Calculations for HV and LV

..........................................................................Collection Technique

Cahier technique no. 213

Calculations forLV and HV networks

B. de METZ-NOBLAT

Building a New Electric World

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no. 213Calculations forLV and HV networks

ECT 213 first issue, December 2004

Benoît de METZ-NOBLAT

ESE engineer, worked for Saint-Gobain, then started at Merlin Gerinin 1986.He is a member of the Electrical Network competence group thatstudies electrical phenomena concerning the operation of networksand their interaction with devices and equipment.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 213 / p.2


Calculations forLV and HV networks

This Cahier Technique publication is intended to provide a generaloverview of the main electrotechnical calculations carried out inengineering studies on electrical systems at all voltage levels.

It is complementary to other Cahier Technique publications that deal morewith the operation of devices and installations in electrical systems. Thisdocument will help owners, designers and operators understand theimportance of these calculations in ensuring correct use of the electricalnetwork and their impact on the total cost of ownership.

Contents

1 Introduction p. 4

2 Life of an electrical network 2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network p. 5

2.2.Electrical phenomena in networks p. 6

2.3 Types of networks and their operation p. 6

2.4 Necessary calculations p. 6

2.5 Summary table p. 7

3 Study prerequisites 3.1 Method p. 8

3.2 Role of the expert p. 10

4 Electrical-network calculations 4.1 Dependability p. 11

4.2 Steady-state conditions p. 13

4.3 Short-circuit p. 15

4.4 Protection p. 17

4.5 Stability p. 19

4.6 Harmonics p. 21

4.7 Overvoltages p. 23

4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility p. 26

4.9 Measurements for audits p. 28

5 Summary - Main risks for users - Answers provided by studies p. 31

6 Conclusion p. 33

Appendix 1. History p. 34

Appendix 2. Software p. 35

Appendix 3. Necessary data p. 36

Bibliography p. 37


1 Introduction

Electrical networks have long been studied toensure effective supply of electricity to processes.The main aspects studied are design, operation andupgrades.

Note that, in this document, the term "process"refers to all applications of electricity users(commercial, infrastructure, industry, distribution-system manager).

Given the recent worldwide context, the importanceof electrical network studies is growing continuously.

c Over the past few years, the electrical world andits organisational modes have undergone rapidchange.

v With deregulation of the electric market, theeconomic rules have changed. Consumers can takeadvantage of the competition between suppliers andutilities can extend their markets.

v Users are refocusing on their core business anddivesting secondary activities such as thoserequired to run electrical networks. Examples aresubcontracting of maintenance or operation ofinstallations to specialised service companies.

v Technological progress has also had a number ofeffects.First of all, digital electronics and computer networkshave opened new horizons, but also imposed newconstraints. They have improved electric systeminstrumentation and control, including remotecontrol, but at the same time have made processesmore sensitive to energy quality.Secondly, the trend toward multiple energy sources(combined heat and power - CHP, renewableenergy) and the widespread use of non-linear loadscan, over time, have major impact on networkarchitecture and operating modes, due to voltagedisturbances, protection needs and regulations.

c Electricity is now considered a product like anyother, which implies a need for quality.Consumers want access to electrical energysuited to their needs. Given the extremelydiverse requirements of processes in terms ofsafety and quality, the electricity supplied mustmeet the stipulated specifications.At every level in the electrical supply chain(production, transmission, distribution), energysuppliers must satisfy customers and users inline with personalised contractual clauses.

c Environmental protection criteria have becomeobligatory in terms of the selection andconsumption of materials (minimumenvironmental impact) and energy (maximumefficiency).

c More than ever, economic aspects are acrucial factor.

Users must optimise the total cost of ownership(TCO) of the electrical network. The TCOincludes all expenditures required to useelectrical energy, i.e. investments, operation,maintenance and the purchase of energy.

To demonstrate the importance of calculations inengineering studies, this Cahier Techniquepublication will successively discuss:

v aspects pertaining to the life of an electricalnetwork;

v calculation methods;

v the main calculations required according to thetype of network and the applications involved.

Note that the calculations presented hererepresent only one element in the overallelectrical-engineering process.


2 Life of an electrical network

A number of aspects concerning the life of anelectrical network are discussed in this section,so that the readers can gain a better grasp ontheir own installations and take action at thecorrect level in terms of the subject presentedhere:c life cycle, i.e. the successive phases in the lifeof an electrical network from its design onthrough to upgrades (see Fig. 1 );c electrical phenomena encountered in systemoperation;c types of networks and their operation, whichdirectly determine the impact of events onelectrical components;c finally, the calculations required to developeconomically and technically viable solutions,and which constitute one of the final selectioncriteria of the user.

2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network

Fig. 1: Life cycle of an electrical network.F

orec

asts

- Ant

icip

at

ionNew design

End of life

Design Construction

Maintenance

Upgrades OperationProcess

Network

The life cycle of an electrical network(see Fig. 1 ) comprises four typical phasesprimarily concerned by the calculationspresented in this document.

c Design and installationThese are all the operations leading up to aninstallation that is ready to supply electricalpower to processes. Various studies determinethe basic choices, including the networkarchitecture, sizing of equipment, protection, etc.

During this phase, it is important to carry outcalculations that assist in making the decisionsand determine future performance.

c OperationThis is the operational phase of installations,involving the supply of electrical power toprocesses and during which various events,normal and abnormal, occur on the networkleading to operation in normal, downgraded orsafe modes.

The protection and automation systems step into deal with disturbances and critical situations.

They are defined by calculations, taking intoaccount all possible serious problems that canoccur.

c MaintenanceNetwork performance levels are maintained bymaintenance operations that can be preventive(before problems occur) or corrective (followinga problem).At times, additional measures and calculationsare required to solve unforeseen difficulties.

c UpgradesAdaptation of electrical installations to thechanging needs of processes generally results inmajor work to renovate, modify and expand thesystem. This step requires calculations for theplanned modifications, taking into account allacquired experience.

Correct execution of the calculations requiredduring the various phases of the life cyclerequires a good understanding of the electricalphenomena likely to occur in the network.


2.2 Electrical phenomena in networks

An electrical network is made up of differentparts (components, devices and equipment) thatmutually influence each other. System operationover time and on a given site is the result of thisinteraction, in compliance with the laws ofelectricity expressed by a set of equationsestablishing relations between values such asvoltage, current, impedance, time, etc.

The classification of electrical phenomenaaccording to the response time of the system(time constants) defines typical behaviour thatmust be handled on a case by case basis:

c discontinuous phenomena - temporaryinterruption of the supply;

c slow phenomena - standard changes inoperating conditions;

c stable phenomena - steady-state conditions;

c fast phenomena - influence of the variableeffects of rotating machines;

c conducted electromagnetic phenomena -influence of waves propagated by cables;

c radiated electromagnetic phenomena -radiation.

The main events associated with the aboveclasses of phenomena produce very diverseeffects on the distribution system and processes:

c interruption and breaks in the supply ofelectricity;

c voltage sags and variations;

c transient currents;

c harmonics;

c short-circuits;

c electromechanical oscillations;

c overvoltages due to switching, arcs andrecovery transients;

c overvoltages caused by lightning;

c coupling between power and control currents.

The magnitudes of the effects listed abovedepend on the types of networks and operatingrequirements.

2.3 Types of networks and their operation

Certain parameters specific to the electricalinstallation in question determine the necessarycalculations.

c Type of source

v short-circuit power;

v speed and voltage regulators;

v harmonic pollution;

v normal or replacement.

c Type of load

v power (active/reactive, installed/drawn);

v operating characteristics (commissioning,sensitivity to disturbances);

v phase unbalance;

v harmonic loads;

v priorities of different loads for the process(normal / essential / vital).

c Network diagram

v voltage levels;

v structure (radial, loop, double/single supplies,double/single busbars);

v configuration (normal/back-up, redundant);

v system earthing arrangements (SEA);

v line lengths;

v power-factor correction;

v types of switching devices;

v maintenance requirements.

c Standards, regulations and local work habits

Analysis of the above parameters determinesthe types of studies capable of providingquantitative solutions for the problems at hand.

2.4 Necessary calculations

The purpose of the calculations is to analyse andforesee system responses to various situations.The results impact on network architecture,selection of device and equipment characteristics,and operating rules.

The following sections cover:c dependability;c steady-state conditions;

c short-circuits;c protection;c stability;c harmonics;c overvoltages;c electromagnetic compatibility (EMC);c measurements for evaluations and audits.


2.5 Summary table

The table ( Figure 2 ) presents along a doublescale (time and frequency) the informationdiscussed above:

v classes of phenomena;

v electrical events;

v network types and operation;

v types of calculation.

Class of phenomenonDiscontinuous

SlowFast

StableConducted electromagnetic

Radiated electromagnetic

TimeFrequency 0.1 Hz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

10 s 1 s 0.1 s 10 ms 1 ms 0.1 ms 0.01 ms 1 µs

TimeFrequency 0.1 Hz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

10 s 1 s 0.1 s 10 ms 1 ms 0.1 ms 0.01 ms 1 µs

Electrical eventsInterruptions and breaks in supply

Voltage sags and variationsTransient currents

Electromechanical oscillationsHarmonics, flicker

Short-circuitsOvervoltages caused by switching, arcs and recovery transients

Overvoltages caused by lightning

Coupling between power and control currents

Network type and operationReliability of system and components

Regulation of system voltage and frequency

Load operationOverload protection, load shedding

Monitoring of rotating machines (speed and voltage)

Short-circuit protectionPower-electronics assemblies

Switchgear operation

Type of calculationDependability

Dynamic stabilityLoad flow

HarmonicsShort-circuit, protection, SEA

Switching transientsAtmospheric transients

EMC

Fig. 2: Summary of electrical-network operation.


