and maintain performance

o Training decreases RHR e.g. Sedentary person with RHR of 72bpm can reduce by 1bpm each week for first few months of training – after 10 weeks of endurance training, RHR should decrease from 72 to 60 Bpm

o Use of training principles to stress cardio system improved stroke volume so lower RHR = increased ability to deliver oxygen to working muscles and conserve energy from less work

Stroke volume + cardiac output

o STROKE VOLUME - Is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle of the heart during a contraction. It is measured in mL/beat.

● BV can increase by 0.5L – 8 days of endurance training

● Further stretch by ventricular wall so increases elastic recoil of chamber – enlarged ventricle has more powerful contractions so less blood remains in ventricles following systole – increased oxygen available to working muscles = improved performance

Stroke Volume

o As the heart becomes more efficient, the left ventricle becomes bigger and stronger, resulting in more blood being pumped out per beat.

o Efficiency develops following an endurance-training program

o Training causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during diastole than it does in an untrained heart

o More blood in circulating following training due to increase in blood plasma volume.

o More blood entering ventricle

● Can increase by 0.5L after 8 days of endurance training

o CARDIAC OUTPUT: is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It is calculated by multiplying stroke volume x heart rate.

▪ Large cardiac output is the major difference between untrained people and endurance athletes.

▪ It follows that the trained athlete achieves a considerably higher CO not from heart rate, but as a direct result from a huge increase in stroke volume.

▪ Biggested difference between trained endurance and non-trained ppl

▪ Example: untrained – 15 to 20L per min, trained – 20 to 25L or as high as 40L per minute.

Cardiac Output

o With more blood being pumped around the body, and more oxygen being delivered to the working muscles, these athletes can become extremely efficient

o Training principles stress aerobic system = increase CO even though MRH of trained athlete may be slightly lower than untrained person as a result of stroke volume = increased performance

Oxygen Uptake and

Lung Capacity

o No matter how efficient the cardiovascular system is in supplying adequate blood to the tissues, endurance is hindered if the respiratory system does not supply enough oxygen to meet demand.

o OXYGEN UPTAKE (VO2 MAX): amount of oxygen the body uses per minute and is the maximum capacity of an individual's body to transport and utilise oxygen – the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered

● Strongest indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and utilize at that level of work

● Exercise = mitochondria in cells uses more oxygen in provision of energy

● Maximal oxygen uptake/VO2 Max (Measurements are expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilo- gram of body weight per minute (mL/kg/min) - is best indicator of cardio endurance – by indicating maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absord and use that at intensity

● Can estimate using tests such as 12 min run or multi-stage fitness test

● 12-20% increase (35 to 42mL/kg/min) typical for average inactive person who applied FITT for 6 months

● females less muscle tissue and total fat therefor lower oxygen carrying capacity due to lower haemoglobin levels

● High VO2 max indicates a superior oxygen delivery system and contributes to outstanding endurance performance

● Fit person → hard to have changes in VO2 max

● Untrained → can improve VO2 max after endurance training

o LUNG CAPACITY: is the amount of air that the lungs can hold.

Oxygen Uptake/Vo2 MAX

o Training Principles e.g. progressive overload and specifityi in 8-12 week period – increased numbers of oxidative enzymes causing mitochondria numbers and size to increase as mitochondria uses oxygen to produce energy and increase blood volume (for endurance training program) – increases VO2 max, indicating a superior oxygen delivery system = contributed to enhanced endurance performance

o Improve significantly in response to aerobic training as cardiac output and ventilation rates increase → oxidative enzymes, mitochondria and blood volume increase

Lung Capacity

o Following training, tidal volume (the amount of air breathed in and out during normal respiration) is unchanged at rest and submaximal exercise but appears to increase at maximal levels of exercise

o Overall, total lung capacity remains relatively unchanged

▪ Men have a higher lung capacity than women – about 6L in males

▪ Lung capacity of athletes undergoing training will generally remain unchanged

▪ Lung volumes and capacities change little with training

▪ TWO TYPES: 1. Vital capacity (the amount of air

that can be expelled after maximal inspiration) increases slightly.

2. Residual volume (the amount of air that cannot be moved out of the lungs) shows a slight decrease.

Haemoglobin Level

Substance in blood that

binds to oxygen and transports it

o Each red blood cell = 250 million haemoglobin molecules carrying lots of oxygen – without it we’d need 80L of blood

o General endurance training programs increase haemoglobin levels from about 800 grams to about 1000 grams per 100 mL of blood, representing a 20% increase this occurs at high altitudes too. E.g. success of Kenyan endurance runners in middle and long-distance events

o Also attribute to increase in blood plasma and blood volume and boost in red blood cell numbers

o Better haemoglobin → greater oxygen uptake

o As oxygen uptake increases with training, so does the haemoglobin content due to the increased efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system.

o Endurance training increase levels o TRAIN at high altitude – your body needs

more oxygen and THUS body ADAPTS by increasing haemoglobin levels

o KNOWN as altitude training

Muscle Hypertrophy

Muscle growth

together with an increase in

the size of muscle cells.

o Atrophy → without stimulation, muscle fibres reduce in size (reversibility)

o Length of muscle remains unchanged; diametre of muscle increases

o Training causes structural changes in muscle fibres, leading to hypertrophy

o The growth and cross-sectional size increase of muscle is a direct result of mass increases in:

▪ Actin and myosin filament — thin protein filaments that produce muscle action

▪ myofibrils — the contractile elements of skeletal muscle

▪ connective tissue — tissue that surrounds and supports muscle.

o The extent of hypertrophy depends on: ▪ Muscle type (fast-twitch or slow-twitch) -

White muscle fibres are genetically larger in their cross-sectional area when compared to red fibres. Resistance training can cause white muscle fibres to increase their area from around 55 per cent of skeletal muscle to 70 per cent or more. It should be noted that training cannot change the type of fibre (red to white or vice versa), only the cross-sectional area.

▪ type of stimulus - As hypertrophy is enhanced through progressive overload, resistance training using low repetitions with high resistance yields the best results.

▪ regularity of training - Regular training promotes hypertrophy while irregular or

o As an immediate response to training, muscle fibers increase in size as more fluid goes to the muscle.

o As a response to extended training, muscles used will increase in size again as the fibers adapt to the training load and lead to an overall increase in muscle size

o Progressive overload and the principle of specificity are important in stimulating this growth in targeted muscles

absence of training may result in muscular atrophy.

▪ availability of body hormones - Hypertrophy is more easily achieved in males due to a higher concentration of testosterone.

Effect on fast/slow

twitch muscle fibres

EFFECT ON FAST/SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRES:

o The most significant physiological adaptations to muscle fibres occur when they are subjected to training programs that are specific to their role.

o While all muscles shorten and lengthen during movement, the bulk of the work is per- formed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity.

o White muscle fibres benefit most by anaerobic training, such as sprints, short intervals and resistance training.

o Red muscle fibres benefit most from endurance type activities that engage the aerobic system.

SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRES:

o Slow-twitch fibres contract slowly and release energy gradually as required by the body during sustained activity such as jogging, cycling and endurance swimming.

o Efficient in using oxygen to generate fuel (ATP), making them resistant to fatigue but unable to produce the power of fast-twitch fibres.

o When the body is engaged in endurance-type activity, slow-twitch fibres are preferentially recruited for the movement because they are more efficient in meeting the immediate metabolic demands of the working muscles.

FAST TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE

o Fast-twitch (FT) or white fibres contract quickly but fatigue rapidly, a feature of anaerobic metabolism used to supply their energy needs.

o There are two types of fast-twitch fibres — FTa and FTb.

▪ FTa fibres are intermediate fast-twitch fibres that can produce a high output for lengthy periods because they have the ability to draw on both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to support con- traction.

▪ FTb muscle fibres are ‘classic’ white fibres, possessing high amounts of glycolytic enzymes and drawing energy solely from anaerobic sources.

o It is thought that training intensity can alter the relative proportions of subtypes in FT muscle fibres

o The body preferentially recruits fast-twitch fibres to perform explosive type activities such as weight-lifting, javelin throwing and sprinting

Slow Twitch - Aerobic training causes the following adaptations to occur in muscle fibres.

o Hypertrophy - Endurance activity such as jogging recruits slow-twitch fibres, which experience some growth.

o Capillary supply - Aerobic training causes an increase of up to 15% in the number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibres improves muscle efficiency by improving gaseous exchange together with the movement of nutrients and waste between blood and fibres.

o Mitochondrial function - Mitochondria are the energy factories of cells, the ‘powerhouses’ where ATP is manufactured. Aerobic training results in an increase in the number of mitochondria, as well as increasing their size and efficiency in utilising oxygen to produce ATP

o Myoglobin content - Myoglobin is very important in the functioning of muscle action, quantities of which are characteristically much higher in slow-twitch fibres. Myoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen from the cell membrane to mitochondria and storing it for use when necessary. Endurance training increase by 80%

o Oxidative enzymes. The level of activity of oxidative enzymes increases, making the production of energy more efficient.

Fast-Twitch - Anaerobic training causes the following adaptations in fast-twitch fibres.

o ATP/PC supply - Fuel supply and the efficiency with which fuel is used increases.

o Glycolytic enzymes - These increase, improving the functioning within cells.

o Hypertrophy - This has the potential to be considerable and depends on the type of training, frequency and intensity

o Lactic acid tolerance - Training increases the ability of FT fibres to tolerate lactic acid, allowing anaerobic

HAVE a high anaerobic capacity because they are able to contract quickly and ultimately release energy rapidly.

performance to be sustained for longer periods of time.

Sporting Example

Overload in developing muscle hypertrophy

A sprinter can apply overload in a strength program by gradually increasing the speed at which the contractions are performed are performed. This will help to develop the fast-twitch muscle fibres

Training thresholds in improving stroke volume and cardiac output

Is a marathon runner trains at or over their aerobic threshold; they are likely to experience benefits such as an increase in the size of the left ventricle. This will push more blood out of the heart-per-beat (increase in stroke volume), therefore per minute (cardiac output)

Specify in improving oxygen uptake

If an endurance cyclist specifically trains their aerobic energy system, there will be an increase in the size of the left ventricle leading to an increase in blood volume, and therefore haemoglobin levels. More haemoglobin equates to a higher oxygen-carrying capcidty for athlete

Reversibility on resting heart rate Disruption to an aerobic training program will decrease the size of the athlete’s

heart; therefore the heart will not be able to pump as much blood per beat. This, in turn, will cause the heart to have to beat more times per minute.

Variety on Haemoglobin Adding variety to a training program will maintain an athlete’s motivation. This is likely to lead to positive physiological adaptations for the athlete, including an increase in blood volume, leading to more haemoglobin.

Warm-up and Cool-down on lung capacity Warm-up and cool-down have virtually no effect on lung capacity. If the duration of the

warm-up is sufficient to engage the aerobic energy system as the dominant system, then breathing will feel ‘easier’. However, this has more to do with oxygen availability to muscle cells than increased lung capacity.

CQ2: How can psychology affect performance?

MOTIVATION

o Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal is a key factor in achieving performance potential

o It is important to remember it is not a static phenomenon but rather an abstract force that can be manipulated, influencing attitudes, behaviours and feelings of self belief, subsequently helping an athlete achieve their full potential.

o Understanding the mindset of motivation is difficult because each individual is different and may respond differently to internal or external motives.

o Increasing motivation can include recognizing individual effort, supporting self-belief, instilling good work ethic and providing positive reinforcement.

o Some athletes are self-motivated, while others have much more casual approach to achieving their goals. o The level of motivation we are able to achieve is affected by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including;

self-determination, expectation, pressure, response to encouragement and support, money and the idea of challenge.

o Key factors influencing and individuals motivation levels include; ▪ Level of competition and expected performance levels ▪ Individuals expectations related to set goals and targets of performance ▪ The individuals self-esteem and performance levels ▪ Outside factors such as spectator involvement and involvement with peers and family ▪ The motivating influences of the coach ▪ Environment factors such as weather and venue

o Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal o Central to intrinsic motivation is the ‘flow experience’

Motivation Description

Positive motivation o Occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by previous enjoyment/reinforcing behaviours,

such as being applauded by a crowd. To a certain extent the athlete is ‘conditioned’ to perform in expectation of the reward for similar actions in the past

o Relies on continual self-enforcement and or/reinforcement from others (coach family friends) o To maintain high levels of this, coaches must continually strive to find unique ways of reinforcing

the desired behaviour in the athlete e.g. techniques such as incentives and progress charts o Furthered by recognising achievement, handling mistakes constructively, developing respect for

athletes and learning to listen when spoken to o More effective and sustainable than negative o Is developed by establishing gradual sequence of challenges for the athlete (not negative and

destructive threats that cause distraction and instil fear of punishment or failing) o E.g. coach praises player on a correct movement performed inspires the development of a more

positive mindset, leading to an increased desire in the player to achieve their performance goals.

o e.g. working out at gym because you want to look more muscly o e.g. playing extra well because you want a medal or to get selected into team o e.g. training at full effort because you want to be in top 7

Negative Motivation o Is characterized by improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing

to expectations and desired outcomes. o Indecision, lack of creativity, fear of failing and susceptibility to ‘choking’ are some performance

inhibiting behaviours that might surface in high-pressure situations as a result of fear of failure. o While some players may respond to negative motivation on an irregular basis or short-term, the

general long-term effect can be the destruction of confidence, initiative and belief in oneself. o Example: being replaced on a team, ridicules in media and punishing self for failures. o Approaches: Intimidation, criticism, physical abuse, and guilt o e.g. “if you guys don’t want to train properly you can do 10 more laps around the field o e.g. player works extra hard so they don’t get benched o e.g. golfer does not want to hit ball in the bunke o e.g. player tries hard because they don’t want to get yelled at in front of teammates

POSITIVE MOTIVATION IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN NEGATIVE MOTIVATION

o Establishing a gradual sequence of challenges is more positive, motivating and sustainable, giving many long-term benefits such as increased confidence, decision-making skills and strategic thinking.

o Whilst negative motivation is effective on rare occasions, threats are destructive long term as the athlete is confronted with consequences and fear of failing.

