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Research Methodology
Mrs. Chaitali A.Laulkar
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Motivation
To enable researchers, irrespective of their discipline, in
developing the most appropriate methodology for their
research studies
To make them familiar with the art of using different research
methods and techniques.
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Syllabus
Unit - IUnderstand the Research Process. Unit - IIProblem Identification and hypothesis formulation.
Unit - IIIResearch Design
Unit - IVMethods, Tools and Techniques
Unit - V- Data Processing and Data Analysis
Unit - VIReporting Research
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Evolution of Research Methodology
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What is Research ?
Research is :
Study whatever everybody has done and think whatever
nobody has thought
An activity which critically evaluate some problem. Undertaking structured investigation which hopefully result
in greater understanding of the chosen interest area.
Ultimately this investigation become available to the
public.
To collect and analyze the data in specified field with the
purpose of proving your theory.
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Definition of Research
The systematic investigation into and study of materials and
sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
Investigation using Scientific procedure , by searching againand again to find out the truth.
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What is Research ?
Research is carried out in order to :
Get a result with scientific methods objectively not
subjectively.
Solve problems, verify the application of theories, and leadon to new insight.
Enlighten both researchers and any interested reader.
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What research is Not..
Research is not information gathering.
Gathering information from resource such as books andmagazines isnt research
No contribution to new knowledge
Research is not the transportation of the facts.
Merely transferring facts from one resource to anotherdoesnt constitute research.
No contribution to knowledge although this might make
existing knowledge more accessible. Applying existing techniques to a new problem
Developing a oneshot solution to a problem
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Scope of Research
Premises form the basis upon which this research rests.
Delimitations define the scope of the research.
Premise: A statement that is assumed to be true and from
which a conclusion can be drawn.
Delimitation : A line that indicates a boundary.
Scope of investigation defines where and when the study was
conducted and who the subject were.
The scope sets the delimitations and establishes theboundaries of the study.
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Limitation of Research
Limitation is a phrase or aspect of the investigation which may
affect the result adversely but over which you have no control.
Limitation must be stated honestly.
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Significance of Research
Research indicates scientific and inductive thinking and itpromotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organization.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies
in our economic system.
Research has its special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and industry.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying
social relation.
To those students who are to write a masters or Ph.D. thesis,
research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high
position in the social structure.
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Significance of Research
To professionals in research methodology, research may mean
a source of livelihood.
To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for
new ideas and insights.
To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work.
To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalizations of new theories.
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Who can do Research ?
Knowledge is not anybodys personal property
Excellence is not Expensive
Dont need a Ph.D. Degree tobe a Researcher
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Research : A Journey
A strong foundation for the research is the querying attitude.
Everything and anything is questionable and these questions
make way for a research.
Knowledge in the arena of proposed research topic, Analytical/Numerical/Experimental skills are the prerequisites for a
researcher.
The hard work, consistency and immense patience are a few
desirable qualities of a researcher apart from the skills and
knowledge . A researcher needs to be committed to the
research work to find fruits in the research.
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Research Characteristics
Originate with question or problem.
Require clear articulation of a goal.
Follow a specific plan or procedure.
Often divides main problem into sub problems. Guided by specific problem , question or hypothesis.
Accept certain critical assumptions.
Require collection and interpretation of data.
Cyclical in nature.
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Sources of Research Problem
Observation
Literature reviews
Professional conferences
Experts
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Objective and Goals of Research The objective of research to find the answers to certain questions
through the application of scientific procedure.
The goal of a research process is to produce new knowledge which
takes three forms :
Exploratory :
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it.
Research which structures and identifies new Problems.
Descriptive
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group. Diagnostic
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else
Hypothesis Testing
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
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Objectives of Research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve newinsights into it - Studies with this objective in view are termedas exploratory or formulative research studies
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group - Studies with this object inview are known as descriptive research studies.
To determine the frequency with which something occurs orwith which it is associated with something else - Studies withthis object in view are known as diagnostic research studies
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables- Such studies are known as hypothesis-testing researchstudies.
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Exploratory Research
also termed as formulativeresearch studies
The main purpose
formulating a problem for more precise investigation
of developing the working hypotheses from anoperational point of view
The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and
insights
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Research: A Motivation
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Research : A Motivation
Intrinsic motivation - The love of the work itself. Intrinsic
motivations include: interest, challenge, learning, meaning,
purpose, creative flow.
Research has shown that high levels of intrinsic motivation are
strongly linked to outstanding creative performance.
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Research : A Motivation
Extrinsic motivation - Rewards for good work or punishments
for poor work. Extrinsic motivations include: money, fame,
awards, praise, status, opportunities, deadlines, commitments,
bribes, threats.
