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Historical perspective
Cajal’s contributions to glia researchVirginia Garcıa-Marın, Pablo Garcıa-Lopez and Miguel Freire
Museum Ramon y Cajal, Instituto Cajal, CSIC Avda. Doctor Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain
In 1906, Santiago Ramon y Cajal was awarded the NobelPrize in Physiology or Medicine in recognition of his workon the structure of neurons and their connections. What isless well known is that he also had a keen interest in gliaand developed specific staining methods for their study.In addition to describing their morphology, he speculatedon a role for glia in sleep and wakefulness and even inexecutive brain functions such as attention. In this article,we focus on Cajal’s histological research into glial cells;this research includes original drawings of astrocytes,oligodendrocytes, microglia and radial glia, as well ashis scientific writings. We aim to show that, concerningglia as well as neurons, Cajal was far ahead of his time.
IntroductionSantiago Ramon y Cajal (1852–1934) is one of thebest-known neuroscientists. He is considered by many tobe one of his time’s most outstanding contributors toknowledge of the nervous system, yet his research wasnot limited to neurons; it also included glial cells. Given therecent exponential increase in research into glial cells, areview discussing Cajal’s important contribution to estab-lishing their importance in the function of the nervoussystem is timely.
The histological data for this review come fromthe Museum Ramon y Cajal (Madrid, Spain), whichholds 4529 original histological preparations from Cajal(Figure 1). About 350 of these preparationsweremadewithspecific glia staining methods developed by Cajal or bycontemporaneous scientists, including Golgi, Weigert andRıo-Hortega. Included in this review are previously unseenimages of glial cells taken from Cajal’s slides. Some ofCajal’s studies of glial cells are summarized in his Histo-logie [1], although other, less well-known papers are alsoincluded in this article.
In present terminology, glial cells are classified into twomain groups: microglia and macroglia [2]. Macroglia aresubdivided into four specialized cell types: ependymalcells, Schwann cells, oligodendroglia and astroglia. Astro-glia include astrocytes, marginal glia, radial glia in thedeveloping brain and spinal cord, Bergmann cells in thecerebellar cortex, Muller cells in the retina, pituicytes inthe neurohypophysis and tanycytes in the hypothalamus[2]. In this review, we will show that Cajal paid specialattention to glial cells, not only from a morphological pointof view but also in relation to their physiological role in thenervous system. Some of the glial functions that Cajal
proposed have been subsequently revised, and for thisreason we hope this article can bring greater clarity tothe history of glial research and contribute to the establish-ment of newworking hypotheses of glial function. AlthoughCajal mentions numerous types of glial cells in his writ-ings, for the purposes of this review we will focus onastrocytes, for which he proposed a functional link betweenmorphology, physiology and function.
Cajal’s early work on astrocytesThe history of glial research began in 1846, when Virchow[3] described a connective substance that forms a sort of‘cement’ in the brain and spinal cord and in which thenervous elements appeared to be embedded. He coined theterm ‘neuroglia’ to describe this interstitial substance.Later, he published the first neuroglia illustrations [4],in which some nuclei appear without protoplasm andothers are shown as small round or lentil-shaped cells[4]. Presumably, these were glial cells whose cytoplasmwas either not stained or incompletely stained (for a recenthistorical review, see [5]). Otto Deiters [6] was the first todescribe the arachnoid-shaped cells that were seen in thewhite matter and were later shown to be glia. Michael vonLenhossek [7] introduced the term ‘astrocyte’ to refer tostar-shaped neuroglial cells. Andriezen [8] and AlbertKoelliker [9] divided glia into two groups, fibrous gliaand protoplasmic glia (for recent historical reviews, see[5,10–12]). Cajal adopted this classification but gave thename ‘astrocyte’ to both cell types [1]. The differencesbetween these two types take into account the configur-ation and number of their processes and their localization.The processes of fibrous astrocytes are fewer and longerand branch less frequently and at a more acute angle thanthose of protoplasmic astrocytes. Protoplasmic astrocytesare found mainly in gray matter, whereas fibrous astro-cytes occur mainly in the white matter of the brain andspinal cord.
