Calf management Lifetime productivity starts when the calf ... · identi cation of disease or other...

Calf managementLifetime productivity starts when the calf is born

When a cow is culled dairy farmers the world over would ideally aim to introduce a more profitable, newly calved primiparous cow raised on the farm to replace her. As first lactation cows often make up a substantial proportion of the herd (up to 40%) and as it may take one to two lactations before the cow repays the cost of rearing her, whatever helps the first calving cow remain healthy, fertile and productive from the start of her first lactation is a good investment.

Ideally, heifers calve at 24 months, weigh something over 600 kg (1,320 lbs)*, can live a healthy, fertile life and provide a high lifetime milk yield. Generally, heavier, well developed heifers become pregnant earlier, produce more milk during their first lactation, and live a longer life and perform better.

Not only is this what calf rearing is all about, it is also an important factor in determining the success of the dairy farm. However, as anyone working with dairy cows also knows, this is easier said than done.

All decisions and actions taken on a farm rely for their success on farmer and staff skills and continuous training for their success. This booklet is aimed at providing the current, well documented knowledge and information to help dairy farmers achieve the best possible calf rearing in the herd. It includes information on dairy calf needs and recommends best management practices at different age periods in terms of feeding, housing and health management. We hope this booklet will be useful to you. Enjoy your reading and learning, and good luck with your calves!

Following each important step of the calf’s lifeInformation is provided on management aspects for each of the critical development periods of the calf up to six months of age, when the calf turns into a heifer.

High lifetime productivity of cows: the well deserved result of first class calf management

*400 kg (880 lbs) for smaller breeds

Contents and short summaries

Second month Third to sixth month

60 67The big challenge during this period is to maintain good growth and health during weaning. To do this it is important to ensure that the calf consumes a consistent amount of concentrate and that the milk intake is reduced gradually. Automatic calf feeders are excellent tools for smooth weaning. It is important to avoid movement and regrouping of calves during this period as this stress might increase the risk of pneumonia.

In order to achieve growth close to its maximum potential it is important to provide a well-balanced post-weaning ration with the correct protein to energy ratio. To prevent dips in growth rate regrouping calves, which often promotes respiratory disease should be minimized, and grazing without correct supplementary feeding avoided.

Before birth At birth First day

08 11 16Detailed attention to the nutrition and management of the dry cow and close-up period for both heifer and cow is needed if the goal is to provide healthy, strong calves at birth and an efficient start to early lactation.

Good management at calving is the essential first step to successful calf rearing. Adopting a Standard Procedure (SOP) for calving supervision and intervention will reduce calving mortality and incidents of oxygen deprivation and bruising. Calving pen design and monitoring growth rate should also be included.

The first day of life is critical for the new-born calf’s survival. A good assessment routine and caretaking procedures are as important as having dry and clean bedding, which should be maintained throughout the first 6 months of life.

Colostrum First weeks First month19 26 43

Colostrum is key to calf survival. Strict colostrum management, based on the “five golden rules of colostrum feeding”, will ensure timely intake of a sufficient quantity of high quality colostrum to maximize the vitality and reduce disease risk and a poor start to life.

The primary objectives of this period are to encourage the calf to drink milk or milk replacer to its full potential, the introduction of concentrate and water to the diet, and early identification of disease or other problems to ensure a strong start to rapid growth. A clean soil-free environment is critical to avoiding diarrhoea, and good ventilation and generous bedding are necessary to reduce pneumonia. As older animals are often the source of infection younger calves should be handled prior to older animals.

With a focus on high growth rates different feeding systems and technologies are described according to best practice. Other areas addressed are the pros and cons of housing systems and the effects of low and high temperature on calves.

Conversion tableThe following units and conversions are used throughout the booklet

1 kg = 2.2 lbs

1 litre = 1 quart

1 m = 3.28 feet

1 m² = 10.76 ft²

When a cow is culled dairy farmers the world over would ideally aim to introduce a more profitable, newly calved primiparous cow raised on the farm to replace her. As first lactation cows often make up a substantial proportion of the herd (up to 40%) and as it may take one to two lactations before the cow repays the cost of rearing her, whatever helps the first calving cow remain healthy, fertile and productive from the start of her first lactation is a good investment.

Ideally, heifers calve at 24 months, weigh something over 600 kg (1,320 lbs)*, can live a healthy, fertile life and provide a high lifetime milk yield. Generally, heavier, well developed heifers become pregnant earlier, produce more milk during their first lactation, and live a longer life and perform better.

Not only is this what calf rearing is all about, it is also an important factor in determining the success of the dairy farm. However, as anyone working with dairy cows also knows, this is easier said than done.

All decisions and actions taken on a farm rely for their success on farmer and staff skills and continuous training for their success. This booklet is aimed at providing the current, well documented knowledge and information to help dairy farmers achieve the best possible calf rearing in the herd. It includes information on dairy calf needs and recommends best management practices at different age periods in terms of feeding, housing and health management. We hope this booklet will be useful to you. Enjoy your reading and learning, and good luck with your calves!

Following each important step of the calf’s lifeInformation is provided on management aspects for each of the critical development periods of the calf up to six months of age, when the calf turns into a heifer.

High lifetime productivity of cows: the well deserved result of first class calf management

*400 kg (880 lbs) for smaller breeds

Contents and short summaries

Second month Third to sixth month

60 67The big challenge during this period is to maintain good growth and health during weaning. To do this it is important to ensure that the calf consumes a consistent amount of concentrate and that the milk intake is reduced gradually. Automatic calf feeders are excellent tools for smooth weaning. It is important to avoid movement and regrouping of calves during this period as this stress might increase the risk of pneumonia.

In order to achieve growth close to its maximum potential it is important to provide a well-balanced post-weaning ration with the correct protein to energy ratio. To prevent dips in growth rate regrouping calves, which often promotes respiratory disease should be minimized, and grazing without correct supplementary feeding avoided.

Before birth At birth First day

08 11 16Detailed attention to the nutrition and management of the dry cow and close-up period for both heifer and cow is needed if the goal is to provide healthy, strong calves at birth and an efficient start to early lactation.

Good management at calving is the essential first step to successful calf rearing. Adopting a Standard Procedure (SOP) for calving supervision and intervention will reduce calving mortality and incidents of oxygen deprivation and bruising. Calving pen design and monitoring growth rate should also be included.

The first day of life is critical for the new-born calf’s survival. A good assessment routine and caretaking procedures are as important as having dry and clean bedding, which should be maintained throughout the first 6 months of life.

Colostrum First weeks First month19 26 43

Colostrum is key to calf survival. Strict colostrum management, based on the “five golden rules of colostrum feeding”, will ensure timely intake of a sufficient quantity of high quality colostrum to maximize the vitality and reduce disease risk and a poor start to life.

The primary objectives of this period are to encourage the calf to drink milk or milk replacer to its full potential, the introduction of concentrate and water to the diet, and early identification of disease or other problems to ensure a strong start to rapid growth. A clean soil-free environment is critical to avoiding diarrhoea, and good ventilation and generous bedding are necessary to reduce pneumonia. As older animals are often the source of infection younger calves should be handled prior to older animals.

With a focus on high growth rates different feeding systems and technologies are described according to best practice. Other areas addressed are the pros and cons of housing systems and the effects of low and high temperature on calves.

Conversion tableThe following units and conversions are used throughout the booklet

1 kg = 2.2 lbs

1 litre = 1 quart

1 m = 3.28 feet

1 m² = 10.76 ft²

DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born4 DeLaval calf management – Lifetime productivity starts when the calf is born 5

Performance indicators in calf rearing

Three important targets to raise the desired number of healthy, fertile, productive heifers:

1 Keeping calf mortality to a low level2 Maintaining good calf growth3 Maintaining good calf health

Benefits of high growth rates

• Higher early (pre-weaning) growth rates have been associated with reduced mortality

• Higher early growth rates have been associated with increased milk yields during first and second lactation

• Higher growth rates (> 600 g/day) have been shown to increase fertility both in the heifer and in first-lactating animals

• Higher growth rates enabling heifers to calve for the first time at a young age (24–25 months) result in greater lifetime yields

• Higher growth rates and earlier first calving reduces feed and labour during rearing

• The recommendation for larger breeds is to reach a weight gain of at least 750 g per day or higher over the rearing period. The recommended weight gain for smaller breeds like Jersey is 500 g or higher

KPIs for tracking growth rateIt is recommended to measure weight gain during the following periods:• Birth to weaning• Weaning to six months• Weaning to breeding• Breeding to calving

Maintaining good health throughout the rearing period

Health issues have a detrimental effect on calf growth and later performance of the milking cow. For example, calves treated with antibiotics have been shown to produce around 500 Kg less milk in first lactation compared to non-treated calves.

Here again, health status varies among herds, with the proportion of calves treated with antibiot-ics ranging from 0 to 100%. In addition, KPIs for calf mortality are also useful for monitoring calf health. Calf mortality not only causes shortages in the availability of new heifers but is also a strong indication of a calf health problem.

KPIs for tracking calf health• Antibiotic treatment of calves• Mortality: month 1• Mortality: months 2–3• Mortality: months 4–6• Growth rate from birth to weaning• Growth rate from weaning to 6 months

Excellent Acceptable Action level

Stillborn calves %, dead within 24 hours included

4 6 10

Calf mortality 1–60 days % 2 4 8

Calf mortality 2 months – puberty 0 1–2 >2

Daily weight gain g/day for the full rearing period:

- Large breeds ≥750 g 600–750 < 600

- Small breeds ≥500 g 400–500 <400

Examples of key performance indicators for calf rearing

It is highly recommended that performance indicators are used to monitor how well your farm is meeting its targets in order to improve performance. These indicators are called key performance indicators (KPIs). KPIs serve as excellent tools for benchmarking, decision making and following up on the effect of changed practices. Different but overlapping KPIs are used for the three target areas.

Keeping calf mortality to a low level

The proportion of heifer calves lost during rearing often reaches 20%. If calf deaths during calving and the first 24 hours are included this figure is even higher. After a difficult birth the most common causes of death are diarrhoea in the first month of life and pneumonia at a later stage. Disparities between herds in terms of reproductive losses are very large, but the good news is that some producers have losses well below 10%.

The urgency of increasing cow longevity in dairy production is often addressed but calf mortality is rarely considered, however, it would be more correct to include these losses in our calculations. Cow longevity begins at birth!

In particular, poor reproductive performance combined with poor calf survival could result in a shortage of new heifers entering the milking herd. Only in herds with very good health do we recommend raising fewer than 35 heifers calving per 100 cows on a yearly basis.

Using KPIs to keep track of calf losses and calculate availability of heifers• Number of calvings per year or month• Number of pregnant heifers• Stillbirth frequency (deaths within 24 hrs)• Mortality: week 1• Mortality: month 1• Mortality: months 2–3• Mortality: months 4–6• Culling/Mortality: 6 months to calving• Keeping a record of causes of death/reasons

for culling

Maintaining a good growth rate throughout the rearing period

Growth rate and nutrient intake prior to weaning have been shown to have a significant effect on milk yield, superior to genetic selection for production. Genetic selection yields around 70–120 kg milk per lactation. Pre-weaning calf nutrition and management can yield at least 4 times more milk than genetic selection for the first and sec-ond lactation.

In reality, there is wide variation in growth rates between herds and individual animals and there is virtually no advantage in restricting weight gain in any calf or heifer. The scientific evidence of the benefits of maintaining high growth rates for calves with good nutrition is overwhelming.


Performance indicators in calf rearing

Three important targets to raise the desired number of healthy, fertile, productive heifers:

1 Keeping calf mortality to a low level2 Maintaining good calf growth3 Maintaining good calf health

Benefits of high growth rates

• Higher early (pre-weaning) growth rates have been associated with reduced mortality

• Higher early growth rates have been associated with increased milk yields during first and second lactation

• Higher growth rates (> 600 g/day) have been shown to increase fertility both in the heifer and in first-lactating animals

• Higher growth rates enabling heifers to calve for the first time at a young age (24–25 months) result in greater lifetime yields

• Higher growth rates and earlier first calving reduces feed and labour during rearing

• The recommendation for larger breeds is to reach a weight gain of at least 750 g per day or higher over the rearing period. The recommended weight gain for smaller breeds like Jersey is 500 g or higher

KPIs for tracking growth rateIt is recommended to measure weight gain during the following periods:• Birth to weaning• Weaning to six months• Weaning to breeding• Breeding to calving

Maintaining good health throughout the rearing period

Health issues have a detrimental effect on calf growth and later performance of the milking cow. For example, calves treated with antibiotics have been shown to produce around 500 Kg less milk in first lactation compared to non-treated calves.

Here again, health status varies among herds, with the proportion of calves treated with antibiot-ics ranging from 0 to 100%. In addition, KPIs for calf mortality are also useful for monitoring calf health. Calf mortality not only causes shortages in the availability of new heifers but is also a strong indication of a calf health problem.

KPIs for tracking calf health• Antibiotic treatment of calves• Mortality: month 1• Mortality: months 2–3• Mortality: months 4–6• Growth rate from birth to weaning• Growth rate from weaning to 6 months

Excellent Acceptable Action level

Stillborn calves %, dead within 24 hours included

4 6 10

Calf mortality 1–60 days % 2 4 8

Calf mortality 2 months – puberty 0 1–2 >2

Daily weight gain g/day for the full rearing period:

- Large breeds ≥750 g 600–750 < 600

- Small breeds ≥500 g 400–500 <400

Examples of key performance indicators for calf rearing

It is highly recommended that performance indicators are used to monitor how well your farm is meeting its targets in order to improve performance. These indicators are called key performance indicators (KPIs). KPIs serve as excellent tools for benchmarking, decision making and following up on the effect of changed practices. Different but overlapping KPIs are used for the three target areas.

Keeping calf mortality to a low level

The proportion of heifer calves lost during rearing often reaches 20%. If calf deaths during calving and the first 24 hours are included this figure is even higher. After a difficult birth the most common causes of death are diarrhoea in the first month of life and pneumonia at a later stage. Disparities between herds in terms of reproductive losses are very large, but the good news is that some producers have losses well below 10%.

The urgency of increasing cow longevity in dairy production is often addressed but calf mortality is rarely considered, however, it would be more correct to include these losses in our calculations. Cow longevity begins at birth!

In particular, poor reproductive performance combined with poor calf survival could result in a shortage of new heifers entering the milking herd. Only in herds with very good health do we recommend raising fewer than 35 heifers calving per 100 cows on a yearly basis.

Using KPIs to keep track of calf losses and calculate availability of heifers• Number of calvings per year or month• Number of pregnant heifers• Stillbirth frequency (deaths within 24 hrs)• Mortality: week 1• Mortality: month 1• Mortality: months 2–3• Mortality: months 4–6• Culling/Mortality: 6 months to calving• Keeping a record of causes of death/reasons

for culling

Maintaining a good growth rate throughout the rearing period

Growth rate and nutrient intake prior to weaning have been shown to have a significant effect on milk yield, superior to genetic selection for production. Genetic selection yields around 70–120 kg milk per lactation. Pre-weaning calf nutrition and management can yield at least 4 times more milk than genetic selection for the first and sec-ond lactation.

In reality, there is wide variation in growth rates between herds and individual animals and there is virtually no advantage in restricting weight gain in any calf or heifer. The scientific evidence of the benefits of maintaining high growth rates for calves with good nutrition is overwhelming.


Measuring weight gain and growth – knowing and monitoring

After mortality rates, weight gain and growth during the rearing period are the most important KPIs to follow up when it comes to calf-rearing performance. Body weight alone does not reflect the complete nutritional status of a heifer. Heifer development is more accurately evaluated when weight measurements are accompanied by measurements of skeletal growth such as withers height. The height of a heifer reflects skeletal growth while body weight reflects the growth of organs, muscles and fat tissue.

Calves can be weighed using four different methods:

• Using electronic scales: though time and labour consuming, this method provides accurate information on live weight and daily gains.

• Measuring withers height (the height measured at the shoulder or hip – the highest part of the heifer's back measured from the should or hip; "a" in picture). This measure is correlated with calf size and weight.

• Using girth tapes to measure the size/ circumference of the chest to estimate weight. The accuracy of this method is highly dependent on correct use*.

• Measuring rump height (‘b’ in picture). Rump height for a Holstein heifer should be about 103 cm at four months, 105 cm at five months and 109 cm at 6 months.

Regularly monitoring of heifer size provides an indication of when heifers have reached their target weight and whether there are seasonal differences. It yields information about feed quality and whether any supplements are required. Growth rate assessment can be done over the entire rearing period (birth–calving) or during specific phases or rearing periods (birth–weaning, weaning–breeding, breeding–calving, grazing period, etc.)

There are several reasons to monitor growth rate:

• To prevent delays in reaching sexual maturity and first calving

• To determine whether calves are underfed

• To determine whether heifers are overfed or underfed

• To establish correct body weight at first calving

• To minimise calving problems

Above all, to be sure you’re exploiting the full potential of the heifer calf by achieving excellent growth rates.

Age (months) Holstein-Friesian Jersey

Live weightkg/lb

Withers heightcm/inch

Live weightkg/lb


0 40/88 77/16 27/60 66/26

2 85/187 86/34 60/132 76/30

4 130/287 94/37 88/194 86/34

6 180/397 104/41 118/260 99/39

Target live weight and withers height for Holstein-Friesian and Jersey calves

Correct use of a girth tapeNote: The calf should be standing as shown. For reliable results, ensure correct posture, tape position and tape tension.

Where to measureWithers height (line a) and rump height (b)

3 2 1

3 2 1

Rumen

Throat

AbomasumSmall intestine

Rumen

Throat


There are a number of different types of growth charts. These can dif-fer depending on recommendations for different breeds and countries. Examples of charts for withers heights by age and weight for growing Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers are shown below:

Withers heights by age

Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers

Weight by ageHolstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers

Age of calf (months)

Holstein–Friesian

Jersey

With

ers

heig

ht (c

m)

0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Inse

min

atio

n


Holstein–Friesian

Jersey

Wei

ght (

kg)

0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Inse

min

atio

n

a

b


Measuring weight gain and growth – knowing and monitoring

After mortality rates, weight gain and growth during the rearing period are the most important KPIs to follow up when it comes to calf-rearing performance. Body weight alone does not reflect the complete nutritional status of a heifer. Heifer development is more accurately evaluated when weight measurements are accompanied by measurements of skeletal growth such as withers height. The height of a heifer reflects skeletal growth while body weight reflects the growth of organs, muscles and fat tissue.

Calves can be weighed using four different methods:

• Using electronic scales: though time and labour consuming, this method provides accurate information on live weight and daily gains.

• Measuring withers height (the height measured at the shoulder or hip – the highest part of the heifer's back measured from the should or hip; "a" in picture). This measure is correlated with calf size and weight.

• Using girth tapes to measure the size/ circumference of the chest to estimate weight. The accuracy of this method is highly dependent on correct use*.

• Measuring rump height (‘b’ in picture). Rump height for a Holstein heifer should be about 103 cm at four months, 105 cm at five months and 109 cm at 6 months.

Regularly monitoring of heifer size provides an indication of when heifers have reached their target weight and whether there are seasonal differences. It yields information about feed quality and whether any supplements are required. Growth rate assessment can be done over the entire rearing period (birth–calving) or during specific phases or rearing periods (birth–weaning, weaning–breeding, breeding–calving, grazing period, etc.)

There are several reasons to monitor growth rate:

• To prevent delays in reaching sexual maturity and first calving

• To determine whether calves are underfed

• To determine whether heifers are overfed or underfed

• To establish correct body weight at first calving

• To minimise calving problems

Above all, to be sure you’re exploiting the full potential of the heifer calf by achieving excellent growth rates.

Age (months) Holstein-Friesian Jersey

Live weightkg/lb


Live weightkg/lb


0 40/88 77/16 27/60 66/26

2 85/187 86/34 60/132 76/30

4 130/287 94/37 88/194 86/34

6 180/397 104/41 118/260 99/39

Target live weight and withers height for Holstein-Friesian and Jersey calves

Correct use of a girth tapeNote: The calf should be standing as shown. For reliable results, ensure correct posture, tape position and tape tension.

Where to measureWithers height (line a) and rump height (b)

3 2 1

3 2 1

Rumen

Throat


Rumen

Throat


There are a number of different types of growth charts. These can dif-fer depending on recommendations for different breeds and countries. Examples of charts for withers heights by age and weight for growing Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers are shown below:

Withers heights by age

Holstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers

Weight by ageHolstein–Friesian and Jersey heifers


Holstein–Friesian

Jersey

With

ers

heig

ht (c

m)

0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Inse

min

atio

n


Holstein–Friesian

Jersey

Wei

ght (

kg)

0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Inse

min

atio

n

a

b


Calf and heifer performance begins before birth

Do Avoid

• Allow a minimum dry period of 45 days

• Adjust dry cow ration to avoid over- conditioning at calving

• Ensure sufficient supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins

• Provide tasty forage of high hygienic quality, clean and fresh water

• Watch close-up cows carefully at least twice a day

• If needed vaccinate the dry cows to boost antibody level in colostrum

• Omitted or very short dry period

• High calcium and or potassium intake

• Moving cows in the period 10 – 3 days before calving

• Heat stress in late gestation

• Overstocking of close-up cows

• Sudden changes in ration ingredients

• Calving on slats or in the cubicles

Dry cows and pregnant heifers often receive farless attention than they deserve from a profitability point of view. Most farmers would agree that a hungry and healthy fresh cow is the best predictor of successful and healthy lactation.Such successful lactations are frequent in herdswith a clear strategy for dry cow feeding and management.

A cow’s performance, as well as that of the calfand heifer, is to a large extent affected by dry cow feeding and management quality. Hence, it is fair to say that future calf and heifer performancebegins before birth. Optimal management andproper dry cow and pregnant heifer nutritionensure the birth of healthy, strong calves and optimal start of lactation for the cow.