Intrinsic Motivation o Is motivation that comes from within the individual - a self-propelling force that encourages

athletes to achieve because they have interest in a task or activity and they enjoy learning and the satisfaction of performing the desired movements.

o It is self-sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment becomes its own reward.

o The ‘flow experience’ ▪ Central to intrinsic motivation → highest level of internal motivation → characterized by

a very high level of concentration, to the extent that an individual is completely absorbed in the task.

▪ When in this zone, performance is maintained without conscious effort ▪ Knowledge, achievement or experience foundation where individuals display high levels of

mastery or task orientation ▪ Total attentiveness to what is being done ensures that the mind remains free of

interference from other distracting thoughts. ▪ Stronger and preferred form of motivation as intrinsically motivated athletes try harder to

beat previous efforts out of own will, rather than imposed from the outside → more sustainable.

o e.g. wanted to get a better PB o e.g may be motivated by the need to be competent in a task such as hitting a ball further by

increasing technical proficiency o e.g. athlete goes in City to Surf because they love running o e.g. soccer player practices because they love scoring goals o

Extrinsic Motivation

o Occurs when a person’s internal state is affected by sources originating from outside the person, such as a reward, parents, or coached It has an outcome or ego orientation

o While intrinsic motivation has a focus on process such as the development of competence, ▪ Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product, or what can be gained. ▪ This is seen in many forms such as praise, rewards, fame and financial remuneration or

fear of external source ▪ E..g when training children ensure there is a balance of quality execution of movement

skills as well as enjoyment/satisfaction

o Effort and the desire for achievement are related to the expectation of an outside reward or fear of punishment from an outside force.

o A focus on external rewards such as prizes and monetary incentives or a fear of retribution if expectations are not met is often used to manipulate the motivation of athletes.

▪ This can lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation among athletes and they cease to play sport for the first reason they played in the first place – enjoyment.

o This is often the case with children, where quality execution of movement skills as well as enjoyment and satisfaction need to be the focus of training and performances.

▪ This ensures enjoyment and motivation in the activity is sustained. ▪ e.g. monetary reward

❖ Evaluate performance scenarios to determine the appropriate form of motivation

Motivation Golf Boxing Netball

Intrinsic

Focusing on shots and swinging through Focusing on hitting the ball and making smooth swings The ideal of winning Intrinsic – coach threat, fear of letting down Intrinsic – looking at the golf ball going into the whole tennis requires a high level of skill and fitness. Players need internal motivation to achieve this high level of skill and fitness.

Important because boxing is highly competitive and demands superior fitness. The training and performance demands will not be met unless inspired by personal belief and commitment. Enjoying in succeeding Intrinsic – satisfaction of winning Extrinsic – crowd cheering

Focusing on hitting the ball and making smooth swings The ideal of winning Intrinsic – self belief and commitment in sill Intrinsic – coach threat, fear of letting down, letting the team down important for each player as they desire to achieve not only a win for their team, but their best performance in each game. They receive self-satisfaction from knowing they have developed as an athlete and have achieved a high level of performance on the field.

Extrinsic Positive – financial gains of winning and money Extrinsic – family pressures, media pressures players are also motivated by their coach to succeed. They can also be motivated to perform well due to the considerable prize money, fame, sponsorship and chance to travel, which are associated with elite performances

Positive – applaud from audience every time opponent is knocked down, money External - Avoid getting hit by the opponent Intrinsic -

The audience is cheering, family pressure (negative), the coach (both negative and positive), the money and fame that comes with it Extrinsic – family pressures, media pressures, loss, fear of getting benched Players are also motivated by coaches to succeed during the week, before the game, and at half-time. They may also be motivated to perform well in order to be selected for a higher grade, or the international competitions. Being selected for such games involves more income, which may be another motivating factor for netball players. Some may even be motivated by acknowledgement by the media.

Can be compounded; EG GOLF and BOXING

o Golf: positive intrinsic motivation through a desire to win a tournament out of pure enjoyment is an effective form of motivation. Contrastingly, negative extrinsic motivation through scathing media articles may reduce confidence and performance.

o Boxing: In boxing however, extrinsic positive motivation in the form of money can be an effective motivator, whilst intrinsic motivation from a fear of losing may heighten performance. Intrinsic motivation: important for each player as they desire to achieve not only a win for their team, but their best performance in each game. They receive self-satisfaction from knowing they have developed as an athlete and have achieved a high level of performance on the field.

ANXIETY AND AROUSAL

o Anxiety is a psychological process characterized by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening

o It is a complex emotion identified by various levels of agitation in reaction to a threat i.e. fight or flight response. o At the extreme anxiety disrupts and unsettles behaviour by lowering the individual's concentration and affecting

their muscular control.

Sport and Anxiety

o Sporting contests and competitions may contribute to anxiety because of the unpredictability and perceived self-ability.

o It can also be caused by unachievable expectations. ▪ For example, a boxer might be aware that his preparation has been insufficient, but must go an indefinite

number of rounds with a clearly superior opponent. The build-up of anxiety is unavoidable as the mind tinkers with thoughts of ways forward or ways out.

o In these situations, the person’s state of mind depends entirely upon their perceptions and expectations. o Particular traits such as positive expectations and confidence are important in containing anxiety that might

otherwise develop because of the situation. o The build-up of anxiety is unavoidable, with this pessimist appraisal causing negative stress. o E.g. Mohammad Ali caused opponent to become anxious as he said “I am the greatest” during his matches

Trait and State Anxiety o Example of State Anxiety: Many people experience anxiety before speaking in public. For most people, these

feelings of anxiety start before they begin speaking, continue during the speech but subside immediately after the speech ends.

Trait Anxiety – Intrinsic State Anxiety – Extrinsic

Refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of (personality trait), and differs

between each individual, evident in an individual’s response to everyday situations.

o Varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage stress

▪ e.g. can be managed through the use of relaxation techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation.

o Coaches/people who athlete has a firm belief can significantly influence trait anxiety

▪ This is done through with positive support and encouragement having a huge influence on trait anxiety levels.

More specific – refers to a state of heightened emotions and increased distress that develop in response to fear/danger of

certain situation/events

o May be visible physiologically → nervousness, sweating and even shaking.

o Certain state anxiety might be considered beneficial in sports such as rugby where aggression can become a natural outlet.

o Unrestrained anxiety can hinder sports/activies (that need fine motor skills) such as archery

▪ Where success depends on controlled muscular responses

o At the extreme → can contribute to a degree of physical and mental paralysis, preventing performance of a task.

o Preventative measures e.g. golfer uses long putter to maintain control of fine motor movements during times of stress

o Example: one tennis player may feel anxious under pressure situations whereas another performs well under pressure.

o Examples: of the presence of state anxiety include missing relatively easy shots in basketball, missing golf holes, and ‘breaking’ at the start of important races.

Sources of Stress

o STRESS: can be real of imagined, produced by adrenaline (a stimulant hormone) causing a non-specific response of the body to a demand placed on it. It causes a unique body reaction in response to times of crisis, which readies the body for action.

o Stress is characterized by: 1. Increased blood supply to skeletal muscles. 2. More oxygen to lungs 3. Increased glucose production to provide extra fuel 4. Increased sweat production to cool body 5. Tightened muscles to prepare body for action

o CAN BE REAL OF IMAGINED: Thinking about the same situation or sporting situations that cause concern will also cause stress and can bring about symptoms such as increased heart rate and sweating

▪ Real = being chased by a dog ▪ Imagined = thinking about the same situation or sporting situation that causes concern or stress ▪ THE BODY WILL react the same neurologically – it does not differentiate

o Felt in INDIVIUDAL SPORTS – such as tennis and diving – where these is isolation and exposure o Stress is a personal attribute, it depends on predisposition (how each person perceives stressors as a result of

genetic makeup and learned coping mechanisms) and thus affected by: ▪ Reflecting on past experiences ▪ Routines ▪ Expectations ▪ Amount of Support ▪ Frequency of similar occurrences ▪ Traits – confidence, self-assurance, self-belief

o How to help stress = using mechanism that help interpret feelings of anxiousness that are facilitative and helpful through consequently assisting (not hindering) performance

Stress and Sport

o It can be felt by participants in all sports, but particularly individual sports such as tennis and diving where there may be a feeling of isolation and exposure.

o At an optimum level of stress you will get benefits of activation. o Excessive levels of stress diminish performance as athletes think task is beyond abilities. o Internal Stress re self confidence;

▪ E.g. An athlete who injured themselves during a gymnastic performance, will have more stress when they perform the same routine after rehab than someone who had near injured themselves doing the routine

o Extern stress due to reaction of opposition: ▪ E.g. The opposing team is really aggressive, calls your team mates names, pushes a lot when the ref

doesn’t look

Stressors

o Are factors that produce stress are called stressors that develop from: ▪ Personal pressure: imposed by the desire to win or achieve goals. ▪ Competition pressure: exerted by opponents on the field of play. ▪ Social pressure: from coaches, parents, peers and other who are held in esteem by the athlete. ▪ Physical pressure: having to perform learned skills under the demands of competition.

How to cope with Stress and Anxiety

▪ “The Key to success is when you get the butterflies in your stomach to fly in formation” ▪ In these situations, the person’s state of mind depends entirely upon their perceptions and expectations ▪ Particular traits such as positive expectations, self-assurance and confidence are important in containing and

interpreting anxiety and thus enhancing performance. 1. Practicing relaxation techniques. 2. Concentrating on the task. 3. Developing confidence. 4. Planning strategies to cope with stress.

Optimum Arousal Arousal - Is the specific level of anxiety prior and during performance.

o If arousal is not managed properly it can hinder skill execution, however if the level is manipulated to compliment the sport it can enhance.

o Anxiety is predominantly psychological state but arousal is a physiological process that is necessary for sports performance (it can both facilitate and hinder skill execution)

o It has driver properties – can manipulate anxiety factors, motivation and can increase or decrease levels of arousal

o Generally, athletes who have a high disposition towards anxiety require less arousal than those who have a low disposition towards anxiety.

o High intensity contact sports have higher optimal level than low intensity non-contact sports ▪ Rugby Player needs high arousal ▪ Archery Low Arousal ▪ Easy Task High Arousal ▪ Difficult Task Low Arousal

o TWO TYPES OF AROUSAL: ▪ Over and under arousal can cause adverse effects on performance ▪ The coach/athlete must ensure that arousal levels a optimal for performance ▪ The athletes will respond to different stimuli to raise/lower arousal levels ▪ E.g. optimal arousal is achieve when thinking about WHAT THEY NEED to do in the came whilst others

need input from coach/parent/peers

Low/Under Arousal Over/High Arousal

o Is caused by lowered motivation, distraction or negative attitude and results in lack of concentration and focus.

o E.g. if the player comes in late, talking about last night, they are ‘under-aroused’ so the first 10 mins of the game they make mistakes and are inattentive

o E.g. 100m sprint may post a worse time than expected which could be due to low levels of arousal due to distraction, disinterest or depressed level of motivation OR a state of over-arousal due to excessively tense and inability to concentrate

o Is detrimental to performance due to excessive anxiety and is caused by over thinking and by extrinsic forces.

o Symptoms = anxious, apprehension, reflection excessive concern about performance, increased muscular tension, mental confusion

▪ Leads to poor performance

Optimum arousal - is the point where athlete is in complete awareness and preparation for the event

o Optimal levels vary between sports e.g. sports requiring aggressive performance and stamina like rugby, long distance running and weightlifting will have a higher level of optimum arousal in comparison to archery where accuracy is required.

o Skills most successful when optimal arousal is present o To perform at their peak levels, athletes need to identify

their optimum levels of arousal for their activity, and knowing how to manage under and over arousal,

o Some techniques include relaxation techniques, centred breathing and mental rehearsal.

o It is represented by the “inverted U hypothesis” SHOWS THE CONNECTION between arousal and performance and that there is an optimal level of arousal for any performance

o When interests heightens individual moves into arousal zone and are better able to attain optimal arousal o It is the balance between the level of motivation and ability to control muscular tension due to the desire to

perform well o VARIES

▪ Upon skill e.g. hard tasks with few muscles (like golf) mean that arousal doesn’t need to be high to be optimal, but a sport with large body action (weight lifting) needs LOTS of arousal to increase aggression

▪ Based on the traits of the persona and other factors such as; expectations of others, experience, how they handle pressure, financial pressure, competition level, degree of difficulty, skill finesse

Arousal affects performance when it becomes a focus: when an individual is able to shift their focus onto concentrating on the task, anxiety is revealed for what it is; a heightened state that can be controlled and CAN ASSIST performance.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION AND MANAGE ANXIETY

CQ3: How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

“Concentration mentally relaxes girls”

o Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement.

o To enhance motivation as well as manage anxiety athletes must learn to control their mental state, channelling their mental and physical energy in the right direction. They can do so through psychological strategies:

Concentration/Attention Skills (focusing)

o Is the ability to focus on the task at hand � FOCUS ON PROCESS RATHER THAN OUTCOME ▪ Is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can completely focus on

the process performing appropriate cues, rather than thinking about outcome. o Individual thinks about doing – with emphasis on execution separating the task from themselves o Must maintain uninterrupted connection with the task o Encourages athletes to adapt to changing situations and block out irrelevant stimuli o When an athlete thinks about doing, they often separate the task from themselves as the performer, with their

feelings, sensations and personal reactions becoming the focus. o However, a total focus on the execution of the task can lead to over arousal. o Effective concentration involves the maintenance of an uninterrupted connection between the two. o Also the ability to attend to relevant factors and disregard irrelevant factors, both external and internal. o Concentration skills need to be learned, and can be improved through training e.g. coaches ask athletes to

makes list of their thoughts during stages of the sport o Experienced athletes learn to switch off concentration when not needed so they can avoid fatigue, amount

needed varies across sport ▪ Examples: some sport requires intense concentration like gymnastics and golf ▪ Whereas others require intervals of concentration like football, netball ▪ Whereas sustained motivation/ concentration is found in endurance events like triathlons and tennis ▪ E.g. during basketball game player must focus on the shot and exclude other distraction, but at other

times be aware off their defensive position and tem mates intervals of high concentration interspersed with period of less intense concentration

o Centering: athletes can go through the process of centering to redirect their anxiety into the present task. o E.g. Jamie Soward, (Rugby player) and Mara Shapowaid (tennis) o Daria Gaurilova uses piece of paper with ques from her coach which she consults during a match to maintain her

focus o Athlete must recognise type of concentration suitable for sport and develop skills that block out distractions and

help maintain focus e.g. use routines, avoid negative thoughts, utilise self-talk

Mental rehearsal/Visualisation/imagery

o Is the techniques of picturing the performance of skill before the execution ▪ Is the technique of using power of imagery or mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase

the minds familiarity with the desired motion or skill before executing it – which can enhance performance and the acquisition and building of motor skills

o It Increases mind’s familiarity with desired motion o Mental rehearsal and visualization both use the power of imagery to improve performance and acquisition of

motor skills. o Involves the technique of mentally repeating a movement, specific skill or the entire performance before

performing it – mentally experiencing success. o Used in sports such as weight-lifting, high jumping and by athletes that are unable to train through sever weather,

illness or injury o This increases their familiarity with their desired motion, enhancing their confidence managing anxiety.