Most of the methods available a century ago for stainingastrocytes were complex and most effective at stainingfibrous astrocytes in white matter; they stained protoplas-mic astrocytes poorly [13]. Frustrated by the lack of aneffective stain for protoplasmic astrocytes, Cajal experi-mented with different approaches and succeeded in devel-oping the sublimated gold chloride method [14]. Cajal’smethod allowed the nucleus and other intracellularelements to be better visualized – Golgi’s impregnationtechnique and related approaches did not distinguish theseelements from the dark staining of the background. Onstudying Cajal’s slides, it is clear that if a particular
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structure or cell interested him, he became quite driven tofind a way of staining it; he would apply all methodsavailable and modify them if necessary to obtain the bestresult. Table 1 summarizes thesemethods and includes themain components of the chemical reactions used and thekind of cell impregnated. An example of one of Cajal’soriginal slides is shown in Figure 1.
Main functions that Cajal attributed to astrocytesAstrocytes develop many functions in the nervous system(such functions include structural and metabolic support,transmitter reuptake and release, regulation of concen-tration of different ions in the extracellular space, modu-lation of synaptic transmission, blood-flow control, etc.).However, many of these functions, such as the supplying ofnutrients to neurons [23], the removal of toxic wasteproducts of neuronal metabolism [24] and the regulationof synaptic activity [24,25], were proposed more than acentury ago. Cajal proposed other interesting functions for
astrocytes, including their capacity for division and theircontacts with other astrocytes, neurons and blood vesselsthrough their endfeet, but he realized that correctlyanswering the question ‘What is the function of glia?’ wouldrequire improved techniques. In the last few years, suchcellular and physiological techniques have been developedand have confirmed some proposals of these pioneer neu-roscientists.
Division capability of astrocytes
Some histological preparations and drawings show pairs ofastrocytes joined by their soma; Cajal named such pairs as‘astrocitos gemelos’ (twin astrocytes) (Figure 2a). Suchprofiles can be observed in the dentate gyrus of the adulthuman hippocampus. Cajal interpreted these observationsas being of astrocytes that had recently divided, and hespeculated that astrocytes might retain their ability todivide, unlike neurons, which lose this capability duringthe differentiation process [26]. Some decades later, obser-vations in rats sacrificed 1 h after injection ofH3-thymidine(so that actively dividing cells would be stained) revealedsome labeled astrocytes in the corpus callosum and therebyshowed that at least some astrocytes have the ability todivide [27]. However, astrocytes mostly derive from glialcell progenitors of the subventricular zone [28,29]. Astro-cytes generate not only other astrocytes but also neurons.Radial glial-like astrocytes in the subgranular layer (SGL)of the hippocampal dentate gyrus generate dentate gran-ule neurons and possibly some GABAergic neuronsthroughout life [30–32]. This is the same location whereCajal observed his twin astrocytes.
Figure 1. One of Cajal’s original histological preparations. The handwriting on the
label reads: ‘glia plata cerebro y cerebelo gato b’ (glia silver cerebral cortex and
cerebellum cat b) (inventory number (IN) of preparation: 80028).
Table 1. Staining methods that Cajal employed to observe different kinds of glial cells
Method Glial type Figs Refsa
Golgi Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes fully impregnated in black. 5b,c [13]
Fixation: osmium acid + potassium dichromate Astrocytic endfeet.
Impregnation: silver nitrate Radial glial cells.
Golgi-Cox Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes fully impregnated in black. 2b [14]
Fix.: mercuric chloride + potassium dichromate Astrocytic endfeet.
Impreg: silver nitrate
Golgi-Kenyon Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes fully impregnated in dark red. 2a [15]
Fix.: formalin + potassium dichromate Astrocytic endfeet.
Impreg.: silver nitrate Oligodendrocytes impregnated in dark red.
Formol-uranium nitrate Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes. 2c, 3a [16]
Fix.: formalin + urano nitrate Endfeet, gliosomes.
Impreg.: silver nitrate (gold toning
recommended)
Gold sublimated method Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes. Glial protoplasm, glial filaments and
astrocytic endfeet.
2d [17]
Fix.: formalin ammonium bromide
Impreg.: gold chloride + mercuric bichloride
Silver carbonate Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes. Glial protoplasm. 2f, 4i [18]
Fix.: formalin ammonium bromide Oligodendrocytes – only simple types.