3 Study prerequisites

In addition to the necessary know-how, themeans implemented for network calculationsconstitute an essential aspect for studies, for anumber of reasons:

c complete approach in terms of the method, toensure valid final results;

c adaptation of tools to needs which can varydepending on the types of calculation and theapplications;

c investment in tools and their maintenance, atthe lowest possible cost.

In appendix 1, a rapid historical presentationshows the radical changes in the means used,from the origins to present day, due to the newtechnologies available and their decreasing cost.

This section presents the approach used forcalculations and the digital tools currentlyemployed, then discusses the importance of theexpert's role in the calculations.

3.1 Method

The overall calculation procedure follows astandard scientific approach, i.e. simple in itsprinciple, but precise and rigorous in itsexecution. This section discusses the steps inthe method, then the currently used digitalsimulation tools.

Steps

Figure 3 shows the different steps in calculatingelectrical systems.

c NeedThe overall purpose of calculations is to foreseethe quantitative behaviour of a real system inorder to size it, understand its operation orcontrol it.

c Qualitative analysisPreliminary analysis, based on experience andknow-how, makes it possible to draft a qualitative

list of the important phenomena for anapplication.

c Phenomena and events studiedThis step consists in selecting, on the basis ofthe above analysis, the phenomena for whichcalculations will be run.

c Quantitative analysisUse of the digital quantification tool comprises:

v ModellingModelling an electrical network meansrepresenting each element and all theinterconnections between elements by equationsexpressing the electrical, magnetic andmechanical behaviour. The equations must beadapted to the phenomena studied.

v SimulationSimulation of an electrical network meanssimultaneously solving all the equations in the

Fig. 3: The various steps in calculating electrical systems.

Real system

Experience (measurements)

Qualitative analysis

Calculation loop

Need

Validation loop

Phenomena and events

to be studied

Quantitative analysis= Modelling + simulation

Quantitative prediction

Comparison


model. The main variable can be space, time orfrequency. Simulation on a computer requirescalculation software.

c Quantitative predictionThe simulations cover the possible situationsand relevant parameters. Processing andformatting of the results produces the desiredprediction.

c Experience, measurements and validationThis step checks that quantification was correctlycarried out, i.e. that the models and digitalprocessing produced significant results.Comparison of the prediction with measurementsis a validation technique that justifies the selectedmethod. It may be requested to guarantee theannounced results.

Digital means

Digital calculation is now widely used andcomprises a number of elements.

c HardwareThe calculation device is a computer, generally aPC, which now offers sufficient memory andcalculating speed.

c SoftwareAll system equations are processed by a specialprogram. The user-machine interface (UMI) canbe used to add data to the models, start the

calculation and present the results in the form ofvalues, tables and curves (see Fig. 4 ).The table in appendix 2 lists the softwaresuitable for the different calculations.

c Data bankEach electrotechnical element is described by themodels and the characteristic physical values. Allof this data is stored in a data bank. Appendix 3list the main data required for calculations.

The investment consists essentially of thesoftware and its maintenance because the costof hardware has become negligible due towidespread use of PCs.

Most software programs are available on themarket, supplied by utilities, equipmentmanufacturers, electrical consulting firms,schools and universities.

Evaluation

This method is the means to confirm andquantify the phenomena foreseen by the theory.Under certain circumstances, it also revealspoorly identified phenomena.A particularly difficult aspect is the experimentalvalidation of the results which requires experienceand know-how. For example, the necessarymeasures depend on the type of study anddisturbance monitoring (with interpretation of theresults) may be required.

Fig 4: UMI screen for data entry and the display of the results (source - Schneider Electric).


3.2 Role of the expert

The above method has been proven by manyyears of practical experience.

But though it provides reliable results for thepurpose to which it is put, correct resultsnonetheless require the knowledge, know-howand experience of specialised engineers.

These experts are in a position to:

c sift through all the available data and retainonly the relevant information;

c recognise the orders of magnitude and detectany inconsistencies;

c evaluate the tools and models to select themost suitable;

c make the necessary approximations to simplifythe calculations without altering the results;

c check and interpret the results to proposeeffective solutions.


4 Electrical-network calculations

This Cahier Technique publication covers allelectrical networks and consequently allapplications:

c on public, industrial, commercial andresidential networks;

c from low to high voltages.

This section describes the studies listed above,systematically taking into account the followingpoints:

c the purpose of the study;

c the concerned electrical phenomena and theirorigin;

c their effects and the proposed solutions;

c the contribution of the study and itsdeliverables;

c an example of an application drawn from realstudies carried out by Schneider Electric.

The overall goal is simply to briefly inform thereader and the scope of each example istherefore necessarily limited. For more detailedtechnical information, consult the bibliographyand particularly the Cahier Techniquepublications addressing the various points.

The risks run by users and the answers providedby the studies are then summarised in thefollowing section.

4.1 Dependability

Over the course of the years, dependability is aneed that has spread to all processes that arevulnerable to energy outages.

The notion of dependability is defined by thevalues for:

c energy availability;

c the annual rate of outages;

c maintainability.

Goals

The purpose of an operating-dependability studyon network behaviour is to:

c design the optimum network architecture inview of meeting the energy needs of the loads inthe installation, as defined by the continuity ofservice requirements imposed by the process,through:v better control over the risks caused byoutages;v enhancement of the decision-aid criteria inorder to make a selection between a number ofsolutions;

c plan for downgraded operating situations,quantify their probability and define a level ofconfidence attributed to the supply of electricalenergy.

Phenomena and origins

The presence of electrical energy is generallycharacterised by:

c reliability for a time interval DT, expressed asthe mean time between failures (MTBF) or themean time to (the first) failure (MTTF);

c availability at time T;

c the mean time to repair (MTTR) a failure.

The supply of electrical energy dependsessentially on:

c the topological structure of the electricalnetwork for all the possible operating modes andduring their changes in status condition (normal,downgraded and safe modes);

c normal operation of the system when thevarious operating scenarios run correctly;

c the organisation of maintenance;

c forecasts concerning accidental disturbances.

Effects and solutions

Electrically speaking, operating failures in anetwork manifest themselves in the mannerspresented below.

c Energy outages of the utility. The distributionnetworks themselves fail or are disturbed (devicefailure, atmospheric disturbances, etc.). Theresults are voltage sags and more or less longoutages for the incoming substations. Dependingon the network topology and the meansimplemented, these disturbances may bepropagated down to the load level.

c Insulation faults. The resulting short-circuitsprovoke for the loads voltage sags or outagesthat depend on:v the protection devices installed and their levelof discrimination;v the "electrical" distance between the load andthe fault;v the network topology which may offer themeans to reconfigure the system through activeor passive redundancy.

c Nuisance tripping which provokes a break inthe supply of power to the downstream loads.


c Switching faults when the switchgear does notcarry out the expected change in status(requested opening or closing of a circuit). Thesefailures are generally not a direct cause ofdisturbances for the loads. However, they areoften not detected and subsequently causenetwork malfunctions when other phenomenaoccur such as:v loss of protection and/or discrimination;v loss of reconfiguration or backup means.

The effects of voltage sags or outages dependon the sensitivity of the load.Certain loads, such as computer equipment, aresensitive to voltage sags and very short outages(a few dozen milliseconds), whereas otherdevices can handle longer outages withoutdisturbing the process.It is therefore important to characterise devicesby their degree of sensitivity.What is more, the actual down time of a load or aprocess does not depend necessarily on theduration of the outage. In certain cases, thereturn to normal operation can depend on muchmore than the simple return of electrical energy(e.g. preparation of clean rooms, set-up ofmachine tools, chemical processes, etc.).From it above, it is clear that it is necessary todetermine the criticality of loads based on theconsequences of a shutdown.

The traditional means implemented to preventthese disturbances are:

c autonomous sources (gensets, gas turbines,etc.);

c multiple incomers from the distributionnetwork, as independent as possible;

c installation of power interfaces (UPSs, no-breakpower supplies, etc.);

c systems used to resupply loads via eithernetwork reconfiguration (source-changeoversystems, loops, etc.) or an alternate sourcelocated as close as possible to the load;

c installation of devices to detect failures as fastas possible (short intervals between preventivemaintenance work, automatic tests, etc.).

The contribution of a studyAn operating-dependability study is the means tomanage the risks of negative events duringdesign of the network architecture by:

c determining the criticality of loads and,depending on their degree of sensitivity, thepossible negative events for the electricalinstallation. The goal is to identify the criticalpoints in the network and to determine theirperformance criteria in terms of dependability;

c running quantitative analysis of one or morebasic architectures according to dependabilityfactors;

c finally, justifying the decisions madeconcerning backup and/or interface systems,redundancy, preventive maintenance, given thecustomer's needs.Example

This case is drawn from a study to improve theelectrical network of an automobile factory(see Fig. 5 ). The goal was to reduce thenumber and duration of outages due to failuresand maintenance activities.

c Purpose of the calculationsImplement criticality analysis, quantify theexisting system, then propose improvements.

Fig. 5: Recommended modifications (in green) carried out on the electrical network of an automobile factory, diagram and results(source Schneider Electric).

Fault-tree analysis

Parameter Current Future Gain

Non-availability of electricalenergy in hours per year 6.9 0.7 90 %

5.5 kV/380 V

transformers

5.5 kV - 2000 A busbars 5.5 kV - 2000 A busbars

Backup

transformer

Backup switches

Workshops' feeders

5.5 kV substations supplied by open loop

Diagram of HV/LV distribution loop

2500 A LV

circuit breakers


c Results of the calculationsThe calculations provided the data required todetermine modifications in the topology thatproduced the desired increase in dependability(see the diagram in Figure 5).

Annual lack of energy availability of less thanone hour was obtained and the maintenance ofelectrical equipment no longer results ininterrupting the supply of power to the process.