▪ Most effective when practised at least once, thoughts are narrowed, there is a sense of ‘experiencing, seeing a successful performance, practise and having vivid, realistic pictures at performance speed.

▪ HOWEVER it is hard for coaches to control athletes thoughts and some are unproductive/daydream o Benefits include:

▪ Improved concentration ▪ Helps correct errors ▪ Additional practice; and ▪ Confidence and managed anxiety levels/arousal ▪ Narrows thoughts to task ▪ Heightens concentration ▪ Provides clear idea of what needs to be down

o Requires: ▪ Vivid and realistic pictures at performance speed. ▪ Practice and development for positive results. ▪ Exclusion of distractions. ▪ Experiencing the environment – sense of colours, sounds, feeling the movement ▪ Seeing successful performance.

o Example: Downhill skiers, gymnasts, high jumpers and divers all visualize their performance with their eyes shut and move their body as if they were performing to help reduce anxiety and improve performance.

Relaxation Techniques

o Includes techniques that assist in controlling high levels of arousal – are a series of techniques that seek to control the body’s response to stress

o Improved concentration and increases motivation o Decreases respiration rate, heart rate, and blood pressure o Includes progressive muscular relaxation, meditation, centred breathing o While optimal arousal is desirable for good performance, over arousal can tarnish even the best efforts. o Anxiety and arousal can be controlled and channelled into performance improvement by adopting relaxation

techniques. o Optimal relaxation is important for effective imagery and concentration, and combining the mind and body to

eliminate performance stress o A number of techniques are available, so the athlete must experiment and work out which methods make optimal

arousal attainable for their specific performances. Examples are: 1. Progressive muscular relaxation: involves relaxing muscle groups using special exercises. 2. Mental relaxation: relaxing the body through controlled breathing, relaxing mind and gaining a ‘floating

feeling’ 3. Meditation: used to calm down athlete so they can be in a positive mindset. It slows the body down,

relaxes all muscles and has a direct effect on breathing and heart rate. 4. Centred breathing: involves controlling breathing to release tension. 5. Self-hypnosis: the power of suggestion to have the mind accept a particular level of anxiety. 6. Mental rehearsal: concentrating on rehearsing the performance of the task, rather than feelings.

Goal-Setting

o Goals are targets that the individual aspires to achieve. They are essential to an athlete’s development, allowing them to maintain motivation and drive, as well as increase pride and self-confidence.

o They have many features, but most importantly they must be attainable. If an individual cannot achieve their goals they will lose interest and direction.

o Provides an athlete with reason to persevere with training o They provide FOCUS, give DIRECTION and help people realise ASPIRATIONS o Goals can be short or long term, behavioural or performance focused o Provided focus, gives direction, motivates and redirects focus if lost o Goals need to: SMART

▪ S: Specific ▪ M: Measureable ▪ A: Attainable ▪ R: Relevant ▪ T: Time-Bound

1. Goals can be short term or long term 2. Goals can be behavioural or performance orientate

Short term ▪ Can be completed in a short time ▪ Stepping-stones to long term goals ▪ serve as checkmarks by which other goals can be measured ▪ Short-term goals are the most beneficial as they serve as

checkpoints by which the long term goal can be measured. Goals can be behavioural or performance orientated

▪ Should be inflexible and not of concern is not achieved ▪ Renegotiation can occur rather than reinforcing feelings of falilers ▪ E.g. “I will complete at least 3 endurance training sessions this week

Long term

▪ Completed over a long period of time. Often incorporate more short term goals.

▪ E.g. complete the City to Surf fun run

Behavioural ▪ Relate to the behaviour of the athlete → observable and

measurable rather than aspirations. ▪ E.g. aiming to be at training on time, diet. ▪ - E.g. be punctual at training, or control temper whilst coaches use

behavioural agrements to monitor desired improvements in athlete behaviour and highlight performance of developing workable relationship

Performance

▪ Relate to competition goals → should write down so remain the main focus

▪ Desired level of success ▪ E.g. getting a gold medal. ▪ E.g. reach a state, national or

Olympic level

❖ Research case studies of athletes from different sports and ascertain that nature of their motivation and the psychological strategies they employ – Note: They both utilise different strategies to deal with arousal etc.

Athlete Psychological Strategies Used How Might it Improve Performance

John Wilkinson (Rugby)

o Puts stress on himself o Goals Setting: short term, it’s SMART “let me

kick the bar” - More difficult and stressful in training that it could be in a a game - Different challenges

o Less stressed and more relaxed o Goal setting: Understand what to do and how

to deal with an issue under pressure as he conducted in during training - Set an aim that improves technique in performance e.g. increase chance of kicking goal

Michael Jordan (Basketball)

o Relaxation: Joking around - Listening to Music - and Take mind away from game itself

o Concentration: Focus on athletic skill and put it with the team

o Goal Setting: Challenges himself to be the best basketball player every moment he plays

o Relaxation:Improves concentration and motivation by controlling high levels of arousal

o Concentration: Get into mind set of the game- Concentrates on the specific task

o Goal setting: Reason to preserve with the game- Train harder to fix weaknesses and therefore, improve performance

the game - Determined by acknowledging weaknesses to improve in training

CQ3: How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

o Programs designed to improve performance must be supported by solid nutritional practices, taking into consideration type, amount and when to consume food and how to recoup expended energy

o Food is the life source for energy supply ▪ Adequate diet in an athlete helps;

⇒ Avoids the need for supplementation ⇒ Delay the onset of fatigue ⇒ Aids the recovery process after a performance.

o Fluid is also important because it assists; ▪ Temperature regulation ▪ Prevents dehydration ▪ Prevents damage to organs by diluting toxic waste, aiding oxygen transport to cells, assisting in

transporting waste, and helping eliminate CO2 through plasma o While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the specific roles of

carbohydrates and hydration are the two most import considerations. o Deficiency in fuel or fluid = substandard performance and can place the health of the athlete at risk o Different types of athletic performance have different nutritional needs

● Many athletes require a diet higher in carbohydrate, protein and total energy intake than non-athletes ● To ensure optimal performance in training and competition the correct balance of energy sources,

nutrients and fluids is essential

Pre Performance

o Food consumed prior to activity o About PREPARING the body for exercise o Useful only if digested and its energy and nutrients made available to where they are required in the body o Common for energy reserves to deplete fluid reserves often cannot keep up with the body’s requirements

● E.G Glycogen reserves can be lowered by 55% as a result of sustained aerobic activity lasting one hour and fully depleted in a two-hour session.

● E.g. Bout of explosive activity lasting from 1-5 mins, as in interval training, basketball and football (depending on activity time, intensity and rest intervals), can cause acute depletion in the exercised muscles.

o Careful consideration needs to be taken when choosing; ▪ What ▪ How much ▪ When to consume food prior to competitions

o Helps obtain the highest possible benefits from our diet towards performance.

Type of Food o Different foods have differing amounts of energy o The type of food consumed prior to competition directly affects the quantity of energy available o Athletes are advised to eat mostly complex carbohydrates (low GI)

▪ THIS IS because they are broken down into glucose or stored as glycogen, providing slow energy release

▪ E.g. This is beneficial for endurance athletes rather than immediate release of glucose provided by high GI foods

▪ Examples: peanuts, muesli bars, and brown rice. o Foods high in fat, protein and fibre require longer periods to digest than most other foods

▪ Consuming large amounts may lead to possible indigestion and discomfort ▪ In this case, ‘liquid meals’ are recommended (ones with high carb content0

⇒ Whencorrectly prepared can be an adequate source of nutrition and energy, as well as hydration.

Amounts of Food o Food ingested before performance has the potential to cause discomfort can increase due to

anxiety leading to nausea ● E.g. ESPECIALLY BAD in high intensity or sustained events like running as opposed to

events like cycling, skiing and swimming where athletes have the benefit of support in one form or another

o The appropriate quantity of food related to the type of competition ● E.g. Competitors in sustained, endurance type competition require more kilojoules to

fuel their metabolism than those in less demanding

When to Eat o Normal, large carbohydrate meal (e.g. pasta) 3-4 hours prior to competition o As time period to competition become shorter – food intake should be snacks and liquids o When to stop eating;

▪ Hard carbohydrates should be stopped at 2 hours prior ▪ Snacks for 1-hour ▪ Liquid supplements up to 30 minutes.

Hydration o Drink adequate fluid in the preceding days

▪ This increases the body’s weight, particularly if glycogen has been increased in the diet (because 1 gram of Glycogen stores 2.6 grams of water)

o General Rules ● 500 – 600mL of fluid should be consumed in the two to three period prior to endurance

performance ● 250-300mL in the last quarter of an hour.

Carb Loading o Is the technique of changing nutrition by loading/saturating the muscles with glycogen in

preparation for a high-intensity endurance activity of more that 90 minutes o Maximizes glycogen stores, thus enhancing endurance and performance

● Average muscle glycogen levels are approximately 100–120 mmol/kg, but can increase by up to one-third in response to carbohydrate loading

Achieved through:

o Now believed that athletes involved in short-term, low-intensity activities do not need to ‘glycogen load’.

o A normal diet supplies sufficient amounts. o In the case of endurance athletes, muscle saturation of glycogen is best achieved through:

● A balanced diet that is high in carbohydrates, providing about 7–12 grams per kilo of body mass (weight)

⇒ E.g. Complex carbohydrates such as breads, rice, grains and pastas are ideal. These may need to be ingested with simple carbohydrates such as soft drink, honey and jams to ensure carbohydrate intake is maximised.

● Tapering training for 2-4 days before competition, enabling glycogen supplies to maximise (at max levels)

⇒ People who need to carbohydrate load will already be involved in training schedules that regularly utilise stored glycogen, so the body’s ability to store fuel will be greater than that of non- athletes

Benefits:

o Can improve performance by up to 2-3% (Increased muscle and liver glycogen accumulated as a result of a proper carbohydrate loading program has a positive effect on endurance) ● This makes it an important pre-competition strategy for endurance athletes

o Average glycogen levels can increase by up to 1/3response to carbohydrate loading ● Having the benefit of delaying the point at which the muscles being repeatedly used run

out of fuel in endurance events FOR UP TO 1 HOUR

Considerations

o Much debate about the effectiveness of this – aims to maximise glycogen stores o Important that procedures are fully understood and implemented effectively for full benefits to

be realised. ▪ E.g. Athletes who fail to taper, consume too much fibre or consume insufficient

carbohydrate (preferring other nutrients instead) will fail to have glycogen reserves maximised during the loading process.

Example o Examples of high-carb exercise meals include MUST BE EASILY DIGESTED

▪ Breakfasts: oatmeal or whole grain cold cereal, skim milk/soy milk, fruits like bananas or berries, fruit juices, yoghurts and pancakes

▪ Lunch: Turkey, Tuna, peanut butter sandwich, whole wheat pasta salad, fruit, yoghurt and fruit juices

▪ Dinners: Baked chicken, fish, potato, pasta, rice and veggies ▪ Snacks: Energy bars, fruits, cereals, yoghurt and fruit

During Performance

o FOCUSED on maintaining ENERGY levels o Endurance events, particularly in hot and possibly humid conditions, can have a significant impact on the body’s

fuel and fluid supplies. o In these events, the need for carbohydrate and electrolyte replacement depends on a number of factors including

intensity; duration, humidity, clothing type and individual sweat rates. o Electrolytes are salts and minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, that are important for

many body functions such as chemical breakdown and nerve conduction. Electrolytes can be lost through perspiration during exercise.

o In the case of moderate to high-intensity activities lasting longer than 60 minutes additional fuel in the form of carbohydrate supplementation is needed to avoid glycogen depletion.