Research shows that too much focus on extrinsic motivation
can block creativity.
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Research : A Motivation
Personal motivation - Individual values, linked to personality.
Examples include: power, harmony, achievement, generosity,
public recognition, authenticity, knowledge, security, pleasure.
Each of us prioritizes some values over others. understanding
your own values and those of people around you is key to
motivating yourself and influencing others.
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Research : A Motivation
Interpersonal motivation - Influences from other people.
Much of our behavior is a response to people around us, such
as: copying, rebellion, competition, collaboration,
commitment, encouragement.
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Research : A Motivation
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Research : A Motivation
Motivation leading to research for search of
ways out of a situation
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Phases of Research
Idea-generating phase
Problem-definition phase
Procedures-design phase Observation phase
Data-analysis phase
Interpretation phase Communication phase
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What Research Methodology is ?
The prescription of the acceptable ways of
doing research
Defines:
How to proceed;
How to measure progress
What constitutes a success
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Why should we follow a methodology?
Research does not begin with the results!!!
Identification of needs
Creation of ideas Formalization of ideas
Testing
Dissemination Refinement
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Types of Research
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Descriptive Research
Designed to describe somethinge.g. 1. characteristics of users of agiven product ; The degree to which product use varies with income, age , gender or other characteristics. 2. The number who sawspecific television show.
It includes only collect data for definite purpose.
Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
Objective and understanding should be clear and specific.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are surveymethods of all kinds, including comparative and correlationalmethods.
Often use in social science and business research. Researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report
what has happened or what is happening.
Example : Frequency of shopping, Preferences of people,etc.
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Analytical Research
Researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
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Applied (Action) Research
Finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial / business organization.
Aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that
may affect a particular institution or marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research.
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Fundamental Research
Concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory.
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure
or basicresearch.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
Basic research is directed towards finding information that has
a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
Research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with
a view to make generalizations about human behavior.
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Quantitative Research Objective is: 1. To quantify data and generalize results from a
sample to the population of interest. 2. To measure the incidence ofvarious views and opinions in a chosen sample. 3. The objective of
quantitative research is to develop and employ Mathematical
Models, Theoriesand/or Hypothesispertaining to phenomena.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.
Expression of a property or quantity in numerical term.
Quantitative research is more scientific.
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Qualitative Research
Qualitative research, concerned with phenomena relating to or involving quality orkind.
e.g. why people think or do certain things ?
e.g.find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject orinstitution.
Aim is to discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews
for the purpose. This type of research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.
This type of research can analyze the various factors which motivate people tobehave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particularthing.
It is more naturalistic and more subjective.
Qualitative research produces observations, notes, and descriptions of behaviorand motivation.
Research methods in this category include: Interviews,Focus groups, Reviews,Observation.
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Conceptual Research
Related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkersto develop new concepts or to reinterpret existingones.
Researcher breaks down a theorem or conceptinto its constituent parts to gain a betterunderstanding of the deeper philosophical issueconcerning the theorem.
Popular method of research in social sciences, andphilosophy and psychology.
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Empirical Research
It relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verifiedby observation or experiment.
It is experimental type of research.
The researcher must first provide himself with aworking hypothesis or guess as to the probable
results.
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Exploratory Research
When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or
knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is a
useful preliminary step.
Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous
studies exist. The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or
ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for furtherresearch.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues
and key variables.
E l t R h
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Exploratory Research Researchers conduct exploratory research for three interrelated
purposes: (1) diagnosing a situation, (2) screening alternatives,
and (3) discovering new ideas.
1. Diagnosing a situation : when an advertising agency got an account for
a new coffee containing chicory, the firm began the research process with
exploratory research to diagnose the situation. The researchers learned that
almost nobody had heard of chicory. It wasnt being used, and nobody
seemed to know how to use it. This led to the hypothesis that the
advertising could portray the chicory ingredient any way the client wanted.
2. Screening Alternatives : When several opportunities, such as new
product ideas, arise at once, but budgets dont allow trying all possible
options, exploratory research may be used to determine the best
alternatives.
3. Discovering New ideas : Marketers often conduct exploratory research
to generate ideas for new products, advertising copy, and so on.
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Categories of Exploratory Research Experience surveys :
Researchers may discuss the concepts with top executives andknowledgeable individuals, both inside and outside the company, whohave had personal experience in the field. This constitutes an informalexperience survey.
Secondary data analysis:
Another economical and quick source of background information is
trade literature. Searching through such material is exploratory researchwithsecondary data.
Case studies :
Obtain information from one or a few situations that are similar tothe researchersproblem situation.