Impreg.: silver nitrate + litina carbonate Microglial – all types fully impregnated.
Ammoniacal silver oxide Protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes. Glial protoplasm. 2e, 4e,g [19]
Fix.: formalin ammonium bromide Endfeet, glial filaments.
Impreg.: ammoniacal silver oxide + pyridine Microglial cells, especially under pathological conditions.
Reduced silver nitrate Microglial cells not fully impregnated. 4h [20]
Fix.: formalin ammonium bromide
Impreg.: silver nitrate + pyridine
Golgi-Rıo-Hortega Oligodendrocytes – all types 4f [21]
Fix.: potassium dichromate + chloral hydrate +
formalin
Impreg.: silver nitrateaReferences indicate the first publication of the method; later modifications are not cited.
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Role of astrocytic endfeet in control of blood-vessel
dilatation
With the development of modern microscopy, it has beenpossible to observe the movement of neurons and glial cells.However, the movement of the nervous system had alreadybeen observed in Cajal’s time by Wiedersheim in 1890 [33],and it was the basis of different theories about neuronalameboidism [34–36] (see recent review in [37]). Cajal alsowas one of thefirst scientists to developadynamic concept ofneurons (1892–1894) [38,39], and later he extended theseconcepts to astrocytes (1895) [25]. Although he obviously
could not observe the movement of glial cells, he couldobserve different lengths of astrocytic processes acrossdifferent astrocytes, and he proposed his theory of gliaameboidism. One of Cajal’s principal values was his prodi-gious imagination. Although he only observed static imagesbyopticalmicroscopy, his descriptionsof thenervous systemare very dynamic and animated and create, in the words ofSherrington, ‘alive scenes’. He applied glial dynamics to twodifferent topics: attention and sleep–wake states.
Astrocytes have numerous endfeet that make contactwith one or more blood vessels. It has been demonstratedthat these endfeet play a role in cerebral metabolic trafficbetween neurons and intracerebral blood vessels [40].Cajal studied astrocytic endfeet with different methods(Figure 3a–e; Figure 4c). Based on the close relationshipbetween astrocytic endfeet and blood vessels and thevariability in the length of astrocytic processes, Cajalproposed that astrocytes could produce either vasodilata-tion or vasoconstriction in arterioles throughmovements oftheir endfeet. Furthermore, he suggested that this mech-anism could explain the process of attention [25](Figure 4a,c). Astrocytes associated with arterioles couldretract their endfeet, resulting in arterial dilatation and anincrease in the supply of nutrients to a specific region of thebrain (such an increase is needed during attentionalswitching) and explaining functional hyperemia, describedyears before by Angello Mosso and Charles Sherrington[41].When neurons are highly activated in a specific area ofthe brain, blood flow and glucose uptake in that regionincrease in a temporally and spatially coordinated manner
Figure 2. (a) Cajal’s drawing of astrocytes (indicated by ‘A’) in the pyramidal layer
of the human hippocampus (indicated by ‘D’), twin astrocytes (indicated by ‘B’)
and a satellite cell called the ‘third element’ by Cajal (indicated by ‘a’). Sublimated
gold chloride method. (b) Different astrocytes (indicated by ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’)
surrounding neuronal somas in the pyramidal layer of the human hippocampus.
Sublimated gold chloride method.
Figure 3. Protoplasmic astrocytes from Cajal’s original slides impregnated by the Golgi-Cox method (a), formol-uranium nitrate method (c), gold chloride sublimated
method (d) and silver carbonated method (f). Fibrous astrocytes impregnated by the Golgi-Kenyon method (b) and ammoniacal silver oxide method (e). Abbreviations:
a = astrocytes, bv = blood vessels, ef = endfeet, gf = gliofilaments, n = neuron, p = processes. The scale bar represents 25 mm (INs: 84511, 84528, 80034, 800155, 80168 and
83231).