Food Liquid

o Aim is to conserve muscle glycogen and maintain blood glucose levels

o Carbohydrate supplementation is needed to avoid glycogen depletion exercise intensities above 75 per cent of aerobic capacity, liquid carbohydrate feeding (sports drinks) can delay glycogen depletion by up to 30 minutes.

o To prevent thermal distress conditions during performance, adequate hydration is necessary

o Thirst is not a good indicator of the body’s need for fluid; by that time, dehydration has already started to take effect

o Runners lose between 3-5 cups each hour, so it is important never to miss an opportunity to ‘top up’.

o Glycogen supplementation is not needed for low-intensity, short-duration exercise.

o Adequate hydration by regular fluid intake must be maintained by following a fluid replacement plan to match bodies requirements ● Suggested that 200–300 mL of fluid,

preferably in the form of a sports drink, be taken in every 15–20 minutes during exercise.

o An athlete should not wait until thirst develops before replenishing lost fluid

o Sports gels and bars are being used more increasingly by athletes as these are easy to consume and digest quickly providing a quick release of energy for the athlete as well as reduce the risk of gastrointestinal problems.

o Cool plain water or sports drinks that have four to eight per cent carbohydrate concentration are recommended

o Trained and acclimatised athletes are able to control their body temperature more effectively than those who are untrained and who have failed to acclimatise (see figure 7.8).

o Light ‘airy’ clothing promotes heat loss through convection and evaporation.

o Avoid high temps and high humidity when running o Avoid excess fat and salt o Do not run if you are suffering from fever o Recognise heat stress o Adequate hydration by regular fluid intake must be

maintained and needs to the body's requirements and the exercise duration and intensity. 200-300 mL of fluid is recommended to be consumes every 15-20 minutes during exercise

Post-Performance

o Post-performance nutrition should focus on replacing energy stores as quickly as possible. o Post performance nutritional plan aims to return body to its pre event state ASAP, enabling training to resume in

preparation for next phase of comp o Post-performance nutrition involves replacing energy stores following exercise as quickly as possible. How well

athletes recover after a session of exercise will have an impact on their ability to perform in future training and competition.

o Best achieved through proactive recovery ● Emphasizes immediate refueling and rehydration that continues until a pre-event state is obtained.

o After performance glycogen levels are depleted, athletes recommended to intake a high carb diet within first 2 hours post performance, as it will restore glycogen levels

o REHYDRATION for 8-12 hours after o The best way to recover is to act quickly and eat food with high carbohydrate content. This is best achieved by:

● Immediately replacing depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores. An intake high in carbohydrate and inclusive of food and drinks with a high glycaemic index (GI) e.g. Balances, white bread

● Rehydrating to replace fluid and electrolytes lost during the event. A program for rehydration requires special fluid intake (water/carbohydrate solutions of five to eight per cent) in quantities larger than normal

● Active rest that enhances the manufacture of red blood cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress-related movements.

● Dietary protein consumed immediately after a session is taken up more effectively by the muscle for rebuilding processes.

o If exercise is endurance, resynthesis of glycogen can take up to 24 hours o Protein needed to help with tissue repair, thus carb and protein rich foods are

● Yoghurt with fresh fruits, Fruit smoothie, Chicken roll, Pasta salad, Rice crackers with peanut butter spread, Fruit juice, Vegetables, Whole fruits, vegetables and juices are good examples as they and carbohydrate rich and potassium rich.

● All these examples are high in carbohydrate which is critical in the restoration of glycogen store recommended e.g. milk shake, fruit smoothie, and sports bar

o Active rest that disperses waste and blood.

❖ Compare the dietary requirements of athletes in different sports considering pre, during and post performance needs

o Difference – different people have different needs in terms of “energy in” and “energy out” ▪ Usain Bolt 10 seconds – not as crucial ▪ Tour de France 5 hours – CRUCIAL pre, during and post

o Important for recovery

o If you eat something before it might not sit well

Sport Pre-Performance During Performance Post-Performance

Power (100m runner)

o Consume sufficient carbohydrate to fuel training needs

o Don’t aim for carb load o Body comp is important o Not relying on muscle glycogen o Mindful of maintain a low body fat

levels → need to eat variety of foods to meet nutritional requirements

o Priority remains with intestinal discomfort → avoid hunger and not risking discomfort of full stomach

o Carb based meal to begin with e.g. baked beans on toast (3-4 hours), fruit (1-2 hrs)

o Moderate portions of protein, lean meat, eggs, lentils etc

o Doesn’t really apply o Following foods are suitable

to eat less than 1 hour b/w events

o Nutritious foods such as yogurt (probiotics), fresh fruit (vitamins and minerals), low-fat flavoured milk (calcium) and sandwiches (carb)

o Hydrate → refill amount of liquid lost through sweat

Team (Netball) o Iron is important nutrient for growth

→ impact against other players or the floor may increase iron losses through increased red blood cell destruction

● May lead to players taking iron supplements or incorporate more iron (red meat, leafy greens) in meals

o Pre-game meal should fuel and hydrate players

o High car choices eaten at least 2-3 hours before a game e.g. fruit salad with yogurt

o Source of fluid with the pre-game snack

o Sports drinks promote better hydration and provide a fuel source to maintain blood glucose levels

o Watermelon can be consumed to replace natural electrolytes

o Water is enough → for short games

o Hydrate quite frequently o Only playing one game;

should only have water

o Effective recovery begins with the intake of fluid, carb, protein and other important nutrients

o Sports drinks o Liquid meal supplements o Flavoured milk o Fruit o Sandwiches o Cereal bars o Chocolate milk o Carb → replenish

glycogen o Protein → muscle repair

Endurance (triathlon) o Concept of carb loading is popular

2 days prior ● Necessary because deplete

every store o Adequately full muscle glycogen →

consume 7-12g of carb per kg body weight for 24-48 hrs prior

o Amount of carbs depends on duration of triathlon

o Crucial to eat a pre-race meal in order to top up muscle and liver glycogen stores

o Pre-race meal should contain 1-2g of carb per kg about 1-4 hrs before race

o Foods like liquid meal supplements, sports bars, bananas and juice

o Eating food in long training rides is essential to help provide carb to working muscles, meet daily energy, nutrient requirements and keep hunger at bay

o Elite → rely on sports drinks and sports gel

o Take variety of food → regular and sports food e.g. fruit bars, sports bars, bananas, dried fruit

o Use fluids such as sports drinks to simultaneously meet fluid and carb requirements

o Based around nutritious carb foods to meet daily fuel and nutrient demands

o Persistent fatigue, poor recovery, illness and unwanted weight loss → common who fail to meet demands

o Chocolate milk, yogurt immediately after

o Lean meat and poultry, pasta → replenish stores

o Hydration is important

o Sip on water or a sports drink during 1 hour before race to top up fluid levels

SUPPLEMENTATION

o Dietary supplementation is found in many forms, including vitamins, minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products

o Supplement intake is routine for many competitors because it is believed to improve athletic performance. o However, while perhaps supplying a physiological boost, supplements may be of little value if the diet is already

well balanced in terms of nutritional requirements.

Vitamins/Minerals

Vitamins Minerals

o VITAMINS: are inorganic compounds that are essential to maintain bodily functions

o Required in only very small quantities in the body

o Do not contain or provide energy

o Function as catalysts that help the body use energy nutrient

● In this capacity, they assist such functions as energy release, metabolic regulation and tissue building.

o A balanced diet is important because food is the main source for vitamins.

o However, some athletes are inclined to take supplements even though their normal diet contains all the necessary vitamins

o No cause for concern in multi vitamins

o Excessive amounts (megadoses) is VERY bad causing side effects

o MINERAL: like vitamins, minerals belong to the group of micronutrients (inorganic substances) that are essential for the body to function properly, but do not provide energy.

o Iron and calcium most commonly deficient in athlete ● Inadequate supplies will affect performance and contribute to health

problems

IRON

o Found in haemoglobin, which comprises most of the red blood cells in the body LOW haemo affect bc cells need it

o As these cells collect, transport and deliver oxygen, diminished haemoglobin levels affect performance because the muscle cells are deprived of oxygen, which is needed to break down nutrients and provide energy

o Condition commonly associated with activity is ‘sports anaemia characterized by lack of energy and general fatigue.

o A balanced diet is an excellent source of iron, with high amounts being found in lean meat as well as grain products, and dark, leafy green vegetables such as spinach.

CALCIUM

o Calcium deficiency is more specific to health than performance, as it is vital for bone structure, making bones strong and healthy.

o The quality of bone tissue deteriorates gradually from the age of about mid-twenties, and this contributes to osteoporosis (brittle bones) later in life.

o Adequate calcium intake during childhood and adolescence has a positive effect later in life

o Important sources of calcium are dairy products, leafy green vegetables and fish.

o Athletes should look at these dietary sources rather than supplementation.

o People most at risk are;

o Should only be taken is 100% necessary

o People most at risk of iron deficiency are

▪ Endurance athletes (sweat)

▪ Women (menstruation) ▪ Vegetarians (not as much

red meat in diet) ▪ Adolescent males (growth

spurt).

▪ Females, due to wanting to lower their fat content of diet, as well as menopause

▪ Females/vegetarians/lactose intolerant people as a result of insufficient intake of dairy products

▪ Females who have amenorrhea or menopause – body produces less oestrogen THEN body absorbs less

calcium and craates less new bone

Protein

o Proteins primary importance in the body is its structural role in holding the cells together and in the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue. It also has a functional role in hormone production and nervous system transmissions

o Favoured by strength builders o Protein is composed of various types of amino acids. o Protein supplements have had strong favour with weight lifters, body builders and strength athletes for a long

time. o These supplements may be natural or synthetic and available in powder, fluid or solid formulations o Protein can be a source of energy under extreme conditions, when carbohydrate and fat supplies are in very short

supply or exhausted. o Most people need to consume about 1 gram of protein for each kilogram of body weight o Well-balanced diets containing fish, chicken, red meat, cheese, breads, cereals and some types of bean contain

ample protein o In the average Australian diet, 12 to 15 per cent of the recommended intake should consist of protein. Studies

indicate that this level is easily achieved, with most people attaining 150 per cent of the recommended intake

Caffeine

o Caffeine has ergogenic aid properties means that it improves performance by assisting specific metabolic processes

▪ A diuretic is a drug that increases the amount of fluid (water and urine) passing from the body (causes dehydration)

▪ An ergogenic aid is a substance or practice that improves or is believed to improve physical performance ▪ IMPROVED cognitive performance ▪ IT’S A stimulant

o In the case of endurance performance, it is the ability of caffeine to mobilise fat stores in the body and convert them into free fatty acids that is important.

o Working muscles oxidise free fatty acids, making them a usable source of energy. o It is believed that caffeine promotes ‘glycogen sparing’, a process whereby fat is metabolised early, sparing finite

reserves of glycogen and subsequently prolonging the point at which exhaustion will occur. o Research suggests that glycogen sparing is most significant in the first 15 minutes of sustained endurance activity

where it is reported that glycogen consumption can be decreased by as much as 50% under normal circumstances o May assist fat metabolism in endurance events – relates to endurance sports such as marathon running

▪ Caffeine can mobile fat stores in the body and convert them into free fatty acids ▪ Working muscles oxidise free fatty acids, making them a usable source of energy ▪ Believed to promote ‘glycogen sparing’ – a process whereby fat is met abolished early, sparing finite

reserves of glycogen and subsequent prolonging the point at which exhaustion will occur ▪ Research suggests…

o May improve cognitive processes and alertness o Until 2004 – Caffeine was on the World Anti-Doping Agency’s banned list for urine concentration of greater than

12mg/l This was changed and new result on new research... o EFFECTS

▪ Increases HR + can affect heart rhythm ▪ Relaxes smooth muscle (eg intestines) ▪ Can produce symptoms of anxiety in high doses ▪ Decreases athlete's rating of perceived exertion (feels as though its easier than it actually is)

Creatine Products

o Creatine is produced by the body’s cells and is found in meat. o The molecule is converted into creatine phosphate in the muscles to assist in the resynthesis of ATP o THEREFORE – functions to assists in the resynthesis of ATP o Cannot be stored so often supplemented by strength builders o LARGE doses may be detrimental to health o Thus, it is very important for short explosive activities, such as weightlifting and sprinting o Food intake in a normal diet is often sufficient for creatine supplies. o Because creatine cannot be stored in the body, the idea of creatine is supported by many anaerobic athletes →

consuming large doses of creatine over a number of days may slightly increase muscle storage, thus improve explosive movements.

o Benefits/for; ▪ Can help with recovery, faster recovery ▪ Mainly helps anaerobic sports (100m sprint or sport with high sprint reps e.g. rugby or soccer)

❖ Critically analyse the evidence for an against supplementation for improved performance

Case for Case Against

Vitamins o Some athletes feel that strenuous exercise

produces stress, and may require antioxidant vitamins (specifically, vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene).

o Supplementation should not be a response to a desire for improved performance, but rather arise out of special needs — for example, ill health or the unavailability of a normal diet while travelling (E.g. scurvy due to lack of vitamin C)

o Fruits and veggies are strongly recommended as ideal sources of antioxidants

o When the athlete is undergoing long-term weight loss

o Travelling to countries with different food choices o Having a pre-existing vitamin or mineral deicficenty

which can cannot be corrected through diet o Have a heavy competition schedule that interferes

with normal eating

o Can be wasteful and expensive is body has no use for it – b/c body excretes excess vitamins

o Super-supplements of megadoses can be dangerous

o Body can store Vitamin A and D – excess can cause joint pain

o Excess vitamin A can cause nausea, loss of appetite, skin dryness fatigue etc.

o Fruits and veggies are a better source o Research shows super doses do not improve

performance o Intake of excessive quantities is not necessary o Potentially dangerous

Minerals Iron:

o Helps deliver oxygen to the working muscles and enhances adaption to endurance training

o Lack of iron impairs aerobic capacity

Calcium

o Inadequate consumption can weaken bones,

increase the risk of stress fractures and inhibit

proper muscle functioning, particularly in high

impact sports involving running or jumping.

o Under-consumption of calcium can lead to

osteoporosis.

o Calcium absorption diminishes with age.

Iron

o Supplementation is generally deemed

unnecessary because diet can provide

adequate levels required.

Calcium

o Supplementation is generally deemed unnecessary because diet can provide adequate levels required.

o Female athletes have a higher needs and

usually fall short of adequate intake.