The dry period from the calf's perspective

Dry cow management may affect calf performance

• Calving difficulties are associated with lower calf growth rates

• Over-conditioned cows have more calving difficulties

• Cows with health issues deliver weaker and more vulnerable calves

• Cows that are stressed show higher stillbirth frequencies; heat stress during late pregnancy leads to growth retardation and affects the calf before weaning

• An omitted or very short dry period has a negative effect on colostrum quantity and quality

• Inappropriate feeding of the dam can impair colostrum quality

Far dry-off periodThe far dry-off period ( > 3 weeks before duedate) is the ideal time to attend to practical jobs such as regrouping animals, hoof trimming, clipping hair from the udder and vaccinating cows. Earlyvaccination will boost antibody content of colostrumagainst respiratory and gastro-intestinal pathogens.To avoid stress close to calving, it is important to dothese tasks long before the predicted calving date.

Close-up periodOptimal management and proper nutrition for the dry cow and pregnant heifer during the close-up period (3 weeks before calving) is critical for the cow as well as the calf. Focus should be on encouraging a good feed intake for the cow to ensure a successful delivery. Providing a balanced, tasty diet with enough structure and avoiding sudden changes in diet increases the chances of this occurring. Vitamin E and Selenium additives, given to dry cows during this period can help improve disease resistance in the cow, the quality of colostrum and ultimately the calf's health.

Cow comfort is also essential at this critical time. Providing a comfortable lying area as well as generous bunk space for loosely housed cows will minimise social stress and prevent lameness. Changes in diet or the cow's environment, whether a move to a new environment or introducing new pen mates, is to be avoided. Moving the cow to the calving pen during the 10 days before calving should be avoided. Also, heat stress can reduce placental development and, in turn, calf development, and should be prevented.

Requirements for good close-up housing

• Clean, dry, soft, spacious, non-slippery lying area or cubicle

• Feeding place with no or little competition for feed

• Avoid standing time on concrete

• Good ventilation with no draughts

• Enough light (also important during night-time)

• Easy supervision

• Easy entry and exit of close-up pen for the cows and people

Far dry off period

Close-up period

Calf performance starts with the dam

The dry period is divided into two stages:

1 Far dry-off period (dry off until 3 weeks before calving)

2 Close-up period (3 weeks before calving): this latter period is more important for both calving and calf performance and of course includes pregnant heifers with no preceding dry period


Calf and heifer performance begins before birth

Do Avoid

• Allow a minimum dry period of 45 days

• Adjust dry cow ration to avoid over- conditioning at calving

• Ensure sufficient supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins

• Provide tasty forage of high hygienic quality, clean and fresh water

• Watch close-up cows carefully at least twice a day

• If needed vaccinate the dry cows to boost antibody level in colostrum

• Omitted or very short dry period

• High calcium and or potassium intake

• Moving cows in the period 10 – 3 days before calving

• Heat stress in late gestation

• Overstocking of close-up cows

• Sudden changes in ration ingredients

• Calving on slats or in the cubicles

Dry cows and pregnant heifers often receive farless attention than they deserve from a profitability point of view. Most farmers would agree that a hungry and healthy fresh cow is the best predictor of successful and healthy lactation.Such successful lactations are frequent in herdswith a clear strategy for dry cow feeding and management.

A cow’s performance, as well as that of the calfand heifer, is to a large extent affected by dry cow feeding and management quality. Hence, it is fair to say that future calf and heifer performancebegins before birth. Optimal management andproper dry cow and pregnant heifer nutritionensure the birth of healthy, strong calves and optimal start of lactation for the cow.

The dry period from the calf's perspective

Dry cow management may affect calf performance

• Calving difficulties are associated with lower calf growth rates

• Over-conditioned cows have more calving difficulties

• Cows with health issues deliver weaker and more vulnerable calves

• Cows that are stressed show higher stillbirth frequencies; heat stress during late pregnancy leads to growth retardation and affects the calf before weaning

• An omitted or very short dry period has a negative effect on colostrum quantity and quality

• Inappropriate feeding of the dam can impair colostrum quality

Far dry-off periodThe far dry-off period ( > 3 weeks before duedate) is the ideal time to attend to practical jobs such as regrouping animals, hoof trimming, clipping hair from the udder and vaccinating cows. Earlyvaccination will boost antibody content of colostrumagainst respiratory and gastro-intestinal pathogens.To avoid stress close to calving, it is important to dothese tasks long before the predicted calving date.

Close-up periodOptimal management and proper nutrition for the dry cow and pregnant heifer during the close-up period (3 weeks before calving) is critical for the cow as well as the calf. Focus should be on encouraging a good feed intake for the cow to ensure a successful delivery. Providing a balanced, tasty diet with enough structure and avoiding sudden changes in diet increases the chances of this occurring. Vitamin E and Selenium additives, given to dry cows during this period can help improve disease resistance in the cow, the quality of colostrum and ultimately the calf's health.

Cow comfort is also essential at this critical time. Providing a comfortable lying area as well as generous bunk space for loosely housed cows will minimise social stress and prevent lameness. Changes in diet or the cow's environment, whether a move to a new environment or introducing new pen mates, is to be avoided. Moving the cow to the calving pen during the 10 days before calving should be avoided. Also, heat stress can reduce placental development and, in turn, calf development, and should be prevented.

Requirements for good close-up housing

• Clean, dry, soft, spacious, non-slippery lying area or cubicle

• Feeding place with no or little competition for feed

• Avoid standing time on concrete

• Good ventilation with no draughts

• Enough light (also important during night-time)

• Easy supervision

• Easy entry and exit of close-up pen for the cows and people

Far dry off period

Close-up period

Calf performance starts with the dam

The dry period is divided into two stages:

1 Far dry-off period (dry off until 3 weeks before calving)

2 Close-up period (3 weeks before calving): this latter period is more important for both calving and calf performance and of course includes pregnant heifers with no preceding dry period


Giving attention to every cow

Frequent checking of close-up cows is crucial. Post calving disorders can be avoided by providing a good environment and appropriate feeding, and by giving full attention to every single cow during close-up and calving thus ensuring early detection of problem cows.

Birth

• A comfortable and clean calving area is a must in order to prevent problems during and after calving

• Follow standard operating procedures for supervision and intervention at calving

• Early removal of the calf from its mother reduces the risk of disease transmission

• Before a new cow or group is moved to the calving area it should be cleaned, and dry

• Regular supervision ensuring early detection of abnormal calvings

• More than 10 days between 1st and last calving date in a multiple calving pen

• Stressing cows during calving as this may delay delivery

Do Avoid

When close-up cows are housed in traditional free stall or tie stall systems they can be moved to a calving pen “a few hours” before calving. A comfortable option is a straw-bedded yard provided the straw is kept dry and plentiful and ventilation ensures good air quality. Where possible, it is recommended to isolate heifers and weak cows in a smaller group to reduce stress and ensure closer supervision of the cows. There should be enough room for all the cows in the group to lie down and move freely. In the close-up pen 11.2 m2 (120 sq ft) of bedded area per cow should be provided. A rule of thumb is to have space for 140% of average expected number of calvings in order to accommodate high calving periods.

Space requirement for the close-up pens in bedded areas: at least 11.2 m2 (120 sq ft.) per cow. For cubicles, a width of 127 cm (4.2 feet) and length 275 to 300 cm (9–10 feet) is recommended. Feeding space per cow: 75 cm (2.5 feet) (large breeds)

Signs of a healthy cow

• Good appetite

• Filled rumen

• Breathing steadily at a frequency of ~ 30 breaths / minute, mouth closed)

• Watching you with clear eyes

• Clean and dry

• No signs of lameness, wounds or disease

Close-up pens

Giving attention to every single cow


Giving attention to every cow

Frequent checking of close-up cows is crucial. Post calving disorders can be avoided by providing a good environment and appropriate feeding, and by giving full attention to every single cow during close-up and calving thus ensuring early detection of problem cows.

Birth

• A comfortable and clean calving area is a must in order to prevent problems during and after calving

• Follow standard operating procedures for supervision and intervention at calving

• Early removal of the calf from its mother reduces the risk of disease transmission

• Before a new cow or group is moved to the calving area it should be cleaned, and dry

• Regular supervision ensuring early detection of abnormal calvings

• More than 10 days between 1st and last calving date in a multiple calving pen

• Stressing cows during calving as this may delay delivery

Do Avoid

When close-up cows are housed in traditional free stall or tie stall systems they can be moved to a calving pen “a few hours” before calving. A comfortable option is a straw-bedded yard provided the straw is kept dry and plentiful and ventilation ensures good air quality. Where possible, it is recommended to isolate heifers and weak cows in a smaller group to reduce stress and ensure closer supervision of the cows. There should be enough room for all the cows in the group to lie down and move freely. In the close-up pen 11.2 m2 (120 sq ft) of bedded area per cow should be provided. A rule of thumb is to have space for 140% of average expected number of calvings in order to accommodate high calving periods.

Space requirement for the close-up pens in bedded areas: at least 11.2 m2 (120 sq ft.) per cow. For cubicles, a width of 127 cm (4.2 feet) and length 275 to 300 cm (9–10 feet) is recommended. Feeding space per cow: 75 cm (2.5 feet) (large breeds)

Signs of a healthy cow

• Good appetite

• Filled rumen

• Breathing steadily at a frequency of ~ 30 breaths / minute, mouth closed)

• Watching you with clear eyes

• Clean and dry

• No signs of lameness, wounds or disease

Close-up pens

Giving attention to every single cow


Successful calving is the first step towards successful calf rearing. Many calves can die during calving and many more may suffer from oxygen deprivation and bruising, which will adversely affect their start in life. Written calving protocols should be in place for farm staff to follow. Such a protocol is called a standard operating procedure (SOP) and calving management is one of the areas where developing an SOP is recommended. Calving staff should be trained to recognise signs of calving progress, reference times for intervention, good hygiene practices at calving, and strategies to correct abnormal presentation, position, or posture where necessary (e.g. in the event of calving difficulties). During labour cows should be monitored with as little disturbance as possible.

SOPs for the management and hygiene of the calving area, moving cows, supervision and intervention at calving should be developed.

The newborn calf is almost unprotected against infectious diseases. Hence, proper cleaning and disinfection of the calving area between deliveries is extremely important in order to prevent the transfer of microbes that live in the calving area surroundings. Calving boxes, whether single or multiple, should be spacious and kept clean and well-bedded with a daily addition of 10 to 12 kg fresh bedding per cow. The flooring should provide sufficient grip to facilitate the calving process. Climate and

ventilation within the building must be adequate to avoid high humidity and prevent the bedding from becoming excessively wet. If your knees are wet after kneeling it is not dry enough for your calving cows. Other things to consider are the importance of enabling the necessary supervision, assistance and care of the cow and calf after delivery. Cleaning and disinfection should be carried out between each calving or group, allowing the pen to dry properly afterwards.

Calving pen requirementsIndividual pen

Group calving pen

Close-up pen Calving pen

Feeding space 2.49ft/0.76m of linear bunk space per cow

Each individual pen has feed and water, group pens have at least the same space as close-up cows

Lying space 1 lying stall per cow in freestall or 120ft² (11m²) per cow in bedded pack or compost barn

Clean and sanitary, 160ft² (15m²) of lying space per cow

Flooring Soft, non-slip flooring (e.g., straw pack or soft rubber)

Soft, non-slip flooring (e.g., straw pack)

Disturbance/seclusion

N/A Quiet, secluded area with little disturbance during labour

Training/protocol

Identify signs of labour Identify signs of labour, reference times for intervention, good hygiene practices, strategies for dystocia

Ref. Specific recommendations taken from the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Dairy Cattle, National Farm Animal Care Council, Canada.

Individual penCows are preferably housed in an individual pen/box that provides sufficient space. Pens may be built entirely of gates to facilitate supervision and good cleaning and disinfection between every calving. The ease of moving cows or opening a partition when assistance is needed during calving are also important aspects. A square pen is preferred since it allows freer movement of the cow and people. The absolute minimum required space for a calving pen is 11.2m2 (120 sq ft), however, the more space the better the working environment and increasing the calving pen area to 16m2 or 170 sq ft is recommended.

Group calving penIf handled correctly, housing calving cows on straw bedded yards can provide a comfortable and calm environment for the cow. The recommendation is at least 11 m2 (120 sq ft) straw area per cow with 40% extra space to accommodate surges of calving. If seasonal calving patterns or seasonal fluctuations due to heat stress, etc. are anticipated, a space planning calculation, taking the seasonality into account, should be done. If the same multiple boxes are used for both close-up and calving purposes it is important to keep the group consistent, to avoid adding new cows and to select cows close to calving dates. If this is

impossible, the space per cow should be enlarged considerably to mitigate stress and the entrance of new cows should be limited to once weekly.Heifers and weak animals should preferably be kept in smaller groups with less stress and enhanced supervision. Immediate removal of the calf is recommended to avoid transmission of disease and to secure provision of colostrums from the dam.

PastureA well kept grass pasture with minimal manure contamination is a good area for cows to calve in. Pasture calving forms part of an overall system and a part of how to manage and graze cows. Mud should be avoided and if water is visible on the ground surface it is not dry enough for calving cows. Supervision and accurate feeding in this system is more difficult, and if cows need assistance, proper restraint and availability of clean water may be a problem.

Standard operating procedures

Calving pen

Pasture


Successful calving is the first step towards successful calf rearing. Many calves can die during calving and many more may suffer from oxygen deprivation and bruising, which will adversely affect their start in life. Written calving protocols should be in place for farm staff to follow. Such a protocol is called a standard operating procedure (SOP) and calving management is one of the areas where developing an SOP is recommended. Calving staff should be trained to recognise signs of calving progress, reference times for intervention, good hygiene practices at calving, and strategies to correct abnormal presentation, position, or posture where necessary (e.g. in the event of calving difficulties). During labour cows should be monitored with as little disturbance as possible.

SOPs for the management and hygiene of the calving area, moving cows, supervision and intervention at calving should be developed.

The newborn calf is almost unprotected against infectious diseases. Hence, proper cleaning and disinfection of the calving area between deliveries is extremely important in order to prevent the transfer of microbes that live in the calving area surroundings. Calving boxes, whether single or multiple, should be spacious and kept clean and well-bedded with a daily addition of 10 to 12 kg fresh bedding per cow. The flooring should provide sufficient grip to facilitate the calving process. Climate and

ventilation within the building must be adequate to avoid high humidity and prevent the bedding from becoming excessively wet. If your knees are wet after kneeling it is not dry enough for your calving cows. Other things to consider are the importance of enabling the necessary supervision, assistance and care of the cow and calf after delivery. Cleaning and disinfection should be carried out between each calving or group, allowing the pen to dry properly afterwards.

Calving pen requirementsIndividual pen

Group calving pen

Close-up pen Calving pen

Feeding space 2.49ft/0.76m of linear bunk space per cow

Each individual pen has feed and water, group pens have at least the same space as close-up cows

Lying space 1 lying stall per cow in freestall or 120ft² (11m²) per cow in bedded pack or compost barn

Clean and sanitary, 160ft² (15m²) of lying space per cow

Flooring Soft, non-slip flooring (e.g., straw pack or soft rubber)

Soft, non-slip flooring (e.g., straw pack)

Disturbance/seclusion

N/A Quiet, secluded area with little disturbance during labour

Training/protocol

Identify signs of labour Identify signs of labour, reference times for intervention, good hygiene practices, strategies for dystocia

Ref. Specific recommendations taken from the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Dairy Cattle, National Farm Animal Care Council, Canada.

Individual penCows are preferably housed in an individual pen/box that provides sufficient space. Pens may be built entirely of gates to facilitate supervision and good cleaning and disinfection between every calving. The ease of moving cows or opening a partition when assistance is needed during calving are also important aspects. A square pen is preferred since it allows freer movement of the cow and people. The absolute minimum required space for a calving pen is 11.2m2 (120 sq ft), however, the more space the better the working environment and increasing the calving pen area to 16m2 or 170 sq ft is recommended.

Group calving penIf handled correctly, housing calving cows on straw bedded yards can provide a comfortable and calm environment for the cow. The recommendation is at least 11 m2 (120 sq ft) straw area per cow with 40% extra space to accommodate surges of calving. If seasonal calving patterns or seasonal fluctuations due to heat stress, etc. are anticipated, a space planning calculation, taking the seasonality into account, should be done. If the same multiple boxes are used for both close-up and calving purposes it is important to keep the group consistent, to avoid adding new cows and to select cows close to calving dates. If this is

impossible, the space per cow should be enlarged considerably to mitigate stress and the entrance of new cows should be limited to once weekly.Heifers and weak animals should preferably be kept in smaller groups with less stress and enhanced supervision. Immediate removal of the calf is recommended to avoid transmission of disease and to secure provision of colostrums from the dam.

PastureA well kept grass pasture with minimal manure contamination is a good area for cows to calve in. Pasture calving forms part of an overall system and a part of how to manage and graze cows. Mud should be avoided and if water is visible on the ground surface it is not dry enough for calving cows. Supervision and accurate feeding in this system is more difficult, and if cows need assistance, proper restraint and availability of clean water may be a problem.

Standard operating procedures

Calving pen

Pasture


Moving the cow to the calving penMoving the cow from her group may cause stress and, thereby, greater risk of a delayed and subsequently prolonged calving process. Move the cow to the calving pen 1 day before expected calving at the earliest but before labour begins, as this may disrupt normal calving behavior and labour.

Stages of a normal calvingMonitoring ongoing calving is more important than most other tasks in the operation and should be prioritised. Everyone on the farm dealing with calving should understand the basic terms used in order to communicate with each other and with the veterinarian in cases of difficult or abnormal births. To limit the chance of transmitting diseases from cow to calf, it is necessary that the calving be performed under hygienic conditions.

The three stages of the calving process

1 Dilation of the CervixIn general, this stage lasts from two to three hours in mature cows and four to six hours in heifers. It begins with initial labour and ends when the cervix is fully open and the calf has entered the birth canal. The cow may show kicking at her belly and restlessness due to contractions. At the end of stage 1 the water sac becomes visible. The cow may separate from the group and urinate frequently. This is often more evident in heifers.

2 Delivery of the CalfThe second stage is characterised by the progression of the calf through the birth canal and ends with delivery of the calf. After the head has passed through, little extra effort is required to expel the rest of the body. This stage may last from two to 10 hours. A common mistake is to pull on the forelegs of the calf unnecessarily or too early. The calf must enter the birth canal in a certain position. Both forward (coming forward with both front legs and head extended into the birth canal) and backward (coming backward with soles of the hooves up and toes pointed down) presentations are considered normal. The latter is a high risk calving because the umbilical cord is pinched off before the calf's head is delivered. If the calf is presented in other positions this is considered an abnormal calving.

3 Expulsion of the PlacentaDuring the third stage, the afterbirth is expelled from the uterus. Normally, the afterbirth should be expelled within 12 hours of birth.

Example of a standard procedure (SOP) for calving supervision and intervention*Calving management is one of the areas where adoption of a protocol for hygiene management, supervision and intervention is called for. An example of such a protocol is shown below.

• Monitor an ongoing calving regularly and record the time when the outer water sac bursts.

• Increase inspection frequency to at least once an hour and note labour contractions and any progress.

• Record time of bursting of the inner water sac and which parts of the calf are visible.

• Increase inspection frequency to at least twice an hour.

– Do not offer assistance too quickly as this could lead to stress with some cows and delay the birthing process.

– Never intervene in a calving if you are in doubt of solving the situation or if you do not understand the problem. Instead, immediately call a veterinarian.

• Intervention recommended when:– The water sac has been visible for 2 hours the cow has

no or weak labour contractions without progress.– The calf is still not visible 30 minutes after burst of inner

water sac.– Intense labour contractions without progress for 30

minutes.• Determine position of calf

– If head and two front legs present normally, no assistance is needed.

– If in backward position, careful supervision and traction to prevent strangulation of umbilical cord is often needed.

– Stop in case of abnormal position.

• Intervention– Clean the cow's hindquarters and udder with water,

soap and a disinfectant. Clean and disinfect your hands and arms carefully and use obstetrical gloves.

– All delivery equipment used should be clean and disinfected. Use lubricant if needed.

– Place one chain on each leg of the calf above the ankle joint and dew claw.

– Pull the calf gently, one leg and then the other alternately and follow the rhythm of the contractions.

– After exposing the head and shoulders, pull downward at a 45-degree angle.

– If in backward position and the hocks are level with the vulva, provide traction back and downwards following contractions.

• When the calf is born remove mucus from nostrils and mouth of calf and check for breathing. If the calf is unresponsive, rub it briskly to stimulate it, or use a piece of straw or hay to tickle its nostrils to stimulate its breathing.

Calving targets

• A calm cow that feels comfortable in the calving area

• Maximum chance of normal unassisted calving

• Infections and injuries of the cow and calf prevented by the use of standard procedures

• Strangulation with the umbilical cord prevented for backward positioned calves

• Breathing of calf after birth facilitated

• Viable, strong newborn calves

Moving the cow

Stages of calving

SOP for calving supervision and intervention

Calving

Signs of calving

• Decreased appetite

• Cow separating from the group

• Signs of discomfort

• Relaxed pelvic bands

* Standard operating procedures Växa Sweden 2014


Moving the cow to the calving penMoving the cow from her group may cause stress and, thereby, greater risk of a delayed and subsequently prolonged calving process. Move the cow to the calving pen 1 day before expected calving at the earliest but before labour begins, as this may disrupt normal calving behavior and labour.

Stages of a normal calvingMonitoring ongoing calving is more important than most other tasks in the operation and should be prioritised. Everyone on the farm dealing with calving should understand the basic terms used in order to communicate with each other and with the veterinarian in cases of difficult or abnormal births. To limit the chance of transmitting diseases from cow to calf, it is necessary that the calving be performed under hygienic conditions.

The three stages of the calving process

1 Dilation of the CervixIn general, this stage lasts from two to three hours in mature cows and four to six hours in heifers. It begins with initial labour and ends when the cervix is fully open and the calf has entered the birth canal. The cow may show kicking at her belly and restlessness due to contractions. At the end of stage 1 the water sac becomes visible. The cow may separate from the group and urinate frequently. This is often more evident in heifers.

2 Delivery of the CalfThe second stage is characterised by the progression of the calf through the birth canal and ends with delivery of the calf. After the head has passed through, little extra effort is required to expel the rest of the body. This stage may last from two to 10 hours. A common mistake is to pull on the forelegs of the calf unnecessarily or too early. The calf must enter the birth canal in a certain position. Both forward (coming forward with both front legs and head extended into the birth canal) and backward (coming backward with soles of the hooves up and toes pointed down) presentations are considered normal. The latter is a high risk calving because the umbilical cord is pinched off before the calf's head is delivered. If the calf is presented in other positions this is considered an abnormal calving.