4.2 Steady-state conditions

Correct operation of an electrical network duringnormal, stable operating conditions results fromgood overall design of the system.The notion of steady-state conditions is definedin the installation and supply standards by:

c the rated frequency of the electrical signals,called the power frequency;

c the amplitude and phase of the voltage andcurrent waves, and their changes over time;

c the active and reactive power levels (supplied,drawn, lost) and the corresponding energy.

Goals

The purpose of studying the behaviour understeady-state conditions is to:

c design networks (basic sizing of installationsand equipment, system control andmanagement);

c take into account risk situations caused byinstallation malfunctions or problems inherent inthe electrical devices (wear, ageing).


The phenomena requiring analysis are all thenormal exchanges of active and reactive energyat power frequencies between the sources andloads, via electrical connectors, under theforeseeable operating conditions of the suppliedprocess and the electrical system:

c flow of currents;

c distribution of voltages;

c corresponding active and reactive power.

Correct operation of networks under steady-stateconditions depends on:

c normal use of the system, a consequence ofthe operation and requirements of the processand the network, i.e. the sources and loads inuse, variations in supply voltages, downgradedand emergency modes;

c the structure of the electrical network for thevarious operating modes, in terms of topology,length of lines, voltage levels).


Electrically speaking, malfunctions occur in oneof the three forms presented below.

c Supply voltages outside tolerancesThe voltage of supply networks is standardised.For example, standard EN50160 authorises

tolerances of ± 10% above and below the ratedvoltage. The entire network is subjected to theconsequences of these variations (within ± 10%).

Calculation of steady-state conditions musttherefore take into account the combinations ofextreme voltage and consumption values.

c Voltage drops on lines or transformersDrops are due to the currents and depend on theactive (P) and reactive (Q) power levels, and theimpedance, resistive (R) and inductive (X),according to the law on relative variation∆U/U = (R P + X Q)/U2.

A voltage drop produces various disturbances:v voltage variations within the ± 10% limits of therated value, depending on the changes in theconnected loads and sources;v voltage fluctuations, due to voltage variationsat frequencies that cause lights to flicker. Thesefluctuations are provoked by certain typical high-power variable loads, such as welding machinesor arc furnaces;v a voltage unbalance in the three-phase systemdue to large single-phase or two-phase loads.

Voltage drops provoke:v additional temperature rise in electric circuitsand thus greater losses;v tripping of circuit breakers and slowing ofmachines;v malfunctions of sensitive loads and protectiondevices;v bothersome flicker effect in lighting.

Voltage drops can be limited in a number ofmanners.v Reduction of R and X, by modifying the short-circuit voltage of transformers, the size of lines ortheir length (layout of loads).v Increase of the rated voltage with acorresponding reduction of current, whichprovokes a significant reduction in losses(quadratic law).

c Instantaneous propagation throughout thenetwork of the source voltage level and ofvoltage drops.

This effect impacts on each element to adifferent degree (quantitatively), depending onthe system topology.

Calculation of the steady-state conditions is themeans to foresee the distribution of voltages and


to propose solutions in view of limitingpropagation by:v increasing the short-circuit power of thesources;v using regulators for the transformers (load andno-load conditions);v power-factor correction equipment, whichcorresponds to a negative voltage drop(capacitors, electromechanical conditioners inthe form of synchronous machines or staticsystems such as static Var compensators);v rebalancing of the single-phase loads on thethree phases.

The contribution of a study

The purpose of this study is to ensure correctdesign of the electrical installation, taking intoaccount future changes and all processoperating modes through:c thoughtful evaluation of the basic decisions;c calculation of the power sums of the steady-state conditions;c taking into account the different operatingconfigurations of the electrical network,

including the emergency and backupstructures;c economic optimisation (balance betweeninvestment and energy losses).

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design ofa commercial site, using the dedicated ECODIALsoftware program developed by SchneiderElectric, in compliance with the UTE 15-500guide.

c Purpose of the calculationsOnly the first step in this study is presented here.It deals with the power sum of the installation,required to size the supply sources.

Note that for a low-voltage installation, theapparent-power values, after weighting byapplication of the load and diversity factors, aresummed algebraically, conductor losses areneglected and the nodes are at the ratedvoltage.

c Results of the calculationsFigure 6 shows the analysed single-line diagramwith the screen for the data and the results (the

Fig. 6: Design of a commercial site using the dedicated ECODIAL software, showing the single-line diagram and the power-sum screen(source Merlin Gerin - Schneider Electric).

B1 MLVSRA

RB

Q1

C1

TRA GE

T1

B5 T Workshop

Q5

C5

L5

x2

Offices

Q2

C2

G2

G

Q6

C6

L6

x4

Machine

R3

Q3

C3

CAP

Q4

C4

Workshop

Q7

C7

D7

E7

x4

Lighting

Lighting

Q8

C8.1

V8

M8M

x5

Var Speed Mot

C8.2

Var Speed Mot

Q9

K9

M9 M

x2

C9

Motor


characteristics of individual loads may beaccessed for each switchboard), where thecalculated total power for the source is 275 kVA.

This power sum is used to select the correctpower ratings for the source transformer and thebackup genset.

The values of the currents in lines are stored inmemory for later use in sizing the devices.

4.3 Short-circuit

Operation of an electrical network may result infaults in the form of high short-circuit currentsproducing serious consequences that must bemanaged as best possible.

A short-circuit is an accidental contact betweenconductors, determined by:

c its type, which indicates the elementsinvolved, i.e. single-phase (between a phase andearth or neutral), three-phase (between threephases), phase-to-phase clear of earth (betweentwo phases), two-phase-to-earth (between twophases and earth),

c its initiation characteristics, i.e. the waveformof the current over time,

c its amperage (minimum and maximum values),

c its duration which is variable because the faultcan be transient or continuous,

c its origin, internal (within a device) or external(between connectors).

Goals

The purpose of studying a network subjected toa short-circuit is to:

c identify risk situations that can possibly cause:

v danger for persons,

v destruction of devices due to electrodynamicforces, excessive temperature rise andovervoltages,

v malfunctions that can result in total loss of thenetwork due to voltage sags and outages,

c assist in making basic design decisions to limitthe effects of faults, concerning:

v system earthing arrangements (SEA),

v suitable sizing of devices,

v protection settings, determined on the basis ofthe fault-current calculations.


The phenomenon requiring analysis is a suddenunbalance in the initial steady-state conditions:

c due to the appearance of high currents andvoltage drops at the fault points,

c extension of the unbalance to the entirenetwork,

c resulting in a new balance rendering thesystem unusable in part or whole, morevulnerable and disturbed.

The origins of short-circuits in networks areaccidental disturbances caused by undesiredcontacts between conductors, dielectricbreakdown of insulation due to overvoltages,mechanical events (breaking of cable, fallingtree, animal) or human errors. The effectsdepend on the structure of the network, includingthe SEA, distant sources (distribution network) ornear sources (nearby genset).


Electrically speaking, short-circuits produce adirect effect in the form of an overcurrent and anindirect effect in the form of voltage variations.

c The direct effect is produced on the installationcomponents according to the successive phasesof the initiation of the current:v peak value of the first half period, which is themaximum instantaneous peak,v rms value of the AC component,v value of the non-periodic (DC) component,which depends on when the fault occurs and thenetwork characteristics. If the value is equal tozero, the operating mode is said to besymmetrical, otherwise it is asymmetrical.The DC component adds to the AC component.

The effects impacting on equipment are:v the electrodynamic forces exerted on thebusbars and along cables,v the temperature rise due to the flow of currentin lines and switchgear,v the operating capability (C+O) of a device on ashorted circuit.

These effects are managed by selectingsufficiently sized devices and equipment:v electrodynamic withstand of lines, whichcharacterises their mechanical strength,v the current vs. permissible durationcharacteristics, which represent the thermalwithstand capacity,v the short-circuit breaking and makingcapacities which define the capacity of circuitbreakers to handle the forces brought into play.


c The indirect effect is produced by voltage sagsor outages and by the increased potential of theexposed conductive parts (ECP), with as aresult:v malfunctions of sensitive devices, opening ofcontacts, locking of variable-speed drives,v disturbances in the transient behaviour ofrotating machines (see section 4.5),v dielectric destruction of devices (see section 4.5),v touch voltages for persons.These effects are countered by controlling:v the transient conditions (see section 4.5),v overvoltages (see section 4.7),v clearing of faults by implementing a suitableprotection system (see section 4.4).


The purpose of this study is to foresee theconstraints inherent in faults:

c calculation of currents and voltages,

c for the various types of faults,

c and for the operating configurations, providingminimum and maximum values.

These results are then used to design theelectrical lines (e.g. the size of busbars and theirfixing system).

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design ofa power station, where it was necessary to sizethe devices in the substation.

c Purpose of the calculationsCheck that the protection circuit breaker has thecapacity to break the short-circuit currentproduced by a fault close to the generator, forexample on the substation busbars. The problemlies in determining the most unfavourable currentinitiation conditions (moment of the initial zerocrossing time).

c Results of the calculationsThem three-phase current is asymmetrical(see Fig. 7 ) with the superposition of a damped

Fig. 7: Study on the substation of a power station, simulation of the asymmetrical three-phase short-circuit currentproduced by a fault near the generator.

-10

0

Total current

Peak current Breaking current Steady state current

406020

80100

120140

160180

200220

240260

280300

320340

360380

400420

440460

480500

-5

0

5

10

15

20

DC component


4.4 Protection

An electrical network that malfunctions must notendanger life and property.Network protection is a set of devices that detectabnormal situations and react in a reliable,discriminate and rapid manner.The main malfunctions were described in theprevious sections.