Pilot studies :A pilot study is a research project that involves sampling, but itrelaxes the rigorous standards used to obtain precise, quantitativeestimates from large, representative samples.
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Descriptive Research Descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description
of observations of a phenomena. Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the
elements or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of dayslost because of industrial action.
e.g. The object of the collection of census data is to accuratelydescribe basic information about a national population at a
particular point in time.
Situations :
1. Did last years product recall have an impact on our
companysshare price?2. What have been the trends in organisational downsizingover the past ten years?
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What is deterring your research?
Age?
Are you suffering from Low Self Confidence?
Are you getting boredom of your research and
learning ?
Enjoy your learning and research
No Matter You can soon become anunchallenged Champion..
But of course with Hard Work and Dedication
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Research Approaches
Quantitative Approach
Inferential Approach
The purpose of this approach is to form a data base from which toinfer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually meanssurvey research where a sample of population is studied (questionedor observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred
that the population has the same characteristics
Experimental Approach
It is characterized by much greater control over the researchenvironment and in this case some variables are manipulated toobserve their effect on other variables.
Simulation approaches This approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated. Thispermits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or itssub-system) under controlled conditions.
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Research Approach
Qualitative Approach
This approach is concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a
situation is a function of researchers insights andimpressions. Such an approach to research generates
results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
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Research Method Vs Research Methodology
Research Method : All those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
All those methods which are used by the researcher during thecourse of studying his research problem are termed as research
methods. Groups of Research Methods
In the first group we include those methods which are concerned withthe collection of data. These methods will be used where the dataalready available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution.
The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are
used for establishing relationships between the data and theunknowns.
The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluatethe accuracy of the results obtained.
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Research Method Vs Research Methodology
Research Methodology
It is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understoodas a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
We study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher instudying his research problem along with the logic behind them.
Research methodology not only talk of the research methods but alsoconsider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our researchstudy and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and whywe are not using others so that research results are capable of beingevaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Why a research study has been undertaken ? How the research problem has been defined ?
what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated ?
what data have been collected ?
what particular method has been adopted ?
why particular technique of analyzing data has been used ?
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Importance of knowing How Research is done ?
The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the
new research worker and enables him to do better research.
It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a bentof mindto observe
the field objectively.
It will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results withreasonable confidence.
When one knows how research is done, then one may have the
satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way oflooking at the world and of judging every day experience.
It helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enableshim to take rational decisions.
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Research Process
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1. Formulate Research Problem
One or more sentences indicating the goal,
purpose, or overall direction of the study.
Steps involved in formulating the Problem
stmt.
Understanding the problem thoroughly, and
Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from
an analytical point of view.
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2. Extensive Literature Survey
The abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to.
Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the
problem.
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3.Development of Working Hypothesis
Hypotheses Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships
between two or more variables
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimitingthe area of research and to keep him on the right track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the moreimportant facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of datarequired and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
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3. Development of Working Hypothesis
Reasons for using hypotheses
To provide specific focus. To provide for the testing of the relationships between
variables.
To direct the investigation.
To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships.
To provide a framework for reporting the results andexplanations deriving from them.
When supported, provides empirical evidence of the predictivenature of the relationships between variables.
To provide a useful framework for organizing and summarizingthe results and conclusions.
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4. Preparing the Research Design
The designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
What is the study about ?
Why is the study being made ?
Where will the study be carried out ?
What type of data is required ?
Where can the required data be found ?
What periods of time will the study include ?
What will be the sample design ?
What techniques of data collection will be used ?
How will the data be analyzed ?
In what style will the report be prepared ?
What is the cost of Project ?
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5. Determining Sample Design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiryconstitute a universe or population. A completeenumeration of all the items in the populationis known asa census inquiry.
It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
items are covered no element of chance is left and highestaccuracy is obtained.
But in practice this may not be true as this type of inquiryinvolves a great deal of time, money and energy.
The sample design to be used must be decided by theresearcher taking into consideration the nature of theinquiry and other related factors.
l
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5. Determining Sample Design
Types of Sample designs
Deliberate Sampling This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for constituting asample which represents the universe.
When population elements are selected for inclusion in thesample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience
sampling. In Judgment sampling the researchers judgment is used for
selecting items which he considers as representative of thepopulation
Simple Random Sampling
This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling orprobability sampling where each and every item in thepopulation has an equal chance of inclusion in the sampleand each one of the possible samples, in case of finiteuniverse, has the same probability of being selected.
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5. Determining Sample Design
Types of Sample designs Systematic Sampling
In such a design the selection process starts by picking somerandom point in the list and then every nth element isselected until the desired number is secured.
Stratified Sampling If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does
not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratifiedsampling technique is applied so as to obtain arepresentative sample.
