Cahokia 1 Cahokia Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site Monks Mound is the largest earthen structure at Cahokia Location St. Clair County, Illinois, USA Nearest city Collinsville, Illinois Coordinates 38°39′14″N 90°3′52″W Area 2200 acres (unknown operator: u'strong' ha) Governing body Illinois Historic Preservation Agency UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name: Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site Type: Cultural Criteria: iii, iv Designated: 1982 (6th session) Reference #: 198 [1] State Party: United States Region: Europe and North America U.S. National Register of Historic Places Official name: Cahokia Mounds
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Cahokia 1
Cahokia
Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site
Monks Mound is the largest earthen structure at Cahokia
Location St. Clair County, Illinois, USA
Nearest city Collinsville, Illinois
Coordinates 38°39′14″N 90°3′52″W
Area 2200 acres (unknown operator: u'strong' ha)
Governing body Illinois Historic Preservation Agency
Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site ( /kəˈhoʊkiə/) is the area of an ancient indigenous city (c. 600–1400 CE)located in the American Bottom floodplain, between East Saint Louis and Collinsville in south-western Illinois,across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Missouri.[3] The 2200-acre (unknown operator: u'strong' ha) siteincluded 120 human-built earthwork mounds over an area of six square miles, of which 80 remain.[4] CahokiaMounds is the largest archaeological site related to the Mississippian culture, which developed advanced societies inthe central and eastern present-day United States, beginning more than five centuries before the arrival ofEuropeans.[5] In the 1200s, its population was as large or larger than European cities, and it was not surpassed by anylater United States city until 1800.Cahokia Mounds is a National Historic Landmark and designated site for state protection. In addition, it is one ofonly 21 World Heritage Sites within the United States. It is the largest prehistoric earthen construction in theAmericas north of Mexico.[4]
DesignationsCahokia Mounds was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 19, 1964, and listed on the NationalRegister of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.[2]
In 1982 UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) designated CahokiaMounds State Historic Site as a World Heritage Site. The park protects 2200 acres (unknown operator:u'strong' ha), and is the center of continuing archaeological research. This is the only such site in Illinois and amongonly twenty-one cultural World Heritage Sites in the United States.[6] United States Representative Evelyn M.Bowles wrote about the Cahokia Mounds site:
"Through the years my friends and I made occasional Sunday afternoon trips to the Mounds. When Ibecame the State Senator, it afforded me the opportunity to secure funds for the acquisition of additionalacreage in which there are smaller Mounds. Many of these have contained additional artifacts." Thedesignation has helped protect the property and attract funds to conduct research on this significantcivilization.[7]
HistoryAlthough there is some evidence of Late Archaic period (approximately 1200 BCE) occupation in and around thesite,[8] Cahokia as it is now defined was settled around 600 CE, during the Late Woodland period. Mound building atthis location began with the Emergent Mississippian cultural period, about the 9th century CE.[9] The inhabitants leftno written records beyond symbols on pottery, shell, copper, wood and stone, but the elaborately plannedcommunity, woodhenge, mounds and burials reveal a complex and sophisticated society.[10] The city's original nameis unknown.The original site contained 120 earthen mounds over an area of six square miles, of which 80 remain today. Toachieve that, thousands of workers over decades moved more than an "estimated 55 million cubic feet of earth inwoven baskets to create this network of mounds and community plazas. Monks Mound, for example, covers 14 acres(unknown operator: u'strong' ha), rises 100 ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m), and was topped by a massive5000 sq ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m2) building another 50 ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m) high."[4]
The Mounds were later named after a clan of historic Illiniwek people living in the area when the first Frenchexplorers arrived in the 17th century. As this was centuries after Cahokia was abandoned by its original inhabitants,the Cahokia were not necessarily descendants of the original Mississippian-era people. Scholars do not know which,if any Native American groups, are the living descendants of the people who originally built and lived at the Moundsite, although many are plausible. Native American bands migrated through different areas, and those living interritories at the time of European encounter were often not the descendants of peoples who had lived there before.