Goals

The purpose of calculating the protection systemis to:

c identify abnormal operating situations that mayresult in accidents for humans, destruction ofdevices or the loss of supply for consumers,

c determine the necessary measures to ensurethe protection of life and property, and theavailability of electrical energy. These measuresresult in the following necessary operations:v definition of the protection system,v selection, installation and combination of thebreaking and protection devices,v determining the settings of protection devices.


The electrical phenomena that must be studiedare those present:c during operation at power frequency, whenoperating malfunctions occur affecting the ratedvalues, e.g. power (overload), current, voltage,frequency, etc.,c during faults, short-circuits and overvoltages.

Protection devices must be suited to:c normal system operation which may drifttoward abnormal conditions (overloads, voltagesags, etc.),c foreseeable accidental disturbances, includingshort-circuits, human errors,c network architecture (radial, open or closedloop).


A faulty protection system is manifested,electrically speaking, by voltage dropsthroughout the network, overvoltages, overloads,short-circuit currents, where the main effects are:

c accidents for persons,

c destruction of devices and equipment,

c malfunctions of the electrical network and,consequently, of the process.

These effects can be avoided by:

c first, fundamental decisions concerning:v the SEA: isolated (IT), earthed (TT or TN),impedant, compensated,v the breaking devices: circuit breaker, fuse,disconnector-fuse, disconnector,v the discrimination system: current, time,energy, ZSI, directional, differential,

c then, by coordinating the protection devicesbased on the results of the short-circuit study(settings of relays and trip units, cascadingbetween LV circuit breakers).Practically speaking, this means:v de-energising the faulty section of the networkas fast as possible,v maintaining energised the non-faulty sectionsand, if possible,v backup protection by the upstream device,where the general idea behind the protectionsettings is to trip for the smallest fault currentand not to trip for the highest normal current.


The purpose of this study is to ensure correctoperation of the electrical installation, where themajor parameters are:

c faults on the distribution network (phase faults,earth leakage and faults, overloads),

c faults in the machines operating on the site(rotating machines, computer equipment, etc.),

c the operating configurations, i.e. the sources,loads, emergency modes, future extensions,

c the devices in the protection system: sensors,relays/trip units, breaking devices,

c the protection plan and the settings of theprotection devices.

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design ofthe network for a petrochemical site.

c Purpose of the calculationsSelect the protection functions for one of the HV/LV transformers in the installation and determinethe settings for a maximum three-phase short-circuit on the LV side.

sinusoidal and a non-periodic current, hence thecharacteristic currents (peak, interrupted,continuous).

The maximum constraints exerted on theinstallation are used to select the circuit breakerin compliance with standard IEC 62271-100.


c Results of the calculationsThe part of the installation in question is shownwith its protection system and the table lists therecommended settings for the protection

functions (see Fig. 8 ). The time/LV currentcurves in Figure 9 show that discrimination isensured between the sections upstream anddownstream of the transformer.

Relay ANSI Type Setting Delaycode

A1 49 Thermal 120% 105 min

A2 50/51 Overcurrent 1400 A 0.5 sDefinite time

A2 50/51 Overcurrent 3300 A 0.1 sDefinite time

B 50/51 Overcurrent 12000 A 0.25 sDefinite time

C 50/51 Overcurrent 3200 A 0.04 sDefinite time

Fig. 8: Discrimination study for a petrochemical site, diagram and types of protection relays selected for a HV/LVtransformer.

Fig. 9: Discrimination diagram for protection devices placed upstream and downstream of the transformer.

400 V

6 kV

M

B 50/51

C 50/51

A1

A2

49

50/51

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000t (s)

1 1

3

4

2

0

0

1000 10000 1e+005 1e+006

I (A)

(O) : Fault current on LV outgoer: maximum three-phase

A1(1): thermal, A2(2): overcurrent, B(3): overcurrent, C(4): overcurrent on LV outgoer


4.5 Stability

such as load variations, start of large motors,load switching and busbar management, etc.

c Structure of the electrical networkThis category includes the topology, sourceregulations (generators and transformers) andthe protection and automation systems in theelectrical network.


Instability is manifested, electrically speaking, bythe main types of malfunctions listed below.

c Frequency variationsAn unbalance in the active power between theproduction centre and the loads results in afrequency variation throughout the system. Thevariation may exceed the permissible limits (e.g.± 2%) beyond which the production centres aredisconnected from the network. This situationcan degenerate to the point where the entiresystem fails.

This problem can be avoided by automaticallyand gradually shedding loads, as well as bycalling on reserve power (genset startup andregulation at maximum power).

c Voltage variationsVoltage drops are due to power flows (primarilyreactive) in lines and transformers, or to veryhigh currents.

This cumulative phenomenon (a drop in voltageproduces an increase in the current and viceversa) can result in system failure ormalfunctions.

This risk is limited by making available sufficientand well distributed reactive power (regulation ofsource reactive power, compensation capacitors,transformer load regulators, position of reactivesources), by load shedding and changes inmotor start modes.

c Cascading overloadsThe elimination of circuits due to temperaturerise or damage results in load transfers to othercircuits, again with the risk of a cumulative effect.

That is why systems are normally designed toaccept the loss of a line (N-1 operating situation)by modifying the network operating topology orthe overload protection devices, or by starting upnew sources.

c Loss of synchronisationShort-circuits result in desynchronisationbetween generators, which may make itnecessary to disconnect certain machines. Theresulting current and voltage oscillations in thenetwork and the loss of elements (loads orsources) disconnected by their protectionsystems can lead to the failure of the entirenetwork.

Stability concerns essentially high-powernetworks, with high voltages and generally awide-area and complex topological structure,possibly with one or more energy-productionsites.Correct operation of an AC electrical network isthe result of continuous adjustments in thebalance (hence stability) between energyproduction and consumption over time andspace.

The notion of network stability is characterisedby:

c steady-state stability (minor changes) wherethe system returns to its initial status following anormal, low-amplitude disturbance,

c transient stability/instability, where the systemshifts from one stable state to another, ordiverges, following a sudden disturbance (loss ofload or source, start of a high-power motor),

c dynamic stability, where system operation iscontrolled by limiting the negative effects ofdisturbances (e.g. protection of vital loads) usingappropriate solutions (e.g. load shedding).

Goals

The purpose of studying the dynamic behaviourof a network is to identify risk situations that mayresult in transient instability and to determine thenecessary counter-measures in view ofmaintaining dynamic stability. These measuresdeal with:

c clearing electrical faults within acceptable timelimits, by the protection system,

c optimising operating modes,

c suitable sizing of the installation.


Instability phenomena occur throughout thenetwork in the form of:c electromechanical oscillations of machinesaround their position of synchronous balance,resulting in variations in speed and the ratedpower frequency (50 or 60 Hz),c oscillations in current flows in the linesbetween sources and/or loads, producingexchanges of active and reactive power andresulting in voltage drops.

Instability has three possible origins.c Accidental disturbancesThis category includes short-circuits, voltagesags, outages and failure of sources, nuisancetripping, device failure, human errors, etc.c Normal network operationThis category includes the consequences ofoperation and the requirements of processes


This situation is avoided by correct monitoring ofgenerator settings, an effective protection planand a well thought out load-shedding plan.

The contribution of a studyA study systematically covers the mainphenomena presenting a risk and adapts to theparticular aspects of each situation requiringanalysis by taking into account the responses ofthe process:

c three-phase short-circuit (two-phase or single-phase where applicable),

c loss of lines, sources or loads,

c motor start-up,

c sharing, shedding and connection of loads,

c source electromechanical regulation modesand coupling (public networks, turbines andgenerators).

To be complete, the study must include:

c contingency analysis taking into accountstandard operating problems (e.g. the N+1 rule,short-circuits at different voltage levels, etc.) andeven exceptional problems,

c simulation of the operation of protection devicesand automation systems (actions and chronology),

c analysis of sensitivity to the decisive parameters(e.g. fault clearing time, motor characteristics,setting coefficients for generator regulators, etc.).

Example

This case is drawn from design study for aheavy-industry production site.

The installation comprises a number of sourcessupplying the loads (motors and passive loads)via two sets of busbars (priority and non-priority)(see Fig. 10 ).

1000

0

2000

Tripping in less than 300 ms Tripping in 350 ms

V

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The voltage returns to normal.The process is correctly resupplied.

fault

B1

C

Utility

G1O

C

non-priority priority

O

G2

1000

0

2000

3000

V

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The voltage does not return to normal.The process is not correctly resupplied.

fault

0.85

0.800

0.90

0.95

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The pump reaccelerates. The process continues.

fault

0.85

0.800

0.90

0.95

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The pump stalls. The process shuts down.

fault

ΩΩο

ΩΩο

Fig. 10: Stability study on a heavy-industry production site. Diagram and significant curves following tripping.


The following was noted during a short-circuit onthe secondary of a transformer connected to thepublic utility:

v a voltage drop that provoked, among otherproblems, a slowing of the motors,

v when the fault was cleared, the current drawnby the motors rose to the in-rush level, producingconsiderable voltage drops and insufficientreacceleration torques for certain motors thatstalled or crawled.

The motors can reaccelerate only if the fault issufficiently short.

c Purpose of the studyThe short-circuit is normally cleared by thetransformer protection devices (opening of theupstream and downstream circuit breakers). Thegoal is to determine the maximum clearing timethat ensures the dynamic stability of the network.

c Results of the studyThe voltage and speed curves show that networkstability is ensured, for a three-phase short-circuit on the secondary of the transformer, whenthe protection devices are set to less than300 ms.

4.6 Harmonics

Harmonics concern essentially electricalnetworks supplying non-linear loadsrepresenting a high power level with respect tothe source and capacitors.

All AC networks encounter some distortion of thecurrent and voltage sinusoidal waveforms due tothe types of loads and/or the sources.