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to meet the enhanced local metabolic demand [42]. Cajalproposed that during periods of increased metabolicdemand, astrocytes dilated vessels by mechanical move-ments. This dilation could be reversible, and astrocytescould cause vasoconstriction when attention is not necess-ary [25]. It has recently been observed that during highsynaptic activity, glutamate provokes a response in astro-cytes, which release vasoactive agents, presumably fromtheir endfeet; this response is mediated by an increase inintracellular Ca2+ concentration [43,44]. This could lead tovasodilation by relaxing the smooth-muscle cells of arter-ioles. By contrast, Mulligan and MacVicar, by using two-photon Ca2+ uncaging, have found that an increase in theavailable Ca2+ concentration within astrocytes produces aconstriction of nearby arterioles and thus decreases localblood flow [45]. These apparently controversial resultscould be caused by differences in the preparation of thebrain slices used for the experiments. The conditions ofbrain slices in vitro (i.e., the presence of blood flow, arterialpressure, synaptic activity and metabolic demands) arevery different from in vivo conditions. Recently, Takanoet al. [46], also using in vivo two-photon Ca2+ uncaging,have described vasodilation of arterioles mediated by pho-tolysis of glutamate in live mice.
Although the contraction or relaxation of blood vessels isprobably not mediated by astrocytic-process contraction orelongation but by release of vasoactive agents from astro-cytes, it is necessary to recognize the merit of Cajal’sproposal of astrocytic control of hyperemia, when he hadonly observed static light-microscopy images.
The astrocyte–neuron relationship
Cajal’s histological slides and drawings clearly illustrateastrocytic processes surrounding the body of neurons
(Figure 2; Figure 3d). Cajal observed that glial processesappeared to be consistently arranged in a fashion thatprevented contact among unmyelinated axons and den-drites at points where functional separation between thoseelements was needed. If contact between dendrites andnon-myelinated fibers were prevented, nerve impulsesbetween those neurons would be blocked [47]. Cajal’sbrother Pedro Ramon had previously suggested that astro-cytes could physically insulate against the passage ofneuronal impulses [48], and this hypothesis receivedstrong support from Cajal [49]. After the discovery ofmyelin as an insulating material, Cajal considered that,in thewhitematter, therewere two ‘insulators’, myelin andastrocytes, whereas in the graymatter, protoplasmic astro-cytes were the only insulating material [49]. Nevertheless,two years later he withdrew this view of astrocytes func-tioning as insulators [1].
Despite changing his opinion on astrocytes asinsulators, Cajal retained the belief that astrocytes werein some way modulating or interfering with neuronalfunction. In a theoretical article published in 1895, Cajalalso proposed a possible role for astrocytes in the sleep–wake cycle; he suggested that astrocytes in the graymatter might represent a switch that connects (wakeful-ness) or disconnects (sleep) the nervous ‘current’(Figure 4b [25]. He proposed that during waking, astro-cytes have their processes retracted, so neurons cancontact each other and the nervous current can flow.However, when astrocytes extend their processes amongneurons, they would act as a sort of circuit breaker,preventing the contact between neurons and thus indu-cing sleep.
Although the function of astrocytes in natural sleephas not been proven, the mechanism that Cajal proposed
Figure 4. (a) Attention mechanism. (i) Astrocytes associated with capillaries could contract their endfeet, resulting in capillary dilatation and thus increasing the amount of
nutrients in a specific region of the brain. (ii) During the relaxation phase, astrocyte processes will elongate, causing vasoconstriction in a brain region when attention is not
necessary. (b) Wakefulness–sleep process. (i) During wakefulness, the astrocytes have their processes contracted so the neurons can contact each other and there will be a flow
of the nervous current. (ii) If astrocytes extend the processes between neurons, they will act as a sort of circuit breaker, preventing contact between neurons and inducing sleep.
(c) Cajal’s drawing of fibrous astrocytes of human cerebral cortex surrounding a blood vessel. The original slide was impregnated by the sublimated gold chloride method.
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for these functions (interposition between synapses) hasbeen echoed by modern studies across various brainareas. In the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, estra-diol induces a transient growth of astrocytic processes atthe end of proestrus [50–52]. In the magnocellular nuclei,under conditions of intense neurohypohysial hormonesecretion (e.g. lactation, parturition, chronic dehydrata-tion), the glial coverage of neurons decreases in thevicinity of synapses [53–56]. This results in an alterationof glutamate clearance and also in a decrease of gluta-matergic neurotransmission [57]. Great motility of astro-glial process endings, mediated by lamellipodia andfilopodia, has been observed with two-photon microscopy[58].