3 Expulsion of the PlacentaDuring the third stage, the afterbirth is expelled from the uterus. Normally, the afterbirth should be expelled within 12 hours of birth.

Example of a standard procedure (SOP) for calving supervision and intervention*Calving management is one of the areas where adoption of a protocol for hygiene management, supervision and intervention is called for. An example of such a protocol is shown below.

• Monitor an ongoing calving regularly and record the time when the outer water sac bursts.

• Increase inspection frequency to at least once an hour and note labour contractions and any progress.

• Record time of bursting of the inner water sac and which parts of the calf are visible.

• Increase inspection frequency to at least twice an hour.

– Do not offer assistance too quickly as this could lead to stress with some cows and delay the birthing process.

– Never intervene in a calving if you are in doubt of solving the situation or if you do not understand the problem. Instead, immediately call a veterinarian.

• Intervention recommended when:– The water sac has been visible for 2 hours the cow has

no or weak labour contractions without progress.– The calf is still not visible 30 minutes after burst of inner

water sac.– Intense labour contractions without progress for 30

minutes.• Determine position of calf

– If head and two front legs present normally, no assistance is needed.

– If in backward position, careful supervision and traction to prevent strangulation of umbilical cord is often needed.

– Stop in case of abnormal position.

• Intervention– Clean the cow's hindquarters and udder with water,

soap and a disinfectant. Clean and disinfect your hands and arms carefully and use obstetrical gloves.

– All delivery equipment used should be clean and disinfected. Use lubricant if needed.

– Place one chain on each leg of the calf above the ankle joint and dew claw.

– Pull the calf gently, one leg and then the other alternately and follow the rhythm of the contractions.

– After exposing the head and shoulders, pull downward at a 45-degree angle.

– If in backward position and the hocks are level with the vulva, provide traction back and downwards following contractions.

• When the calf is born remove mucus from nostrils and mouth of calf and check for breathing. If the calf is unresponsive, rub it briskly to stimulate it, or use a piece of straw or hay to tickle its nostrils to stimulate its breathing.

Calving targets

• A calm cow that feels comfortable in the calving area

• Maximum chance of normal unassisted calving

• Infections and injuries of the cow and calf prevented by the use of standard procedures

• Strangulation with the umbilical cord prevented for backward positioned calves

• Breathing of calf after birth facilitated

• Viable, strong newborn calves

Moving the cow

Stages of calving

SOP for calving supervision and intervention

Calving

Signs of calving

• Decreased appetite

• Cow separating from the group

• Signs of discomfort

• Relaxed pelvic bands

* Standard operating procedures Växa Sweden 2014


Facing a world full of infectious agents, climate and nutritional challenges outside the uterus demands fairly rapid adaptation by the calf, effective manage-ment and a good environment.

First hours of life – A calf adapting to the outer world will:• Alter its blood flow • Start breathing • Produce its own body heat• Stand up• Search for the udder to get fed• Suckle for milk, nutrition no longer for free via

the navel• Avoid infections from the dam and the environment

After normal delivery, the newborn calf will automatically start breathing shortly after rupture of the umbilical cord. At this time (immediately after delivery) normal calves are very active and try to get up immediately. This should result in standing up within 1 or 2 hours after birth. The suckling reflexis there from the start and is strongly expressed,even before the calf can stand. The calf is normallyalert, responsive and active.

Factors delaying the process of getting up are severe weather conditions, injuries, illnesses and/or exhaustion and oxygen deprivation from a difficult birth.

Wet hair cannot insulate the calf, and as the water evaporates, it takes heat with it and is extremely energy costly in young calves at colder temperatures. By licking, the cow will, to some extent, dry the newborn calf and stimulate breathing, blood circulation, defecation and general

activity. However, at cold ambient temperatures the calf should be dried directly after birth. This is particularly urgent if wind speed is high. A newborn calf is cold stressed when the temperature is below 13° C and a heat source (infrared lamp, or panel heater, etc.) should be provided. Air speed at the surface of the skin also considerably influences the amount of heat loss. A rule of thumb is that it should not be possible to feel air movement on the back of one's hand at calf level, where air speed should be less than 0.25m/s (50ft/min). When handling calves, treat them carefully and make them associate positive feelings with humans. A good way of doing this is to stay with the calf when feeding it during the first 3–5 days. If a calf associates pain and fear with humans, the handling of the calf now and later as heifer and cow will be more difficult.

First day of life From uterus to pen

• Newborn calves must be taken care of immediately after birth

– Make sure that the calf is dried to avoid heat loss

– Ensure protection from cold climate by providing adequate amounts of dry bedding

– Dip the navel with an approved iodine solution

– Weigh the calf

• Give at least 4L (10% of body weight) high-quality colostrum within 2 hours of birth (See section on colostrum)

• Keep the environment draught-free

• Design and follow hygiene protocols to avoid disease transmission

• After difficult birth, follow a special treatment routine for those calves

– Have clear monitoring routines in place

– Check the status and temperature of the newborn calf every 2 hours

• Move the calf to an individual pen (according to farm protocol no later than 24 hrs after birth)

• Identify problems in an early stage and take immediate action

• Wet calves

• Not immediately attending newborn calves

• Providing bad quality or insufficient amounts of colostrum

• Leaving weak calves unattended

Keep the calf dry

Do Avoid

Assessment of the newborn calf

• Time until the calf can stand: preferably within an hour and always less than two

• Constant temperature (38.0 – 39.4° C)

• Shivering calf: take action: shelter, blanket and/or heating lamp

• Calf is lethargic and has trouble maintaining body temperature: check the reasons and add shelter/heat

• Is the calf actively suckling?: place your finger in the mouth to check if the calf is warm and has the suckling reflex


Facing a world full of infectious agents, climate and nutritional challenges outside the uterus demands fairly rapid adaptation by the calf, effective manage-ment and a good environment.

First hours of life – A calf adapting to the outer world will:• Alter its blood flow • Start breathing • Produce its own body heat• Stand up• Search for the udder to get fed• Suckle for milk, nutrition no longer for free via

the navel• Avoid infections from the dam and the environment

After normal delivery, the newborn calf will automatically start breathing shortly after rupture of the umbilical cord. At this time (immediately after delivery) normal calves are very active and try to get up immediately. This should result in standing up within 1 or 2 hours after birth. The suckling reflexis there from the start and is strongly expressed,even before the calf can stand. The calf is normallyalert, responsive and active.

Factors delaying the process of getting up are severe weather conditions, injuries, illnesses and/or exhaustion and oxygen deprivation from a difficult birth.

Wet hair cannot insulate the calf, and as the water evaporates, it takes heat with it and is extremely energy costly in young calves at colder temperatures. By licking, the cow will, to some extent, dry the newborn calf and stimulate breathing, blood circulation, defecation and general

activity. However, at cold ambient temperatures the calf should be dried directly after birth. This is particularly urgent if wind speed is high. A newborn calf is cold stressed when the temperature is below 13° C and a heat source (infrared lamp, or panel heater, etc.) should be provided. Air speed at the surface of the skin also considerably influences the amount of heat loss. A rule of thumb is that it should not be possible to feel air movement on the back of one's hand at calf level, where air speed should be less than 0.25m/s (50ft/min). When handling calves, treat them carefully and make them associate positive feelings with humans. A good way of doing this is to stay with the calf when feeding it during the first 3–5 days. If a calf associates pain and fear with humans, the handling of the calf now and later as heifer and cow will be more difficult.

First day of life From uterus to pen

• Newborn calves must be taken care of immediately after birth

– Make sure that the calf is dried to avoid heat loss

– Ensure protection from cold climate by providing adequate amounts of dry bedding

– Dip the navel with an approved iodine solution

– Weigh the calf

• Give at least 4L (10% of body weight) high-quality colostrum within 2 hours of birth (See section on colostrum)

• Keep the environment draught-free

• Design and follow hygiene protocols to avoid disease transmission

• After difficult birth, follow a special treatment routine for those calves

– Have clear monitoring routines in place

– Check the status and temperature of the newborn calf every 2 hours

• Move the calf to an individual pen (according to farm protocol no later than 24 hrs after birth)

• Identify problems in an early stage and take immediate action

• Wet calves

• Not immediately attending newborn calves

• Providing bad quality or insufficient amounts of colostrum

• Leaving weak calves unattended

Keep the calf dry

Do Avoid

Assessment of the newborn calf

• Time until the calf can stand: preferably within an hour and always less than two

• Constant temperature (38.0 – 39.4° C)

• Shivering calf: take action: shelter, blanket and/or heating lamp

• Calf is lethargic and has trouble maintaining body temperature: check the reasons and add shelter/heat

• Is the calf actively suckling?: place your finger in the mouth to check if the calf is warm and has the suckling reflex


Calves are very sensitive to pathogen exposure. Once the calf is ready to stand and walk, the chances of being exposed to more pathogens increase. As soon as the calf is dry and has been given the first colostrum, (see section on colostrum) it can be moved to a single or twin pen environment. A good management practice is to separate the calf from the dam at this point. However, depending on the disease situation in the herd it could be an option to wait with the moving up to 24 h, but no longer. In such cases, it is crucial to understand that the feeding of colostrum must be done manually to ensure provision of enough volume and quality (see section on colostrum).

It is recommended to house the calf in a clean, dry single calf pen/box/hutch for the first one to two weeks (depending on local regulations and/or calf performance) to facilitate the build-up of a strong immune system and prevention of diarrhoea and respiratory disease. After a few naps the calf will get up again and will already have periods when it will stand and walk around. In the first days calves lie down up to 75% of the time. Welfare concerns about the early separation of the calf from the cow have been raised. However, a balance must be struck. The

longer you wait the bigger the risk of transmitting diseases to the calf and of increasing stress levels for both cow and calf when the separation eventually occurs. On the other hand, you do get a somewhat sturdier calf if everything works as it should. But as mentioned earlier, manual feeding of colostrum is essential.

Moving the calf

Colostrum is the key to calf survivalColostrum management plays a major role in keeping mortality down on the farm. Calves underserved with colostrum run an increased risk of disease and death.

• Feed calves with high-quality colostrum

– Milk the cow as soon as possible after calving (1–2 hours)

– Check quality before giving the colostrum to the calf

– Give at least 4L (10% of body weight) high-quality colostrum within 2 hours of birth

– Maintain strict hygiene

– Store and freeze excess good-quality colostrum

– Test lgG status of calves 2 to 7 days after colostrum feeding on a regular basis to ensure colostrum management is working

• In case of shortage of good-quality colostrum, use a complementary colostrum supplement

• Letting the calf suckle the first meal of colostrum from the dam

• Routine tube feeding

Moving the calf to a pen

Separation from the dam

Do Avoid


Calves are very sensitive to pathogen exposure. Once the calf is ready to stand and walk, the chances of being exposed to more pathogens increase. As soon as the calf is dry and has been given the first colostrum, (see section on colostrum) it can be moved to a single or twin pen environment. A good management practice is to separate the calf from the dam at this point. However, depending on the disease situation in the herd it could be an option to wait with the moving up to 24 h, but no longer. In such cases, it is crucial to understand that the feeding of colostrum must be done manually to ensure provision of enough volume and quality (see section on colostrum).

It is recommended to house the calf in a clean, dry single calf pen/box/hutch for the first one to two weeks (depending on local regulations and/or calf performance) to facilitate the build-up of a strong immune system and prevention of diarrhoea and respiratory disease. After a few naps the calf will get up again and will already have periods when it will stand and walk around. In the first days calves lie down up to 75% of the time. Welfare concerns about the early separation of the calf from the cow have been raised. However, a balance must be struck. The

longer you wait the bigger the risk of transmitting diseases to the calf and of increasing stress levels for both cow and calf when the separation eventually occurs. On the other hand, you do get a somewhat sturdier calf if everything works as it should. But as mentioned earlier, manual feeding of colostrum is essential.

Moving the calf

Colostrum is the key to calf survivalColostrum management plays a major role in keeping mortality down on the farm. Calves underserved with colostrum run an increased risk of disease and death.

• Feed calves with high-quality colostrum

– Milk the cow as soon as possible after calving (1–2 hours)

– Check quality before giving the colostrum to the calf

– Give at least 4L (10% of body weight) high-quality colostrum within 2 hours of birth

– Maintain strict hygiene

– Store and freeze excess good-quality colostrum

– Test lgG status of calves 2 to 7 days after colostrum feeding on a regular basis to ensure colostrum management is working

• In case of shortage of good-quality colostrum, use a complementary colostrum supplement

• Letting the calf suckle the first meal of colostrum from the dam

• Routine tube feeding

Moving the calf to a pen

Separation from the dam

Do Avoid


During pregnancy the calf only receives a small amount of protective substances through the placenta. Furthermore, a newborn calf’s immune system is still developing and the calf has little or no protection from germs (infective agents) in their environment. Calves are extra vulnerable immediately after birth.

The milk from the first milking following delivery is called colostrum. Colostrum of the right quality and quantity given to the newborn calf at the right

time it is the cornerstone of success for calfsurvival in any herd. It contains important nutrients: vitamins, minerals, energy and protein, besides antibodies (immunoglobulins lgG) and many other important substances. Calves that get sufficient amounts of good-quality colostrum in their first few hours gain passive immunity against germs, thus protecting the calf through its first weeks until its own immune system becomes fully active.

The antibody level in blood 2–7 days after birth indicates how successful colostrum provision has been and can be measured. At this time, calves should have at the very least 8g antibodies/litre blood.

Calves with low levels of immunoglobulin absorption will experience the consequences for the rest of their lives. Studies have shown that as many as 35% of dairy calves will have low levels of serum immunoglobulins. This number can go up to 61% if calves are allowed to nurse with the dam. Among the short term risks are increase in neonatal mortality due to diarrhoea, respiratory disease and an increase in veterinary costs and use of antibiotics. Long term risks are not fully understood and usually largely underestimated.

Heifers will have lower daily weight gain and thus a higher age at first insemination. These heifers will also have lower milk production and a higher culling rate during first lactation. These facts, once again, emphasise the crucial role of good colostrum management. The composition of colostrum is different from that

of normal milk and changes rapidly after calving. The protective value decreases with each milking and only the first milking is consideredtrue colostrum. The following milkings are often high in antibodies and extra nutrients and are referred to as transition milk. The quality of colostrum may also vary considerably (from <10 to 235 g IgG/L) due to circumstances such as:

• Age of cow: colostrum from cows at lactation one and two often has fewer antibodies

• Time of first milking since calving• Leakage from the udder before calving• Short dry period (<3 weeks)• Breed and milk yield• Dry cow ration: cows fed restricted amounts of protein and energy have less antibodies• High levels of bacteria in colostrum have been shown to reduce the uptake of antibodies by the calf and increase the risk of diarrhoea

Due to the wide variation in quality, suitablecolostrum is not always readily available. Good-quality colostrum may and should be frozen for future use. As it is impossible to visually detect whether colostrum contains sufficient antibodies, it is recommended that it be tested.

Alternatively, use of a complementary colostrum supplement may be considered. However, it is important to ensure that the product has been independently tested and is proven to be successful. Note that this will not replace colostrum, merely fortify its effect.

A calf is born unprotected

Risks associated with inadequate provision of colostrum

Colostrum quality varies considerably

Component 1st milking Colostrum

2nd milking 3rd milking Milk

Dry matter % 24.0 18.0 14 13.0

Lactose % 2.7 3.9 4.4 5.0

Fat % 6.7 5.4 3.9 4.0

Protein % 14.0 8.0 5.0 3.1

IgG (g/l) 32.0 25.0 15.0 0.06

Colostrum = protection

Long term risks:lower weight gain,later first insemination,lower milk production

Prevention and handling of variation in colostrum quality

Composition of colostrum and whole milk from Holstein cows

Ref. Van Saun RJ. Transition Cow Nutrition and Management: The Key to Herd Reproductive Performance. Pennsylvania State University.

Average composition of colostrum (1st, 2nd and 3rd milking) and normal milk from Holstein cows.

Studies have shown that as many as 35% of dairy calves will have low levels of serum immunoglobulins. This number can go up to 61% if calves are allowd to nurse with the dam.


During pregnancy the calf only receives a small amount of protective substances through the placenta. Furthermore, a newborn calf’s immune system is still developing and the calf has little or no protection from germs (infective agents) in their environment. Calves are extra vulnerable immediately after birth.

The milk from the first milking following delivery is called colostrum. Colostrum of the right quality and quantity given to the newborn calf at the right

time it is the cornerstone of success for calfsurvival in any herd. It contains important nutrients: vitamins, minerals, energy and protein, besides antibodies (immunoglobulins lgG) and many other important substances. Calves that get sufficient amounts of good-quality colostrum in their first few hours gain passive immunity against germs, thus protecting the calf through its first weeks until its own immune system becomes fully active.

The antibody level in blood 2–7 days after birth indicates how successful colostrum provision has been and can be measured. At this time, calves should have at the very least 8g antibodies/litre blood.

Calves with low levels of immunoglobulin absorption will experience the consequences for the rest of their lives. Studies have shown that as many as 35% of dairy calves will have low levels of serum immunoglobulins. This number can go up to 61% if calves are allowed to nurse with the dam. Among the short term risks are increase in neonatal mortality due to diarrhoea, respiratory disease and an increase in veterinary costs and use of antibiotics. Long term risks are not fully understood and usually largely underestimated.

Heifers will have lower daily weight gain and thus a higher age at first insemination. These heifers will also have lower milk production and a higher culling rate during first lactation. These facts, once again, emphasise the crucial role of good colostrum management. The composition of colostrum is different from that

of normal milk and changes rapidly after calving. The protective value decreases with each milking and only the first milking is consideredtrue colostrum. The following milkings are often high in antibodies and extra nutrients and are referred to as transition milk. The quality of colostrum may also vary considerably (from <10 to 235 g IgG/L) due to circumstances such as:

• Age of cow: colostrum from cows at lactation one and two often has fewer antibodies

• Time of first milking since calving• Leakage from the udder before calving• Short dry period (<3 weeks)• Breed and milk yield• Dry cow ration: cows fed restricted amounts of protein and energy have less antibodies• High levels of bacteria in colostrum have been shown to reduce the uptake of antibodies by the calf and increase the risk of diarrhoea

Due to the wide variation in quality, suitablecolostrum is not always readily available. Good-quality colostrum may and should be frozen for future use. As it is impossible to visually detect whether colostrum contains sufficient antibodies, it is recommended that it be tested.

Alternatively, use of a complementary colostrum supplement may be considered. However, it is important to ensure that the product has been independently tested and is proven to be successful. Note that this will not replace colostrum, merely fortify its effect.

A calf is born unprotected

Risks associated with inadequate provision of colostrum

Colostrum quality varies considerably

Component 1st milking Colostrum

2nd milking 3rd milking Milk

Dry matter % 24.0 18.0 14 13.0

Lactose % 2.7 3.9 4.4 5.0

Fat % 6.7 5.4 3.9 4.0

Protein % 14.0 8.0 5.0 3.1

IgG (g/l) 32.0 25.0 15.0 0.06

Colostrum = protection

Long term risks:lower weight gain,later first insemination,lower milk production

Prevention and handling of variation in colostrum quality

Composition of colostrum and whole milk from Holstein cows

Ref. Van Saun RJ. Transition Cow Nutrition and Management: The Key to Herd Reproductive Performance. Pennsylvania State University.

Average composition of colostrum (1st, 2nd and 3rd milking) and normal milk from Holstein cows.

Studies have shown that as many as 35% of dairy calves will have low levels of serum immunoglobulins. This number can go up to 61% if calves are allowd to nurse with the dam.


1 QuickThe calf should get colostrum as quickly as possible after birth. The ability of the intestine to absorb antibodies from colostrum into the blood is most efficient during the first four to six hours of life. At about 12 hours after birth the absorption of immunoglobulins is reduced by 50% and after 24 hours the calf can hardly absorb any antibodies at all. Milk the cows as soon as possible after calving to assure adequate delivery of antibodies to the calf. If you wait to milk the cow for the first time, antibody content of colostrum will decrease by dilution.

2 QuantityTo provide the calf with enough energy, nutrients and antibodies, calves should get as much colostrum as possible as soon as possible. Protein, fat and sugars from colostrum help to increase the calf’s metabolism and heat production. Moreover, colostrum intake facilitates the first stool (meconium). Ideally calves should receive 10% of their body weight, i.e. three to four litres of colostrum within one to two hours after birth and another two to three litres within six hours after birth, depending on weight. The antibodies absorbed in the first 12–16 hours will help to protect the calf against infection for three to four weeks. The calf´s own production develops over the first four to six weeks. The amount of colostrum intake is, therefore, crucial.

3 QualityAlways test the antibody content and use or freeze the best quality. Colostrum should at least contain 50g/L of IgG. Colostrum with <50 g/L IgG will not provide an adequate amount of protection to the newborn calf, even if it is fed shortly after birth. Collect and feed colostrum in clean, disinfected buckets. Ideally, colostrum should be given to the calf directly after milking the cow for the first time. Fresh colostrum can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 24 hours and in the freezer for 1 year if refrigerated or frozen within 1 hour after collection.Frozen colostrum should be thawed slowly in a hot water bath at a temperature of 50° C.

• Avoid use of colostrum from cows that have been on the farm for less than six weeks as their colostrum may not contain sufficient antibodies to farm-specific germs.• Do not give calves colostrum from cows with mastitis. Calves are extremely vulnerable to disease during their first days of life. Before gut closure, germs may be taken up from the gut into the calf’s bloodstream.• To increase the content of relevant antibodies in colostrum, cows can be vaccinated against relevant infective agents prior to calving. This will reduce the risk of serious infections.• If only low-quality or insufficient colostrum is available, or if the dam is known as a high shedder of Johne’s disease or other diseases, a commercial colostrum supplement can be used.

4 FrequencyThe calf should receive multiple colostrum feedings by bottle during the first day of life. Research has proven that calves that are stressed when receiving colostrum will not absorb the protective antibodies as efficiently as those that are calm. Thus a stressed calf would require more colostrum in order to achieve the same level of immunity as a calf that was not stressed. Thisis one of the reasons why routine use of an oesophagal tube is not recommended, except when, after several attempts, the calf refuses to drink from the bottle.