Monks MoundMonks Mound (pictured above, right) is the largest structure and central focus of the city: a massive platform moundwith four terraces, 10 stories tall, and the largest man-made earthen mound north of Mexico. Facing south, it is 100 ft(unknown operator: u'strong' m) high, 951 ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m) long, 836 ft (unknownoperator: u'strong' m) wide and covers 13.8 acres (unknown operator: u'strong' ha).[11] It also contains about814000 cu yd (unknown operator: u'strong' m3) of earth.[12] The mound grew in stature over the course of severalcenturies through as many as ten separate construction episodes, as the mound was made ever higher and the terracesand apron were added.[11]
Monks Mounds received its name due to the community of Trappist monks that resided there for a short time, afterEuroamericans settled the area. Excavation on the top of Monks Mound has revealed evidence of a large building,likely a temple or the residence of the paramount chief, which would have been seen throughout the city. Thisbuilding was about 105 ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m) long and 48 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m)wide, and could have been as much as 50 ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m) high. It was about 5000 sq ft(unknown operator: u'strong' m2).A large plaza located adjacent to Monks Mound was a place where games and public rituals took place. The mostpopular of the games was the game of chunky. The game was played with young men rolling a pill-shaped chunkystone across the field. The men would throw spears where they thought the chunky stone would land. The gamerequired a great deal of judgement and aim.[12]
The east and northwest sides of Monks Mound were twice excavated in August 2007 during an attempt to avoiderosion due to slumping.[13]
Woodhenge, a circle of posts used to make astronomical sightings,stood to the west of Monks Mound. Archaeologists discoveredWoodhenge during excavation of the site and noted that the placementof posts marked solstices and equinoxes, like its namesake,Stonehenge.[14][15] Detailed analytical work supports the hypothesisthat the placement of these posts was by design.[16] The structure wasrebuilt several times during the urban center's roughly 300-yearhistory. Evidence of another Woodhenge was discovered near Mound72, to the south of Monks Mound.
According to Chappell, "A beaker[17] found in a pit near the wintersolstice post bore a circle and cross symbol that for many NativeAmericans symbolizes the Earth and the four cardinal directions.Radiating lines probably symbolized the sun, as they have in countlessother civilizations."[18] (Cahokia's Woodhenge is not to be confusedwith another site of the same name that exists in the United Kingdom).The woodhenges were significant to the timing of the agriculturalcycle.
Urban landscapeThe Grand Plaza is a large open plaza that spreads out to the south of Monks Mound. Researchers originally thoughtthe flat, open terrain in this area reflected Cahokia's location on the Mississippi's alluvial flood plain but instead soilstudies have shown that the landscape was originally undulating. In one of the earliest large scale constructionprojects, the site had been expertly and deliberately leveled and filled by the city's inhabitants. It is part of thesophisticated engineering displayed throughout the site. The Grand Plaza covered roughly 50 acres (unknownoperator: u'strong' ha) and measured over 1600 ft (unknown operator: u'strong' m) in length by over 900 ft(unknown operator: u'strong' m) in width.[19] It was used for large ceremonies and gatherings, as well as for ritualgames, such as chunkey. Along with the Grand Plaza to the south, three other very large plazas surround MonksMound in the cardinal directions to the east, west, and north.The high-status district of Cahokia was surrounded by a long palisade that was equipped with protective bastions.Where the palisade passed, it separated neighborhoods.[12] Archaeologists found evidence of the stockade duringexcavation of the area and indications that it was rebuilt several times. Its bastions showed that it was mainly builtfor defensive purposes.[12]
Beyond Monks Mound, as many as 120 more mounds stood at varying distances from the city center. To date, 109mounds have been located, 68 of which are in the park area. The mounds are divided into several different types:platform, conical, ridge-top, etc.. Each appeared to have had its own meaning and function. In general terms, the citycenter seems to have been laid out in a diamond-shaped pattern approximately 1 mi (unknown operator:u'strong' km) from end to end, while the entire city is 5 mi (unknown operator: u'strong' km) across from east towest.