Harmonic pollution of a network is quantified bythe signal distortion transformed into a spectrum(amplitude and phase) with the fundamental (50or 60 Hz) and the harmonic orders (successivewhole number orders), from which it is possibleto deduce:

c the total harmonic distortion (THD) of thecurrent and voltage, which measures the rmsvalue of the distortion with respect to thefundamental,

c the laws governing the combination ofharmonic values with respect to the amplitudeand phase.

Goals

The purpose of studying the response of anetwork to harmonics is to:

c identify risk situations which may causemalfunctions or temperature rise in certaindevices, premature ageing, electromagnetic ormechanical disturbances,

c then determine the precautions required tocontrol the situations, maintaining pollution atacceptable levels with respect to standards(devices, installation, supply).

These precautions cover:

c identification of the polluting loads,

c estimation of filtering solutions,

c suitable sizing of installations,

c optimisation of operating architectures.


The different electrical phenomena relatedto the presence of harmonics occurthroughout the network, via interdependentmechanisms:

c generation of harmonic current or voltagesources by the polluting loads,

c effects of the pollution in the immediate vicinityof the polluting sources,

c propagation of the harmonics to the entirenetwork with effects produced on all loads,

c composition of the pollution at all points in thenetwork at each instant,

c possible amplification of the pollution throughresonance (plug circuit) when capacitors arepresent (long lines, power-factor correction).

Harmonics have a number of causes:

c normal operation of the network, due toprocess operation and requirements, includingoperation of polluting loads at different speeds,starting or stopping of other loads,

c the structure of the electrical network, includingthe voltage levels, separation of polluting andvulnerable loads, the relative power of sources,polluting loads and capacitors.


This pollution is manifested, electricallyspeaking, by the main types of malfunctionslisted below.

c Direct sources of pollutionThe loads distorting the current represent thevast majority of the devices causing harmonics.They are said to be "non linear" because thecurrent drawn does not have the same waveformas the supply voltage. Each type of load has aspecific harmonic spectrum.


There are passive loads (welding machines, arcfurnaces, lamps) and power-electronic loads thatare increasingly used (variable-speed drives,rectifiers and dimmers, UPSs and devices withswitch-mode power supplies).

The voltage and power ranges of these devicesare very wide, ranging from small householdappliances (LV, a few dozen Watts) up to largeindustrial loads (HV, dozens of MW).

Voltage pollution is due to the design of coils andmagnetic circuits of devices (rotating machines,transformers).

The limitation of harmonics caused by loads ispossible, to a certain extent, by 12-pulse bridges,converters drawing a sinusoidal signal,smoothing inductors and built-in filters.

c Direct effects of pollution on loads

v Harmonic currents cause stray powerphenomena resulting in additional temperaturerise and energy losses.This can be avoided by oversizing devicesaccording to derating coefficients defined byequipment standards.

v Voltage distortion caused by harmonicsdisturbs operation of electronic devices (e.g. shiftin zero crossing time of the reference wave).

v Harmonics also product mechanical (noise,vibrations) and electromagnetic (low currentsaffected by high currents) effects(electromagnetic compatibility - EMC).

c Transmission results in harmonic propagation,amplification and addition.

v The loads drawing harmonic currents inject thedisturbances into the entire network, as afunction of the impedances encountered. Theresult is voltage distortion supplied to the loadsthroughout the network.

v In addition, the presence of capacitors canamplify the pollution due to resonance (plugcircuit) made up of the capacitor in parallel withthe network inductors).

v In its own immediate vicinity, each pollutingload suffers the negative effects of its ownharmonics.

Finally, at each point in the network, the vectorcomposition of the various harmonics alsoproduces its effect at all times. Practicallyspeaking, the harmonics are summed using astandardised method that takes into account anon-simultaneity factor (IEC 60871).

c The risk criteria are quantified by standardsand regulations based on the distortion levels.

Generally speaking, a situation is consideredserious when the THDU reaches 5% anddifficulties are certain to occur above 10%. Thatis why utilities contractually undertake to supplyvoltage under a given level of THD and usersmust limit the harmonic currents injected.Practically speaking, risk situations areevaluated according to power criteria applied topolluting loads and capacitors.

c A number of methods exist to limit risks:

v increase the short-circuit power of sources,

v separate sensitive loads from polluters,

v install antiharmonic inductors (capacitors areprotected against harmonic overloads),

v install passive filters (harmonics are trapped incircuits with a low inductance),

v install active filters (harmonics are neutralisedby harmonic injection in phase opposition).


The purpose of this study is to ensure correctoperation of the installation when the harmonicloads are turned on, by:

c calculation of distortion, taking into account thespectrum of the polluters (amplitudes andphases, laws governing composition andpropagation),

c optimum calculation of filtering,

c calculation of device oversizing (steady-stateand transient harmonic constraints),

c analysis of network operating diagrams in thevarious operating modes (normal anddowngraded for connection of sources, pollutersand loads),

c analysis of sensitivity to important parameters(e.g. variation in the values of electrical elementsin the network as a function of the accuracy,temperature, etc.).

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design ofa steel mill with a DC arc furnace and a capacitorbank for power-factor correction (see Fig. 11 ).The furnace draws whole-number harmonics(rectifier) superimposed on a DC spectrum(unstable arc).

c Purpose of the studyThe capacitor bank forms a plug circuit with thesystem inductors (antiresonant, third order),resulting in a prohibitively high level of THD(18.5%). It is necessary to calculate the filteringrequired to reduce the THD to an acceptablelevel.


c Results of the studyMounting of the capacitors in three dampedresonant filters (tuned to orders 3, 5, 7) modifies

the network impedance spectrum and reducesthe voltage THD to an acceptable value of 3%.

Fig. 11: Study on harmonics for a steel mill (diagram and spectra).

225 kV network

Pscn = 6000 MVA

Psc min = 4800 MVA

63 kV cable

L = 1000 m

S = 1000 mm2

140 MVA

arc furnace

225 kV/63 kV

s = 170 MVA

Usc = 12.5 %

63 kV busbars

Harmonic filters

50

100

150 Without filterDampened filter

Impedance as seen by the load

Impedance spectrum as seen from the 63 kV busbars.Current spectrum of the furnace.

Ohm

2 4 6 8

10

20

30

Amp

5 10 Harmonicorder

Harmonicorder

4.7 Overvoltages

Overvoltages concern all electrical networks,which however differ in vulnerability according totheir topology, voltage level, types of devicesemployed and operating modes.

Operation of AC networks is always subject tovoltage disturbances in the form of peak voltagesbeyond the limits stipulated by standards orspecifications.

Overvoltages in a network are quantified by theamplitude and shape of the waveform and by theduration of the disturbance:

c overvoltage coefficient, ratio between the peakamplitude of the voltage and the rms value of theoperating voltage,

c continuous sinusoidal overvoltage (at powerfrequency) for a long duration (over one hour),


c temporary sinusoidal overvoltage (near powerfrequency), for a relatively long duration(between 1.5 times the power frequency and onehour),c transient overvoltage (oscillating or not),generally rapidly damped, very short (less thanthe power frequency). This category includesovervoltages with a slow front (e.g. switchingimpulses), a fast front (lightning strikes) and avery fast front.

Goals

The purpose of a network study on overvoltagesis to:

c identify risk situations that may result in:v destruction of devices and equipment bydielectric breakdown, electrodynamic constraintsand ageing,v malfunction of electronic devices,

c determine the measures required to limit theireffects to a minimum, thus ensuring effectivewithstand of network devices and equipment.

These measures cover:c installation design (SEA),c estimation of protection devices (type, locationand rating),c correct sizing of devices and equipment,c operating advice.


The observed phenomena are dampedoscillating exchanges of energy between circuits(inductors, capacitors, resistors) occurring

instantaneously by local status changes (e.g.device switching). Depending on the type ofovervoltage, they are manifested by:

c their formation at the point of change,

c their propagation to the rest of the network,according to the laws of reflection, refraction andoverlaying of the transmitted waves, withattenuation that is a function of the frequenciesinvolved (the higher the frequency, the faster thedamping),

c the possible combination of different types ofovervoltage, likely to increase the constraints.

Overvoltages affecting networks have a numberof origins:

c normal network operation, including loadswitching, switching on or off of inductive orcapacitive circuits (cables, lines, capacitors,transformers, motors), the specific operation ofprotection devices,

c the structure of the electrical network, includingthe SEA, voltage levels, the length of lines,

c accidental disturbances, including faults andthe measures to clear them, nuisance tripping,lightning strikes.

Electrically speaking, these overvoltages aregrouped according to their main types(see Fig. 12 ):

c at power frequency, which may have differentcauses such as insulation faults, load unbalance,overcorrection of the power factor, etc.,

c switching impulses, due to connection ordisconnection (common events during normal

Overvoltage Low frequency Transientclass Permanent Temporary Slow front Fast front Very fast front

Shape

Shape range f = 50 or 60 Hz 10 < f < 500 Hz 5.000 > Tp > 20 µs 20 > T1 > 0,1 µs 100 > Tf > 3 ns(frequency, rising Tt u 3.600 s 3.600 u Tt u 0.03 s 20 ms u T2 300 µs u T2 0.3 > f1 > 100 MHzfront, term) 30 > f2 > 300 kHz

3 ms u Tt

Standardised shape f = 50 or 60 Hz 48 i f i 62 Hz Tp = 250 µs T1 = 1.2 µs (*)Tt (*) Tt = 60 s T2 = 2.500 µs T2 = 50 µs

Standardised (*) Short duration Switching Lightning (*)withstand test power frequency impulse test impulse test

test

(*) to be specified by the relevant product Committee

Tt TtT2

Tp T2T1 Tf Tt

Fig. 12: The different types of overvoltage.


operation of the network) of a device, such as atransformer, motor, reactor, capacitor or cable/line,

c resulting from faults or their clearing. The faultis considered an involuntary or inevitableswitching operation, followed by a secondoperation when it is cleared,

c lightning impulses, following a lightning strikewhich is a sudden discharge of current that canreach several thousand amperes.