In conclusion, the astrocyte–neuron partnership is notstatic but shows dynamic transformations that might beessential for synaptic plasticity and the modulation ofneurotransmission. In recent years, further mechanismsof communication between neurons and astrocytes havebeen observed. It has been shown that astrocytic excit-ability varies with changes in intracellular Ca2+ concen-tration [59]. Astrocytes might sense the activity ofneighboring synapses and respond to neurotransmittersreleased by synaptic terminals. Their response mightinduce an increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentrationin adjacent glial cells, and this increase might in turnlead to the release of various transmitters, such as glu-tamate [60,61]. These gliotransmitters could mediateintercellular signaling between astrocytes and neurons(for recent review, see [62]). The functional significance ofthese morphological and physiological findings in themodulation of nervous transmission has generated theconcept of ‘tripartite synapse’, whereby the synapse isfunctionally constituted by three elements: the presyn-aptic cell, the postsynaptic neuron and the surroundingastrocytes [63].
Cajal’s ‘third element’The ‘third element’ is a general and ambiguous term thatCajal used to describe a group of adendritic cells thatseemed devoid of processes, probably because of incom-plete staining methods. Rıo-Hortega demonstrated thatthese cells were indeed oligodendrocytes and microglial
cells [67]. Nowadays, it is easy to distinguish betweenmicroglial cells and oligodendrocytes by the applicationof antibodies as specific cell markers [64,65].
In 1896, Cajal observed some small cells that apparentlylacked processes. Because of their close association withneuronal somata, he named them ‘satellite cells’ and con-sidered them to be a new type of glial cell [66] (Figure 2a,b).Cajal applied alternative staining methods to confirm thepresence of the perineuronal adendritic cells and extendedthis observation to the satellite cells of the astrocytes, bloodvessels and other adendritic cells in the white matter [26](see Table 2). Cajal grouped all of them under the generalterm of ‘third element’ of the nervous centers in 1913 [26].Neurons were considered the first element and astrocytesthe second. The drawings and Cajal’s original slides shownin Figure 5a–c summarize some of the main shapes Cajalproposed for his third element [26]. Cajal considered thatall of these elements could have either mesodermic orectodermic origin.
In 1920, Rıo-Hortega obtained clearer images of themorphology of these adendritic cells both in gray matterand white matter by applying a new method [19]. Hedivided Cajal’s third element into two different types ofcells, microglia and interfascicular glia [67]. In microglialcells he included some satellite cells of gray matter andsome of the adendritic cells in white matter, which Cajalhad previously described. Rıo-Hortega also described thetransformation of microglia from an inactive state to thephagocytic ameboid form and their final transformationinto granular cells in response to a threat such as infection.He classified the rows of adendritic cells that Cajal hadpreviously found in white matter (see Table 2) as inter-fascicular glia [67]. With regard to embryonic origin, Rıo-Hortega suggested that microglia had a mesodermal ori-gin, whereas interfascicular glia and astrocytes were ofectodermal descent [67]. Because of their distinct originand function, Rıo-Hortega considered microglia to be thethird element of the nervous system [67].