Ancient cityCahokia was the most important center for the peoples known today as Mississippians. Their settlements rangedacross what is now the Midwest, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Cahokia was located in a strategic positionnear the confluence of the Mississippi, Missouri and Illinois rivers. It maintained trade links with communities as faraway as the Great Lakes to the north and the Gulf Coast to the south, trading in such exotic items as copper, MillCreek chert,[20] and whelk shells. Mill Creek chert, most notably, was used in the production of hoes, a high demandtool for farmers around Cahokia and other Mississippian centers. Cahokia's control of the manufacture anddistribution of these hand tools was an important economic activity that allowed the city to thrive.[12] Mississippianculture pottery and stone tools in the Cahokian style were found at the Silvernale site near Red Wing, Minnesota, andmaterials and trade goods from Pennsylvania, the Gulf Coast and Lake Superior have been excavated at Cahokia.At the high point of its development, Cahokia was the largest urban center north of the great Mesoamerican cities inMexico. Although it was home to only about 1,000 people before c. 1050, its population grew explosively after thatdate. Archaeologists estimate the city's population at between 6,000 and 40,000 at its peak, with more people livingin outlying farming villages that supplied the main urban center. In 1250, its population was about 15,000,comparable to that of London or Paris during the same period.[21]
If the highest population estimates are correct, Cahokia was larger than any subsequent city in the United States untilthe 1780s, when Philadelphia's population grew beyond 40,000.[22]
One of the major problems that large centers like Cahokia faced was keeping a steady supply of food, and wastedisposal was also an issue, which made Cahokia an unhealthy place. Being that it was such an unhealthy place to livein, the town had to rely on social and political attractions to bring in a steady supply of new immigrants, otherwisethe town's death rate would have left it abandoned earlier.[12]
Mound 72
Mound 72
Reconstruction of the Birdman burial in the site'sinterpretative center
During excavation of Mound 72, a ridge-top burial mound south ofMonks Mound, archaeologists found the remains of a man in his40s who was probably an important Cahokian ruler. The man wasburied on a bed of more than 20,000 marine-shell disc beadsarranged in the shape of a falcon,[23] with the bird's head appearingbeneath and beside the man's head, and its wings and tail beneathhis arms and legs. The falcon warrior or "birdman" is a commonmotif in Mississippian culture. This burial clearly had powerfuliconographic significance. In addition, a cache of sophisticated,finely worked arrowheads in a variety of different styles andmaterials was found near the grave of this important man.Separated into four types, each from a different geographicalregion, the arrowheads demonstrated Cahokia's extensive tradelinks in North America.
Archeologists recovered more than 250 other skeletons fromMound 72. Scholars believe almost 62 percent of these weresacrificial victims, based on signs of ritual execution, method ofburial, and other factors.[24] The skeletons include:
•• Four young males, missing their hands and skulls.
•• A mass grave of more than 50 women around 21 years old, with the bodies arranged in two layers separated bymatting.
• A mass burial containing 40 men and women who appear to have been violently killed. The suggestion has beenmade that some of these were buried alive: "From the vertical position of some of the fingers, which appear tohave been digging in the sand, it is apparent that not all of the victims were dead when they were interred – thatsome had been trying to pull themselves out of the mass of bodies."[25]
The relationship of these burials to the central burial is unclear. It is unlikely that they were all deposited at the sametime. Wood in several parts of the mound has been radiocarbon-dated to between 950 and 1000 CE.Excavations have indicated that Mound 72 was not constructed as a single mound, but rather as a series of smallermounds. These mounds were reshaped and covered over to give Mound 72 its final ridge-top shape.[26]
Copper workshop
Mississippian culture repoussé copper plates
Excavations near Mound 34 from 2002–2010 have revealed acopper workshop, although the one of a kind discovery had beenpreviously found in the 1950s by archaeologist Greg Perino butlost for 60 years. It is the only known copper workshop to befound at a Mississippian site.[27] The area contains the remains ofthree tree stumps thought to have been used to hold anvil stones.Analysis of copper found during excavations showed that it hadbeen annealed, a technique involving repeatedly heating andcooling the metal as it is worked, such as blacksmiths do withiron.[27] Artisans worked here to produce religious items, such aslong-nosed god maskettes, ceremonial earrings with a symbolic shape, thought to have been used in fictive kinshiprituals.[28][29] Many of the stylistically related Mississippian copper plates such as the Wulfing cache fromsoutheastern Missouri, some of the Etowah plates from Georgia, and many of the Spiro plates from Oklahoma areassociated with the Greater Braden Style and are thought to have been made in Cahokia in the 13thcentury.[30][31][32][33]
Cahokia's decline
1887 illustration of Monks Mound showing it withfanciful proportions.