Depending on their type, overvoltages producedifferent effects and the solutions to avoid themmust be suited to each type.

c Power frequency

v An insulation fault in a network causes anovervoltage with a theoretical coefficient of up to1.7 (single-phase fault with an isolated neutral).

Similarly, breaking of the neutral conductorcauses overvoltages by displacing the neutralpoint.

v A load unbalance in a three-phase network canunbalance the system to the point of saturatingthe transformers and disturbing operation ofmotors.

v Overcorrection of the power factor due to shuntcapacitors raises the voltage if the load level islow.

v A line carrying no load behaves like a series ofLC circuits with a gain greater than one (Ferrantieffect), resulting in a continuous overvoltage atthe end of the line with a non-negligibleamplitude for distances greater than 300 km(factor of 1.05). This effect is even greater whena load is disconnected at the end of a long line.

v Ferro-resonance, a non-linear oscillationbetween a capacitor and a saturable inductor,may result in overvoltages in some situations,e.g. a voltage transformer in series with an opencircuit breaker or between a phase and theneutral in an IT system, etc.

All these risks can be limited by design andoperating precautions. For example, correctlybalanced loads, checks on initial energisation ofcapacitors, installation of voltage relays onincomers.

c Switching impulsesThe resulting overvoltages depend on the loadconditions (load or no load), with or without aresidual load, according to a certain periodicityand taking into account the actual physicalbehaviour of the switching device in terms ofpre-arcing, withstand to the transient recoveryvoltage (restrike/re-ignition) and current pinch-off.

v When a capacitor is switched in at themaximum network voltage, the overvoltagecoefficient can reach 2 and for disconnection thecoefficient can reach 3.

v During switching of a transformer or motor, theovervoltage coefficient can reach 2, in additionthe steep front of the transients producesparticularly high constraints on the initial spiresof the windings of the devices.

v During line switching, the overvoltagecoefficient can reach 3. This is the case forreconnection of a long line with a trappedresidual charge (capacitive load).

Switching overvoltages can cause dielectricbreakdown in devices and system malfunction.

The recommended protection devices act bylimiting and damping the energy oscillationsbetween the circuits, through insertion resistorsin circuit breakers and contactors, checks at thetime of switching by a synchroniser, RC surgearrestor or even lightning arrestors.

c Impulses during faults (appearance andclearing).

The occurrence of a fault generally results in anovervoltage coefficient of less than 2 and it ismore the overcurrents that are a problem (seesection 4.3).

Fault clearing provokes an overvoltage with acoefficient of less than 2.5 (worst case of asingle-phase fault with an isolated neutral). Thetransient is overlaid on the temporary situationcaused by the fault.

c Lightning strikes

The sudden current discharge can reach severalhundred kiloamperes, combined with a voltagethat is a function of the network impedances.This current can discharge:

v to a line or a metal structure. Duringpropagation, the resulting voltage waves cancause insulator flash-over and overvoltages,

v to earth causing an increase in the potential,which causes voltage increases in the earthelectrodes of installations.

Lightning currents produce thermal andmechanical effects (electrodynamic forces),whereas lightning voltages cause dielectricbreakdown of devices and system malfunctions.

Protection devices act in two manners:

v first, they avoid direct lightning impacts onelectrical systems and divert them to earth(lightning rods, lightning shields and earthelectrodes),

v secondly, they direct the lightning currentsconducted in the network to earth to limitovervoltages and avoid dielectric breakdown


(spark gap units, lightning arrestors, varistors,high-quality earth electrodes, etc. in LV/MV/HV).


A study intended to prevent the negative effectsof overvoltages in installations comprises thefollowing steps:

c qualitative evaluation of the risk phenomena,which depend on the studied network,

c calculation of the generated overvoltages andstudy of their transmission to the system,

c analysis of sensitivity to important parameters,

c definition of the protection devices,

c determination of device and equipmentinsulation in compliance with the applicablestandards.

Example

The selected case is drawn from a study on thedesign of a HV distribution substation that mustbe securely protected against overvoltagescaused by lightning striking the incoming line.

c Purpose of the calculationsThe purpose is to size devices for lightningovervoltages taking into account therecommendations of standard IEC 60071-1 and2 on insulation coordination, which quantifies therisk. The mean time between two destructivefaults is between 250 and 1 000 years.

c Results of the calculationsStatistic simulation of lightning impacts on theline using the electrogeometric model indicatesthe distribution of the overvoltages propagated inthe substation and is used to deduce theprobability of the resulting risk (see table inFigure 13 ).Optimum substation protection against lightning,quantified as per the insulation-coordination

standard, consisted of lightning arrestors in thesubstation and the level of protection shown infigure 13.

Struck line

P1 lightning arrestor



GIS substation

Transformer

Cable

Risk for:

Installed Cable GIS Transformerlighning substationarrestors (LIWL* 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV)

P1 1454 years 425 years 299 years

P1+ P3 2053 years 812 years 592 years

P1+ P2 + P3 10E 9 years 10E 9 years 2.7 10E 6 years

(*) LIWL: lightning impulse withstand level.

Fig. 13: Study on lightning overvoltages for the designof a HV distribution substation, diagram and riskestimates.

4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) concernsall electric and electronic devices, systems andinstallations. The notion is defined in theinternational standards as the capacity of adevice, system or installation to operate normallyin its electromagnetic environment withoutcausing disturbances.

Goals

The purpose of an EMC study is to:

c identify the situations likely to provoke and/orbe subjected to system malfunctions duringoperation in view of evaluating theconsequences,

c provide the suitable solutions based on thestandards and good professional practices tolimit the effects in installations.


Studies cover all electromagnetic disturbances:

c resulting from interaction between variousnetwork elements, i.e. the source, coupling viathe transmitter and the victim for which normaloperation is disturbed,

c over a spectrum, depending on the waveform,ranging from continuous up to a GHz and higher,

c characterised by their amplitude and energy,


c according to the conduction and/or radiationmodes.

Electromagnetic emissions have a number oforigins:

c normal network operation, because voltagesand currents can be natural sources ofdisturbances,c the network structure and installationimplementation, which can facilitate thetransmission of disturbances.


Transmission of electromagnetic disturbancestakes place via different types of coupling:c capacitive (voltage) between nearbyconductors, e.g. closely laid cables, etc.,c inductive (current) between conductors, e.g.cables with high and low currents, etc.,c antenna effect (electromagnetic radiation), e.g.output cable of an electronic device with HFchopping, etc.,c galvanic due to the common impedance ofcircuits, e.g. a single conductor for the supply ofa data-acquisition device and measurementacquisition.

The noted effects concern essentially:c the malfunction of elements in the electricalsystem and the process controlled by sensitivedevices,c temperature rise and/or the destruction ofelectronic, analogue or digital components.

All these effects are managed by goodprofessional practices in view of:

c reducing the level of disturbances emitted bythe sources,

c reducing the coupling modes,

c reducing the vulnerability of the victims(hardening), by adapting, for the concernedfrequency ranges:v the manner in which the SEA is taken intoaccount,v wiring, e.g. cable selection, separation andrunning of power cables and low-current (signal)cables,v shielding, e.g. the types of screen (conductingor ferromagnetic), the connection mode ofterminals, management of earth loops,v use of electrical filters tuned to the signalsrequiring attenuation.


Correct design of an electrical installationrequires a study to:

c identify the sources of disturbances, thecouplings and the victims,

c define the means required to obtain a systemcomplying with standards.

Example

This case is drawn from a study on an industrialsite where the measurement-acquisition andvideo systems were disturbed by operation ofthe process test facility.

c Purpose of the studyDetermine the action required for normaloperation of the metrology system.

c Results of the studyThe SEAs of the test facility (TN-C) and theacquisition system (TN-C-S) are different(see Fig. 14 ). The 50 Hz leakage currents andthe harmonics caused by the variable-speed

Fig. 14: EMC study for measurement-acquisition and video systems installed near a test facility, diagram showingthe path of leakage currents and harmonics.

VSDDistribution (TN-C)

i 50 Hz + harmonics

i 50 Hz + harmonics

i 50 Hz + harmonics

PEN PEN

PEN

TN-C TN-S

N

PE

AC

DC

Motor

Test facility

Inverter

Acquisition system

MLVS

AC

DC PhN


drive in the test facility loop back to the supplyvia two possible paths, the test bench and theacquisition system, with current levelsproportional to the admittances.

The study recommended protecting theacquisition system from its environment usinggalvanic isolation for its lines, a practical,effective and inexpensive solution.

4.9 Measurements for audits

This section fills out the previous sections byhighlighting the importance of measurements inmonitoring an electrical network and improvingits effectiveness.

Measurements are indispensable when an auditof the network is necessary:

c either during normal operation of the system,at start-up of the installation or during majormodifications, to check that the network operatesas planned during the design stage,

c or following unexplained problems such as thedestruction of devices or the loss, in part or inwhole, of power.

Even a well designed network can sufferproblems or malfunctions that are difficult tounderstand, in which case measurements are abasic element in establishing a diagnosis.

Measurements for network audits

The purpose of measurements is to:

c check electrotechnical values following start-upof an installation,

c monitor consumption and energy quality,

c identify and explain major or reoccurringproblems in the system,

c recommend solutions for problems,

c validate the models used in networksimulations.

Phenomena studied

The phenomena studied, for whichmeasurements are required, span all theelements discussed in the above sections.

The solutions decided in view of avoiding theireffects result from:

c observations made during visits to theinstallation,

c processing of the electrical measurementsmade by permanent devices and devicestemporarily installed,

c electrotechnical calculations,

c checks on compliance with standards andgood professional practices.