After Hortega’s work, Cajal applied differentmethods tostudy microglia [19–21], although the best technique forstaining microglia was still Hortega’s method (Figure 5g–i). Cajal confirmed Hortega’s work, but he continued think-ing that the third element comprised different types of
Table 2. The identity of Cajal’s ’third element’
Author Method Identity Observations
Cajal, 1896 - Nissl - Satellite cells - Small cells lacking processes and in close association with neuronal somata
Cajal, 1913 - Formol uranium
nitrate
- Third element - Gray matter (satellite to neurons, astrocytes and blood vessels)
- Sublimated gold
chloride
- White matter (satellite to astrocytes and blood vessels and in rows along nerve
fascicles; star-shaped cells; fusiform cells with an elongated nucleus and
protoplasm; dwarf cells with a pyknotic nucleus)
Rıo-Hortega,
1920
- Silver carbonate - Microglia - Fusiform cells with an elongated nucleus and protoplasm, as described by Cajal
- Interfascicular glia - Rows of cells along nerve fascicles, as described by Cajal
Cajal, 1920 - Modification of
reduced silver nitrate
- Microglia - Adendritic cells (including those close to blood vessels and dwarf cells) and
microglia
- Ammoniacal silver
oxide
- Interfascicular glia
- Silver carbonate
- Other distinct
adendritic cells
Rıo-Hortega,
1921–1928
- Golgi-Hortega - Oligodendrocytes - Oligodendrocytes (including the satellite cells, interfascicular glia, adendritic
cells close to blood vessels and dwarf cells described by Cajal)
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cells, including microglia, interfascicular glia and otherdistinct adendritic cells, particularly perivascular adendri-tic cells and the dwarf cells described in white matter (seeTable 2). Because this latter group of adendritic cells couldnot be easily visualized with any known staining tech-niques, Cajal considered them to constitute a special celltype with undiscovered functions and called this cell typethe ‘real third element’ [68,69].
Rıo-Hortega made further contributions to the study ofthis problem in 1921 and 1928. Via a modification of theGolgi-Hortega method, he described the small adendriticcells that Cajal considered the real third element andcalled them ‘oligodendrocytes’ [22,70]. Among oligodendro-cytes (Figure 5f), Rıo-Hortega also included some satellitecells that Cajal had identified adjacent to neurons in graymatter (Figure 5d) and the interfascicular glia found inbetween nerve fibers of the white matter (Figure 5e).
As we have seen, the development of the classification ofdifferent glial cells has been a complex process, involvingnot only methodological (different staining methods),
morphological and functional concerns but also a problemwith scientific terminology.
Radial glial cellsRadial glia (RG) were first fully visualized by Golgi (1885),Magini (1888), Cajal (1889), Kolliker (1896) and otherscientists (for a recent review, see [71,72]). These authorsobserved radial cylindrical epithelial cells covering thewhole section of either the spinal cord or the cerebralcortex and reaching the peripheral border close to thepia mater. Cajal called these cells spongioblasts, whereasother contemporary scientists used different names, suchas epithelial cells, radial cells, and so on. Rakic (1972)introduced the term ‘radial glia’ in his classic descriptionsof neuronal migration in the neocortex of fetal primates[73].
A pivotal role has been suggested for RG in theconstruction of the nervous system: first, providing a scaf-fold for migrating neurons and second, participating inthe generation of diverse brain cells [74]. Some of these
Figure 5. Drawing and microphotographs from Cajal’s original histological preparations. (a) Astrocyte (indicated by ‘A’) and adendritic cells. The sample was taken from a
cat, and the original slide was impregnated by the formol-uranium method. (b) Heterothypical glial cells, big pale cell (indicated by ‘a’) and dwarf cells. The sample was
taken from a man, and the original slide was impregnated by the reduced silver nitrate method. (c) Astrocyte (indicated by ‘A’), perivascular adendritic cell (indicated by ‘a’),
adendritic cell (indicated by ‘b’), fusiform elements (indicated by ‘C’ and ‘D’) and oval nucleus with some rests of glial protoplasm (indicated by ‘d’). The original sample was
taken from a child who died from tuberculosis [26]. Oligodendrocytes impregnated by the Nissl method (d), ammoniacal silver oxide method (e) and Golgi-Hortega method
(f). Microglia impregnated by the ammoniacal silver oxide method (g), reduced silver nitrated method (h) and silver carbonate method (i). Abbreviations: m = microglial
cells; n = neuron; o = oligodendrocytes; p = senile plaque. The scale bar represents 10 mm. (INs: 81206, 80049, 84480, 82127, 80443 and 84467).
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functions were first suggested more than a century ago byCajal and his colleagues.
Cajal described the morphology of RG by using theGolgi method in the spinal cord [75] (Figure 6b). Maginiproposed that these cells acted as a scaffold for migratingneurons. He observed that the radial filaments exhibitmany swellings or round varicosities of various sizes ontheir course. He hypothesized that these spherical cells(the varicosities) probably represented the future nervecells of the cerebral cortex (see [72] for a recent review). Inthe early 1970s, Rakic used a combination ofGolgi impreg-nation and reconstructions from electron microscopyserial sections to observe migrating neurons along theRG fibers [73,76].