5 CleanlinessStrict hygiene standards for cleaning and sanitation should be observed when milking a fresh cow. The udder as well as the recipient should be thoroughly cleaned. If this is not done the colostrum can expose the gut of the newborn calf to a high level of bacteria, thereby decreasing the absorption of immunoglobulins.

5 golden rules to colostrum feeding

To achieve successful passive transfer of IgG, the calf must first consume a sufficient mass of antibodies in colostrum and then be able to successfully absorb a sufficient quantity of these molecules into its circulation. Major factors affecting the amount of IgG consumed by the calf include the quality and volume of colostrum fed. The major factor affecting the absorption of IgG molecules into circulation is how promptly first colostrum feeding is provided after birth, and the cleanliness of the colostrum.

Principles of successful colostrum feeding

If bacteria reach the intestine before colostrum does, they often enter the blood and may be fatal. The bacteria also can prevent antibodies from reaching the calf’s blood.

lg

lg lg lg

lglg

The calf's ability to absorb antibodies declines rapidly in the first 24 hours.Ref. Journal of Dairy Science 62:1766-1773 G.H Stott, D.B Marx, B.E Menefee, G.T Nightengale

Max

ser

um lg

G (g

/L)

Age at first feeding (hours)

0000

02

04

06

08

10

12

14

16

04 08 12 16 20 24


1 QuickThe calf should get colostrum as quickly as possible after birth. The ability of the intestine to absorb antibodies from colostrum into the blood is most efficient during the first four to six hours of life. At about 12 hours after birth the absorption of immunoglobulins is reduced by 50% and after 24 hours the calf can hardly absorb any antibodies at all. Milk the cows as soon as possible after calving to assure adequate delivery of antibodies to the calf. If you wait to milk the cow for the first time, antibody content of colostrum will decrease by dilution.

2 QuantityTo provide the calf with enough energy, nutrients and antibodies, calves should get as much colostrum as possible as soon as possible. Protein, fat and sugars from colostrum help to increase the calf’s metabolism and heat production. Moreover, colostrum intake facilitates the first stool (meconium). Ideally calves should receive 10% of their body weight, i.e. three to four litres of colostrum within one to two hours after birth and another two to three litres within six hours after birth, depending on weight. The antibodies absorbed in the first 12–16 hours will help to protect the calf against infection for three to four weeks. The calf´s own production develops over the first four to six weeks. The amount of colostrum intake is, therefore, crucial.

3 QualityAlways test the antibody content and use or freeze the best quality. Colostrum should at least contain 50g/L of IgG. Colostrum with <50 g/L IgG will not provide an adequate amount of protection to the newborn calf, even if it is fed shortly after birth. Collect and feed colostrum in clean, disinfected buckets. Ideally, colostrum should be given to the calf directly after milking the cow for the first time. Fresh colostrum can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 24 hours and in the freezer for 1 year if refrigerated or frozen within 1 hour after collection.Frozen colostrum should be thawed slowly in a hot water bath at a temperature of 50° C.

• Avoid use of colostrum from cows that have been on the farm for less than six weeks as their colostrum may not contain sufficient antibodies to farm-specific germs.• Do not give calves colostrum from cows with mastitis. Calves are extremely vulnerable to disease during their first days of life. Before gut closure, germs may be taken up from the gut into the calf’s bloodstream.• To increase the content of relevant antibodies in colostrum, cows can be vaccinated against relevant infective agents prior to calving. This will reduce the risk of serious infections.• If only low-quality or insufficient colostrum is available, or if the dam is known as a high shedder of Johne’s disease or other diseases, a commercial colostrum supplement can be used.

4 FrequencyThe calf should receive multiple colostrum feedings by bottle during the first day of life. Research has proven that calves that are stressed when receiving colostrum will not absorb the protective antibodies as efficiently as those that are calm. Thus a stressed calf would require more colostrum in order to achieve the same level of immunity as a calf that was not stressed. Thisis one of the reasons why routine use of an oesophagal tube is not recommended, except when, after several attempts, the calf refuses to drink from the bottle.

5 CleanlinessStrict hygiene standards for cleaning and sanitation should be observed when milking a fresh cow. The udder as well as the recipient should be thoroughly cleaned. If this is not done the colostrum can expose the gut of the newborn calf to a high level of bacteria, thereby decreasing the absorption of immunoglobulins.

5 golden rules to colostrum feeding

To achieve successful passive transfer of IgG, the calf must first consume a sufficient mass of antibodies in colostrum and then be able to successfully absorb a sufficient quantity of these molecules into its circulation. Major factors affecting the amount of IgG consumed by the calf include the quality and volume of colostrum fed. The major factor affecting the absorption of IgG molecules into circulation is how promptly first colostrum feeding is provided after birth, and the cleanliness of the colostrum.

Principles of successful colostrum feeding

If bacteria reach the intestine before colostrum does, they often enter the blood and may be fatal. The bacteria also can prevent antibodies from reaching the calf’s blood.

lg

lg lg lg

lglg

The calf's ability to absorb antibodies declines rapidly in the first 24 hours.Ref. Journal of Dairy Science 62:1766-1773 G.H Stott, D.B Marx, B.E Menefee, G.T Nightengale

Max

ser

um lg

G (g

/L)

Age at first feeding (hours)

0000

02

04

06

08

10

12

14

16

04 08 12 16 20 24


Store and freeze excess colostrum of good quality

• Good quality colostrum can be refrigerated for 1 day (24 h) with acceptable hygienic quality

• Colostrum can be frozen at -20°C for up to 1 year without losing its protective properties

• Always date label

• Store in bottles or zip-closure bags in 1,2 or 4 litre portions in flat packages

• When necessary, a portion can be thawed placing it in a warm (50° C) water bath

• Do NOT use a microwave since this can destroy the antibodies

• After thawing, gently mix the colostrum and immediately give it to the calf

Pasteurisation of colostrum and raw or waste milk

ColostrumPasteurisation can be applied to reduce the number of bacteria in colostrum and raw milk. This is important since colostrum can transmit many important disease- causing pathogens like Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease), Salmonella, Mycoplasma, Listeria, Escherichia coli. The most commonly used technique is batch pasteurisation, heating the colostrum to 60° C for 30 minutes. It is extremely important to carefully monitor time and temperature as antibodies can be destroyed. Another advantage of pasteurisation is that it will improve the efficiency of immunoglobulin absorption by about 10%. Observe that milk intended to be pasteurised should be cooled after milking to avoid the growth of bacteria and be used directly after pasteurisation for the same reason.

Raw or waste milkFollow the same rules as for colostrum (above). It is important not to add new milk to the pasteurised batch and to clean the equipment carefully between batches. Do not use milk containing antibiotics.

Pasteurisation of colostrum and raw milk

Digital and optical Brix refractometer

Colostrometer floating in colostrum sample. This sample tests green and contains >50 mg/ml of IgG.

How to measure colostrum quality Because of the large variation in colostrum quality it is important to test it before feeding it to the calf. Colostrum containing 50 mg/ml of anti-bodies (IgG) or more is considered to be of high quality for newborn calves.

RefractometerThe Brix refractometer optical or digital is a valuable tool that can easily be used on the farm to measure the immunoglobulin content of colostrum. The scale on these tools is designed to measure the amount of sucrose in a solution, but the Brix values can be related to the IgG content in colostrum. A Brix value of 22% corre-sponds to 50 mg/ml IgG; this percentage can be used as a cutoff point to decide whether colos-trum quality is sufficient or not. The advantages of using a refractometer over a colostro-meter are that refractometers are less fragile than colos-trometers and that refractometer readings are not temperature dependent.

Colostrometer Colostrometers or densitometers measure colostrum density, which indicates the concentration of antibodies in the colostrum. The colostrometer is placed in a cylinder containing colostrum and is allowed to float freely.Colostrum that tests green contains >50mg/ml IgG and is safe to feed to newborn calves. Yellow or light green contains 20 to 50 mg/ml IgG. This colostrum can be fed to one or two day old calves. If this is fed to younger calves, a colostrum supplement should be used. If the sample is in the red band, it contains <20 mg/ml of IgG. This is poor quality colostrum and should always be used with a colostrum supplement. For greatest accuracy the colostrometer should be used with colostrum at room temperature (25–30 Co, 77–86oF) as the temperature affects density. IgG content is overestimated at lower temperatures and under-estimated at higher temperatures.

Refractometer

Testing of colostrum quality

Colostrometer


Store and freeze excess colostrum of good quality

• Good quality colostrum can be refrigerated for 1 day (24 h) with acceptable hygienic quality

• Colostrum can be frozen at -20°C for up to 1 year without losing its protective properties

• Always date label

• Store in bottles or zip-closure bags in 1,2 or 4 litre portions in flat packages

• When necessary, a portion can be thawed placing it in a warm (50° C) water bath

• Do NOT use a microwave since this can destroy the antibodies

• After thawing, gently mix the colostrum and immediately give it to the calf

Pasteurisation of colostrum and raw or waste milk

ColostrumPasteurisation can be applied to reduce the number of bacteria in colostrum and raw milk. This is important since colostrum can transmit many important disease- causing pathogens like Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease), Salmonella, Mycoplasma, Listeria, Escherichia coli. The most commonly used technique is batch pasteurisation, heating the colostrum to 60° C for 30 minutes. It is extremely important to carefully monitor time and temperature as antibodies can be destroyed. Another advantage of pasteurisation is that it will improve the efficiency of immunoglobulin absorption by about 10%. Observe that milk intended to be pasteurised should be cooled after milking to avoid the growth of bacteria and be used directly after pasteurisation for the same reason.

Raw or waste milkFollow the same rules as for colostrum (above). It is important not to add new milk to the pasteurised batch and to clean the equipment carefully between batches. Do not use milk containing antibiotics.

Pasteurisation of colostrum and raw milk

Digital and optical Brix refractometer

Colostrometer floating in colostrum sample. This sample tests green and contains >50 mg/ml of IgG.

How to measure colostrum quality Because of the large variation in colostrum quality it is important to test it before feeding it to the calf. Colostrum containing 50 mg/ml of anti-bodies (IgG) or more is considered to be of high quality for newborn calves.

RefractometerThe Brix refractometer optical or digital is a valuable tool that can easily be used on the farm to measure the immunoglobulin content of colostrum. The scale on these tools is designed to measure the amount of sucrose in a solution, but the Brix values can be related to the IgG content in colostrum. A Brix value of 22% corre-sponds to 50 mg/ml IgG; this percentage can be used as a cutoff point to decide whether colos-trum quality is sufficient or not. The advantages of using a refractometer over a colostro-meter are that refractometers are less fragile than colos-trometers and that refractometer readings are not temperature dependent.

Colostrometer Colostrometers or densitometers measure colostrum density, which indicates the concentration of antibodies in the colostrum. The colostrometer is placed in a cylinder containing colostrum and is allowed to float freely.Colostrum that tests green contains >50mg/ml IgG and is safe to feed to newborn calves. Yellow or light green contains 20 to 50 mg/ml IgG. This colostrum can be fed to one or two day old calves. If this is fed to younger calves, a colostrum supplement should be used. If the sample is in the red band, it contains <20 mg/ml of IgG. This is poor quality colostrum and should always be used with a colostrum supplement. For greatest accuracy the colostrometer should be used with colostrum at room temperature (25–30 Co, 77–86oF) as the temperature affects density. IgG content is overestimated at lower temperatures and under-estimated at higher temperatures.

Refractometer

Testing of colostrum quality

Colostrometer


First week(s): getting the calf ready for life

• Choose a calf rearing system that suits your farm and ensures the following:

– Good ventilation: clean air and a draught- free environment

– Good bedding management and cleaning routines

– A stable temperature: avoiding cold and heat stress at the calf level

• Develop standard routines for feeding that includes:

– Cleaning and disinfection routines to ensure best hygiene at all times

– Feed colostrum or transition milk for at least 4 days

– A milk feeding set-up that allows the calf to suck easily in the natural posture

– Access to clean water and feeding high- quality starter and hay from the first week

• Start feeding and handling the youngest calves and end with the oldest to avoid spread of infections

• Check calf health at least twice daily and re-cord, inform and act immediately on issues

• House sick or weak calves separately until they have recovered and are vigorous

• Wet calves and wet bedding

• Feeding unpasteurised milk and waste milk containing antibiotics

• Allowing calves to drink milk in incorrect position

• Rapid change of milk type and concentration of milk replacer

• Fecal or other contamination of milk, feed or water

• Using milk replacer not adapted for young calves

• Feeding or handling young calves after older animals

• Exposing sick or weak calves to temperature stress (warm or cold)

Do Avoid

The goal of the first one to two weeks of calf rear-ing is to have a healthy, strong calf that is drinking its milk on its own. The calf needs to be healthy and vigorous in order to be ready to go into a group of calves. As calves are often prone to diarrhoea and navel infection during this period, they should receive every possible attention during first days of life. The daily work routine for the care of newborn calves should be planned and a specific farm routine is a great way to ensure these vulnerable calves are taken care of. If showing any sign of disease the calf should be handled with care and isolated to avoid spreading the disease. The main goals for care in the first weeks are:

• Training the calf to drink milk or milk replacer and satisfy the calf’s appetite

• Encouraging the calf to taste the concentrate and drink water

• Keeping the calf healthy• Early detection and treatment of disease• Ensuring a positive relationship with people

Caring for calves in first days of lifeNewborn calves differ a lot in fitness during the first days of life. Difficult calving, developmental age (early parturition) and malformations can all affect how fit a calf is at birth and it’s vigor during the following days.

Healthy calves have very good appetites at this early age and when fed milk ad libitum their intake averages 5l on day 2, 8l on day 4. Some calves can drink 10l or more. Satisfying this appe-tite maintains the calf’s vigour and ensures good growth, taking advantage of the calf’s growth potential.

1 Calves drink best by sucking from a teat as most of them have a very strong sucking reflex. The milk should be placed higher than the teat so the calf does not have to suck hard to get the milk (as occurs on the dam during the first days).

2 Some calves learn rapidly to come to the milk bottle or the teat feeder, others require more training. Gentle handling of hungry calves helps speed up independent feeding.

3 Providing a source of heat during cold weather has been shown to increase the intake of calves in the first 2 days after birth.

4 Providing dry, clean deep bedding is essential to maintain calf health and comfort.

The first weeks shape the calf´s future life as a dairy cow

First weeks of life

Anne Marie de Passillé, University of British Columbia


First week(s): getting the calf ready for life

• Choose a calf rearing system that suits your farm and ensures the following:

– Good ventilation: clean air and a draught- free environment

– Good bedding management and cleaning routines

– A stable temperature: avoiding cold and heat stress at the calf level

• Develop standard routines for feeding that includes:

– Cleaning and disinfection routines to ensure best hygiene at all times

– Feed colostrum or transition milk for at least 4 days

– A milk feeding set-up that allows the calf to suck easily in the natural posture

– Access to clean water and feeding high- quality starter and hay from the first week

• Start feeding and handling the youngest calves and end with the oldest to avoid spread of infections

• Check calf health at least twice daily and re-cord, inform and act immediately on issues

• House sick or weak calves separately until they have recovered and are vigorous


• Feeding unpasteurised milk and waste milk containing antibiotics

• Allowing calves to drink milk in incorrect position

• Rapid change of milk type and concentration of milk replacer

• Fecal or other contamination of milk, feed or water

• Using milk replacer not adapted for young calves

• Feeding or handling young calves after older animals

• Exposing sick or weak calves to temperature stress (warm or cold)

Do Avoid

The goal of the first one to two weeks of calf rear-ing is to have a healthy, strong calf that is drinking its milk on its own. The calf needs to be healthy and vigorous in order to be ready to go into a group of calves. As calves are often prone to diarrhoea and navel infection during this period, they should receive every possible attention during first days of life. The daily work routine for the care of newborn calves should be planned and a specific farm routine is a great way to ensure these vulnerable calves are taken care of. If showing any sign of disease the calf should be handled with care and isolated to avoid spreading the disease. The main goals for care in the first weeks are:

• Training the calf to drink milk or milk replacer and satisfy the calf’s appetite

• Encouraging the calf to taste the concentrate and drink water

• Keeping the calf healthy• Early detection and treatment of disease• Ensuring a positive relationship with people

Caring for calves in first days of lifeNewborn calves differ a lot in fitness during the first days of life. Difficult calving, developmental age (early parturition) and malformations can all affect how fit a calf is at birth and it’s vigor during the following days.

Healthy calves have very good appetites at this early age and when fed milk ad libitum their intake averages 5l on day 2, 8l on day 4. Some calves can drink 10l or more. Satisfying this appe-tite maintains the calf’s vigour and ensures good growth, taking advantage of the calf’s growth potential.

1 Calves drink best by sucking from a teat as most of them have a very strong sucking reflex. The milk should be placed higher than the teat so the calf does not have to suck hard to get the milk (as occurs on the dam during the first days).

2 Some calves learn rapidly to come to the milk bottle or the teat feeder, others require more training. Gentle handling of hungry calves helps speed up independent feeding.

3 Providing a source of heat during cold weather has been shown to increase the intake of calves in the first 2 days after birth.

4 Providing dry, clean deep bedding is essential to maintain calf health and comfort.

The first weeks shape the calf´s future life as a dairy cow

First weeks of life



3 2 1

3 2 1

Rumen

Throat


Rumen

Throat


3 2 1

3 2 1

Rumen

Throat


Rumen

Throat


Feeding more milk for high growth rate is recommended

The liquid feeding phase is a very important period for calves’ health and growth. An accelerated growth programme with a high pre-weaning nutrient intake can generate high daily weight gains during the first few weeks of life and is recommended for the majority of farms. Accelerated growth programmes have positive effects on development of the calf since it can help increase first lactation and long-term milk yield. It also allows the calf to withstand environmental stress without resulting in weight loss. This feeding system has been proven to result in cows that are more energetic, more fertile and healthier compared to lower growth rates.

Learning to drink milkThe abomasum (where the milk is digested) is the only one of the calf’s four stomachs that is functionally developed at birth.

When calves are drinking or sucking milk, milk will bypass the rumen and flow directly into the abomasum through the esophageal groove (the channel between esophagus and abomasum). The calf should preferably be given milk from a bottle or teat bucket or other teat feeder, in order to slow down the ingestion of milk.

Sucking from a teat allows the calves to perform natural sucking behaviour compared to drinking from a bucket without a teat, which could lead to digestive problems. The calf should keep her neck and head up during drinking and the height of the teat should be equal to the normal nose height of the calf. The calf should not drink too fast. A teat is, therefore, preferable to an open bucket.

Training calves to suck milk from a teat requires some skills. The calf should be held and gently guided to the teat (without causing unnecessary stress to the calf). This can be done by allowing the calf to suck the trainer’s fingers and gradually moving the calf’s mouth onto the teat. Ensuring that the calf drinks according to her appetite from a teat greatly reduces cross-sucking between calves. However, ensuring good hygiene of the teats is an important part of the cleaning routine.

From colostrum to milk or milk replacerMilk from the cows´ first milkings after calving is often called transition milk and contains more antibodies and nutrients than in later lactation and thus is better at protecting the calf from scours. Hence, a combination of a generous provision of colostrum during the first day of life and pasteurized transition milk during the next 3-5 days is strongly recommended.

Feeding pasteurized high quality cows´ milk is recommended following the transition milk. If this is not possible, the switch from transition milk to milk replacer must be done gradually. The goal is to have the calf consuming a minimum of 15% of live weight per day. During the first week, Holstein calves will drink 2-12l /day if milk is available free of choice, depending on the health, appetite and size of the calf. Since the abomasum has only a certain capacity, it is better to split the daily ration into several smaller portions. If too much milk is consumed at once, the abomasum can overflow and the milk can flow into the rumen where it can

result in digestive problems. In most cases 2.5l per meal will not cause problems.

Milk or milk replacer?Raw milk works well and can be a good option from a labour point of view. It is an excellent feed but a complete feeding programme should in-clude also starter and forage.

Any leftover milk should be stored below 5ºC. Milk not fed within 24 hours has to be repasteur-ized before feeding. To reduce the amount of bacteria following pasteurization, milk can be acidified. The safest way to do this is with the help of lactic acid bacteria to reduce the pH of the milk. The low pH limits the growth of harmful bacteria and other harmful organisms.

Feeding waste milk containing antibiotics should be avoided. Not only does it increase the risk for microbes in the gut flora developing re-sistance to antibiotics but also it disturbs the gut environment and presumably as a consequence health and growth of calf.

Remember that sudden changes in the quality of raw milk can cause digestive problems and decrease solid feed consumption and prolong rearing time. If whole milk is used, pasteuriza-tion is strongly recommended. Pasteurization of the milk kills most harmful bacteria making it more suitable for calves. However, it still needs to be handled in a hygienic manner to reduce the chances of contamination after pasteurization.

Do Avoid

Feeding with raw milk

• Offer milk at a temperature of 37–39° C to ensure coagulation in the abomasums. To achieve this, heat the milk to 40° C (the same applies to colostrum and transition milk).

• Offer only pasteurised milk with no antibiotic residues.

• Acidified cold milk feeding is currently practiced in some systems and appears to work well.

Feeding with milk replacer

• Milk replacer should contain at least 20 to 22% crude protein and 15 to 20% fat and the protein should be provided from milk sources.

• Shift gradually from raw milk to milk replacer over two to three days.

• Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

• Apply precise and stable standardised mixing routines.

• Use clean water.

• The milk must be free from lumps and always freshly prepared. Use a stainless steel whisk.

• Store open bags with milk powder in a dry, rodent-free environment to avoid contamination or spoiling.

• Drinking temperature should be kept constant.

• For bucket feeding, the replacer temperature should be at least 38–39º C.

• For powders with higher fat melting point, the temperature should be between 42–43º C.

Liquid feeding

From colostrum to milk

Milk replacer

Feeding whole milk


3 2 1

3 2 1

Rumen

Throat


Rumen

Throat


3 2 1

3 2 1

Rumen

Throat


Rumen

Throat


Feeding more milk for high growth rate is recommended

The liquid feeding phase is a very important period for calves’ health and growth. An accelerated growth programme with a high pre-weaning nutrient intake can generate high daily weight gains during the first few weeks of life and is recommended for the majority of farms. Accelerated growth programmes have positive effects on development of the calf since it can help increase first lactation and long-term milk yield. It also allows the calf to withstand environmental stress without resulting in weight loss. This feeding system has been proven to result in cows that are more energetic, more fertile and healthier compared to lower growth rates.