The contribution of an audit

The purpose of an audit is to maintain or improvethe operating conditions of an electrical network,with different levels of complexity andrequirements, by:

c a general understanding of system based onessentially qualitative checks concerning thesafety of life and property, the long-term operationof devices, power sums, the protection plan andthe presence of the necessary instrumentation,

c achieving satisfactory system performance withrespect to defined qualitative criteria, e.g.dependability analysis, analysis of electrotechnicalrisks, sizing of the network and of devices,

c overall optimisation of the system, e.g. energyquality, utility contract and consumption,maintenance and replacement parts, and rankingof the proposed action according to its importance,

c taking into account the existing system andany future changes.

Note. The development of data-exchangetechniques (IT) has opened new horizons with,for example, disturbance monitoring (see Fig. 15and 16 ) and remote diagnostics and monitoringof electrical networks in various fields (industrialand commercial) (see Fig. 17 ).

An audit example

This example is drawn from the audit on theelectrical network of a micro-electronics industry,carried out to provide a general check-up aftermany years of operation.

c Purpose of the auditThe purpose of the audit is to detect any weakpoints in the electrical installation that couldimpact on the quality of the energy supply.

c Results of the auditThe aspects specific to the electrical networkand its components made clear the need tomake improvements on the network architecture,the protection plan and to take into account theageing of the HV/LV transformers.The table in figure 18 (see page 30) sums upthe results of the audit.


Fig. 15: SEPAM Series 40 digital protection relay(Merlin Gerin brand - Schneider Electric).

Fig. 17: PM70 remote metering device (Merlin Gerinbrand - Schneider Electric).

Fig. 16: Oscillogram of a fault recorded by a SEPAM relay.


Chapter Item Measurements Diagnostic Action required Prioritylevel

Network diagram Network architecture No In a number of substations, for a Run an availability study to Not urgentfault on the LV busbars, no improve the architecture.redundancy is available duringrepairs.

Major fault No After a fault on a HV loop, resupply Check the operating mode of the Not urgentof the substations requires manual UPSs.operations. Study the need for LV gensets.No LV gensets to supply criticalswitchboards.

Earthing No The HV SEA is isolated to ensure Study the possibility of an Must begood continuity of service, but the impedant SEA. studiednumber of earth faults is on the risewith network ageing.

Protection plan 130 kV protection No In certain configurations, Revise the protection plan Urgentovercurrent protection can result in implementing differential andthe total failure of the HV network. directional functions.

Check the discrimination offeredby the protection devices betweenthe utility and the factory.

15 kV protection No Discrimination is partial in the Restudy the settings of the Urgentcases listed below: protection devices for the HVc insufficient time delay between network, based on the calculationupstream and downstream ends of of the short-circuit currents. Studylines, the possibility of logic-basedc in part of the network, the time discrimination.required to clear an LV fault canreach several seconds.

Dielectric Lightning impulse No Transformers equipped with No action required.characteristics of on HV side lightning arrestors.HV/LV transformers

Lightning impulse No No lightning arrestors on the LV Study lightning protection for the Not urgenton LV side loads. LV network.

Switching impulse No The setting for overcurrent No action required.when HV CB opens protection accepts in-rush currents.

No risk of nuisance tripping.

Internal resonance Yes No HF overvoltages measured. No action required.at HF

HV harmonics Yes Negligible THD. No action required.

LV harmonics Yes Negligible THD. No action required.

Switching impulse Yes Capacitor contactors are not Study the possibility of insertion Not urgentwhen capacitor bank equipped with insertion resistors. resistors to reduce the in-rushopens currents.

Thermal Overload and Yes No overloads. No action required.characteristics of harmonic currents Negligible harmonic values.HV/LV transformers

Continuous Yes Negligible values. No action required.overvoltage (HV)

HV harmonics Yes Negligible values. No action required.

DC current (LV) No Phenomenon not taken into account. Must bechecked

SEA: System earthing arrangement.

Fig. 18: Results of an audit on an electrical network in the micro-electronics industry


5 Summary - Main risks for users -Answers provided by studies

Main risks for user Answers provided by studies

DependabilitySee section 4.1

Stmeady-state conditionsSee section 4.2

Short-circuitSee section 4.3

ProtectionSee section 4.4

Accidents involving persons.

Destruction of property.

Production shutdown.

Loss of information (computer systems, etc.).

Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement ofequipment, repairs, production shutdown (lostproduction and process restarts).

Quantify the frequency of problems.

Quantify the availability of electrical energy.

Determine the weak points in the solution which mustbe improved, if necessary.

Determine any unnecessary redundancies.

Compare different architectures.

Recommend preventive maintenance.

Recommend stocks of replacement parts.

Operating disturbances (damage to sensitive loads,variation in motor torques, mechanical vibrations andeven production shutdowns).

Visual disturbances (flicker).

Abnormal temperature rise in connections andmagnetic circuits, resulting in energy losses andpossible risk of fire and accelerated ageing.

Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement ofequipment (need to oversize), repairs, productionshutdown (lost production and process restarts).

A check on system sizing in compliance withstandards:c selection of voltage levels in the network structure,c short-circuit power and voltage tolerancesc location and distribution on power-factor correction,c equipment: breaking devices, cable sizes,transformer and motor characteristics, etc.

Calculation of system steady-state conditions (load-flows) in different operating situations:c distribution of voltages at nodes and of currents inthe connectors, in amplitude and phase,c voltage drops,c power flows and the corresponding losses.

Optimisation of energy contracts.

Operating recommendations (selection of transformervoltage taps, load-shedding and reconnection plan,start-up of capacitors, etc.).

Updating of network data.

Dangerous touch voltages for persons.

Damage to electrical equipment due to overcurrents(temperature rise and fire).


Disturbances due to voltage sags (malfunction ofsensitive devices).

Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown,etc.).

Short-circuit currents calculated in compliance with theinstallation standards (IEC 60909 and UTE C15105guide), required to calculate the protection devices.

Sizing of devices and equipment (circuit breakers,fuses, transformers, switchboards, sensors, cables,wiring systems, earthing circuits) taking into accountmaking and breaking capacities as well as short-circuitthermal and electrodynamic withstands.

Accidents involving persons.

Damage to electrical equipment and machines.

Shutdown of unaffected parts of the network.

Production shutdown.Faulty sections of the network maintained in operation,resulting in system instability.Process malfunctions leading to production losses andrepair costs.

A general definition of the protection system and itsprinciples, e.g. SEA, protection and backup functions,selected discrimination, coordination between differentvoltage levels.

Sensor characteristics: location, ratio, accuracy class.

Breaking-device characteristics: type, location.

Protection-device characteristics: settings of trip unitsand relays.

Curves or tables showing effective discriminationbetween protection devices.


Main risks for user Answers provided by studies

StabilitySee section 4.5

HarmonicsSee section 4.6

OvervoltagesSee section 4.7

EMCSee section 4.8

Measurements for auditsSee section 4.9

Mechanical failures (breaking of shafts of rotatingmachines and speed reducers, damage to coils)following heavy torque shifts.

Destruction or premature wear of electrical equipmentdue to abnormal temperature rise caused byovercurrents (transformers and connections, motorswhen supply is unbalanced or motors that crawl duringreacceleration).

Malfunctions due to variations in voltage, in loads,notably for sensitive equipment such as variable-speeddrives, computers, safety systems, measurementdevices), control devices (contactors, circuit breakers)and lighting.



Validation of source short-circuit power.

Optimum distribution of loads (operating diagrams).

Improvement in the protection system (basic design,settings with critical fault-clearance times).

Selection of the motor-start method.

Plan for load shedding and source uncoupling.

Definition of load reconnection sequences and/or loadtransfers.

Automation of source transfers.

Optimisation of regulation-device operation andsettings.

Destruction or premature ageing of electricalequipment due to thermal overloads (temperature risedue to harmonic currents, to third-order harmonics inneutral conductors) or dielectric breakdown(overvoltages due to harmonic voltages).

Harmonic mechanical disturbances, e.g. vibrations andmotor fatigue, abnormal noise in transformers andswitchboards.

Malfunctions caused by current and voltage harmonics(equipment incorporating power electronics), nuisancetripping of protection devices, disturbances in low-current systems (telecom, measurement and meteringsystems).

Additional costs:c reduced installation efficiency due to additionalenergy losses (Joule, iron, skin and proximity effects),c additional investment to oversize equipment(derating) or to install filters.

Identification of polluting loads.

Evaluation of harmonic distortion levels (current andvoltage THD) and of harmonic spectra.

Validation of network structure, e.g. short-circuit powerof sources, isolation of disturbing devices, separationof sensitive parts of the network, power-factorcorrection.

Recommendations for direct action on polluting loads,e.g. by changing from a 6 to a 12-pulse bridge.

Recommendations for action on the pollution, e.g.sizing of filters (type of filter, specifications oncomponents).

Recommendations on device derating.

Operating disturbances (voltage sags and shortoutages).

Destruction of equipment due to dielectric breakdown.


Accelerated ageing and temperature rise in equipmentdue to non-destructive, but repeated stresses.

Malfunctions of sensitive equipment (powerelectronics, low-current systems).


Definition of the optimum solutions to attenuate theproblem, based on the selective, simultaneous andselective use of several protection systems, e.g.lightning rods, overhead earth wire, lightning arrestors,surge arrestors, spark gap units, varistors, diodes,choke coils, insertion resistors, synchronisers.

Sizing and location of the recommended systems.

Definition of equipment insulation in line with theprotection systems, selection of dielectric withstand incompliance with insulation-coordination standards(IEC 60664 for LV and IEC 60071 for HV).

Design of the SEA.

Operating advice.

Damage to electrical and electronic equipment due totemperature rise or dielectric breakdown.