In Cajal’s Histologie [1], we learn that at that time thespinal cord at its earliest stages was considered to beconstituted of elongated epithelial cells arranged in asingle layer, that is, neuroepithelial cells, by current ter-minology. Among these epithelial cells, there are scatteredspherical elements with mitotic figures, which His hadnamed germinal cells. For His, germinal cells representedspecific elements from which the neuroblasts derive exclu-sively. However, Cajal observed that the number of epi-thelial cells increased notably after the differentiation ofgerminal cells, and he proposed that germinal cells wereundifferentiated forms that could give rise to both epi-thelial cells and neuroblasts. Moreover, Cajal observedtransitional phases between spongioblasts and neuro-blasts in very early stages of development of the chickspinal cord. This led him to consider the possibility thatsome epithelial elements might become neuroblasts. Onlyin recent years has this point been confirmed, when it wasobserved that RG are not only astrocyte progenitors butalso neuronal progenitors in the central nervous system(CNS) [77–80].
Cajal described the differentiation of RG into fibrillaryor protoplasmic astrocytes after they have ceased theirguiding function during neurogenesis (Figure 6a) [1,64].According to Cajal, astrocyte morphology depends on theplace where the RG ends its evolution. Influenced byneuronal activity, astrocytes placed in gray matter devel-oped their processes among the thin processes of neurons;however, an astrocyte situated in white matter acquiredlong and smooth processes [1]. Recent studies have
confirmed that RG transform into astrocytes in most avianand mammalian CNS regions [81–84].
Cajal observed that RG persist through adulthood inlower vertebrates and that they are the dominant glialform in reptiles (Figure 6c) [85]. However, in the adultmammalian stage, most of the RG disappear, with a fewexceptionswhere they adapt to the local functional require-ments and spatial conditions and become specialized astro-cytic cell types (e.g. the Bergmann glial cells of thecerebellum, or the Muller cells of the retina) [74]. Becauseneurogenesis continues in adult cold-blooded vertebrates,a close correlation between the presence of RG and neu-rogenesis has been suggested. Recent studies in avian andmammalian brains also indicate that RG function asneural progenitors and perhaps as stem cells [86].
ConclusionsMore than one hundred years ago, Cajal proposed aphysiological role for glial cells. Astrocytes were initiallyconsidered as ‘brain glue’, providing an inert scaffoldnecessary for neuronal distribution and interactions.However, it is only in the past few years that new functionshave been revealed for astrocytes; such functions includethe control of synapse formation and function, adult neu-rogenesis and brain vascular tone. Some of these ‘new’functions hadalready beenproposed byCajal but couldnotbe tested. Cajal found that the nervous system included anew cell type, which he called the third element. Rıo-Hortega, using specific methods, determined that thisthird element was actually composed of two cell types,oligodendrocytes and microglia. Finally, some of Cajal’smain ideas, that is, the evolution of RG to astrocytes andtheir neurogenic potential, have recently been corrobo-rated. As we have seen in the field of glial research, thescientific work of Cajal is still a rich source of hypotheseswaiting to be tested.
AcknowledgementsWe gratefully acknowledge Adolfo Martinez, and especially Sian Lewisand Helen Barbour, for their invaluable help with editing the manuscript.We also acknowledge Javier DeFelipe and Luis Miguel Garcıa-Segura fortheir critical reading of the manuscript. Original drawings from theMuseum Cajal are reproduced with permission from the Inheritors ofSantiago Ramon y Cajal�. The authors are supported by the SpanishMinistry of Science and the Areces Foundation.
Figure 6. (a) Drawing of radial glial cells from the spinal cord of a 9-day-old chick. (b) RG from the spinal cord of a 3-day-old chick. (‘a’ = dorsal; ‘b’ = ventral; ‘v’ = ventricle;
the scale bar represents 25 mm). (c) RG from the optic lobe of an adult lizard (the scale bar represents 50 mm); impregnation with Golgi method. (INs 84425 and 80624)
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