Protein o Supplementation in specific cases such as strength

athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and possibly adolescents undergoing a growth spurt, the majority of the population, including athletes, are well served by a balanced diet

o Endurance athletes in training require extra protein to cover a small proportion of energy costs of their training and to assist in the repair recovery process

o NOTE – research does not support the idea that athletes require massive amounts of protein in their diet

o Research supports the idea that most athletes do not need or benefit from protein supplementation..

o Surveys reveal that most athletes consume well in excess of 1.2–2.0 g/kg body mass per day, making supplementation both needless and wasteful.

o In addition, many protein supplements contain additives that have no health benefit and may increase the risk of certain cancers

o High amounts of protein can increase the amount of calcium excreted in the urine and possibly contribute to osteoporosis.

o Excess protein must be eliminated. o The processing and filtration of additional urea can

interfere with kidney function. o Increase calcium excretion in urine and increase

the risk of osteoporosis.

o Decrease the intake of vitamins and minerals.

o Protein cannot be stored like CHO and the

processing and filtration of additional urea can

interfere with kidney function

o Increase the risk of certain cancer

Caffeine o While much of the evidence relating to caffeine

and performance is still inconclusive o Good for cognitive function, anaerobic

performance and aerobic performance o Caffeine does appear to improve cognitive

processes, such as alertness o Many studies report improved concentration,

‘clear headedness’, improved memory and reasoning following consumption of mild amounts of caffeine.

o Enhances endurance performance because it promotes an increase in the utilisation of fasts as an exercise fuel and ‘spares’ the use of limited muscles stores of glycogen

o Studies agree that caffeine does not appear to enhance performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting.

o Diuretic properties of caffeine, suggesting that it should be avoided as it may contribute to dehydration

o Not good for athletes working in hot, humid environments, but in general, for athletes accustomed to its use, the link with dehydration is not well supported

o Caffeine-containing drinks have a diuretic effect

cause an athlete to become dehydrated.

o Impairment or alteration of fine motor control and

technique, over-arousal (interfering with recovery

and sleep patterns).

o Excessive caffeine intake can lead to a fast heart

rate, excessive urination, nausea, vomiting,

restlessness, anxiety, depression, tremors, and

difficulty sleeping

Creatine Products o Creatine cannot be stored in the body, the idea of

supplementation is supported by many athletes, particularly those who are involved in predominantly anaerobic programs

o Good for vegetarians ie. small amounts 2-3 grams taken a couple of times each day and congested with carbohydrate and water provide the best results

o Use of creatine products can raise creatine levels in muscle by 20–30 per cent

o Many researchers have found little, if any benefit. o There is no evidence so far to support the claim

that fat metabolism is improved. o The body is unable to store excess amounts of

creatine so supplementation has little effect on athletes who already consume high amounts of protein.

o Not for endurance o Believe the sub- stance might be directly related to

muscle cramps

o The benefits, while only marginal, will be with those in explosive type activities rather than those in endurance type events

o Muscle hypertrophy is more easily achieved when training is assisted by creatine supplementation

o Accelerates gains in muscle size and strength.

o There is a 5-8% uptake in anaerobic capacity,

especially when performing repeated bouts of

high-intensity exercise for 6-60 seconds.

o Prior creatine loading enhances glycogen storage

and CHO loading in a trained muscle

o Can increase creatine storage by up 25% and in

some athletes 50%.

o HELPS FOR SHORT BURSTS NOT ANYTHING LONGER

o Causes increases in weight o Larger doses of creatine may have health risks

including the possibility of developing renal disease o Creatine users may be more susceptible to cramps,

muscle spasms and even pulled muscles.

o A transient (brief) increase in body weight during

the initial loading week (water). This consistently

disappeared during the following 7 days

RECOVERY STRATEGIES

o Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume normal training and competition within the time span of the training program.

o Rest allows both physiological and psychological revitalisation to take its course.

o During rest, muscles repair and rebuild while energy and fluid levels are restored to pre-event levels.

o Recovery can be short term or long term, depending on the type of event or activity.

▪ Short-term recovery refers to the period immediately following training, game or performance.

⇒ Cool-down following training, together with low intensity exercise to promote soft tissue repair and disperse lactic acid

⇒ The nutritional component of this period of recovery is characterised by replacement of fluid and energy supplies as quickly as possible.

▪ Long-term recovery refers to recovery between competitions or following periods of peaking where the body needs to be rested from the demands of regular training.

⇒ Part of the annual plan in advanced training programs. ⇒ An example is rugby league footballers having an extended break from training in the period

following the grand final. ⇒ Nutritional goals for long-term recovery relate to a continuation of healthy eating practices and

avoidance of weight gain despite lower activity levels.

Physiological Strategies

o Need to focus on two elements; 1. the removal of metabolic by-products An effective cool-down is the recommended manner for

removal of metabolic by-products. 2. Nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy-rich nutrients.

Strategy Main Features Proposed Benefits to Performance/Examples

Cool Down o Purpose of cool-down following exercise is to gradually

reduce heart rate and metabolism to the pre-exercise state.

o In doing this, a number of other elevated body functions, such as ventilation rate, blood distribution and adrenaline levels, gradually return to normal

o Removal of lactic acid – which causes stiff and soreness o ACTIVE RECOVERY

Main features:

o Needs to be active and gradual. o 5-10 minutes of light aerobic activity, with the aim of

slowly returning the body to pre-exercise temperature. o Static stretching must also be used as muscle fibbers

involved in exercise tend to shorten during aggressive movements - stretching assists in lengthening, relaxing and realigning fibres, making the normal ROM easier to accomplish

o Research suggests using compression garments (e.g. skins) during the recovery period may have considerable physiological benefits.

o Gradually takes body back to pre-exercise state

o Aiding in the removal of metabolic waste products, including lactic acid, which contribute to muscle stiffness and soreness, as well as preventing blood pooling.

o May also assist preventing muscle spasms, cramps and preventing delayed onset muscle soreness.

o Also relaxes, lengthens and realigns muscle fibbers.

o Reduced symptoms associated with delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)

o Example: an elite 200m swimmers will follow their training with 20 minutes of slow swimming in order to effectively disperse lactic acid and return the body to pre-exercise state. Blood sample technology is sometimes used to measure blood lactate levels and ensure it has removed, diminishing the likeliness of developing muscle soreness.

Passive Recovery

o Just resting the body o

Nutritional Plan

Fluid Recovery – Hydration

o To maintain body temperature, the athletes must be aware of strategies to conserve body fluid and adopt practices to replace fluid.

o The body loses considerable fluid in endurance events, with losses greater than 1% affecting performance, while progressive loss poses threat of dehydration. Dehydration is characterized by:

● Increase in pulse rate and body temperature. ● Decrease in blood pressure and water in cells ● Gradual decline in circulatory function.

Main features:

o The amount of fluid loss varies from one individual to another and is influenced by altitude, temperature, exercise intensity, exercise duration and sweating

o Elite athletes weigh themselves before and after exercise, the weight difference representing fluid loss → drink 600mL for every half kilogram lost

o General rule → intermittent sipping replaces lost fuel o Severe dehydration may require 24-48 hours to enable

fluids to be replenished.

o Drinks such as Gatorade have the potential to replace a full range of nutrients including carbohydrates, vitamins and potassium and enhance the hydration process

o Prevents dehydration o Really important for endurance sports o Pre, during and post – IMPORTANT

Fuel Recovery

o The need to replenish depleted glycogen and blood sugar in the first 30mins -2hrs following exercise is of paramount importance to fuel recovery → muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment.

o 50 - 100 grams of carbohydrate within two hours of exercise is necessary.

o Some protein is important because the amino acids repair damaged tissues

o Should continue for days after competition o Examples: of carbohydrate rich foods and drinks

include fruit drinks, rice, pasta, bread, milk, yogurt and fruit, Gatorade

o Prevents the effects of dehydration and allows for glycogen sparing and quick recovery.

o Protein also enhances insulin supply, which increases the ability of the body to store glycogen → ratio of carbohydrates to protein is 4:1.

Neural Strategies

o Aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise o Help brain and spinal cords and nerves to muscles these systems fatigue due to change in chemicals (e.g. lactic

lacic) in muscles after heavy exercise neural aims to RELAX muscles o Strenuous exercise impacts central nervous system – causes fatigue o Popular in collision sports like rugby league

Strategy Main Features Proposed Benefits to Performance

Hydrotherapy o Involves the use of water to relax, soothe

pain and assist metabolic recovery o Use of steam rooms, spas and heated

swimming pools. o Allows for active, low impact exercise,

where gravity assists movements such as jumping, swimming and jogging, lessening the risk of injury

o Can be used in conjunction with Cyrotherapy (use of cold) techniques to help accelerate blood flow

o COLD VASOCONSTRICTION o HOT VASODILATION

o Water provides support for movements, and eliminates jarring and straining movements that are associated with land drills and field exercises

o Hot water immersion: causes dilation of blood vessels, increase in surface body temperature and an overall lowering of blood pressure, enhancing the removal of waste, increase blood flow VASODILATION

o Cold water immersion: constricts blood vessels and decreases heart rate vasoconstriction

o Contrast water therapy: alternating hot water with cold water. Athlete moves between pools and showers of differing temperatures with the practice enhancing the cycle of blood vessel dilation/constriction thereby increasing blood mobility through the tissues. This causes a rapid dispersal of waste, reduces muscle soreness and promotes faster recovery combo, most effective, hot cold helps, lymph system to expand, contract, helps flow of waste FLUSHES

o Example: athletes often use this after activity or a game (e.g. rugby).

Massage o Performed prior to or after even o Sports massage extends from the

cool-down, focusing on body and mental relaxation → important as exercise-induced tension can cause stress on the body

o Needs to directly address the needs of the athlete arising from the demands of the sport.

o Assists in injury prevention o Relieves swelling o Reduces muscle tension o Eliminates toxic by-products o Promotes flexibility and prepares the athlete for their

next training session → shortens recovery time

● For example, a netball centre court player who spends considerable time leaping, passing, sprinting and changing direction has different massage demands to a cyclist.

o Exercised can cause stress onto joints, ligaments, tendons etc

o Range of techniques ● Compressions ● Cross-fibre ● Swedish ● Tender point

o Rehabilitation muscle: focus on injury treatment, specifically cramps, muscle damage, ligament repair, bruises, aches, general discomfort and soreness

o Massage shortens the recovery time between training workouts and events.

Tissue Damage Strategies

o Tissue damage may be minor, as in the case of soreness, or more long term as might be the case with bruising or muscle tears.

Strategy Main Features Proposed Benefits to Performance

Cyrotherapy o Involves the use of cooling to slow the inflammatory process, treating

injury and quickening recovery from performances, particularly those that involve collisions or sustained intensity e.g. football, rugby, soccer and endurance

o METHODS ● RICE: used for soft tissue damage → ice on and off for 40

minutes. ● Ice baths: immersion of affected body part in a bath of ice for a

short period of time → constricts blood vessels, then after bath, vessels enlarge and allow oxygen-rich blood to stimulate muscle recovery.

⇒ Flushes waste products, like lactic acid out of affected areas; decreases metabolic activity and slows down physiological processes, as well as reducing swelling and muscle breakdown

⇒ NOTE -> the theory behind ice baths is that the intense exercise actually causes micro trauma, or tiny tears in muscle fibres. This muscle damage not only stimulates muscle class activity and helps repair the damage and strengthen the muscle, but it is also linked with delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) which occur between 24 and 72 hours

● Ice massage: using ice blocks to help cool down and realign damaged muscle fibres.→ If not removed quickly, it contributes to muscle soreness and stiffness and reduces flexibility

⇒ Cooling the site down, while helping realign muscle fibres that may have been damaged and transporting lactic acid out of the working muscle fibres

o Slow down the tissue inflammatory process, preventing the build-up of waste, treating injury and enhancing recovery time.

o Stimulates recovery due to oxygen rich blood flowing into muscles

o Causes v

Psychological strategies’

o Many provide significant physiological benefits; relaxation techniques target both the body and the mind. o Following hard training and demanding performances, athletes may experience symptoms of low concentration,

lack of motivation and increased levels of anxiety.

o Use of psychological strategies represents an important phase in emotional and possibly spiritual recovery.