Learning to drink milkThe abomasum (where the milk is digested) is the only one of the calf’s four stomachs that is functionally developed at birth.

When calves are drinking or sucking milk, milk will bypass the rumen and flow directly into the abomasum through the esophageal groove (the channel between esophagus and abomasum). The calf should preferably be given milk from a bottle or teat bucket or other teat feeder, in order to slow down the ingestion of milk.

Sucking from a teat allows the calves to perform natural sucking behaviour compared to drinking from a bucket without a teat, which could lead to digestive problems. The calf should keep her neck and head up during drinking and the height of the teat should be equal to the normal nose height of the calf. The calf should not drink too fast. A teat is, therefore, preferable to an open bucket.

Training calves to suck milk from a teat requires some skills. The calf should be held and gently guided to the teat (without causing unnecessary stress to the calf). This can be done by allowing the calf to suck the trainer’s fingers and gradually moving the calf’s mouth onto the teat. Ensuring that the calf drinks according to her appetite from a teat greatly reduces cross-sucking between calves. However, ensuring good hygiene of the teats is an important part of the cleaning routine.

From colostrum to milk or milk replacerMilk from the cows´ first milkings after calving is often called transition milk and contains more antibodies and nutrients than in later lactation and thus is better at protecting the calf from scours. Hence, a combination of a generous provision of colostrum during the first day of life and pasteurized transition milk during the next 3-5 days is strongly recommended.

Feeding pasteurized high quality cows´ milk is recommended following the transition milk. If this is not possible, the switch from transition milk to milk replacer must be done gradually. The goal is to have the calf consuming a minimum of 15% of live weight per day. During the first week, Holstein calves will drink 2-12l /day if milk is available free of choice, depending on the health, appetite and size of the calf. Since the abomasum has only a certain capacity, it is better to split the daily ration into several smaller portions. If too much milk is consumed at once, the abomasum can overflow and the milk can flow into the rumen where it can

result in digestive problems. In most cases 2.5l per meal will not cause problems.

Milk or milk replacer?Raw milk works well and can be a good option from a labour point of view. It is an excellent feed but a complete feeding programme should in-clude also starter and forage.

Any leftover milk should be stored below 5ºC. Milk not fed within 24 hours has to be repasteur-ized before feeding. To reduce the amount of bacteria following pasteurization, milk can be acidified. The safest way to do this is with the help of lactic acid bacteria to reduce the pH of the milk. The low pH limits the growth of harmful bacteria and other harmful organisms.

Feeding waste milk containing antibiotics should be avoided. Not only does it increase the risk for microbes in the gut flora developing re-sistance to antibiotics but also it disturbs the gut environment and presumably as a consequence health and growth of calf.

Remember that sudden changes in the quality of raw milk can cause digestive problems and decrease solid feed consumption and prolong rearing time. If whole milk is used, pasteuriza-tion is strongly recommended. Pasteurization of the milk kills most harmful bacteria making it more suitable for calves. However, it still needs to be handled in a hygienic manner to reduce the chances of contamination after pasteurization.

Do Avoid

Feeding with raw milk

• Offer milk at a temperature of 37–39° C to ensure coagulation in the abomasums. To achieve this, heat the milk to 40° C (the same applies to colostrum and transition milk).

• Offer only pasteurised milk with no antibiotic residues.

• Acidified cold milk feeding is currently practiced in some systems and appears to work well.


• Milk replacer should contain at least 20 to 22% crude protein and 15 to 20% fat and the protein should be provided from milk sources.

• Shift gradually from raw milk to milk replacer over two to three days.

• Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

• Apply precise and stable standardised mixing routines.

• Use clean water.

• The milk must be free from lumps and always freshly prepared. Use a stainless steel whisk.

• Store open bags with milk powder in a dry, rodent-free environment to avoid contamination or spoiling.

• Drinking temperature should be kept constant.

• For bucket feeding, the replacer temperature should be at least 38–39º C.

• For powders with higher fat melting point, the temperature should be between 42–43º C.

Liquid feeding

From colostrum to milk

Milk replacer

Feeding whole milk


Feeding solids and water to calves from the first week

• Provide potable water from the first week

• Give small portions (handfuls) of fresh, tasty high-quality concentrate

• Exchange concentrate regularly to ensure that the calf is continuously offered tasty feed of high hygienic quality

• Offer fresh forage of high hygienic quality from first day in life

• If feeding a mix, change it on a daily basis to avoid fermentation or deterioration

Time for solid feed and waterThe calf requires both liquid and solid feed, easy access to fresh water, and calf starter from the beginning of the rearing period. This will aid earli-er rumen development and growth, hence, starter feed should be offered during the first week of life. Calves eat very little but a small amount of starter should be available for tasting and rumen development.

Provide a small quantity of high-quality long straw hay from day one. Hay cannot be digested in the first days of life but feeding hay to the un-weaned calf leads to good rumen development (mostly the muscular layer) and better growth. This also reduces the risk that calves will eat con-taminated straw from the floor, which can lead to diarrhoea. There is also a need for the scratch factor from forage (hay 150–200 g per day), which facilitates nutrient absorption.

Calves receiving free choice water from birth en-joy higher daily weight gain and consume more calf starter than calves without free choice water. Feeding milk or milk replacer is not a substitute for water. Calves have a requirement for fresh, clean, good quality water above what is obtained from milk or milk replacer. It is preferable to give young calves water in a bucket as the water is meant to end up in the rumen. Rumen microbes digest and utilise the feed and water ingested by the calf. On warm days, more water is needed.

Free choice water Limited water

Daily gains g/lb 308/0.68 180/0.40

Total calf starter intake kg/lb 11.8/26 8.1/18

Scour days per calf 4.5 5.4

Ref. Source: A F Kertz, L F Reutzel, J H Mahoney, Ad libitum water intake by neonatal calves and its relationship to calf starter intake, weight gain, feeces score, and season., Journal of Dairy Sci-ence (1985; 67(12):2964-9

Solid feed and water

To avoid changes in the quality of raw milk, this could be exchanged with a good quality milk replacer to keep protein and fat contents stable. High quality milk replacer will also cover the nutritional needs of the calf. It has correct and consistent composition which decreases the risk of digestive problems. It also contains the dietary minerals and vitamins the calf needs. Moreover, with milk replacer, the transfer of contagious diseases might be reduced.

The preparation of the milk replacer must be done with care, respecting concentration, water quality, hygiene of mixing and serving equipment and mixing temperature. The feeding schedule provided by the manufacturer should be followed and a high quality milk replacer made with protein of dairy milk origin should be chosen. Milk replacer should have a minimum amount of dry matter content per litre. To get the right level of energy the concentration of milk should normally be 150 grams per litre (1.25 lb per gal).

It is important that the energy density or the total amount of feed is increased during periods of cold stress. For example calves up to three weeks of age housed at -25°C, (-13°F) require double the amount of energy compared to calves at 20°C, (68°F). To ensure the right level of energy intake at cold temperatures, it is often necessary to increase the number of feedings/day and to use a milk replacer with a higher fat content and/or transition milk during the whole first week. Increasing the fat level of replacer (about 20%) or increasing the concentration of milk replacer per day by 30 to 50%, are two methods that are practised.



Feeding solids and water to calves from the first week

• Provide potable water from the first week

• Give small portions (handfuls) of fresh, tasty high-quality concentrate

• Exchange concentrate regularly to ensure that the calf is continuously offered tasty feed of high hygienic quality

• Offer fresh forage of high hygienic quality from first day in life

• If feeding a mix, change it on a daily basis to avoid fermentation or deterioration

Time for solid feed and waterThe calf requires both liquid and solid feed, easy access to fresh water, and calf starter from the beginning of the rearing period. This will aid earli-er rumen development and growth, hence, starter feed should be offered during the first week of life. Calves eat very little but a small amount of starter should be available for tasting and rumen development.

Provide a small quantity of high-quality long straw hay from day one. Hay cannot be digested in the first days of life but feeding hay to the un-weaned calf leads to good rumen development (mostly the muscular layer) and better growth. This also reduces the risk that calves will eat con-taminated straw from the floor, which can lead to diarrhoea. There is also a need for the scratch factor from forage (hay 150–200 g per day), which facilitates nutrient absorption.

Calves receiving free choice water from birth en-joy higher daily weight gain and consume more calf starter than calves without free choice water. Feeding milk or milk replacer is not a substitute for water. Calves have a requirement for fresh, clean, good quality water above what is obtained from milk or milk replacer. It is preferable to give young calves water in a bucket as the water is meant to end up in the rumen. Rumen microbes digest and utilise the feed and water ingested by the calf. On warm days, more water is needed.

Free choice water Limited water

Daily gains g/lb 308/0.68 180/0.40

Total calf starter intake kg/lb 11.8/26 8.1/18

Scour days per calf 4.5 5.4

Ref. Source: A F Kertz, L F Reutzel, J H Mahoney, Ad libitum water intake by neonatal calves and its relationship to calf starter intake, weight gain, feeces score, and season., Journal of Dairy Sci-ence (1985; 67(12):2964-9

Solid feed and water

To avoid changes in the quality of raw milk, this could be exchanged with a good quality milk replacer to keep protein and fat contents stable. High quality milk replacer will also cover the nutritional needs of the calf. It has correct and consistent composition which decreases the risk of digestive problems. It also contains the dietary minerals and vitamins the calf needs. Moreover, with milk replacer, the transfer of contagious diseases might be reduced.

The preparation of the milk replacer must be done with care, respecting concentration, water quality, hygiene of mixing and serving equipment and mixing temperature. The feeding schedule provided by the manufacturer should be followed and a high quality milk replacer made with protein of dairy milk origin should be chosen. Milk replacer should have a minimum amount of dry matter content per litre. To get the right level of energy the concentration of milk should normally be 150 grams per litre (1.25 lb per gal).

It is important that the energy density or the total amount of feed is increased during periods of cold stress. For example calves up to three weeks of age housed at -25°C, (-13°F) require double the amount of energy compared to calves at 20°C, (68°F). To ensure the right level of energy intake at cold temperatures, it is often necessary to increase the number of feedings/day and to use a milk replacer with a higher fat content and/or transition milk during the whole first week. Increasing the fat level of replacer (about 20%) or increasing the concentration of milk replacer per day by 30 to 50%, are two methods that are practised.



Housing requirements

As mentioned previously, during its first days of life, the calf should be moved and housed individually or in pairs to minimise the spread of infection and to facilitate the build-up of an active immune system. One way to minimise transmission while still enabling calves to socialise is to house 2 calves from birth in a bigger single hutch or pen. This has been shown to increase feed intake and growth and decrease social stress when grouping calves later on in life. Different housing systems are available such as indoor boxes or hutches placed outside,

depending on the capacity of the farm and the milking system that will be used. Housing calves individually during their first days of life will also make it easier to monitor which calves are performing well, and which are not.

A variety of facilities can be used to raise dairy calves. However, no matter what system is used it has to meet a number of basic requirements in order to consistently produce healthy and well grown calves on a year-round basis.

Whether housing is indoors in boxes/pen or outside in hutches it is important to ensure good, draught-free ventilation at calf level with no rapid temperature fluctuation, thick and dry bedding and effective routines for feeding, cleaning and

supervision. The minimum space requirement during the calf’s first weeks of life is 80 x120 cm or 2.6 x 3.9 feet (1 m2 or 10 ft2) but can this vary depending on local regulations.

Basics of lying area

• No draught (below 0.25 m or 0.65 ft per sec)

• Dry and clean

• Good drainage

• Properly insulated from the ground

Outdoor housing Indoor housing

Pros Simple and cheap investment Labour efficient

Lower risk of respiratory disease Better working conditions in inclement weather

Limits transfer of diseases between calves

Stable temperature for the calves

Hutches can be moved to less contaminated areas

Monitoring of calves facilitated

Cons Not suitable for weak calves Higher risk of respiratory disease

Labour intensive Cost of ventilation

More bedding required

Higher nutritional needs in cold weather

Calves subject to heat and cold stress

Frost protection for liquids and machines needed

Indoor vs outdoor housing: pros and cons

Hutches for single housing of calves Configuration and spaceHutches for single housing of calves Configuration and spaceNote! Always adapt and follow local regulations. The most common way to place hutches is outside in rows but other variants exist and it is also possible to place hutches under roof or other types of un-insulated buildings. An area for the calf hutches has to be prepared. The ground can be concrete, hard core or sand. Note! Never place the calf hutch on clay ground. Always place the back of the hutches towards the most common wind and rain direction on a forward sloped area forward to provide the best conditions.Urine will be drained out from the hutch and the bedding will not be exposed to rain. For easy hutch management it is necessary to plan for a good logistic flow when feeding, bedding and cleaning out the hutches before moving in new calves.

The hutches should be placed in rows sideways with a minimum distance of 50 cm (1.6 ft). Create enough space between the rows of hutches so they can be moved forwards or backwards, creating a new row. Used hutches in the first row are moved to the second (empty) row. They need to be cleaned, sanitised and filled with new bedding material for the new calves. The first row can now be easily scraped by a tractor or other equipment. Rotate back to original location for subsequent calf and cleaning procedure. If the hutches are placed under roof or in other buildings, it is important to allow and plan for two locations for each row of hutches. This is to reduce transmission of diseases and allow the area to dry between each new calf. In some countries, regulations require social contact between calves which can, as said, be successfully handled by keeping calves in pairs.

Housing systems

Hutches for single or paired housing

Indoor vs outdoor housing

Provide generous bedding at temperatures below 50° F (10° C)!Deeply bedded resting surfaces are critical for very young calves in cold weather. The thermo-neutral zone of newborn calves is 50–78° F (10–23° C) and drops to 32–73° F and 0–23° C by one month of age. A newborn calf lying on top of a bare floor at 45° F (7° C) will lose core body temperature without some thermal support. Deep bedding allows the calf to build up a layer of heat within the bed and minimise heat loss. A scoring system to evaluate the sufficiency of bedding, called “Nesting score” (NS), has been developed. It is a simple visual evaluation of the visibility of the rear leg of a calf lying down in the bedding.

NS1 – Entire rear leg is visible. NS2 – Rear leg partially visible. NS3 – Rear leg completely obscured by bedding Provision of deep bedding, or moderate bedding plus calf blankets are important factors in pre-venting disease in cold weather. We believe calf blankets are equivalent to approximately one unit of Nesting Score. In other words, provision of NS2 plus calf blankets is approximately equal to NS3 without blankets, while the addition of calf blankets to a NS1 surface does not appear to achieve the desired thermal support.

Ken Nordlund, Dairy Land Initiative, University of Madison Wisconsin US

Nesting score 3


Housing requirements

As mentioned previously, during its first days of life, the calf should be moved and housed individually or in pairs to minimise the spread of infection and to facilitate the build-up of an active immune system. One way to minimise transmission while still enabling calves to socialise is to house 2 calves from birth in a bigger single hutch or pen. This has been shown to increase feed intake and growth and decrease social stress when grouping calves later on in life. Different housing systems are available such as indoor boxes or hutches placed outside,

depending on the capacity of the farm and the milking system that will be used. Housing calves individually during their first days of life will also make it easier to monitor which calves are performing well, and which are not.

A variety of facilities can be used to raise dairy calves. However, no matter what system is used it has to meet a number of basic requirements in order to consistently produce healthy and well grown calves on a year-round basis.

Whether housing is indoors in boxes/pen or outside in hutches it is important to ensure good, draught-free ventilation at calf level with no rapid temperature fluctuation, thick and dry bedding and effective routines for feeding, cleaning and

supervision. The minimum space requirement during the calf’s first weeks of life is 80 x120 cm or 2.6 x 3.9 feet (1 m2 or 10 ft2) but can this vary depending on local regulations.

Basics of lying area

• No draught (below 0.25 m or 0.65 ft per sec)

• Dry and clean

• Good drainage

• Properly insulated from the ground

Outdoor housing Indoor housing

Pros Simple and cheap investment Labour efficient

Lower risk of respiratory disease Better working conditions in inclement weather

Limits transfer of diseases between calves

Stable temperature for the calves

Hutches can be moved to less contaminated areas

Monitoring of calves facilitated

Cons Not suitable for weak calves Higher risk of respiratory disease

Labour intensive Cost of ventilation

More bedding required

Higher nutritional needs in cold weather

Calves subject to heat and cold stress

Frost protection for liquids and machines needed

Indoor vs outdoor housing: pros and cons

Hutches for single housing of calves Configuration and spaceHutches for single housing of calves Configuration and spaceNote! Always adapt and follow local regulations. The most common way to place hutches is outside in rows but other variants exist and it is also possible to place hutches under roof or other types of un-insulated buildings. An area for the calf hutches has to be prepared. The ground can be concrete, hard core or sand. Note! Never place the calf hutch on clay ground. Always place the back of the hutches towards the most common wind and rain direction on a forward sloped area forward to provide the best conditions.Urine will be drained out from the hutch and the bedding will not be exposed to rain. For easy hutch management it is necessary to plan for a good logistic flow when feeding, bedding and cleaning out the hutches before moving in new calves.

The hutches should be placed in rows sideways with a minimum distance of 50 cm (1.6 ft). Create enough space between the rows of hutches so they can be moved forwards or backwards, creating a new row. Used hutches in the first row are moved to the second (empty) row. They need to be cleaned, sanitised and filled with new bedding material for the new calves. The first row can now be easily scraped by a tractor or other equipment. Rotate back to original location for subsequent calf and cleaning procedure. If the hutches are placed under roof or in other buildings, it is important to allow and plan for two locations for each row of hutches. This is to reduce transmission of diseases and allow the area to dry between each new calf. In some countries, regulations require social contact between calves which can, as said, be successfully handled by keeping calves in pairs.

Housing systems

Hutches for single or paired housing

Indoor vs outdoor housing

Provide generous bedding at temperatures below 50° F (10° C)!Deeply bedded resting surfaces are critical for very young calves in cold weather. The thermo-neutral zone of newborn calves is 50–78° F (10–23° C) and drops to 32–73° F and 0–23° C by one month of age. A newborn calf lying on top of a bare floor at 45° F (7° C) will lose core body temperature without some thermal support. Deep bedding allows the calf to build up a layer of heat within the bed and minimise heat loss. A scoring system to evaluate the sufficiency of bedding, called “Nesting score” (NS), has been developed. It is a simple visual evaluation of the visibility of the rear leg of a calf lying down in the bedding.

NS1 – Entire rear leg is visible. NS2 – Rear leg partially visible. NS3 – Rear leg completely obscured by bedding Provision of deep bedding, or moderate bedding plus calf blankets are important factors in pre-venting disease in cold weather. We believe calf blankets are equivalent to approximately one unit of Nesting Score. In other words, provision of NS2 plus calf blankets is approximately equal to NS3 without blankets, while the addition of calf blankets to a NS1 surface does not appear to achieve the desired thermal support.

Ken Nordlund, Dairy Land Initiative, University of Madison Wisconsin US

Nesting score 3


Drainage under the hutchGood hutch drainage is critical to maintaining a dry bedded surface. Urine, spilt milk and water should be able to move out of the hutches rather than soak the bedding. Excellent drainage has been achieved using an approximately 0.45cm (1.5ft) deep gravel bed below the bedded area. The area should be fitted with drainage tiles leading to a collection area. If the surface below the bedding is concrete, it needs to have a 2% sloped collection point for drainage in order to move liquids out of the hutches as efficiently as possible.

To protect calves as much as possible from the cold it is essential to provide clean, dry, thick bedding. The bedding should be at least 30cm (12inch) thick in order to completely cover the calf’s legs and reduce heat loss. Bedding should be checked daily and replaced if damp or wet.

Ventilation The front opening should never be blocked or covered by blankets or plastic sheets. Free access of fresh air and good ventilation through the top and back minimises the pathogen load and ammonia build-up.

Boxes/penDifferent variants of boxes for indoor housing are available and depending on the arrangement of the barn the boxes can be installed as a single box in a single row or in double rows. Here also housing pairs of calves has been shown to be beneficial. Some variants of boxes are placed on the ground without flooring. With this type of solution it is very important to apply a thick layer of straw inside the box to create a soft, dry surface for the calf. Other types of boxes are elevated and have a slatted floor. The partition walls are closed at the bottom creating a draught free environment.

All types of boxes must be deployed in a draught free area and ensured proper ventilation. A sufficient volume of air must move in and out of the building. It is essential to place the boxes centrally in the stable to avoid draughts. A ruleof thumb is that it should not be possible to feel air movement on the back of one’s hand in the area surrounding the calf. Air speed here should be less than 0.25m or 0.65 ft per sec. Lay a thick layer of straw inside the box to create a soft, dry surface for the calf.

Drainage below box/penTo maintain an excellent environment for the calves it is in the same way as for hutches used outdoors important with good box/pen drain-age and should follow the same criteria, see side 34. Calves should not be kept in an old barn not adapted for calves as this may cause health problems. Calves should be kept in a well-de-signed barn with sufficient ventilation. In order to prevent transfer of diseases young calves should be separated from the herd, particularly older calves, until they reach the age of four, and pref-erably six months. When this is impossible, the calf area should be totally separated. This means that walls that separate cows from calves should be roof high. The manure system, including scrapers, should also be separated. Diseases will be prevented by keeping manure and ventilation systems separate. If boxes or pens are placed on a slatted floor the ventilation and manure system should be designed in such a way that air from the manure channel cannot reach the calves. This can be achieved by adding mechanical ventila-tion in the manure channel. Young cattle should, therefore, be placed facing the most common wind direction.

VentilationYou should not be able to smell ammonia in a calf barn. Adequate ventilation is pivotal to reducing the amount of germs and improving air quality, thereby minimising respiratory diseases. But there should not be draughts either. Draughts can be avoided in two ways:

1 Reducing air movementAir speed should not be faster than 0.25 m or 0.65 ft per sec. To check this, a smoke test can be performed.

2 No temperature differenceDraughts can only arise where there is a tempera-ture difference. In most situations an open-plan barn is a good way of preventing temperature differences from occurring.