Malfunctions of electrical components that may impacton the entire network.

Malfunctions of process machines.


An EMC audit (to understand how disturbances occur).

Assistance in drafting technical specifications forelectrical systems.

Advice on installation configuration, e.g. running ofdifferent types of cables, SEA, ECPs, etc.

Application of EMC standards.

Studies and calculations often require measurements carried out on site, either continuously (e.g. via apermanently installed remote-monitoring system) or by temporarily installed measurement devices.


6 Conclusion

The optimum total cost of ownership (TCO) of asystem is the result of the best compromisebetween the service obtained by the user for theneeds of the process and the total outlay.

For an electrical network, the TCO takes intoaccount the different phases in the life of thesystem, e.g. design, construction, operation,maintenance and upgrades.

For this reason, all participants (owners,designers and users) are involved in all phasesof the project and the electrical engineeringstudies constitute an indispensable step in theoverall process leading to effective use ofelectrical energy. These studies can also beconsidered a profitable investment in that theefficiency of the installation can be improved.

This Cahier Technique publication hasdemonstrated the wide range of calculationsrequired in conducting these studies.

These studies concern all types of networks inthe LV and HV fields, and applications in all

domains (industrial, commercial, residential,distribution). They can be used to foresee theelectrical phenomena occurring during operationof systems and to analyse their impact oninstallation sizing and network operation. Theyalso take into account important events andparameters, in both the normal and downgradedoperating modes.

The various summary tables show theimportance of the necessary means and know-how (see the following appendices as well).Finally, the examples provided indicate that therelevance of the selected solutions is also theresult of the vast experience gained through alarge number of audits. Only very large electricalcompanies (energy distributors or devicemanufacturers) have the necessary experience.

N.B. More in-depth information is available in thecollection of Cahier Technique publicationsdealing specifically with many of the topicscovered in this document (see the bibliography).


Appendix 1. History

The physical laws governing the operation ofelectrical networks were established prior to thegeneralisation of networks and thus to the needfor calculations.

The development over time of the tools used forpredictive analysis of the behaviour of electricalnetworks can be broken down into fouroverlapping periods.

c Calculations "by hand" from 1925 to 1960During this period, the many aspects involved inthe operation of electrical networks werediscovered, based on the phenomena observedand measurements made in installations.Analytical methods were used, based on a prioriideas concerning the physical phenomena, i.e.solutions were calculated on the basis ofelectrical laws, using manual techniques (sliderules and tables), and hypotheses wereconfirmed by checking the calculations with themeasurements made. Predictive extrapolationwas widely used, thanks to nomographs in whichthe major parameters could be varied. Inparallel, professional practices based onexperience were improved.

c Physical simulation models from 1950 to 1990Due to their increasing size and complexity,networks became true electrical systems withextensive interaction between components. Inaddition, the notion of energy quality graduallyappeared. The need for prediction became morepressing and more general, because it wasnecessary to foresee the many operatingsituations, both normal and disturbed, preciselyand dependably.

Simulators met these requirements fairly well.They were laboratory instruments, expensiveboth to purchase and use, and thus limited to themajor utilities. The idea behind a simulator is tocreate a scale model of the network, reproducingthe behaviour of the system in real time.

Depending on the planned application, thesimulator can analyse transients (e.g. wave

propagation), constitute an artificial network (e.g.tests on protection systems) or a micro-network(e.g. tests on dynamic stability).

To enhance their capacity and performancelevels, simulators were equipped with analoguesimulators having the electronic devices requiredto model certain components (e.g. regulators),thus creating hybrid simulators.

c Digital simulation models since 1970At the time when optimisation of networks hadstarted and major failures of large industrial andpublic-distribution networks occurred, needs interms of calculations increased. Digitalsimulators were the answer with the coming ofthe computer age.

v Initially, calculations were run on largemainframe computers. The programs weregenerally created by large companies for theirown needs.

v Around 1990, digital simulation anddecentralisation spread with the progressachieved in PCs. Programs appeared on themarket and, today, users have a wide selectionfor a number of applications.

Note. The idea behind a digital simulator is to setup a digital model based on the laws governingthe network, then to simulate operation bysolving the equations with the suitable program.The major advantage lies in its great flexibility inhandling all types of networks and a wide rangeof phenomena, but it does not operate in realtime.

c Digital Case Tools since 1990These software engineering tools represent thegeneralisation of computerised simulation as theuniversal means of calculation (virtual networks)with comprehensive data bases and real-timeprocessing for product development, operatortraining, optimised management, etc.


Appendix 2. Software

The table below indicates the main softwareprograms available on the market and thecalculations for which they are used.

Type of calculation

Dependability Steady-state Short- Protection Dynamic Harmonics Overvoltages EMCType of program conditions circuit stability

Functional analysis c cFMECA c cFault tree cMarkoff graph cPétri network cLoad-flow c c cLoad-flow optimisation cCable sizing c cLV cable sizing and c c cprotection

Earthing network c c c ccalculations

Short-circuit c c cDiscrimination c c cSteady-state stability c cDynamic stability cMotor starting c c cHarmonics c c cCurrent/voltage c c c c ctransients

Lightning protection c cEMC disturbances c cEMTP general- c c c c cpurpose software

Data acquisition c c c c c c c(measurements)


Appendix 3. Necessary data

This table presents a general overview of the datarequired for the various calculations.

Necessary data

General data c cv network single-line diagram c c c c c c cv operating configurations c c c c c c cv SEAs c c c c c cFor all components c cv rated voltage and power c c c c c cv impedances (positive, negative and zero sequence) c c c cv short-circuit withstand c cv transient-voltage withstand (switching and lightning) cv types of protection c cSources c cv voltage and frequency (rated/min./max.) c c c c c c cv short-circuit power (rated/min./max.) c c c c cv existing harmonic voltages cv protection settings c cGensets c cv voltage, power and power factor c c c c c cv impedances and time constants c c c cv mechanical characteristics (inertia, number of poles) cv transfer functions, turbine regulation, excitation cLines, cables, busbars, GIS substations c cv resistance, inductance, capacitance of lines c c c c cv length, parallel elements, installation methods c c c c c cv geometric data on pylons and structures cv characteristics of insulators, spark gap units, etc. cTransformers c cv voltages (primary, secondary, tertiary) c c c c c cv power, type of connection, taps c c c c c cv short-circuit voltages and losses c c c c cPassive loads, capacitors, inductors c cv rated voltage and power c c c cv power factor c c c cv type of load (constant impedance, current or power) c c c cv load and diversity factors c c c cActive loads c cv rated voltage and power c c c c cv power factor c c c c cv motor characteristics (speed, inertia, slip, Tstart/Tn, Tmax/Tn, c c c c cIstart/In, etc.)v characteristics of devices incorporating power electronics (type of c c c cassembly, etc.)v load and diversity factors c c c c cNon-linear loads c cv U, I (lightning arrestor) characteristics cv current and voltage harmonic spectra cBreaking devices c cv fuse type and rating c cv circuit-breaker characteristics (making and breaking capacity, c c c ctransient recovery voltage, etc.)

Protection c cv characteristics of current and voltage sensors cv protection functions and setting ranges c

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Bibliography

Schneider Electric Cahiers Techniques

c Electrical disturbances in LV -Cahier Technique n° 141 -R. CALVAS

c Introduction to dependability design -Cahier Technique n° 144 -E. CABAU

c EMC: electromagnetic compatibility -Cahier Technique n° 149 -J. DELABALLE

c Overvoltages and insulation coordination inMV and HV -Cahier Technique n° 151 -D. FULCHIRON

c Harmonic Disturbances in Networks and theirTreatment -Cahier Technique n° 152 -C. COLLOMBET, J. SCHONEK, J.-M. LUPIN

c LV breaking by current limitation -Cahier Technique n° 163 -P. SCHUELLER

c Energy-based discrimination for low-voltageprotective devices -Cahier Technique n° 167 -M. SERPINET, R. MOREL

c Lightning and HV electrical installations -Cahier technique n° 168 -B. de METZ-NOBLAT

c HV industrial network design -Cahier Technique n° 169 -G. THOMASSET

c Electrical installation dependability studies -Cahier Technique n° 184 -S. LOGIACO

c Dynamic stability of industrial electricalnetworks -Cahier Technique n° 185 -B. de METZ-NOBLAT, G. JEANJEAN

c Ferroresonance -Cahier Technique n° 190 -P. FERRACCI

c Power Quality -Cahier Technique n° 199 -P. FERRACCI

Other publications

c Les Techniques de l’Ingénieur

c Les cahiers de l’ingénierie published byElectricité de France

Normes

c IEC 60071-1: Insulation coordination -part 1: definitions, principles and rules.

c IEC 60071-2: Insulation coordination -Part 2: Application guide.

c IEC 60364: Electrical installations of buildings -part 1: scope, object and fundamental principles.

c IEC 60871-1: Shunt capacitors for a.c. powersystems having a rated voltage above 1000 V -Part 1: General - Performance, testing and rating- Safety requirements - Guide for installation andoperation.

c IEC 62271-100: High-voltage switchgear andcontrolgear - Part 100: High-voltage alternating-current circuit-breakers

c NF C02-160 / NF EN 50160 : Caractéristiquesde la tension fournie par les réseaux publics dedistribution.

c UTE C15-500 : Guide pratique - Déterminationdes sections des conducteurs et choix desdispositifs de protection à l'aide de logiciels decalcul.

Schneider Electric Direction Scientifique et Technique,Service Communication TechniqueF-38050 Grenoble cedex 9Télécopie : 33 (0)4 76 57 98 60

E-mail : [email protected]

DTP: SEDOC Meylan.Transl.: Lloyd International - Tarporley - Cheshire - GB.Editor: Schneider Electric- 20 € -

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