Strategy Main Features Proposed Benefits to Performance

Relaxation o Very individual o Debriefing sessions and performance evaluations are necessary but

must be positive, focusing on the process and not the outcome. o Mind relaxing activities such as reading, listening to music, and watching

movies or television are helpful and used by most athletes. o Some physical/social activities such as light cross-training and/or golf are

preferred by others o Use relaxation techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation,

meditation, positive self-talk, visualization, warm baths and cross training are all valid relaxation techniques → preferences of individual.

o Adequate, restorative sleep is most important, allowing injuries and the body to heal and replenish energy stores

o DEBRIEFING sessions o PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS

o Facilitates physical and psychological recovery through the release of tension, lowering arousal levels following performance.

o When arousal levels are high, bodily functions like heart rate and blood pressure are too.

o Relaxation techniques reduce tension

CQ4: How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

STAGES OF SKILL ACQUISITION

Stage Definition Explanation Example

Basketball

Cognitive (planning) Short stage

Refers to mental processing of information, thinking and understanding

o Fundamental requirement Athlete gains understanding of task required by knowing what to do and an insight about how to do it

o Conceptualisation (clear mental image) needed for good movement reproduction visual guide e.g. demonstrations, videos, and info of important pints to guide learner through the skill

o Coaches must avoid “information overload” as it confuses the learner

o Difficulty of skill determines the number and magnitude of problems including error, awkwardness and disorientation and the time taken to master the skill

o Athletes must receive continuous feedback on progress o Positive learning reinforced + encouraged o Skills can be broken down into smaller movements so athlete

has some success o Coach give drills to improve learner’s coordination and feel o Rates of progress vary but depends on individual and how

sequences of skill building are organised

o Involve a discussion of what is involved and other subroutines demonstrations of person who has mastered skill

o Teach basic dribbling and passing: pass to each other with small distance between them.

o To teach a lay-up break it into subroutines; how to dribble, footwork to step to the ring, angle of approach, and later make the shot

Associative (Practise)

Connecting or Linking Ideas

o Identified by an emphasis on practise o Learner has acquired idea of what skill is so it needs to be

repeated to enhance synchronisation of mind and muscles o Smaller and less frequent errors than in cognitive stage o Feedback to improve skill when repeated during practise o Sense of fluency or smoothness develops learners kinesthesis

(sense of movement) they know subroutines and competent in assembly moves

o Learner eventually experiences some success and with more practise and feedback successes more frequent so learner gradually feels more at ease as confidence increases

o Needs constant assurance of success and gains to feel more at ease and confidence increases

o Learners remain at this stage for long period, even years o Some never progress to next sage – most reach level of skill

execution that is reasonable automatic but not perfect

o For basketball, practise jumping off appropriate foot for layup.

o Learn layup with right and left hand

o Coach could film to show what they are doing wrong

o Individual gains this assurance as he/she develops ability to execute a strong layup, with successes felt with frequent practise and drills coach also commends

Autonomous (automatic)

Being in full control of actions so they

o Advanced stage characterises by the ability to automatically execute skill

o basketball players execute layup efficiently w/o

become automatic

o Movement execution is properly sequences and performed instinctively

o Performer consolidation many discrete skills (subroutines) that comprise action

o Movements have characteristic fluency as subroutines sequence and blend in aesthetically pleasing motions known as temporal patterning (aesthetic and efficient)

o Movement is efficient looks good as muscle groups work in order and produce only necessary movements at right time

o Athlete is able to attend other cues whilst giving little thought on how to perform skill e.g. who to pass to as opposed to how to pass strategies and tactics

o Practise needed by mostly simulate competition situation o Unless specifically practise to improve technique, training

sessions should incorporate pressure drills to help adapt skills to real performance

worrying about the basics

o focus on strategies and tactics on the court - challenge defenders and work out who to pass ball too

o Netball game: easy to make pass but hard to know who to pass to or type of pass to use consider position as

a defence

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNER E.G. PERSONALITY, HEREDITY, CONFIDENCE, PRIOR EXPERIENCE, ABILITY

o The speed which learners are able to acquire certain motor skills depends on a number of factors, of which are most inherent features that vary considerably between individuals.

o Any two people will not acquire similar skills at the same pace → must be taken into account when learning skills. o E.g. some people better at gymnastics than athletics.

C.H.E.A.P C: Confidence

o The belief in oneself and their ability to complete a skill o Confidence develops success in learning situations but confidence can be destroyed by successive failures o Confidence unlocks energy and creativity and releases power of belief (something worthwhile can be achieved

through perseverance and effort) o Confidence underpins collaboration process with coaches and other learners so confidence people help

themselves and others. o Confident learners approach skill learning situations with feelings of being able to rise to the challenge and

outcome will be favourable regardless of difficulty o Self - image is big part of confidence and powerful in governing behaviour o Coach uses skill practices/ drills to increase difficulty but can cause negative feelings & doubt in ability o Coaches must develop sequential drills/strategies so achievement is progressive, gradual and within ones ability

level. o Positive achievement = enhanced confidence, nurtures self-image and provided foundation for future skill

building

Influence on Skill Acquisition If an individual in confident and positive in learning and performing a skill they are often more motivated and receptive

to failure, transcending through the stage of skill acquisition faster and performing in competition more consistently. H: Heredity

o Refers to the genetic characteristics we inherit from our parents o Genetic characteristics individuals are endowed with are unchangeable and limit the dimensions of individual

potential for performance in specific sports or aspects of a sport → e.g. speed, build, power. o Hereditary factors determine the ceiling for performance (limit how fast we can run, how high we jump) o The environment determines if we can reach the limits set by heredity o Hereditary characteristics influence success or in specific athletic events:

▪ The relative percentage of fast-twitch to slow - twitch muscle fibres:

⇒ Higher % of fast-twitch naturally more suited to sprint/explosive events e.g. Usian Bolt ⇒ Higher % slow-twitch more success at endurance events

▪ Somatotype: Is a persons body type or shape ⇒ Ectomorphy: linearity e.g. high jump ⇒ Mesomorphy: muscularity e.g. netball centres ⇒ Endomorphy: Roundness ⇒ Tendency towards particular body types determines an individual’s suitability for many

activities.E.g. gymnasts often perform better with an ectomorph shape. ▪ Gender:

⇒ Higher testosterone in males greater increases in strength and power and thus sports are separated

▪ Height ⇒ Height and weight provide considerable physical and biomechanical advantages for some and

make learning and execution of skills less difficult e.g. taller basketball player is at an advantage ▪ Conceptual ability:

⇒ Ability to visualise movement and make it materialise a significant factor, particularly first stages of learning.

Influence on Skill Acquisition Ability to learn a skill may or may not be related to success in competition → e.g. may be able to perform and execute a

skill with correct technique, but be unsuccessful in competition because other competitors have endowed more favourable characteristics for the event. Alternatively, some individuals may never be able execute a skill with precision even in training due to their hereditary. Eg. Small, stocky person may readily learn to high jump using correct technique but may be unsuccessful in competition

because other competitors are taller, leaner and better suited to jumping E: Prior Experience

o Previous experiences practising new skills or sports o Transfer of learning Similar movements learn/ prior experience can accelerate learning process o Others suggest amount of transfer depends on learning situation, learners perception, ability to make

connections between the two o Group situations have diverse backgrounds of experience of learners.

1. Some have lateral transfer - transfer from one task to another similar eg. Backhand in squash to backhand in tennis

2. More have vertical transfer - master lower order tasks as prerequisite for more difficult activity eg. Learning dolphin kick using a kickboard to learning butterfly stroke

o Degree that prior experience influences skill acquisition and performance varies but a good basket baller can quickly adapt to netball, a batsman in cricket to golf, a gymnast to diving

o Basic motor skills (coordination, balance, agility, speed) are develop through game- based activity, club sports, school PE

o Contribute to general development & represent a platform for further improvement

Influence Skill Acquisition An individual learning how to do a layup in basketball whom is a netballer will most likely progress from the cognitive to

the autonomous stage quite quickly, with less time having to be spent in the associative stage as they are applying skills they have already obtained. A: Ability

o An athlete may be inherently gifted through hereditary traits and a culmination of the above factors which involves the ease with which an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills

o Includes ▪ Sense acuity (sharpness) Good sense acuity allows individual to gather cues from instructional

situations quickly and can grasp key concepts, ideas and movements easily so they move through the learning stages promptly

▪ Perception ▪ Reaction time Some learners have ability to react quickly to specific stimuli which can lead to

advantage in contests eg. track events where response time to sound of gun affects result

▪ Intelligence Others have ability to readily comprehend practical tasks, solve problems, generate solutions, make rational decisions which can be used in captaincy roles and organisation positions

Influence Skill Acquisition An individual’s ability influences the ease at which they are able to learn and acquire a new skill, and the level of

precision and success at which they can implement and perform the new skill in competition. P: Personality

o A set of ideas that influence a person’s behaviour or motivation as a result of the individuals infinite social interactions and learning experiences throughout life. There are 4 broad personalities

o Blends with learning through an athletes behaviour o Coaches describe athletes in terms of observable traits:

▪ Positive learning traits are characteristics such as: ⇒ Willingness to learn, enthusiasm, positivity, cooperation, dedication, level of motivation,

willingness to listen, consistency, reliability, determination, ability, level of motivation, reliability, consistency

o For motor learning, certain aspects of personality tend to be more favourable with certain learning environments o Elite coaches recruit and develop people with physical talent as well as those who have positive learning

attributes (personal characteristics such as cooperativeness, determination, enthusiasm) as they are more: ▪ Receptive to instruction and advice ▪ Cooperative in performing set tasks ▪ Helpful in creating a productive learning environment

o Example of 4 types of learners: ▪ Eagle: know what they want and how to get it, driven, tactless, high energy, leaders ▪ Peacock: Enthusiastic, motivators, communicators, often exaggerate and are known to talk about things

rather than actually doing them ▪ Dove: Kind, sympathetic, avoid conflict, have difficult making decisions (and often spineless). They are

sensitive and quiet ▪ Owl: Detail orientated, must have all the facts. They can be overly critical, pessimistic and very

perspective

Influence on Skill Acquisition Those that possess positive learning attributes are more productive and motivated throughout the skill acquisition

process, and will most likely transcend through the learning stages quickly Be successful and consistent in the performance of the skill during competition.

❖ Describe how the characteristics of the learner can influence skill acquisition and the performance of skills

Cognitive Associative Autonomous

The cognitive/planning stage of involves the mental processing of info, thinking and understanding. The characteristics of the learner can influence this stage of skill acquisition as confident learners approach skill learning situations with feelings of being able to rise to the challenge and the outcome will be favourable regardless of difficulty. However, this stage can be quite daunting and if too much information is given, or the difficulty is too high, this result in failures, which can destroy confide

The associative stage of skill acquisition involves connecting or linking ideas so the learner has acquired the idea of what the skill is so it needs to be repeated to enhance synchronisation of the mind and muscles.

The autonomous or automatic stage of skill acquisition involves being in full control of actions so they become automatic. Characteristics such as confidence can lead to the athlete trying more intricate tactics

● Prior experience/success creates confidence, which can aid skill development.

▪ In this case, the confidence of the learner may lead to improved motivation and ability

▪ A basic heredity can lead to nature development of the skill and lead to faster autonomous

● Heredity can also aid cognitive skill acquisition as an inherited ability may increase the efficiency of learning a movement. For example, Laure Watsons height was heredity and made it suitable for her to play professional basketball.

● A person's ability can also affect the cognitive skill acquisition because if a person is good at general motor activities, this can aid skill acquisition and certain sports will suit them. For example, many parents enrol their children into Little Athletics to learn how to run properly and these basic skills can be used in other sports.

● Personality can also contribute as people with positive learning attributes are more receptive to instruction and advice, more cooperative in performing set tasks and more helpful in creating a productive learning environment.

to develop the skills whilst taking risks to take the difficulty to the next level.

▪ Heredity can also affect the rate at which the athlete can move through the stages of r-skill acquisition as people who already have the height or body build, such as height for basketball, may find it easier to develop a skill such as the lay-up.

▪ Prior experience, such as a netball player deciding to learn the layup in basketball will lead to more effective associative skill acquisition as they already have basic skills that can be reshaped to this particular activity.

▪ Once again, if a person has developed their ability to undertake motor activities, often due to previous experience such as participation in Little Athletics, this can lead to faster skill acquisition in the associative stage.

▪ An athlete’s personality is very important in this stage as they must be willing to learn and accept mistakes in order to improve. If an athlete has a poor motivation, they may give up after one failure, leading to an ineffective development of skill during the associative stage.

skill. Also, whilst the athlete may be gifted with heredity, when discussing skill and tactics, this can be lacking and affect autonomous skill development.

▪ Prior experience is important and can also result in a quicker progression to the autonomous stage as they may have developed hand-eye coordination that can make it easier to learn the skill. This also leads on to the ability of the athlete as previous experience can develop their ability to demonstrate coordination and fluency in the associative stage of the skill.

▪ The personality still remains important as a willingness to listen to any improvements and challenges that the coach may introduce can lead to better success of the skill acquisition.

How might It Influence? Why might it influence?

Confidence ● Positive A person who is more confident is more likely to have a

positive and willing attitude towards the activity/sport. Self-belief and self-belief leads to more chance

● Negative A person who is TOO confident may be let down and this can affect their self-esteem. Also, a person with a lack of confidence can have a low self-esteem and low belief meaning that they will not perform as well.

● Loss of interest in learning and practising the skill ● Increased ability to focus on the task

● Confidence is the belief in oneself and their ability

● It influences motivation, concentration and self-esteem

Heredity ● Gender may make the athlete more suited physiologically to a

specific sport ● Somatotypes may limit an athlete’s performance in a particular sport

e.g. endomorph in gymnastics

● Testosterone influences strength and males have higher levels of it

● Body types such as the endomorph have a shape and muscle mass not conducive to gymnastics

Prior Experience ● Transfer of skills for a previous sport make it easier to grasp a new

one e.g. tennis and squash ● Incorrect technique may be developed

● When similar skills are required, the neural pathways in the brain have already been established for the skill

● The pathways are difficult to recreate once learned

Ability ● Natural coordination allows athletes to excel in hand eye sports e.g.

ball sports ● Problem solving skills may hinder game performance

● Ability encompasses confidence, hereditary factors, experience and personality

● Each of the factors influence the rate of learning and the athletes motivation

Personality ● The eagle may persist with learning a new skill through to master ● The peacock may talk about practising but never get around to doing

it

● Eagles are driven, have high energy and are highly motivated ● Peacocks are enthusiastic and

good communicators, but often talk about things without doing them

THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

o The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practiced, information from coaches and even the influence of surrounding weather conditions.

o Environment can have positive or negative impact on the learning process.

Nature of Skill – Open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self-paced, externally paced

o All skills have observable characteristics; so can be grouped according to a specific criteria. Most skills fit a number of classifications

Term Definition Explanation Example

Stability of the Environ

Open A skill performed in an unpredictable environment. Object or context is changing.