Drainage under the hutch

Drainage below box/pen

Pen ventilation

Hutch ventilation

Housing indoors


Drainage under the hutchGood hutch drainage is critical to maintaining a dry bedded surface. Urine, spilt milk and water should be able to move out of the hutches rather than soak the bedding. Excellent drainage has been achieved using an approximately 0.45cm (1.5ft) deep gravel bed below the bedded area. The area should be fitted with drainage tiles leading to a collection area. If the surface below the bedding is concrete, it needs to have a 2% sloped collection point for drainage in order to move liquids out of the hutches as efficiently as possible.

To protect calves as much as possible from the cold it is essential to provide clean, dry, thick bedding. The bedding should be at least 30cm (12inch) thick in order to completely cover the calf’s legs and reduce heat loss. Bedding should be checked daily and replaced if damp or wet.

Ventilation The front opening should never be blocked or covered by blankets or plastic sheets. Free access of fresh air and good ventilation through the top and back minimises the pathogen load and ammonia build-up.

Boxes/penDifferent variants of boxes for indoor housing are available and depending on the arrangement of the barn the boxes can be installed as a single box in a single row or in double rows. Here also housing pairs of calves has been shown to be beneficial. Some variants of boxes are placed on the ground without flooring. With this type of solution it is very important to apply a thick layer of straw inside the box to create a soft, dry surface for the calf. Other types of boxes are elevated and have a slatted floor. The partition walls are closed at the bottom creating a draught free environment.

All types of boxes must be deployed in a draught free area and ensured proper ventilation. A sufficient volume of air must move in and out of the building. It is essential to place the boxes centrally in the stable to avoid draughts. A ruleof thumb is that it should not be possible to feel air movement on the back of one’s hand in the area surrounding the calf. Air speed here should be less than 0.25m or 0.65 ft per sec. Lay a thick layer of straw inside the box to create a soft, dry surface for the calf.

Drainage below box/penTo maintain an excellent environment for the calves it is in the same way as for hutches used outdoors important with good box/pen drain-age and should follow the same criteria, see side 34. Calves should not be kept in an old barn not adapted for calves as this may cause health problems. Calves should be kept in a well-de-signed barn with sufficient ventilation. In order to prevent transfer of diseases young calves should be separated from the herd, particularly older calves, until they reach the age of four, and pref-erably six months. When this is impossible, the calf area should be totally separated. This means that walls that separate cows from calves should be roof high. The manure system, including scrapers, should also be separated. Diseases will be prevented by keeping manure and ventilation systems separate. If boxes or pens are placed on a slatted floor the ventilation and manure system should be designed in such a way that air from the manure channel cannot reach the calves. This can be achieved by adding mechanical ventila-tion in the manure channel. Young cattle should, therefore, be placed facing the most common wind direction.

VentilationYou should not be able to smell ammonia in a calf barn. Adequate ventilation is pivotal to reducing the amount of germs and improving air quality, thereby minimising respiratory diseases. But there should not be draughts either. Draughts can be avoided in two ways:

1 Reducing air movementAir speed should not be faster than 0.25 m or 0.65 ft per sec. To check this, a smoke test can be performed.

2 No temperature differenceDraughts can only arise where there is a tempera-ture difference. In most situations an open-plan barn is a good way of preventing temperature differences from occurring.

Drainage under the hutch

Drainage below box/pen

Pen ventilation

Hutch ventilation

Housing indoors


Why is ammonia bad for calves? Ammonia gas is especially harmful to a calf’s defences. Tiny hair-like fingers, cilia, line the wind-pipe. Their job is to push foreign materials inhaled by the calf back up and out of the trachea. This way, ‘junk’ containing germs does not end up causing infections in the lungs. If the cilia work as they should they lift both solids and liquids up and out of the trachea and can be an effective defence against respiratory infections.

Persistent exposure to even quite low levels of ammonia weakens this defence system. This allows viruses and bacteria to enter the lower respiratory tissues. Both the beat pattern of individual cilia and their coordinated wave activity are disrupted. In this weakened state, the cilliary transport system can no longer “sweep” infective agents up and out of the trachea.

How can ammonia exposure be reduced?The most effective way to reduce ammonia exposure is not to generate the gas. Urine provides bac-teria with both liquid and nutrients. Calves warm the soiled bedding and bedding materials often provide

a favourable pH environment. How, then, can we slow down this manure decomposition? First, the dryer the conditions, the lower the rate of bacterial growth and ammonia release. Second, the lower the oxygen supply for the bacteria, the lower the am-monia release rate. Third, since the mixture of faeces and urine on the coat of a warm animal generates ammonia rapidly, the cleaner the calves, the lower the ammonia release.

LightPlentiful light doesn’t just make things easier for the stockholder, it also has significant effects on the calf. As the hours of daylight decrease the deposi-tion of body fat increases. Insufficient light is inter-preted by the calf as winter conditions. In response the animals start to lay down body fat. It is a good idea to increase the hours of daylight to 16 using artificial light, as this promotes efficient use of nutri-tion. Less fat will be laid down in favour of building more muscle protein, so that the calf grows more rapidly.

Ammonia gas

Reduce ammonia exposure

Mortality and disease pattern

Focus on prevention and treatment of diarrhoeaDuring the first month of life diarrhoea is the main cause of death. The economic impact of diarrhoea is significant because of losses due to calf death and reduced growth and longer rearing periods for the survivors. The impact is long-lasting since these calves have been shown to have later calving dates and be in poorer condition at calving. Other costs include extra labour and veterinary expenses. Highest death rate amongcalves occur during the first 2 weeks of life. Later,

the percentages fall rapidly only to rise again at around the age of 9 weeks at weaning. According to a NAHMS (National Animal Health Monitoring System in the US) report, about 56% of pre-weaned mortality can be attributed to scours. Moreover, diarrhoea is associated with a more than 20-fold increase in the likelihood of a subsequent respiratory disease.

Causes of diarrhoeaThe causes of diarrhoea are twofold: non- infectious (feed-induced) and infectious.

Feed induced diarrhoeaFeeding routines and feed formulation can play a key role in the onset of diarrhoea. Uncomplicated feed-induced diarrhoea is usually self-curing and does not cause mortality. However, the distur-bance of normal digestion can create favourable conditions for the development of pathogens.

Infectious diarrhoeaIn most cases, infectious diarrhoea in very young calves (one to seven days old) is caused by bacteria like harmful Escherichia coli strains. In older calves, viruses (e.g. Rota and Coronavirus), bacteria (Salmonella) or parasites (Cryptosporidium parvum and Eimeria) are important germs.

Feeding factors increasing risk of diarrhoea

• Large quantities of cow’s milk or milk replacer at a single feeding

• Incorrectly prepared milk replacer (ratio water/powder or badly mixed)

• Improperly cleaned buckets or teats (milk or milk replacer residues provide ideal environments for bacterial growth)

• Sudden change of milk powder source

• Irregular feeding intervals

• Bad hygiene of roughage or concentrate

• Feeding milk from a cow with mastitis

• Use of non-milk proteins for calves less than 3 weeks old

Agent Infection route Stage in life

E. coli Cows and other calves can shed pathogenic strains, infection is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf.

Mainly first week of life.

Rota andCorona virus

Virus is shed in faeces, transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf. Adult cows and environment are major source of infection.

Mainly day 2 to 14 days.

C. parvum Contaminated environment or water are sources of infection. Infection is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf. The germ can survive in water for several weeks and is resistant to chlorination and most disinfectants.

Most common between 10 and 30 days.

Eimeria Oocysts can survive in the environment for years. Drinking water and straw are important sources of contamination.Transmission via faeces ingested by the calf.

Will mainly occur from week 3 until month 6

Salmonella Dublin and Typhymurium most common

Adult cows can serve as carriers. Infection is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf.Transmission in calving area is common as is also contamination via colostrum, feeding utensils and personnel.

Can occur from 1 to 4 weeks of age but also later

Infectious diarrhoea Most important germs causing diarrhoea in calves and stage in life when calves are most susceptible.

Infection pressure The goal should be to enhance calf immunity and keep infection pressure as low as possible.

Note that lab tests (blood test, faecal analysis, etc.) and calf autopsies are valuable tools for identifying the causative agent(s) of disease. Knowing which pathogen is making calves sick is not only crucial to determining correct treatment, but also enables appropriate preventive measures to be taken aginst disease in the herd. Not every calf that carries the germs will fall sick. There is a delicate balance between infection pressure and a calf’s immunity.

% Deaths by week of life

Weeks after birth

1

26.9

%

21.3

%

2

14.4

%

3

6.8%

4

6.8%

5

3.0%

6

4.2%

7

3.7%

8

12.9

%

90.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

Respiratory disease

50

60

70

80

Age at disease (weeks)

Num

ber

of c

ases

5 10 15 20 25 300

0

10

20

30

40

Immunity

Infection pressure

Ref. Source NAHMS and Broadwater N., 2009. Almost 50 % of all deaths occur during first weeks of life. Explanation: If in a farm 100 calves die during the first 9 weeks, almost 27 calves will die during the first week, 21 during the second week etc.

Ref. : Svensson, C., Lundborg, K., Emanuelson, U. & Olsson, S.-O. Morbidity in Swedish dairy calves from birth to 90 days of age and individual calf-level risk factors for infectious diseases. Prev. Vet. Med., 2003, 58, 179-197.

Diarrhoea


Why is ammonia bad for calves? Ammonia gas is especially harmful to a calf’s defences. Tiny hair-like fingers, cilia, line the wind-pipe. Their job is to push foreign materials inhaled by the calf back up and out of the trachea. This way, ‘junk’ containing germs does not end up causing infections in the lungs. If the cilia work as they should they lift both solids and liquids up and out of the trachea and can be an effective defence against respiratory infections.

Persistent exposure to even quite low levels of ammonia weakens this defence system. This allows viruses and bacteria to enter the lower respiratory tissues. Both the beat pattern of individual cilia and their coordinated wave activity are disrupted. In this weakened state, the cilliary transport system can no longer “sweep” infective agents up and out of the trachea.

How can ammonia exposure be reduced?The most effective way to reduce ammonia exposure is not to generate the gas. Urine provides bac-teria with both liquid and nutrients. Calves warm the soiled bedding and bedding materials often provide

a favourable pH environment. How, then, can we slow down this manure decomposition? First, the dryer the conditions, the lower the rate of bacterial growth and ammonia release. Second, the lower the oxygen supply for the bacteria, the lower the am-monia release rate. Third, since the mixture of faeces and urine on the coat of a warm animal generates ammonia rapidly, the cleaner the calves, the lower the ammonia release.

LightPlentiful light doesn’t just make things easier for the stockholder, it also has significant effects on the calf. As the hours of daylight decrease the deposi-tion of body fat increases. Insufficient light is inter-preted by the calf as winter conditions. In response the animals start to lay down body fat. It is a good idea to increase the hours of daylight to 16 using artificial light, as this promotes efficient use of nutri-tion. Less fat will be laid down in favour of building more muscle protein, so that the calf grows more rapidly.

Ammonia gas

Reduce ammonia exposure

Mortality and disease pattern

Focus on prevention and treatment of diarrhoeaDuring the first month of life diarrhoea is the main cause of death. The economic impact of diarrhoea is significant because of losses due to calf death and reduced growth and longer rearing periods for the survivors. The impact is long-lasting since these calves have been shown to have later calving dates and be in poorer condition at calving. Other costs include extra labour and veterinary expenses. Highest death rate amongcalves occur during the first 2 weeks of life. Later,

the percentages fall rapidly only to rise again at around the age of 9 weeks at weaning. According to a NAHMS (National Animal Health Monitoring System in the US) report, about 56% of pre-weaned mortality can be attributed to scours. Moreover, diarrhoea is associated with a more than 20-fold increase in the likelihood of a subsequent respiratory disease.

Causes of diarrhoeaThe causes of diarrhoea are twofold: non- infectious (feed-induced) and infectious.

Feed induced diarrhoeaFeeding routines and feed formulation can play a key role in the onset of diarrhoea. Uncomplicated feed-induced diarrhoea is usually self-curing and does not cause mortality. However, the distur-bance of normal digestion can create favourable conditions for the development of pathogens.

Infectious diarrhoeaIn most cases, infectious diarrhoea in very young calves (one to seven days old) is caused by bacteria like harmful Escherichia coli strains. In older calves, viruses (e.g. Rota and Coronavirus), bacteria (Salmonella) or parasites (Cryptosporidium parvum and Eimeria) are important germs.

Feeding factors increasing risk of diarrhoea

• Large quantities of cow’s milk or milk replacer at a single feeding

• Incorrectly prepared milk replacer (ratio water/powder or badly mixed)

• Improperly cleaned buckets or teats (milk or milk replacer residues provide ideal environments for bacterial growth)

• Sudden change of milk powder source

• Irregular feeding intervals

• Bad hygiene of roughage or concentrate

• Feeding milk from a cow with mastitis

• Use of non-milk proteins for calves less than 3 weeks old

Agent Infection route Stage in life

E. coli Cows and other calves can shed pathogenic strains, infection is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf.

Mainly first week of life.

Rota andCorona virus

Virus is shed in faeces, transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf. Adult cows and environment are major source of infection.

Mainly day 2 to 14 days.

C. parvum Contaminated environment or water are sources of infection. Infection is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf. The germ can survive in water for several weeks and is resistant to chlorination and most disinfectants.

Most common between 10 and 30 days.

Eimeria Oocysts can survive in the environment for years. Drinking water and straw are important sources of contamination.Transmission via faeces ingested by the calf.

Will mainly occur from week 3 until month 6

Salmonella Dublin and Typhymurium most common

Adult cows can serve as carriers. Infection is transmitted from faeces ingested by the calf.Transmission in calving area is common as is also contamination via colostrum, feeding utensils and personnel.

Can occur from 1 to 4 weeks of age but also later

Infectious diarrhoea Most important germs causing diarrhoea in calves and stage in life when calves are most susceptible.

Infection pressure The goal should be to enhance calf immunity and keep infection pressure as low as possible.

Note that lab tests (blood test, faecal analysis, etc.) and calf autopsies are valuable tools for identifying the causative agent(s) of disease. Knowing which pathogen is making calves sick is not only crucial to determining correct treatment, but also enables appropriate preventive measures to be taken aginst disease in the herd. Not every calf that carries the germs will fall sick. There is a delicate balance between infection pressure and a calf’s immunity.

% Deaths by week of life

Weeks after birth

1

26.9

%

21.3

%

2

14.4

%

3

6.8%

4

6.8%

5

3.0%

6

4.2%

7

3.7%

8

12.9

%

90.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

Respiratory disease

50

60

70

80

Age at disease (weeks)

Num

ber

of c

ases

5 10 15 20 25 300

0

10

20

30

40

Immunity

Infection pressure

Ref. Source NAHMS and Broadwater N., 2009. Almost 50 % of all deaths occur during first weeks of life. Explanation: If in a farm 100 calves die during the first 9 weeks, almost 27 calves will die during the first week, 21 during the second week etc.

Ref. : Svensson, C., Lundborg, K., Emanuelson, U. & Olsson, S.-O. Morbidity in Swedish dairy calves from birth to 90 days of age and individual calf-level risk factors for infectious diseases. Prev. Vet. Med., 2003, 58, 179-197.

Diarrhoea


Enhance calf immunityTo keep natural resistance at a high level, stress factors should be minimised. Appropriate amounts of good quality feed and an adjusted stable climate with correct ambient temperatures can help to achieve this. However, the most important action in preventing calf diarrhoea is taken immediately after birth through providing the calf with enough high-quality colostrum. Calves should receive 10% of their body weight of good quality colostrum within one to two hours after birth and another 5% within six hours after birth (see section: Feeding colostrum: the 5 golden rules). Providing transition milk until day four or longer is also protective and local immunity at intestinal level can be additionally boosted by the addition of 150–250 ml of colostrum twice daily to the milk during the following seven to ten days of life.

Remember that good hygiene, biosecurity through accurate provision of colostrum and feeding are all prerequisites of good calf health. If only low-quality or insufficient colostrum is available, or the dam is known as a high shedder of Johne’s disease or other diseases, a commercial colostrum supplement and other immune enhancing measures can be used.

Facts about vaccination, colostrum supplements and health supporting products

• Colostrum supplements Can be based on concentrated colostrum or contain antibodies from cow’s blood or egg powder from hyper-immunised chickens. These ‘egg antibodies’ will bind to the pathogens and prevent them from attaching to the intestine, thus decreasing the risk of diarrhoea. Colostrum supplements should be obtained from a manufacturer certified by a competent authority as complying with feed hygiene rules in order to ensure safety with regard to disease transmission.

• Milk acidifiers Calves will be fed milk or calf starter enriched with acidifiers like organic acids. These will hamper the growth of bacteria when used in appropriate dosages. Acidification of milk fed to calves will lower the pH of the milk to 5.0–6.0 (not lower as this may lower appetite), a level which is unfavourable to bacterial growth. In addition, acidifiers will also lower the pH in the calf’s gut, improving digestion and nutrient availability and thus promoting weight gain.

• Probiotics Probiotics are live micro-organisms which confers a health benefit to the host. Research has shown that administration of probiotics to young calves can improve weight gain and feed conversion, and can reduce the frequency of diarrhoea.

• Prebiotics Prebiotics are food for probiotics. They make sure that probiotics can grow and work efficiently. Commonly used prebiotics for calves are inulin and oligosaccharides.

• Vitamin provision Provision of vitamins and (trace) minerals are important for calves since these elements are necessary for growth and development of the immune system. When the dam is given a balanced ration in terms of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, milk can provide the necessary building blocks for the calf. In many cases, however, colostrum and milk are deficient in mainly fat-soluble vitamins and minerals. It is, therefore, important to add a vitamin, mineral and trace element mix to whole cow’s milk or use a fortified milk replacer.

• Vaccination Vaccination of cows can partially control for diarrhoea. For example, vaccinating cows against harmful E. coli and Rota and Corona viruses can reduce the severity and the numbers of calves contracting diarrhoea.

Keeping infection pressure lowRigorous action must be taken if infection pressure is to be kept at a low level. Very often, in the case of diarrhoea, the source of infection is manure infecting the calf via the mouth (faecal-oral transmission), whilst older calves are the main source in the case of pneumonia. The dam can also be a source of infection particularly with regard to Salmonella. People can also spread disease among calves. It is, therefore, important to attend to young calves first during the stable round. Similarly, sick animals should be isolated and taken care of last. Afterwards, hands and clothes should be washed and disinfected. All pens, boxes and hutches should be cleaned, disinfected and allowed to dry properly (for a week or longer) before moving new animals into them. Buckets and bottles used to feed each calf should carry the same number as the calf’s box and be cleaned thoroughly with hot water and detergent after each use.

Low infection pressure

Broad-spectrum disinfectant

Calf immunity

Additionally, the health and safety of personnel and animals are always an important consideration. The use of a broad-spectrum disinfectant active against viruses, bacteria, yeasts, moulds and other pathogenic organisms is essentialto complete an effective disease control programme. It is of prime importance to ensure that all surfaces are thoroughly wetted with disinfectant in order to break the chain of infection. Thoroughly clean all objects to remove any visible debris (manure, dirt, and bedding) before applying a disinfectant. Most disinfectants are ineffective when dirt, manure and other debris are present. These materials prevent the chemicals in the disinfectant from contacting the surface being cleaned and killing the disease-causing agents.

For more extensive information consult the DeLaval biosecurity guide.

Cleaning and disinfection

There are several factors that must be considered before selecting a disinfectant to use:

• Some products are effective for routine disinfection protocols at the farm level

• Others are necessary for outbreak situations

• To ensure an effective disinfection protocol, consideration should be given to the micro-organism being targeted, the characteristics of a specific disinfectant and environmental issues


Enhance calf immunityTo keep natural resistance at a high level, stress factors should be minimised. Appropriate amounts of good quality feed and an adjusted stable climate with correct ambient temperatures can help to achieve this. However, the most important action in preventing calf diarrhoea is taken immediately after birth through providing the calf with enough high-quality colostrum. Calves should receive 10% of their body weight of good quality colostrum within one to two hours after birth and another 5% within six hours after birth (see section: Feeding colostrum: the 5 golden rules). Providing transition milk until day four or longer is also protective and local immunity at intestinal level can be additionally boosted by the addition of 150–250 ml of colostrum twice daily to the milk during the following seven to ten days of life.

Remember that good hygiene, biosecurity through accurate provision of colostrum and feeding are all prerequisites of good calf health. If only low-quality or insufficient colostrum is available, or the dam is known as a high shedder of Johne’s disease or other diseases, a commercial colostrum supplement and other immune enhancing measures can be used.

Facts about vaccination, colostrum supplements and health supporting products

• Colostrum supplements Can be based on concentrated colostrum or contain antibodies from cow’s blood or egg powder from hyper-immunised chickens. These ‘egg antibodies’ will bind to the pathogens and prevent them from attaching to the intestine, thus decreasing the risk of diarrhoea. Colostrum supplements should be obtained from a manufacturer certified by a competent authority as complying with feed hygiene rules in order to ensure safety with regard to disease transmission.

• Milk acidifiers Calves will be fed milk or calf starter enriched with acidifiers like organic acids. These will hamper the growth of bacteria when used in appropriate dosages. Acidification of milk fed to calves will lower the pH of the milk to 5.0–6.0 (not lower as this may lower appetite), a level which is unfavourable to bacterial growth. In addition, acidifiers will also lower the pH in the calf’s gut, improving digestion and nutrient availability and thus promoting weight gain.

• Probiotics Probiotics are live micro-organisms which confers a health benefit to the host. Research has shown that administration of probiotics to young calves can improve weight gain and feed conversion, and can reduce the frequency of diarrhoea.

• Prebiotics Prebiotics are food for probiotics. They make sure that probiotics can grow and work efficiently. Commonly used prebiotics for calves are inulin and oligosaccharides.

• Vitamin provision Provision of vitamins and (trace) minerals are important for calves since these elements are necessary for growth and development of the immune system. When the dam is given a balanced ration in terms of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, milk can provide the necessary building blocks for the calf. In many cases, however, colostrum and milk are deficient in mainly fat-soluble vitamins and minerals. It is, therefore, important to add a vitamin, mineral and trace element mix to whole cow’s milk or use a fortified milk replacer.

• Vaccination Vaccination of cows can partially control for diarrhoea. For example, vaccinating cows against harmful E. coli and Rota and Corona viruses can reduce the severity and the numbers of calves contracting diarrhoea.