Cahokia began to decline after 1300 CE. It was abandoned morethan a century before Europeans arrived in North America, in theearly 16th century,[34] and the area around it was largelyuninhabited by indigenous tribes.[35] Scholars have proposedenvironmental factors, such as over-hunting and deforestation asexplanations. The houses, stockade, and residential and industrialfires would have required the annual harvesting of thousands oflogs. In addition, climate change could have aggravated effects oferosion due to deforestation, and adversely affected the cultivationof maize, on which the community had depended.
Another possible cause is invasion by outside peoples, though theonly evidence of warfare found so far is the wooden stockade andwatchtowers that enclosed Cahokia's main ceremonial precinct.Due to the lack of other evidence for warfare, the palisade appearsto have been more for ritual or formal separation than for military purposes. Diseases transmitted among the large,dense urban population are another possible cause of decline. Many recent theories propose conquest-inducedpolitical collapse as the primary reason for Cahokia’s abandonment.[36]
Until the 19th century a series of similar mounds existed in what isnow the city of St. Louis, some 20 km (unknown operator:u'strong' mi) to the south west of the Cahokia site. Most of thesemounds were levelled during the construction of St. Louis, as theirmaterial was reused in construction projects.
The lone survivor of these mounds is the Sugarloaf Mound, whichis located on the west bank of the Mississippi, on the formerborder between St. Louis and the autonomous city of Carondelet.
The Cahokia Museum and Interpretive Center
Museum and Interpretive Center
The Cahokia Museum and Interpretive Center, which receives upto a million visitors a year, was designed by AAIC Inc. Thebuilding which opened in 1989 received the Thomas H. MadiganAward, the St. Louis Construction News & Reviews ReadersChoice Award, the Merit Award from the Metal ConstructionAssociation and the Outstanding Achievement Award from theBrick Manufacturer Association.
References[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 198
[2] "Cahokia Mounds" (http:/ / tps. cr. nps. gov/ nhl/ detail. cfm?ResourceId=682& ResourceType=Site). National Historic Landmark summarylisting. National Park Service. . Retrieved 2008-07-23.
[3] Cahokia Mounds Homepage (http:/ / www. cahokiamounds. org); Map of the Site (http:/ / www. cahokiamounds. org/ explore)[4] "Nomination – Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, Illinois" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ oia/ topics/ worldheritage/ Nominations pdf/
CAHOKIA. pdf), US World Heritage Sites, National Park Service, accessed 2012-05-03[5] Sacredland.org "Mississippian Mounds" (http:/ / www. sacredland. org/ historical_sites_pages/ miss_mounds. html), Sacred Land Film
Project[6] "United States of America – UNESCO World Heritage Centre" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ statesparties/ us). UNESCO World Heritage
Centre. March 11, 2009. . Retrieved 2009-03-11.[7] "Congressional representative letter" (http:/ / cahokiamounds. org/ learn/ congressional-representative-letter/ ). Cahokia Mounds State
Historic Site. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.[8] James M. Collins, The archaeology of the Cahokia Mounds ICT-II (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ archaeologyofcah00coll), Springfield
IL, Illinois Historic Preservation Agency (1990) ISBN 0-942579-10-0[9] Emerson, Thomas E., Lewis, R. Barry Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest University of Illinois
Press; New edition (Jun 30, 2000) ISBN 978-0-252-06878-2 pp.33 & 46[10] Townsend, Richard F, Robert V. Sharp, Garrick Alan Bailey (2000) Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient
Midwest and South. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10601-7. Searchable at: (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zomCBhVLLGcC&printsec=frontcover).