● Changing weather, a player affected surface (breaking up cricket wicket) or unconventional tactics

● These can all cause uncertainty about how to perform a skill so players must modify techniques to adapt to the instability

● ‘Seasoned players’ have an advantage as they can use knowledge from past experiences as they are able to draw knowledge

● Open skills considerably difficult for learners, causing distraction, indecision and annoyance leading to inattention and loss of focus

Soccer, netball, rugby, surfing

ment

● Applied in autonomous stage

Closed A skill performed in a highly predictable environment. The performer has full control over the timing, can initiative action when they’re easy and doesn’t need to consider environmental changes

● The learner is not distracted by other factors ● More conducive to skill learning because the

learner is not distracted ● Skills can be planned in advance or can be made

to fit predicted environmental setting ● Changing environment may be part of the

competition event so learners must be gradually exposed to this in practise

Golf, diving, gymnastics, free throw, serve in tennis, delivering ball in tenpin

bowling is a closed skilled bc environment (bowling lane, pin placement, weather) is always the same

Precision of Movement

Gross Requires movements of large parts of the body or the whole body

● Commonly found in team game, competitive and recreational activies

Running, leaping, vaulting, diving, surfing bushwalking, skiing, tackling

Fine Requires greater precision in the control of small muscles

● Found in activies requiring finesse and limited movement

● Needs to be executed with precision ● Rarely fit single classification placed along a

continuum ● EXAMPLE: gross motor and fine motor skills can

sometimes be found in one sport. Cricket involves batting and bowling (gross motor) and catching the ball (last point) (fine motor).

Catching in cricket, playing darts, putting in golf, playing darts, typing, writing, isolated movements

Distinctiveness of beginning + end point

Discrete

The skill has a distinct start and end. The skill can be repeated but performer starts again

Throwing a ball, kicking a football or swinging a bat, forward roll that begins by

placing hand on mat and finishing by rolling on feet

Serial Discrete skills linked together in a movement sequence or movement pattern. The order of the elements is important

● Combined movements ● Player at the beginning stages of learning to

focus on movement separately ● Usually in autonomous stage to do this ● Harder to learn

Gymnastics routine or dribbling a basketball, bowling in cricket place kick in football

involved many discrete skills including forming a mount, placing the ball, moving back ten forward, kicking the ball and following through

Continuous

Motor skills that bring together ‘discrete skills’ in a repetitive movement. No distinct beginning or end and length is unspecified

● Appear to be repetitive and may-appear ongoing or unbroken with a particular period

● Length is unspecified ● Mainly gross-motor

Running, walking, cycling, swimming, jogging, rowing, skiing

Timing

Self-Paced (internally)

The performer controls the speed, timing and rate at

● Used in the cognitive and associate stages of learning.

High Jump, pitching, bowling, serving in tennis, kicking in football practise

which the skill is performed at

Externally-paced

The performer does not control the rate/speed. It often involves the reaction of the performance. Movement for which an external source controls timing

● Only used when learner is autonomous Receiving a pass or pitch, catching, Dancing and rhythmic

gymnastics because dance requires the performer to move in accordance with its rhythm and tempo.

The Performance Elements – Decision-making, strategic and tactical development

o Often overshadowed by a focus on teaching and developing skill fundamentals o Lack of performance elements results in efficiency in training, but lack of response to opponents in games as they

lack the confidence, knowledge and decision-making skills necessary for competition → must develop the ability to ‘read’ the game during practice.

o Game Centred Approach ▪ A game centred approach aims to focus on the whole game and all components, rather than a sequence for

basic skills assembled within a game format ▪ Emphasis on integrating thinking and learning than on skill development and isolation ▪ Teaching + coaching strategies must emphasise this by allowing players to analyse moves, tactics and game

plans etc. ▪ Enhanced through the use of technically equipment such as coaching boards and practical application in the

form of play drills and small games

Decision Making Strategic and Tactical Development

o Based on a lot of characteristics of the learner e.g. prior experience

o Improved by having to make decisions in performance-like situations

o Appreciate within the framework of the rules, playing conditions, team strategies and opposition tactics. BEST achieved through:

▪ Observation – when coaches use coaching boards and demonstrations to reveal the inner workings of PLANNED strategies to assist learners

⇒ Recommend to use observation of skilled performers and their movements on the field

⇒ E.g. telling defenders to put pressure on players quickly, causing opposition to make poor decisions say when they know you are slacking off the opposition is getting easy passes

▪ Questioning – Highlight options and work through game-like scenarios

⇒ E.g. moving objects represent players around coaching board so players ask ‘what would you do if this opponent moved here?’

▪ Whole, part, whole approach –

Strategic Understanding

o The way we play, where we should be at a particular time and what to do

e.g. returning the ball in tennis using a backhand.

Tactical awareness

o Utilizing ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent → works on areas such as space, force, time, and direction and considers the player, fellow team players and the opposition.

● E.g. cut-out pass in rugby league or ‘double teaming’ an opponent in basketball

o Like skill development, tactical awareness matures gradually through using drills/mini-games to simulate match conditions so players identify specific situations, size up options, make decisions and repond thoughtfuly

Three-on-three touch football drill focus on how to cause a mismatch in numbers, creating an overlap of attacking players

o Strategic and tactical development built on: ▪ Technical efficiency

1. A strategy taught as a whole so players can see the overall plan

2. Individuals need to learn specific roles and walk through moves initially as learners so they know where to go gradual development to good build up to good game execution speech with emphasis on technique and execution

3. Then strategy assembled and practiced in against non-invasive opposition

⇒ E.g. playing a game, stopping and giving feedback, then continuing

▪ Variation – explore innovative options when rehearsing strategies in training. Changing defense alignment

⇒ Exploring variations when rehearing strategies encourages players to more innovative and imaginative options

⇒ E.g. chancing defense alignment ▪ Creativity – democratic approach to strategic

development by encouraging all players to identity with each problematic situation and solve as a group

⇒ All players identity with each problematic situation and solve as a group as opposed to following strict, coach-imposed directions than can cause “paralysis by analysis”

⇒ Players feel like they can make a worthwhile contribution

⇒ Creativity is more constructive in developing decision-making skills

⇒ Players use correct technique in execution of skills to enhance level of consistency in execution of movements and strategies

▪ Understanding ⇒ Players need to fully understand what is

required, option and variations possible and what to do if thing’s don’t work out

⇒ Just prior to game or during breaks do not introduce new strategies as they will be misunderstood

▪ Skilful execution ⇒ Strategies work properly if practised in

training drills that mimic game conditions.

⇒ Pressure must be gradually applied to foster development of creative options

⇒ Learn move without frustration of defence but pressure gradually added to foster development of creative options through invasive or part-invasive game-play drills

⇒ E.g. zone defence in basketball, marking, the stack in netball

o Tactical development areas: ▪ Space

⇒ Team player; “how much space can I use?”

⇒ Opponent: “How do I confine my opponents space?

▪ Force –Team P – How much do I apply? O – is the force necessary to achieve my goal

▪ Time – running towards athlete, forcing them to pass or shoot quickly, forcing a mistake

▪ Direction – soccer, you should always play the way you are facing, you can pass back

▪ Myself – what’s your job, defenders must stop players from scoring goals in soccer

Other Player – will they understand what I’m doing

Practise Methods – massed, distributed, whole, part

o Learning environment is affected by the training systems and routines designed to teach particular skills.

Massed and Distributed Practise Methods

Whole and Part Practise Methods

o Approaches coaches commonly use to teach skills more effectively in the available time.

o Coaches decide to use whole, part practice or a mixture of both to assist the learning processes.

o Choice depends on time required to teach particular skill. o Massed practice:

▪ Involves a continuous practice session of instruction and skill development techniques, with infrequent and short rest intervals between routines rest interval shorter than practise intervals

▪ Example: gymnast learning a handstand → drilling continues until fatigue or benefit is limited OR hour-long soccer training may suit adult athletes who have work commitments

▪ Works best when: participants are highly motivated, fresh and unable to attend a number of sessions.

▪ AUTONOMOUS. o Distributed practice: (or spaced practice)

▪ Involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer and more frequent than the practice intervals.

▪ Example: gymnast learning a handstand → would practice over a number of sessions, or on different occasions throughout a session OR in anaerobic training relief Is gained by the frequent breaks and works best for people who are beginners

▪ Works best when: performer lacks interest + motivation, task is difficult and causes fatigue or discomfort if performed excessively, low motivation → often with children.

▪ COGNITIVE AND ASSOCIATIVE.

o This is used when some skills are difficult for learners to conceptualise and integrate smaller parts than needed to assemble and form a complex skill

o Whole practice: ▪ Applied when a skill is practiced as

complete unit in its entiretly (serial skill) ▪ Example: layup in basketball → coach

demonstrates + teaches the skill as a complete unit

o Part practice: ▪ Applied when a skill is broken into smaller

components and each discrete sub skill (subroutine) is practiced separately → then practice each movement and assemble them at the end.

▪ It is often difficult for learners to conceptualize and integrate the smaller parts that need to be assembled to form a complex skill.

▪ YET, part method commonly used for teaching both new skills and complex skills.

▪ Example: teaching a layup in basketball → coach breaks the layup into a series of discrete skills such as catching on correct foot, dribbling towards a hoop, stepping, driving up and shooting, practices them then assembles at the end.

EFFECTIVENESS:

o Methods selected should be adapted to the needs and skill levels of the learner. o Most effective for cognitive and associative → combination e.g:

▪ Whole: Total skill demonstrated and practiced. ▪ Part: Analyse difficult discrete segments separately. ▪ Whole: as segments are mastered, skill is reassembled and rehearsed as a unit

Feedback – internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance

o Is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance. o Constitutes an important role in the learning process because it provides guidance and helps the performer eradicate

movement error → essential if performance is to be improved. o All learners derive feedback from performing a particular skills and possible some from other sources such as a coach.

o The movement may or may not resemble what was taught or demonstrated. o First time skill → awkwardness → further practice is necessary to improves the learner’s perception of and feels for

the skill o A cyclic process of skill refinement continues until the learner is accomplished or attains a level of competence with

their ability. o Relationship between feedback and performance:

▪ If the action is highly unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that the learner substitute or replace the action.

▪ If the action is unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that the learner modify the action.

▪ If the action is successful, then feedback should suggest that the learner repeat the action.

Type of Feedback

Explanation

Internal (Intrinsic) and External (extrinsic) Feedback

o Internal feedback: ▪ Occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill. ▪ It embodies feelings, together with sensory information received through the body’s

proprioceptive mechanisms. ▪ Examples: seeing the ball and hearing the sound of the ball hitting the bat. ▪ Proprioception: is made possible through the body’s neuromuscular system sending

messages to the brain about how the movement is being performed, deriving a kinaesthetic feel for a movement → allows differentiation between skilful application and error.

▪ Information is received through body’s proprioceptive mechanisms: ⇒ Neuromuscular system sends messages to brain about how movement is being

performed to develop a kinaesthetic sense or feel for a movement ⇒ Used to differentiate between skilful application and error. ⇒ Feedback sensory organs receive clues info is taken in and interpreted

(perception) information is processed response: receivethe skill is used Feedback, and so on

o External feedback: ▪ Is all feedback other than that which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a

skill. ▪ It includes various forms of external information ▪ Examples: suggestions from the coach e.g. well done, applause from the crowd, judge’s

scores, video replay’s, race results that rely on time (running, swimming) and race results. ▪ Originates from outside body ▪ Augmented feedback: supplementary or additional information that is not given

immediately as the skill is performed, but is used later to illustrate a point e.g. video replay.

Concurrent (or Continuous) and Delayed Feedback

o The timing of feedback is important in skill learning → certain amount is concurrent, yet much feedback can be delayed until the most appropriate moment.

o Concurrent feedback: ▪ Is received simultaneously with the performance of a skill ▪ Relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism. ▪ Example: feedback while person balancing in a headstand, information from the brain

enables them to maintain poise as it requires constant readjustment of centre of gravity to maintain equilibrium so it needs continuous feedback

o Delayed feedback: ⇒ Is received after the skill has been executed ⇒ Example: waiting for a result of basketball throw → feedback not received until ball enters

or misses the basket.

Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance

o Knowledge of results: ▪ Is information about the outcome of the movement during execution i.e. how

successfully the skill was performed. ▪ Example: what distance was covered in long jump, how many goals were scored from

a number of attempts ▪ Always external → sources such as coach or other performer. ▪ Important response to performance → provides information on skill execution. ▪ Generate response to a performance so it provides info regarding skill execution

▪ To obtain a different result, the performer may need to execute the skill differently or perhaps not at all in a different situation.

o Knowledge of performance: ▪ Is the information about the patterns of the movement during execution i.e. how the

skill was performed → feedback on quality. ▪ Example: comment from the coach about the height of a ball pass during netball, or

comment about heigh of ball toss during a tennis serve so knowledge of performance gives feedback on quality of skill execution from internal or external sources

▪ May be internal or external. Feedback is essential if performance is to be improved.

▪ Works best → immediate and positive, and reinforces correct skill execution. ▪ Some players successfully execute skills with incorrect technique → wrong for

coaches to give the positive or negative feedback → athletes must recognize that development of technique is essential long-term

▪ E.g. “high and wide” tactic in netball – obstruct the attacking platers so they are running into you as they try to get into the circle, put enough pressure to make them take risk or force mistakes. E.g. hand balls

▪ E.g. in basketball the playing dribbling the ball and trying to get around the key but the player stands in front of them with a screen and if the play runs into you, your team gets a free throw

❖ Design a suitable plan for teaching beginners to acquire a skill through to mastery. The plan should reflect: ⇒ Appropriate practice methods for the learners ⇒ The integration of relevant performance elements ⇒ An awareness of how instruction may vary according to characteristics of the learner ⇒ How feedback will be used as learners progress through the stages of skill acquisition

Plan to teach Basketball Lay-up

Type/Description of Skill

o The layup is an open, gross, serial, internally paced skill. o A basketball layup is a skill which incorporates dribbling to the basket, catching the ball and landing on the

correct foot, stepping on the opposite foot and driving up to the basket and shooting and landing.

Things to be Learnt

o The athlete will first need this serial skill broken into its sub-skills; dribbling, catching, jumping and shooting.

How to motivate learners

o As this athlete is highly motivated they will motivated to learn the skill being taught, also being a confident learner will fast track their progression allowing them to take risks when necessary.