Keeping infection pressure lowRigorous action must be taken if infection pressure is to be kept at a low level. Very often, in the case of diarrhoea, the source of infection is manure infecting the calf via the mouth (faecal-oral transmission), whilst older calves are the main source in the case of pneumonia. The dam can also be a source of infection particularly with regard to Salmonella. People can also spread disease among calves. It is, therefore, important to attend to young calves first during the stable round. Similarly, sick animals should be isolated and taken care of last. Afterwards, hands and clothes should be washed and disinfected. All pens, boxes and hutches should be cleaned, disinfected and allowed to dry properly (for a week or longer) before moving new animals into them. Buckets and bottles used to feed each calf should carry the same number as the calf’s box and be cleaned thoroughly with hot water and detergent after each use.

Low infection pressure

Broad-spectrum disinfectant

Calf immunity

Additionally, the health and safety of personnel and animals are always an important consideration. The use of a broad-spectrum disinfectant active against viruses, bacteria, yeasts, moulds and other pathogenic organisms is essentialto complete an effective disease control programme. It is of prime importance to ensure that all surfaces are thoroughly wetted with disinfectant in order to break the chain of infection. Thoroughly clean all objects to remove any visible debris (manure, dirt, and bedding) before applying a disinfectant. Most disinfectants are ineffective when dirt, manure and other debris are present. These materials prevent the chemicals in the disinfectant from contacting the surface being cleaned and killing the disease-causing agents.

For more extensive information consult the DeLaval biosecurity guide.

Cleaning and disinfection

There are several factors that must be considered before selecting a disinfectant to use:

• Some products are effective for routine disinfection protocols at the farm level

• Others are necessary for outbreak situations

• To ensure an effective disinfection protocol, consideration should be given to the micro-organism being targeted, the characteristics of a specific disinfectant and environmental issues


Early detection of sick calves Successful management of calves and treatment of disease depends strongly on early detection of sick calves.

A healthy calf will be alert, stay upright, has a straight back line and a good appetite. Whena healthy lying calf is approached, it gets up immediately. A sick calf will not rise as fast. Other hints are an arched back, lifted belly, hanging head, hanging ears, dull eyes and a wide-legged stance.

Treatment of diarrhoeaThe most important objectives when treating calf diarrhoea are fluid replacement and correction of salt balance. These imbalances are in fact the cause of death in calves with diarrhoea (a sick calf can lose up to 8 litres of water per day causing severe dehydration = water deficiency). The degree of dehydration can be estimated from a number of signs (see table).

Check for the following signs at least twice daily

• Slower and reduced intake of milk/milk replacer (keep records!)

• Badly smelling, pasty, whitish or light greying faeces

• Watery or bloody diarrhoea

• Sunken eyeballs or hanging ears

• General weakness

• Increased breathing frequency

• Swelling of navel or joints

• Cough, nasal discharge

Take action if the rectal temperature is above 39.4° C or 103° F for two consecutive days or on one occasion below 38° C.

Degree of dehydration

Normal Mild Moderate Severe

Fluid loss(% of body weight)

2.5–3 6–8 8–10 10–14

Skin fold Normal 3–5 sec 5–10 sec >10 sec

Eyeball Normal Lightly sunken Sunken Deep

Mouth Wet and warm Wet and warm Sticky Dry and cold

Sucking reflex/ Appetite

Good Good Reduced Absent

TemperatureLimbs/ears

Normal Normal Cold Ice cold

Attitude Standing Standing Lying Comatose

Temperature >38.0°C >38.0°C >38.0°C <38°C

Dehydration Estimating degree of dehydration by checking clinical signs in calf. 8–10% degree of dehydration corresponds to a loss of 4–5 litres in a 50 kg calf.

Ref. Adapted from Meganck V., Vloeistoftherapie bij kalverdiarree

Water and electrolyte balance are restored by providing an oral rehydratation solution (ORS). Small amounts of ORS should be provided as of-ten as possible, preferably 4 times/day. The ORS should be administered at body temperature (to avoid extra energy loss) via a bucket with a teat to avoid overflow of the fluid in the rumen where it can cause ruminal acidosis. The ORS solutions contain very little energy compared to cow’s milk. This can lead to malnourishment and weight loss. Continuous feeding of small but frequent por-tions of milk will provide the energy and nutrients necessary for recovery of the gut. If the appetite is reduced, feeding with an oesophageal tube will be necessary.

Electrolytes should not be fed to calves whose digestive tracts are fully compromised. If calves are not suckling or swallowing, intestinal motil-ity is likely to be reduced as well. As a result, the electrolyte solution will just stay in the stom-ach and can cause bloat and rumen acidosis. “Drenching” electrolytes via a stomach tube into sick calves that are not suckling is not recommended. Calves that are too sick to drink need intravenous fluid therapy instead.

How to use an oesophageal feeder Oesophageal feeding should be used if, after several attempts, calves do not want to take colostrum from a bottle, or refuse oral rehydration solution in the case of dehydration.

The oesophageal feeder consists of a plastic or metal tube attached to a reusable plastic con-tainer or bottle which holds the fluid. It is impor-tant to use the probe correctly, in order to prevent damage e.g. to the calf’s oesophagus. Be aware of that oesophageal feeding may also transmit infections. It has also been shown that it may decrease milk consumption at the following meal.

Example of a SOP for correct use of the oesophageal feederNever perform oesophageal feeding on a lying calf

• Measure how far the tube should be inserted into the calf. This can be done by comparing the tube to the distance between the mouth of the calf and the point of the shoulder. Mark this point on the tube.

• Fill the container with colostrum or ORS heated to 40° C.

• Attach the container to the tube.

• The calf should be fixed with its rear end in a corner and its head taken between the legs. Always keep the calf's head up.

• Avoid leakage from the tube by bending the tube or by an alternative course of action.

• Open the calf´s mouth with your fingers by applying pressure onto the gums.

• The end of the tube should be moistened with colostrum or liquid and gently put into the calf's mouth.

• After the calf has swallowed the tube, it can be pushed down into the oesophagus.

• Always check that the tube is in the oesophagus and not in the windpipe! When correctly placed, the tube can be felt at the left side of the calf’s neck and can be moved back and forth.

• When you are certain that you have felt the tip, straighten the tube up and let the liquid poor out.

• Ensure that any leakage from the tube is prevented before pulling it out of the calf. This will prevent leftover liquid from flowing into the windpipe and the lungs.

• Clean and disinfect the bottle and the tube thoroughly after each use.

Ref. Catarina Svensson (Standard operating procedures, Växa Sweden)

Correct use of the oesophageal feeder

Early detection of sick calves is paramount

Oesphageal feeder

For the skin fold test, a skin fold should be pinched between 2 fingers and released. In a normal calf the skin fold will return back to normal in less than half a second.



Early detection of sick calves Successful management of calves and treatment of disease depends strongly on early detection of sick calves.

A healthy calf will be alert, stay upright, has a straight back line and a good appetite. Whena healthy lying calf is approached, it gets up immediately. A sick calf will not rise as fast. Other hints are an arched back, lifted belly, hanging head, hanging ears, dull eyes and a wide-legged stance.

Treatment of diarrhoeaThe most important objectives when treating calf diarrhoea are fluid replacement and correction of salt balance. These imbalances are in fact the cause of death in calves with diarrhoea (a sick calf can lose up to 8 litres of water per day causing severe dehydration = water deficiency). The degree of dehydration can be estimated from a number of signs (see table).

Check for the following signs at least twice daily

• Slower and reduced intake of milk/milk replacer (keep records!)

• Badly smelling, pasty, whitish or light greying faeces

• Watery or bloody diarrhoea

• Sunken eyeballs or hanging ears

• General weakness

• Increased breathing frequency

• Swelling of navel or joints

• Cough, nasal discharge

Take action if the rectal temperature is above 39.4° C or 103° F for two consecutive days or on one occasion below 38° C.

Degree of dehydration

Normal Mild Moderate Severe

Fluid loss(% of body weight)

2.5–3 6–8 8–10 10–14

Skin fold Normal 3–5 sec 5–10 sec >10 sec

Eyeball Normal Lightly sunken Sunken Deep

Mouth Wet and warm Wet and warm Sticky Dry and cold

Sucking reflex/ Appetite

Good Good Reduced Absent

TemperatureLimbs/ears

Normal Normal Cold Ice cold

Attitude Standing Standing Lying Comatose

Temperature >38.0°C >38.0°C >38.0°C <38°C

Dehydration Estimating degree of dehydration by checking clinical signs in calf. 8–10% degree of dehydration corresponds to a loss of 4–5 litres in a 50 kg calf.

Ref. Adapted from Meganck V., Vloeistoftherapie bij kalverdiarree

Water and electrolyte balance are restored by providing an oral rehydratation solution (ORS). Small amounts of ORS should be provided as of-ten as possible, preferably 4 times/day. The ORS should be administered at body temperature (to avoid extra energy loss) via a bucket with a teat to avoid overflow of the fluid in the rumen where it can cause ruminal acidosis. The ORS solutions contain very little energy compared to cow’s milk. This can lead to malnourishment and weight loss. Continuous feeding of small but frequent por-tions of milk will provide the energy and nutrients necessary for recovery of the gut. If the appetite is reduced, feeding with an oesophageal tube will be necessary.

Electrolytes should not be fed to calves whose digestive tracts are fully compromised. If calves are not suckling or swallowing, intestinal motil-ity is likely to be reduced as well. As a result, the electrolyte solution will just stay in the stom-ach and can cause bloat and rumen acidosis. “Drenching” electrolytes via a stomach tube into sick calves that are not suckling is not recommended. Calves that are too sick to drink need intravenous fluid therapy instead.

How to use an oesophageal feeder Oesophageal feeding should be used if, after several attempts, calves do not want to take colostrum from a bottle, or refuse oral rehydration solution in the case of dehydration.

The oesophageal feeder consists of a plastic or metal tube attached to a reusable plastic con-tainer or bottle which holds the fluid. It is impor-tant to use the probe correctly, in order to prevent damage e.g. to the calf’s oesophagus. Be aware of that oesophageal feeding may also transmit infections. It has also been shown that it may decrease milk consumption at the following meal.

Example of a SOP for correct use of the oesophageal feederNever perform oesophageal feeding on a lying calf

• Measure how far the tube should be inserted into the calf. This can be done by comparing the tube to the distance between the mouth of the calf and the point of the shoulder. Mark this point on the tube.

• Fill the container with colostrum or ORS heated to 40° C.

• Attach the container to the tube.

• The calf should be fixed with its rear end in a corner and its head taken between the legs. Always keep the calf's head up.

• Avoid leakage from the tube by bending the tube or by an alternative course of action.

• Open the calf´s mouth with your fingers by applying pressure onto the gums.

• The end of the tube should be moistened with colostrum or liquid and gently put into the calf's mouth.

• After the calf has swallowed the tube, it can be pushed down into the oesophagus.

• Always check that the tube is in the oesophagus and not in the windpipe! When correctly placed, the tube can be felt at the left side of the calf’s neck and can be moved back and forth.

• When you are certain that you have felt the tip, straighten the tube up and let the liquid poor out.

• Ensure that any leakage from the tube is prevented before pulling it out of the calf. This will prevent leftover liquid from flowing into the windpipe and the lungs.

• Clean and disinfect the bottle and the tube thoroughly after each use.


Correct use of the oesophageal feeder

Early detection of sick calves is paramount

Oesphageal feeder

For the skin fold test, a skin fold should be pinched between 2 fingers and released. In a normal calf the skin fold will return back to normal in less than half a second.



Navel infection Navel infectionInfection of the navel stump is one of the most common sources of infection in newborn calves. At birth, the calf’s navel string breaks off. The stump should be around 15 cm (6 inches) long and take about seven to ten days to dry. During this period, the young calf is particularly vulnerable as the stump is an easy entry for bacteria. The first symptom of navel infection is a painful swollen area around the remains of the umbilical cord. At a later stage, calves become generally depressed, lose appetite and show signs of forced breathing.

If left untreated, the bacteria can enter the bloodstream and cause arthritis and life-threatening infections. It is, therefore, important to prevent the condition. Navel dipping immediately after birth can play an important part in preventing disease in newborn calves. As for respiratory diseases, properly disinfecting the navel can substantially lower the number of calves treated for respiratory diseases.

Preventing navel infection

• As a first step, a calf should be born into a clean environment to minimize pathogen exposure.

• Navel dipping with iodine tincture should be done immediately after birth. A strong tincture (at least 7% of iodine) and undiluted solutions such as teat dips should be used.

• Dipping the navel into the iodine solution is preferred over spraying, since spraying will not properly disinfect the interior portion of the umbilical cord.

• Last but not least, good colostrum management is paramount to prevent navel infection.

First month of life: gearing up growth rate

• Monitor average daily gains

• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1.65lb per day (> 2 times above maintenance requirement)

• Adjust quantity of milk or milk replacer to ambient temperature

• Offer free choice of good quality calf starter

– Discard unconsumed calf starter between feedings

• Provide free choice of fresh water

• Give enough room for moving around, playing and running

• Make the calves get up once a day and check health and alertness of calves: if signs of disease, the calf should be checked

• When dehorning calves, use a local anaesthetic or pain killer


• Delayed follow up of calves showing signs of decreased appetite or suspected disease

• Mixing groups of calves in which the age difference is greater than three weeks

• Introducing a weak calf to group housing

• Bad air quality

Do Avoid


Navel infection Navel infectionInfection of the navel stump is one of the most common sources of infection in newborn calves. At birth, the calf’s navel string breaks off. The stump should be around 15 cm (6 inches) long and take about seven to ten days to dry. During this period, the young calf is particularly vulnerable as the stump is an easy entry for bacteria. The first symptom of navel infection is a painful swollen area around the remains of the umbilical cord. At a later stage, calves become generally depressed, lose appetite and show signs of forced breathing.

If left untreated, the bacteria can enter the bloodstream and cause arthritis and life-threatening infections. It is, therefore, important to prevent the condition. Navel dipping immediately after birth can play an important part in preventing disease in newborn calves. As for respiratory diseases, properly disinfecting the navel can substantially lower the number of calves treated for respiratory diseases.

Preventing navel infection

• As a first step, a calf should be born into a clean environment to minimize pathogen exposure.

• Navel dipping with iodine tincture should be done immediately after birth. A strong tincture (at least 7% of iodine) and undiluted solutions such as teat dips should be used.

• Dipping the navel into the iodine solution is preferred over spraying, since spraying will not properly disinfect the interior portion of the umbilical cord.

• Last but not least, good colostrum management is paramount to prevent navel infection.

First month of life: gearing up growth rate


• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1.65lb per day (> 2 times above maintenance requirement)

• Adjust quantity of milk or milk replacer to ambient temperature

• Offer free choice of good quality calf starter

– Discard unconsumed calf starter between feedings

• Provide free choice of fresh water

• Give enough room for moving around, playing and running

• Make the calves get up once a day and check health and alertness of calves: if signs of disease, the calf should be checked

• When dehorning calves, use a local anaesthetic or pain killer


• Delayed follow up of calves showing signs of decreased appetite or suspected disease

• Mixing groups of calves in which the age difference is greater than three weeks

• Introducing a weak calf to group housing

• Bad air quality

Do Avoid


Decide on rearing systemIn front of you is a 1–2-week-old healthy calf born without complications of a healthy mother in a clean environment and loaded with antibodies and nutrients from its dam. It happily drinks 5 to 8 litres of milk replacer or milk per day from a nipple and moreover she has already tasted some concen-trate and a few straws of hay. She is comfortable with you and with life, is full of energy and ready to learn more about life as a calf. What then is the next step?

Choices to make

1 From a profitability point of view the most important decision to make is about feeding. Will you choose intensive rearing or a more conventional feeding approach with lower growth rates?

2 Long term decisions regarding housing and feeding systems. Will you choose a single, pair or group housing system? Inside or outdoors?

Intensive versus conventional rearingTraditionally growth rates during the calf’s first two months reached levels between 350 to 600 g (0.8 to 1.3 lbs ) per day. Gradually the recommended target for average weight gain has changed to 750 to 850 g (1.5 to 1.8 lbs) or more per day in order to maximise milk production at first lactation. In recent decades, free choice feeding of dairy calves has been introduced.

Producers who have adopted this feeding strat-egy are often pleased with the outcome. High levels of milk feeding (12 l/d) allow calves to reach their full growth potential (> 1 kg/2.2 lb per day) and feeding large amounts of milk does not increase illness if done correctly.

Acidification of milk and free choice milk replacerhas also been practiced and is often associated

with very high consumption of milk (12–15 litres/quarts) at 5–6 weeks of age as well as good growth rates.

As already described, an intensive rearing pro-gramme with a higher pre-weaning nutrient intake of milk or milk replacer and higher growth rates is nowadays recommended for the great majority of farms. Achieving these growth rates means provid-ing calves with two to three times the maintenance requirement. If the calf consumes only the energy required for maintenance, there is no energy avail-able for growth. The conclusion is that at an ambi-ent temperature of 20° C, (68° F) the amount of milk or milk replacer during first month of age should never be lower than six to seven litres (18–21 MJ) per day. Keeping calves at lower temperatures greatly increases energy demand.

Decide on rearing system

It is all about feed… and water!

Rearing system

Intensive rearing recommended

Energy and crude protein requirements of calves from birth to weaning

Rate of gain(g/day) / (lb/day)

Dry matter intake(g/day) / (lb/day)

Metabolisable energy(ME) MJ/day

Crude protein (CP) %DM

200/0.44 545/1.2 10.0 18.0

410/0.9 635/1.4 12.1 23.4

600/1.32 770/1.7 14.6 26.6

800/1.76 910/2.0 17.2 27.5

1000/2.2 1090/2.4 20.1 28.7

Ref. Adapted from: M.E.Van Amburgh, F.Soberton, J.Karzses, and R.W. Everett, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 2011.

First month of life — liquid feeding

Calf growth dependent on amount of milk or milk replacer

The first month of life is crucial when it comes to rumen development and preparation for weaning. The calf is dependent on whole milk or milk replacer diet and the abomasum is the main compartment of the stomach involved in digestion. The milk feeding level and programme should be adjusted to calf

weight, health and climatic conditions.Faster growth rates can be achieved with larger

portions as long as the amount fed is built up gradually to avoid diarrhoea. Remember that bigger calves need more milk.

Energy (MJ) needed to meet the maintenance requirements of calves at varying temperature and different weight. Please observe that 2-3 times more has to be fed to achieve good growth!

Temperature degrees(C°) / (F°)

Bodyweight (kg) / (lb)

20/68 10/50 0/32 -9,5/15 -15/5 -20/-5 -29/-20

27/60 6.2 8.2 9.2 10.3 11.3 12.3 14.4

36/80 8.2 9.2 11.3 13.3 14.4 15.4 17.4

45/100 10.3 11.3 13.3 16.4 17.4 18.5 20.5

54/120 11.3 13.3 15.4 17.4 19.5 20.5 23.6

Ref. Modified from VanAmburgh & Soberon Minnesota dairy health conference, 2011

Feeding less milk than recommended results in poor growth. In addition, sudden changes in the amount of milk offered should be avoided as this increases the risk of digestive upsets and diarrhoea. Read the label on the milk replacer bag carefully. For instance, milk replacer designed for calves more than four weeks old should not be used for younger calves. The composition and quality of a milk replacer influences the growth and health of

the calf. Ingredients and nutrient levels vary greatly between products. During the first month of life, the calf digests milk proteins well but is not able to digest plant proteins. Selecting the correct milk replacer according to age, growth rate and weaning age goals is crucial to improve digestibility and feed efficiency. Follow standard routines when preparing milk or milk replacer.

What is important when choosing milk replacer?

Ingredients in milk replacer

Crude protein (CP)Provides essential amino acids for tissue synthesis in animals. Levels of crude protein can vary from 16–30% (Please see different protein sources below)

Crude FatProvide a concentrate energy sourceLevels of fat can vary from 10–28%

Crude Fiber Can be used as a measure of product quality and protein sources

Vitamins A,D,E and minerals

Are necessary for normal growth and health

MedicationMedicated replacer should be used only to deal with a specific health status issue and must not be a substitute for good management and sanitisation

Milk replacer

Volume of milk per meal depends on the feeding programme and should be about 1.5 to 3 litres/quarts. If the amount of milk given is too low the calf will remain hungry triggering cross suckling of other calves. By giving at least 1.5 litres/quarts the abomasum is filled and the hunger sensation disap-pears.

During this first month major sources of energy easily digested by the young calves include lactose (milk sugar) and highly digestible fat. It is very im-portant to provide adequate energy for the young calf since their maintenance energy demand/kg live weight is greatest during the first 2–3 weeks of life.

Ref. Adapted from: A guide to calf milk replacers, Types, Use and Quality, A BAMN Publication, 2008.

Various protein sourcesDried skim milkCaseinDried whey Wheat glutenAnimal plasma

Acceptable source (from milk or specially manufactured and processed for use in calf milk replacers)

Soy flour Marginal (the quality may vary and is not suitable for calves less than 3 weeks old)Meat solubleFish protein concentrate Wheat flour

Not acceptable source (can produce deleterious results when fed to young calves)

Quality factors

Color Cream to light tan If it’s orange/orange-brown it could be a reason of heat during storage Browned – it means product loss of nutrient quality and palatability

Odor Bland to pleasant odour If smelling like paint, grass or gasoline, the fat portion of the product may be rancid

Mixing The product should dissolve completely, rapidly and easily Free of lumps


Decide on rearing systemIn front of you is a 1–2-week-old healthy calf born without complications of a healthy mother in a clean environment and loaded with antibodies and nutrients from its dam. It happily drinks 5 to 8 litres of milk replacer or milk per day from a nipple and moreover she has already tasted some concen-trate and a few straws of hay. She is comfortable with you and with life, is full of energy and ready to learn more about life as a calf. What then is the next step?

Choices to make

1 From a profitability point of view the most important decision to make is about feeding. Will you choose intensive rearing or a more conventional feeding approach with lower growth rates?

2 Long term decisions regarding housing and feeding systems. Will you choose a single, pair or group housing system? Inside or outdoors?

Intensive versus conventional rearingTraditionally growth rates during the calf’s first two months reached levels between 350 to 600 g (0.8 to 1.3 lbs ) per day. Gradually the recommended target for average weight gain has changed to 750 to 850 g (1.5 to 1.8 lbs) or more per day in order to maximise milk production at first lactation. In recent decades, free choice feeding of dairy calves has been introduced.