[11] Skele, Mike (1988). "The Great Knob" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ greatknobinterpr00skel#page/ 102/ mode/ 2up). Studies inIllinois Archaeology (Springfield, Illinois: Illinois Historic Preservation Agency) (4). ISBN 0-942579-03-8. .
[12] Snow, Dean (2010). Archaeology of Native North Americas. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 201–203.[13] "Monks Mound Slump Repair", Page 1 (http:/ / lithiccastinglab. com/ gallery-pages/ 2007septembermoundslumprepairpage1. htm)[14] Wittry, Warren L., "An American Woodhenge," Cranbrook Institute of Science Newsletter, Vol. 33(9), pages 102–107, 1964; reprinted in
Explorations into Cahokia Archaeology, Bulletin 7, Illinois Archaeological Survey, 1969.[15] Wittry, Warren L. "Discovering and Interpreting the Cahokia Woodhenges", The Wisconsin Archaeologist, Vol. 77(3/4), pages 26–35.[16] Friedlander, Michael W., "The Cahokia Sun Circles", The Wisconsin Archeologist, Vol. 88(1), pages 78–90, 2007.
[18] Chappell, Sally Anderson (2002) Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-10137-1. Page 100.[19] Timothy R., Pauketat (2009). Cahokia : Ancient Americas Great City on the Mississippi. Viking Press. pp. 23–34.
ISBN 978-0-670-02090-4. "Pg 23 "Cahokia was so large-covering three to five square miles-that archaeologists have yet to probe manyportions of it. Its centerpiece was an open fifty-acre Grand Plaza, surrounded by packed-clay pyramids. The size of thirty-five football fields,the Grand Plaza was at the time the biggest public space ever conceived and executed north of Mexico."...Pg 34 "a flat public square1,600-plus feet in length and 900-plus feet in width"
[21] Lowery, Malinda Maynor. "Civilization is All Relative" (http:/ / teachinghistory. org/ history-content/ ask-a-historian/ 24467).Teachinghistory.org. . Retrieved 2011-06-30.
[22] United States Census Office, A Century of Population Growth from the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth: 1790–1900,Government Printing Office, 1909, p. 11
[23] "Cahokia and the excavation of Mound 72" (http:/ / www. lithiccastinglab. com/ gallery-pages/ 2001augustmound72excavation1. htm). .Retrieved 2010-08-21.
[24] Young & Fowler, p. 148.[25] Young & Fowler, pp. 146–149.[26] "Mound 72" (http:/ / cahokiamounds. org/ explore/ cahokia-mounds/ number/ 72/ ). Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. . Retrieved
2012-03-31.[27] Pawlaczyk, George (Feb 16, 2010), Copper men: Archaeologists uncover Stone Age copper workshop near Monks Mound. (http:/ / sci.
tech-archive. net/ Archive/ sci. archaeology/ 2010-02/ msg00225. html), , retrieved 2010-11-08[28] "Gahagan Long-nosed god maskette" (http:/ / www. texasbeyondhistory. net/ tejas/ fundamentals/ images/ prec41. html). University of
Milwaukee Public Museum. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.[30] Kelly, John E.; Brown, James A.; Hamlin, Jenn M.; Kelly, Lucretia S.; Kozuch, Laura; Parker, Kathryn; Van Nest, Julieann. "Mound 34 :
The Context for the Early Evidence of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex at Cahokia". In King, Adam. Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Chronology, Content, Context. University of Alabama Press. pp. 57–87. ISBN 978-0-8173-5409-1.
[31] Robb, Matthew H. (March 2010). "Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum-Spotlight Series March 2010" (http:/ / kemperartmuseum. wustl. edu/files/ spotlightMar10_2. pdf). Saint Louis Art Museum. . Retrieved 2012-05-02.
[32] King, Adam (2004). "Power and the Sacred : Mound C and the Etowah Chiefdom". In Townsend, Richard F.; Sharp, Robert V.. Hero,Hawk, and Open Hand : American Indian Art of the Anicent Midwest and South. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 151.ISBN 0-300-10601-7.