▪ Goal setting: focus on one handed shots, steps, shooting ▪ Extrinsic: encourage and positive

Drills/Practise Methods

Massed practice would be best used once the skill components are combined

2- line layup drill

o Good drill for practicing lay-ups, both right and left-handed.

o Set-up ▪ Two lines facing the basket. ▪ One line is the Layup line, the other

line is the rebounding line. ▪ First two players in the playup line

have a basketball. o The drill

Pass and cut drill

o Set-up ▪ Two lines facing the basket. ▪ One line will pass and cut to the basket. ▪ The other line will pass and rebound

o The drill ▪ Shooter passes the ball to teammate and cuts

towards basket for return pass. ▪ Player does a lay-up.

▪ First player in line with a ball dribbles the ball to shoot a lay-up.

▪ Shooter joins rebounding line. ▪ Rebounder joins shooting line.

Layup relay

o Set-up. ▪ Create two teams by forming two

lines of players as shown in diagram.

▪ First player in each line starts with a basketball.

o The Activity ▪ First player in each line dribbles to

basket and makes a layup and gets their own rebound.

▪ Players dribble back their line and passes ball to next player in line.

▪ The activity repeats. ▪ First team to have all their players

make a layup wins.

Circle layup drill

o Set-up. ▪ Odd number of players line up for a lay-up drill. ▪ Every other player has a basketball.

o The Activity – ▪ #1 goes to the basket for a lay-up. #2 follows #1

without a basketball. ▪ When #1 makes the layup, he leaves the

rebound for player #2. ▪ Player #1 does not have a basketball now and #1

hustles to run behind player #7 who does have a ball.

▪ And next time through, player #1 will grab rebound from #7.

▪ #3 and #4 continue the drill s players #1 and #2 did.

▪ Receive ball from player Dribble to key Take 2 steps Chest pass to another player practice shooting practice whole skill together

Stage 1 /Cognitive

o During this early stage, the athlete will require lots of demonstration of the skills and given a change to mass practice each one.

o Feedback will be external and focus on performance, not results. o Feedback will also need to be both concurrent and delayed. o The cognitive learner does not know what the skill is meant to feel like and need to develop good technique

before worrying about outcomes.

Stage 2 /Associative

o Once each of these skills is learnt in isolation and performed at the associative stage, they should begin to be pieced together, joining two-step jumping and shooting, and dribbling to the catch and two steps.

o Again feedback will be external and focus on knowledge of performance, while utilising both concurrent and delayed feedback.

o These would then be joined together and taught as the one skill. With feedback becoming progressing to be more results based and delayed as the athlete improves.

o Massed practice would be best used once the skill is combined.

Stage 3 /Autonomous

o Finally the skill will begin to be used in game situations to develop the athlete’s decision-making, strategies and tactics regarding when to do a lay-up and when to use a jump shot or pass the ball.

o Feedback will become much more internal and results based as each layup will either score a basket or not. o Feedback will also progress to focusing on the performance elements rather than the performance of the

layup

How personality will Impact

o The layup is a complex serial skill and takes much time to master. o If the athlete is determined and focused then more massed practice can be used. o If they are intelligent and confident, then they will respond more swiftly to feedback provided by the coach. o If the athlete does not have much motivation, distributed practice should be used, which will delay the

development of the skill. o If the athlete is less determined and is not reliable in turning up to training this will also slow the acquisition

of this skill.

Performance Elements

Decision Making

o To develop decision making in the learner, coaches will use effective questioning (e.g. why did that not work? What other options did you have?), video analysis (which enables the learner to visualise from a 3rd perspective and use replay) and problem solving within the game’s context

o Ask right, open questions that allow learner to tell the coach what to do (develop own understanding) rather than coach tell them Strategic and tactical development

Strategic and Tactical Development

o Use of small-sided games and scenario-based skills provides ideal opportunities for cognitive developments e.g. Drill that includes player passing a ball to the learner, dribbling to the key, take 2 steps and chest pass to another player

o Freeze game: how to fit in drills in a game situation

Feedback o Feedback will need to be both concurrent and delayed. o The cognitive learner does not know what the skill is meant to feel like and need to develop good technique

before worrying about outcomes. o With feedback will then progress to be more results based and delayed as the athlete improves with

feedback being based on their level of mastery. ▪ Not too much as it could overwhelm them ▪ Demonstrate skill and get learner to pick out the most important aspects ▪ Concurrent e.g. Push from legs when driving the ball, reach up with your arms ▪ Use cues and tell learner what they mean ▪ Delayed: ask questions (how did that feel? What worked well?). If they don't know, coach describes

what happened ▪ Intrinsic: trying to get kinaesthetic feel for ball - freeze play and ask the learner what

How level of mastery will be assessments

o Fluency of the movement o Amount of shots they can achieve o Accuracy of shots e.g. how many in a row and the ease it it to shoot o Risk taking/trialing new things o If they continue to practice the skill o Sense acuity; do they read the cues and react to stimuli? o Can they implement the skill in a game situation? o USE of reliability and validity TESTS use objective subjective measures make personal and prescriptive

judgements

Evaluate your lesson o We rock

o Go team o Are they relaxed and engaged whilst playing o Are they more confident and enthusiastic? Or disinterested and distracted? o Ratio of shots in/shots missed; consistency o Have they achieved kinaesthetic sense? o Are they anticipating the ball?

What is going to change from cognitive to associative

o Characteristics: ▪ Associative; still making mistakes not as often; thinking about how they can apply the skill in a game. ▪ Asking questions

o Motivation: ▪ Constructive criticism is useful but motivation can come intrinsically as they see improvements in

their ability. ▪ Setting performance goals to develop skill into game.

o Game based skill practice, using video methods.Not thinking about it, think about what is going on and stop teaching skill focus rather on the execution

o Drills: Challenge the learner add a defender

What is going to change from associative to autonomous

o Characteristics: ▪ Athlete able to automatically apply the skill without questions ▪ Feedback becomes based on their execution of the skill ▪ Motivation would be more intrinsic ▪ Distributed to mass- why- how does it change type of feedback

o Whole, massed practice of skill as a whole o Drills and Activities: Add multiple defenders o Still making adjustments to skill- generally competent o How to challenge player- how to change so they can apply it more to the game; 3 on 3 o E.g. start with stationary defender- then they can start developing pressure

ASSESSMENT OF SKILL AND PERFORMANCE

Characteristics of Skilled Performers (e.g. kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique)

o After having taught skills, assessment needs to be made of the effectiveness of methods used in terms of improvement in performance Importance to father info using accurate + established techniques to ensure true reflection of performer achievement

o The skilled performer is able to perform the desired movement repeatedly o These are obvious difference. Skilled performers can be recognised because they have;

Definition Example

Kinaesthetic Sense

o Kinesthesis (or kinaesthetic sense) refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments

o Allows them to ‘feel’ the movement as they perform it o Inexperienced performers make mistakes bc their ‘muscle memory’ is

not fully developed o Highly skilled players are alert to movement + error therefor can

make corrections + modifications while executing movement o Improved kinesthesis directly result of practise

o Michael Jordan had remarkable kinaesthetic sense. When playing he was able to adapt to pressure situations, modify technique – even while airborne – making a shots

Anticip

o Skilled performers better able to predict what may happen in specific situations

o Can predict possible flight path of the ball, speed of the ball, direction of pass or direction opponent may move/pass

o Anticipations allows them added time in which to respond give more attention to out-manoeuvre opponent

o Roger Federer’s ability to anticipate the direction of tennis balls in tennis games this ability is important in tennis

ation + Timing

o Important in externally paced movements where fast movement + decision making are necessary (cricked, baseball, tennis and squash)

o Can vary pace of movement to confuse opponent and prevent them from anticipating action

o Ability to predict also provides more opp. To ensure movement is smooth and coordinated

Consistency

o Skilled performers have more consistency so they can perform the desired movement repeatedly

o In Tennis, the skilled performer is more consistent in rallies, managing to clear the need and keep the ball in the court more regularly

Technique

o Is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular task o Advantaged of good technique or the desired skill execution has adv.

Such as the movement is: ▪ Economical as it won’t use more energy than needed ▪ Skilful using essential muscles ▪ Aesthetically pleasing ▪ Action has better chance of success bc good technique has a

sound biomechanically platform ▪ Performer has less chance of sustaining injury in the movement ▪ Good technique is fundamental to achieving at higher levels

To serve a tennis ball, good techniques have been established whereby players can learn to carry out the procedure in the most effect manner. Enables elite tennis player to serve at high speeds, apply bounce and topspin, and participate in rallies for long period of time Essential for golfers (to drive big distances), basket ballers (to shoot well), and cricketers (to achieve many runs

Objective and Subjective Performance Measures

o Measurement is the process of using numeric information to assess a particular physical ability o Info may be presented in form of times, distances or guidelines o Greater accuracy more reliable data o Where measurement is NOT part of process of fathering info assessment of performance is subjective + less

accurate o Use of instruments increases the DEGREE OF OBJECTIVITY

▪ This runs on a continuum from highly objective to slightly objective ⇒ Some performances, such as a sprint, high jump or javelin throw, are easily measured because a

uniform scale of measurement (a stopwatch or tape measure, for example) is used. Appraisal here is highly objective.

⇒ Activities, such as judo and fencing, require expert interpretation of special rules. o Team games need competent officials familiar with proper adjudication procedures

Objective Subjective

Definition o Is the extent to which a measure or test is independent of the observer

o Subjective observation refers to a judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or opinions rather than a measurement system

Example When judges or testers apply the same criteria to measure a performance and don’t need to interpret indo – in high jump they use the same measuring scale to determine the hight jumped (no disagreement) 100m sprint and high jump

Two judges rating a diving performance may disagree considerably because there are variables such as the degree of diving difficulty. Thus, there is more room for subjectivity to affect the assessment. Judo – special interpretation of rules, fencing – interpretation of rules, Diving – 2 judges + different outcomes

o Observations can be made more objective by using: ▪ checklists — lists that include elements such as style, technical correctness, sequencing and execution of

the required skill e.g. salsa marking ▪ measurement systems — instruments that accurately discriminate one set of data from another (for

example, measuring tapes)e.g. measuring tapes ▪ established criteria — a set of procedures, rules or guidelines that indicate how an activity is to be

assessed e.g. rules of how to assess performance ▪ rating scales — a degree-of-difficulty sheet that awards more marks for movements that are difficult to

perform. Eg. More marks for difficult movement o The difference between objective and subjective appraisal

Validity and Reliability of Tests

o For a test to be considered credible it needs to meet certain criteria o Validity had more to do with accuracy while reliability has more to do with precision

Validity Validity is the honesty of a test — that is, the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure

Reliability Reliability refers to the degree of consistency of a test — that is, the ability of the test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions

▪ E.g. 12-minute run test a measure of cardiorespiratory endurance or a measurement of something else accept that it measures fitness because a major part of the test involves running, which we know develops heart and lung capacity.

▪ Cycle ergometry as a test of our ability to swim 50 metres? ⇒ Immediate doubts based on the knowledge that the skills (cycling

and swimming) are quite different in (a) the way in which they are performed, (b) the energy systems that they used and (c) the muscle groups involved.

▪ About determining the strength of a relationship between a performance component (for example, strength) and a test designed to assess that component (the handgrip dynamometer test).

▪ The techniques commonly used to enhance the validity of a test include: ⇒ judgements about the test items. We assume for a particular

item — for example, the ability to jump — that known good performers score better than known poor performers.

▪ E.g. The 50 metre sprint test is a reliable test of speed if the same tester repeats the same test on the same subject under the same conditions and consistently finds very similar results.

▪ Reliability in testing can be improved by the use of similar procedures, conitions and equipment as originally prescribed.

▪ Eg. If the speed test of the athlete is conducted on successive weeks and the conditions vary considerably (no wind on the first week and a strong headwind on the second, for

⇒ using already validated but similar tests as an indicator ⇒ accuracy in prediction. ⇒ ensuring test items contain the component being validated. A

speed test, for example, needs to have running as a component, because simple observation tells us that running is the major part of the test.

o Sometimes need more than one test e.g. hockey, which comprises a large number of movements, it would be more appropriate to use a battery of test items

example), then the degree of reliability decreases considerably.

Personal versus Prescribed Judging Criteria

o Appraisal is a judgement about the quality of something or somebody. o Can use BOTH of this e..g in diving

Personal Judging Criteria Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance

Prescribed Judging Criteria Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity.

▪ Coach when selecting a team (feels a member played well)

▪ Spectators evaluating dance, dive, soccer game ▪ Used by coaches when selecting teams based on

performance (feeling as though some people played well and they deserve to hold up position

▪ E.g. spectators in a dance performance, moves and test matches because their assessment are based on feeling and impressions rather than criteria

▪ Rely on FEELINGs and EMOTIONS as a measurement tool

▪ Effected by preconceived attitudes, expectations, bias and opinions judges unaware of the strength of their personal conviction on some elements

▪ Total reliance on this is not too good needs to be impartial and maybe personal judgement is more suited to appreciation of performance than judgement

▪ In gymnastics, diving, dance initially subjective then apply prescribed criteria

▪ Prescribed - more objective, checklists, rating scales, degree of difficulty

▪ In top level competition like gym, dance and diving appraisal is initially subjective judges watch a skill such as a dice and make impression on movement THEN they apply a prescribed criteria to standardise interpretations as much as possible

▪ Aims to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework

▪ Adjusts subjectivity along a continuum to make it more objective

▪ More rigorous criteria more objective ▪ Helps to more accurately convert appraisal to

meaningful measurement such as score ▪ E.g. after diving performance, the judges use

formulas based on the difficult and execution of the skills and then they provide a score out of 10. The highest and lowest score is excluded to improve reliability by preventing bias

❖ Develop and evaluate Objective and Subjective performance measures to appraise performance