If the items selected from each stratum is based on simplerandom sampling the entire procedure, first stratificationand then simple random sampling, is known as stratifiedrandom sampling.
5. Determining Sample Design
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g p g
Types of Sample designs Quota Sampling
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionateto the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling isthus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quotasamples generally happen to be judgment samples rather thanrandom samples.
Cluster Sampling and Area Sampling Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individualelements for inclusion in the sample.
The sample size must often be larger than the simple randomsample to ensure the same level of accuracy.
The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling
procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of fieldwork, specially in the case of personal interviews.
Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number ofsmaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographicalclusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomlyselected, and all units in these small areas are included in the
sample.
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5. Determining Sample Design
Types of Sample designs
Multi-stage sampling
This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.
This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to aconsiderably large geographical area like an entire country.
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select largeprimary sampling units such as states, then districts, then townsand finally certain families within towns.
If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, thesampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
Sequential sampling
ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but isdetermined according to mathematical decisions on the basis ofinformation yielded as survey progresses. This design is usuallyadopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context ofstatistical quality control.
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6. Collecting the Data
Data can collected through two types of information. Primary Data
Primary data is the data collected for the first time to serve somespecific purpose.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment orthrough survey.
Primary data can collected by two ways
Experiments
By Observation
Through personal interview
Through Telephone interview
By mailing of questionnaires
Through schedules
Survey
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6. Collecting the Data
Secondary Information
Government department
Magazines
Annual Report
Bibliography
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7. Execution of the Project
This steps should be taken to ensure that the
survey is under statistical control so that the
collected information is in accordance with
the pre-defined standard of accuracy. Proper answer to the question
Occasional field checks
Proper training to the field officers
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8. Analysis of Data
After collecting the data the researcher turns
to the task of evaluating it.
Editing : Is the procedure which improves the
quality of data. Coding : Categories of data are transformed into
symbols.
Tabulation : Data put in form of tables. Statistical Calculation
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8. Analysis of Data
Researcher should classify the raw data into somepurposeful and usable categories.
Approach to de-synthesizing data, informational,and/or factual elements to answer research
questions Categories of Data Analysis
Narrative (e.g. laws, arts) Descriptive (e.g. social sciences)
Statistical/mathematical (pure/applied sciences) Audio-Optical (e.g. telecommunication) Others
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8. Analysis of Data
Goal of an Data Analysis To explain cause-and-effect phenomena
To relate research with real-world event
To predict/forecast the real-world
Phenomena based on research
Finding answers to a particular problem
Making conclusions about real-world event
based on the problem
Learning a lesson from the problem
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9. Hypothesis Testing
Do the facts support the formulated
hypothesis?
Or it happens to be contrary?
Various tests
Chi-Square test
T-test
F-test
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10. Generalization and Interpretation
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to startwith, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.
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11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis
Layout of Report
Preliminary Pages
Report should carry title and date
Acknowledgements Foreword.
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs
List of charts, if any, given in the report.
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11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis
Main Text Introduction
It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the researchand an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing theresearch. The scope of the study along with various limitations shouldas well be stated in this part.
Summary of finding After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings areextensive, they should be summarized.
Main Report
The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequenceand broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
Conclusion Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the finalsumming up.
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11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis
End Matter
Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data.
Bibliography, List of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should
also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published
research report.
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11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis
Report should be written in a concise andobjective style in simple language avoiding vagueexpressions such as it seems, there may be, andthe like.
Charts and illustrations in the main report shouldbe used only if they present the informationmore clearly and forcibly.
Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned
and the various constraints experienced inconducting research operations may as well bestated.
Criteria of good research
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Criteria of good research The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what
has already been attained.
The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are
as objective as possible.
The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
Qualities of good research
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g
Good research is systematic:
Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematiccharacteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but itcertainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving atconclusions.
Good research is logical:
Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying outresearch. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to thewhole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from somepremise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context ofdecision making.
Good research is empirical: Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation
and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validityto research results.
Good research is replicable:
Results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a
sound basis for decisions.
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Principals of Research ethics
Discuss intellectual property frankly Be conscious of multiple roles
Follow informed-consent rules
Respect confidentiality and privacy
Discuss the limits of confidentiality Know federal and state law
Best course of action Take practical security measures.
Think about data sharing before research begins
Understand the limits of the Internet. Tap into ethics resources
The Belmont Report
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1. Identifying research objectives
Think in detail about these three importantquestions:
1. What is this research work for?
2. What am I supposed to do during my
research work?3. What am I supposed to achieve?
Have a clearly set-out statement of what youwant to achieve in your research work. It shouldbe consistent with the research problem youhave formulated.