[33] Bolfing, Christopher (May 1, 2010). The Paradigm of the Periphery in Native North America (http:/ / ecommons. txstate. edu/ cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1129& context=honorprog) (Thesis). Texas State University-San Marcos, University College, University HonorsProgram. pp. 67–68. . Retrieved 2012-05-02.
[34] Young & Fowler p.301[35] Pyburn, K. Anne, Ungendering Civilization Routledge; 1 edition (Jan 29, 2004) ISBN 978-0-415-26058-9 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
Further reading• Introductory Bibliography of Published Sources on Cahokia Archeology (http:/ / www. cahokiamounds. com/ bib.
html)• Scholarly Bibliography of Published Sources on Cahokia Archaeology (http:/ / www. cahokiamounds. com/
bibsch5-24-00. html)• Chappell, Sally A. Kitt (2002). Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 978-0-226-10136-1.• Emerson, Thomas E. (1997). Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power (http:/ / www. uapress. ua. edu/
NewSearch2. cfm?id=10615). Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama. ISBN 0-8173-0888-1.• Emerson, Iseminger; L. Michael Nance, Madeline Winslow, and Marilyn Gass (2001). Cahokia Mounds State
Historical Site Nature/Culture Hike Guidebook, 4th revised edition. Collinsville, Illinois: Cahokia MoundsMuseum Society. pp. 79 pp.
• Emerson, Thomas E.; Lewis, R. Barry (1991). Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississipian Cultures of theMidwest (http:/ / www. press. uillinois. edu/ s00/ emerson. html). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois.ISBN 0-252-06878-5.
• Fowler, Melvin L.; Rose, Jerome; Leest, Barbara Vander; Ahler, Steven R. (1999). The Mound 72 Area:Dedicated and Sacred Space in Early Cahokia. Illinois State Museum Society. ISBN 978-0-89792-157-2.
• Milner, George R. (2004). The Moundbuilders: Ancient Peoples of Eastern North America. London: Thames andHudson, Ltd..
• Mink, Claudia Gellman (1992). Cahokia, City of the Sun: Prehistoric Urban Center in the American Bottom(http:/ / www. powellarchaeology. org/ BookCatalog/ CityOfSun. html). Collinsville, IL: Cahokia MoundsMuseum Society. ISBN 1-881563-00-6.
• Pauketat, Timothy (1994). The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America(http:/ / www. uapress. ua. edu/ NewSearch2. cfm). Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama.ISBN 0-8173-0728-1.
• Pauketat, Timothy R. (2009). Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi. New York: VikingAdult. ISBN 978-0-670-02090-4.
• Price, Douglas T.; Feinman, Gary M. (2008). Images of the Past (5 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 280–285.ISBN 978-0-07-340520-9.
• Young, Biloine; Fowler, Melvin L. (2000). Cahokia: The Great Native American Metropolis (http:/ / www. press.uillinois. edu/ f99/ young. html). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois. ISBN 0-252-06821-1. full text availableat (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ cahokiagreatnati00youn/ cahokiagreatnati00youn_djvu. txt)
External links• Cahokia Mounds Homepage (http:/ / www. cahokiamounds. org) and Map of the Site (http:/ / www.
cahokiamounds. org/ explore)• "Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, Illinois" (http:/ / www. cr. nps. gov/ worldheritage/ cahokia. htm), World
Heritage Site, National Park Service• "Cahokia Mounds" (http:/ / www. illinoishistory. gov/ hs/ cahokia_mounds. htm), Illinois Historic Preservation
Agency• "Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-srv/ national/ daily/ march/ 12/
cahokia. htm), Washington Post, March 12, 1997• Mississippian Art and Artifacts (http:/ / www. mississippian-artifacts. com/ )• Visitors' perspectives (http:/ / www. lth6. k12. il. us/ schools/ gallatin/ cahokia. htm)• Woodhenge and the Cahokia Mounds (http:/ / bbs. keyhole. com/ ubb/ showflat. php?Number=5363)• "Cahokia: America’s Lost City" (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2011/ 01/ cahokia/ hodges-text), National
Geographic Magazine, January 2011• Cahokia travel guide from Wikitravel