Producers who have adopted this feeding strat-egy are often pleased with the outcome. High levels of milk feeding (12 l/d) allow calves to reach their full growth potential (> 1 kg/2.2 lb per day) and feeding large amounts of milk does not increase illness if done correctly.

Acidification of milk and free choice milk replacerhas also been practiced and is often associated

with very high consumption of milk (12–15 litres/quarts) at 5–6 weeks of age as well as good growth rates.

As already described, an intensive rearing pro-gramme with a higher pre-weaning nutrient intake of milk or milk replacer and higher growth rates is nowadays recommended for the great majority of farms. Achieving these growth rates means provid-ing calves with two to three times the maintenance requirement. If the calf consumes only the energy required for maintenance, there is no energy avail-able for growth. The conclusion is that at an ambi-ent temperature of 20° C, (68° F) the amount of milk or milk replacer during first month of age should never be lower than six to seven litres (18–21 MJ) per day. Keeping calves at lower temperatures greatly increases energy demand.

Decide on rearing system

It is all about feed… and water!

Rearing system

Intensive rearing recommended

Energy and crude protein requirements of calves from birth to weaning

Rate of gain(g/day) / (lb/day)

Dry matter intake(g/day) / (lb/day)

Metabolisable energy(ME) MJ/day

Crude protein (CP) %DM

200/0.44 545/1.2 10.0 18.0

410/0.9 635/1.4 12.1 23.4

600/1.32 770/1.7 14.6 26.6

800/1.76 910/2.0 17.2 27.5

1000/2.2 1090/2.4 20.1 28.7

Ref. Adapted from: M.E.Van Amburgh, F.Soberton, J.Karzses, and R.W. Everett, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 2011.

First month of life — liquid feeding

Calf growth dependent on amount of milk or milk replacer

The first month of life is crucial when it comes to rumen development and preparation for weaning. The calf is dependent on whole milk or milk replacer diet and the abomasum is the main compartment of the stomach involved in digestion. The milk feeding level and programme should be adjusted to calf

weight, health and climatic conditions.Faster growth rates can be achieved with larger

portions as long as the amount fed is built up gradually to avoid diarrhoea. Remember that bigger calves need more milk.

Energy (MJ) needed to meet the maintenance requirements of calves at varying temperature and different weight. Please observe that 2-3 times more has to be fed to achieve good growth!

Temperature degrees(C°) / (F°)

Bodyweight (kg) / (lb)

20/68 10/50 0/32 -9,5/15 -15/5 -20/-5 -29/-20

27/60 6.2 8.2 9.2 10.3 11.3 12.3 14.4

36/80 8.2 9.2 11.3 13.3 14.4 15.4 17.4

45/100 10.3 11.3 13.3 16.4 17.4 18.5 20.5

54/120 11.3 13.3 15.4 17.4 19.5 20.5 23.6

Ref. Modified from VanAmburgh & Soberon Minnesota dairy health conference, 2011

Feeding less milk than recommended results in poor growth. In addition, sudden changes in the amount of milk offered should be avoided as this increases the risk of digestive upsets and diarrhoea. Read the label on the milk replacer bag carefully. For instance, milk replacer designed for calves more than four weeks old should not be used for younger calves. The composition and quality of a milk replacer influences the growth and health of

the calf. Ingredients and nutrient levels vary greatly between products. During the first month of life, the calf digests milk proteins well but is not able to digest plant proteins. Selecting the correct milk replacer according to age, growth rate and weaning age goals is crucial to improve digestibility and feed efficiency. Follow standard routines when preparing milk or milk replacer.

What is important when choosing milk replacer?

Ingredients in milk replacer

Crude protein (CP)Provides essential amino acids for tissue synthesis in animals. Levels of crude protein can vary from 16–30% (Please see different protein sources below)

Crude FatProvide a concentrate energy sourceLevels of fat can vary from 10–28%

Crude Fiber Can be used as a measure of product quality and protein sources

Vitamins A,D,E and minerals

Are necessary for normal growth and health

MedicationMedicated replacer should be used only to deal with a specific health status issue and must not be a substitute for good management and sanitisation

Milk replacer

Volume of milk per meal depends on the feeding programme and should be about 1.5 to 3 litres/quarts. If the amount of milk given is too low the calf will remain hungry triggering cross suckling of other calves. By giving at least 1.5 litres/quarts the abomasum is filled and the hunger sensation disap-pears.

During this first month major sources of energy easily digested by the young calves include lactose (milk sugar) and highly digestible fat. It is very im-portant to provide adequate energy for the young calf since their maintenance energy demand/kg live weight is greatest during the first 2–3 weeks of life.

Ref. Adapted from: A guide to calf milk replacers, Types, Use and Quality, A BAMN Publication, 2008.

Various protein sourcesDried skim milkCaseinDried whey Wheat glutenAnimal plasma

Acceptable source (from milk or specially manufactured and processed for use in calf milk replacers)

Soy flour Marginal (the quality may vary and is not suitable for calves less than 3 weeks old)Meat solubleFish protein concentrate Wheat flour

Not acceptable source (can produce deleterious results when fed to young calves)

Quality factors

Color Cream to light tan If it’s orange/orange-brown it could be a reason of heat during storage Browned – it means product loss of nutrient quality and palatability

Odor Bland to pleasant odour If smelling like paint, grass or gasoline, the fat portion of the product may be rancid

Mixing The product should dissolve completely, rapidly and easily Free of lumps


Feeding plans differ

Feeding plans

The total daily amount of milk offered to calves will differ depending on the number of meals given. With two meals per day, it will be difficult to give much more than 6 litres/quarts.

Once–a-day limit feeding is practiced in some places; this will of course have a sizeable negative impact on calf growth rates and subsequent cow performance. This system requires earlier and larger concentrate consumption to meet the calf’s nutri-tional requirements (from about 150–200 g/0.33–0.44 lb concentrate in first days up to 300g/0.66lb). This is rarely recommended as it does not exploit the tremendous appetite and growth potential of the heifer calf.

Calf starter composition matters!There are different types of calf starter and they are available in different physical forms: muesli or pellets. The grains included in the calf startershould be coarsely ground, pre heated, cracked or rolled to increase palatability and stimulate rumen development. Calf starter freshness is important;it must smell and taste good. Unconsumed calf starter should be discarded between feedings. This helps maintain starter freshness. High-moisture grains should not be offered to young calves as these quickly ferment and mould. If the grains are served in buckets they should be emptied and refilled once or twice daily, especially during hot weather.

In the beginning, calves just nibble the starter. Theintake will almost double at weaning and continue to increase rapidly afterwards.

Typically, a good starter contains about 16–22% crude protein and about 80% total digestible nutrients. It should also contain minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur, potassium, manganese, iron, copper, cobalt, iodine, selenium) and vitamins (A, D, E). Calves also require vitamin K and the water-soluble B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, choline, biotin, pyriodoxine, folic acid, B12, and pantothenic acid). Rumen micro-organisms can produce these vitamins once the calf’s rumen begins to function. Vitamin K and water-soluble B vitamins can be found in whole milk and good milk replacers.

ForageForage is important to promote growth of the muscular layer of the rumen and to maintain the health of the rumen epithelium. Calves should have access to high quality coarse long hay from the beginning. This should not be provided on demand as calves will consume too much, which will reduce their concentrate intake. The best practice is to provide best quality feed at all times and limit fibre intake to 5% of total dry matter intake (about 150–200 grams per day).

Typical nutrient composition for calf starter

Crude protein 16–22%

Fat 3%

ADF 9–11%

NDF 12–14%

Minerals

Calcium 0.70 %

Phosphorus 0.45 %

Magnesium 0.1 %

Sulfur 0.2 %

Potassium 0.65%

Copper 10 ppm

Zinc 40 ppm

Manganese 40 ppm

Cobalt 0.10 ppm

Selenium 0.30 ppm

Iron 50 ppm

Iodine 0.25 ppm

Vitamins

A 1818 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)

D 270 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)

E 12 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)

Calf starter

Forage

Feeding with an automatic calf feederAutomatic calf feeder

When an automatic calf feeder is used the feed-ing plan can be adapted to the needs of each calf. The recommended amount of milk per day is at least 14–16% of the calf’s birth weight, or a daily ration of 6–8 litres/quarts at an ambient temperature of 20° C, (68° F). If free access milk feeding is provided, there is no limitation in terms of total daily intake. In the calf feeder, however, there is a limitation in meal size which should be set according to age (1.5–3 litres). The minimum (1.5 litres/quarts) and maximum portions has to be set up in the software of the automatic calf feeder. The portion size can be set for a group or for each calf (depending on the machine). As the

abomasum and calf grow, maximum portion size can be increased. When offered free of choice in the calf feeder, calves will drink on average 10 l a day, reaching 12 l on some days. Calves can show weight gains of over 1kg /day (2,2 lb/day) at this early age. This growth rate takes advan-tage of their genetic potential. Vigorous calves drinking a lot of milk are usually motivated to jump and run if they are stimulated. In fact, you can stimulate a running festival in the pen by dropping in some fresh bedding or coming into the pen and stirring the calves. This is a sign that calves are doing well. The calves that stay quiet may be sick.

Ref. Adapted fromAmaral Phillips, Scharko Feeding and Managing Baby Calves from Birth to 3 Months of Age and Heinrichs_Feeding the newborn dairy calf


Introduction to the automated milk feeder and calf groupIf you are using automated calf feeders, calves can be introduced at around six days of age. Some calves will learn to drink on their own on the first day. However, some calves will take more than three days to drink milk on their own from the feeder. A long delay in drinking independently from the feeder can result in lower weight gains in the first week. It is important to monitor calves’ milk intake at all times during the first week. It has been suggested that calves should not be introduced to the feeder before they are 14 days old. However, many calves manage well at 6 days and only about 20–30% of calves may need some assistance.

Calves are not all the same!

1 Weak calves should not be introduced to the feeder and group until they are strong enough to drink on their own. Healthy, vigorous calves can be brought in at five to seven days of age, but

should be monitored closely. Bring the calf to the feeder and ensure it has drunk at least two litres of milk. During the first few days the feeder must, therefore, be set to allow the calf to be fed each time it tries to drink.

2 To ensure it is hungry see that the calf has not been fed in the last six to twelve hours. This will help the calf associate the feeder with milk intake and improves its chances of learning to use the feeder more rapidly.

3 Check intakes daily. If a calf has not drunk on its own in the past 24 hours lead it to the feeder and ensure that it drinks. Calves should be drinking six to ten litres a day.

4 The pen should have ample dry bedding. When calves are fed ad libitum, there is very little competition for the feeder. Calves visit the feeder less than 8 times a day with an average of 5 meal visits and 3 visits where they don’t drink milk.

Age of the calves (days)

00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7 14 21 28 35 49 56 6342

Milk

qua

ntit

y (li

ters

/day

)

Example of feeding program when using an automated calf feeder


Feeding plans differ

Feeding plans

The total daily amount of milk offered to calves will differ depending on the number of meals given. With two meals per day, it will be difficult to give much more than 6 litres/quarts.

Once–a-day limit feeding is practiced in some places; this will of course have a sizeable negative impact on calf growth rates and subsequent cow performance. This system requires earlier and larger concentrate consumption to meet the calf’s nutri-tional requirements (from about 150–200 g/0.33–0.44 lb concentrate in first days up to 300g/0.66lb). This is rarely recommended as it does not exploit the tremendous appetite and growth potential of the heifer calf.

Calf starter composition matters!There are different types of calf starter and they are available in different physical forms: muesli or pellets. The grains included in the calf startershould be coarsely ground, pre heated, cracked or rolled to increase palatability and stimulate rumen development. Calf starter freshness is important;it must smell and taste good. Unconsumed calf starter should be discarded between feedings. This helps maintain starter freshness. High-moisture grains should not be offered to young calves as these quickly ferment and mould. If the grains are served in buckets they should be emptied and refilled once or twice daily, especially during hot weather.

In the beginning, calves just nibble the starter. Theintake will almost double at weaning and continue to increase rapidly afterwards.

Typically, a good starter contains about 16–22% crude protein and about 80% total digestible nutrients. It should also contain minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur, potassium, manganese, iron, copper, cobalt, iodine, selenium) and vitamins (A, D, E). Calves also require vitamin K and the water-soluble B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, choline, biotin, pyriodoxine, folic acid, B12, and pantothenic acid). Rumen micro-organisms can produce these vitamins once the calf’s rumen begins to function. Vitamin K and water-soluble B vitamins can be found in whole milk and good milk replacers.

ForageForage is important to promote growth of the muscular layer of the rumen and to maintain the health of the rumen epithelium. Calves should have access to high quality coarse long hay from the beginning. This should not be provided on demand as calves will consume too much, which will reduce their concentrate intake. The best practice is to provide best quality feed at all times and limit fibre intake to 5% of total dry matter intake (about 150–200 grams per day).

Typical nutrient composition for calf starter

Crude protein 16–22%

Fat 3%

ADF 9–11%

NDF 12–14%

Minerals

Calcium 0.70 %

Phosphorus 0.45 %

Magnesium 0.1 %

Sulfur 0.2 %

Potassium 0.65%

Copper 10 ppm

Zinc 40 ppm

Manganese 40 ppm

Cobalt 0.10 ppm

Selenium 0.30 ppm

Iron 50 ppm

Iodine 0.25 ppm

Vitamins

A 1818 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)

D 270 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)

E 12 IU / lb dry matter (453 g)

Calf starter

Forage

Feeding with an automatic calf feederAutomatic calf feeder

When an automatic calf feeder is used the feed-ing plan can be adapted to the needs of each calf. The recommended amount of milk per day is at least 14–16% of the calf’s birth weight, or a daily ration of 6–8 litres/quarts at an ambient temperature of 20° C, (68° F). If free access milk feeding is provided, there is no limitation in terms of total daily intake. In the calf feeder, however, there is a limitation in meal size which should be set according to age (1.5–3 litres). The minimum (1.5 litres/quarts) and maximum portions has to be set up in the software of the automatic calf feeder. The portion size can be set for a group or for each calf (depending on the machine). As the

abomasum and calf grow, maximum portion size can be increased. When offered free of choice in the calf feeder, calves will drink on average 10 l a day, reaching 12 l on some days. Calves can show weight gains of over 1kg /day (2,2 lb/day) at this early age. This growth rate takes advan-tage of their genetic potential. Vigorous calves drinking a lot of milk are usually motivated to jump and run if they are stimulated. In fact, you can stimulate a running festival in the pen by dropping in some fresh bedding or coming into the pen and stirring the calves. This is a sign that calves are doing well. The calves that stay quiet may be sick.

Ref. Adapted fromAmaral Phillips, Scharko Feeding and Managing Baby Calves from Birth to 3 Months of Age and Heinrichs_Feeding the newborn dairy calf


Introduction to the automated milk feeder and calf groupIf you are using automated calf feeders, calves can be introduced at around six days of age. Some calves will learn to drink on their own on the first day. However, some calves will take more than three days to drink milk on their own from the feeder. A long delay in drinking independently from the feeder can result in lower weight gains in the first week. It is important to monitor calves’ milk intake at all times during the first week. It has been suggested that calves should not be introduced to the feeder before they are 14 days old. However, many calves manage well at 6 days and only about 20–30% of calves may need some assistance.

Calves are not all the same!

1 Weak calves should not be introduced to the feeder and group until they are strong enough to drink on their own. Healthy, vigorous calves can be brought in at five to seven days of age, but

should be monitored closely. Bring the calf to the feeder and ensure it has drunk at least two litres of milk. During the first few days the feeder must, therefore, be set to allow the calf to be fed each time it tries to drink.

2 To ensure it is hungry see that the calf has not been fed in the last six to twelve hours. This will help the calf associate the feeder with milk intake and improves its chances of learning to use the feeder more rapidly.

3 Check intakes daily. If a calf has not drunk on its own in the past 24 hours lead it to the feeder and ensure that it drinks. Calves should be drinking six to ten litres a day.

4 The pen should have ample dry bedding. When calves are fed ad libitum, there is very little competition for the feeder. Calves visit the feeder less than 8 times a day with an average of 5 meal visits and 3 visits where they don’t drink milk.

Age of the calves (days)

00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7 14 21 28 35 49 56 6342

Milk

qua

ntit

y (li

ters

/day

)

Example of feeding program when using an automated calf feeder


Parameter Intensive Conventional

Colostrum management Very good to excellent Very good to excellent

Average daily weight gain 750–850 g (1.6–1.8 lbs) 350–600 g (0,8–1,3 lbs )

2–10 days 5–6 litres/quarts 4 litres/quarts

11–20 days 6–10 litres /quarts 4 litres/quarts


36–56 days Decline to 4 litres/quarts 4 litres/quarts

Free of choice water Essential Preferred

Starter grain/concentrate, fresh daily Essential for small calvesDesirable for all calves

Preferred Preferred, not common

Starter grain/concentrate, protein level 20 % Often lower

Starter grain, free of choice Essential Preferred

Weaning method By concentrate/grain intake By age

Ref. Modified from Comparison and conventional and intensive calf feeding programs (adapted from Sam Leadley, Calf & Heifer Management Specialist [email protected] www.atticacows.com)

Management of calf feedersRearing calves manually can be difficult and time-consuming. Some of the time gained here can be used for health monitoring instead. Thanks to the introduction of individual animal identification in most modern feeding systems, automated calf feeders, where feed is freshly prepared with ac-curate temperature and concentration for each animal according to its specific needs, are available. Automated calf feeders imitate natural rearing and provide stress-free feeding. When a calf entitled to feed enters the feeding station, the feeder calcu-lates the portion allowed for this particular calf. In a matter of seconds, the milk is prepared and served warm to the calf. Calves suckle from a nipple which offers many advantages compared with feeding

from an open bucket. These feeders are controlled by a management software application that al-lows the farmer to register all animals and create feeding schedules according to age. Examples of parameters that can be set up include daily por-tion, minimum and maximum amount offered at a single visit, and additive inclusion where needed. If something goes wrong (calf drinks less milk or the sucking speed is too slow) the farmer will see an alarm on the machine. Calf feeders can connect the concentrate to the milk station. Weaning can be done gradually by monitoring concentrate intake and reducing the milk ration accordingly, which is a very interesting option.

Catarina Svensson, Professor, Swedish University of Agriculture

Supervision of calf health with the milk feeders

• In herds where calves have free access to milk, lists of calves with reduced milk consumption can be valuable as an additional tool for identifying diseased calves.

• Calves fed restricted volumes of milk are unlikely to reduce their milk intake in the early stages of the disease or when they are mildly ill.

• In herds using restricted milk feeding, alarm lists based on milk consumption will thus mainly identify calves that have not learned the system or are severely ill.

• To ensure successful rearing of calves in computer-controlled milk feeding systems it is crucial to closely watch the calves at least twice a day to detect health problems early.

Water intake

Milk is not waterThe free-choice water and quality grain/calf starter offered in the first days of life should be continued. The rumen of three to four-week-old calves can be well developed and ready for the change to a diet of solid feeds. Depriving calves of drinking water may, as mentioned, decrease starter intake by 31% and decrease weight gain by 38%.

Ref. McKnight, Sharpe and Rana (http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS536w/09%20Nutrition%20and%20Metabolism/voluntary_water_intake_calves.pdf)

Age of the calf (weeks)

Wat

er in

take

(kg

/day

)

01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1

2

3

4

5

6

7Summer

Autumn

Winter

Spring

Voluntary water intake by season

Management of calf feeder

What it takes to make the intensive milk feeding programme as compared to the conventional programme


Parameter Intensive Conventional

Colostrum management Very good to excellent Very good to excellent

Average daily weight gain 750–850 g (1.6–1.8 lbs) 350–600 g (0,8–1,3 lbs )


11–20 days 6–10 litres /quarts 4 litres/quarts


36–56 days Decline to 4 litres/quarts 4 litres/quarts

Free of choice water Essential Preferred

Starter grain/concentrate, fresh daily Essential for small calvesDesirable for all calves

Preferred Preferred, not common

Starter grain/concentrate, protein level 20 % Often lower

Starter grain, free of choice Essential Preferred

Weaning method By concentrate/grain intake By age

Ref. Modified from Comparison and conventional and intensive calf feeding programs (adapted from Sam Leadley, Calf & Heifer Management Specialist [email protected] www.atticacows.com)

Management of calf feedersRearing calves manually can be difficult and time-consuming. Some of the time gained here can be used for health monitoring instead. Thanks to the introduction of individual animal identification in most modern feeding systems, automated calf feeders, where feed is freshly prepared with ac-curate temperature and concentration for each animal according to its specific needs, are available. Automated calf feeders imitate natural rearing and provide stress-free feeding. When a calf entitled to feed enters the feeding station, the feeder calcu-lates the portion allowed for this particular calf. In a matter of seconds, the milk is prepared and served warm to the calf. Calves suckle from a nipple which offers many advantages compared with feeding

from an open bucket. These feeders are controlled by a management software application that al-lows the farmer to register all animals and create feeding schedules according to age. Examples of parameters that can be set up include daily por-tion, minimum and maximum amount offered at a single visit, and additive inclusion where needed. If something goes wrong (calf drinks less milk or the sucking speed is too slow) the farmer will see an alarm on the machine. Calf feeders can connect the concentrate to the milk station. Weaning can be done gradually by monitoring concentrate intake and reducing the milk ration accordingly, which is a very interesting option.

Catarina Svensson, Professor, Swedish University of Agriculture

Supervision of calf health with the milk feeders

• In herds where calves have free access to milk, lists of calves with reduced milk consumption can be valuable as an additional tool for identifying diseased calves.

• Calves fed restricted volumes of milk are unlikely to reduce their milk intake in the early stages of the disease or when they are mildly ill.

• In herds using restricted milk feeding, alarm lists based on milk consumption will thus mainly identify calves that have not learned the system or are severely ill.

• To ensure successful rearing of calves in computer-controlled milk feeding systems it is crucial to closely watch the calves at least twice a day to detect health problems early.

Water intake

Milk is not waterThe free-choice water and quality grain/calf starter offered in the first days of life should be continued. The rumen of three to four-week-old calves can be well developed and ready for the change to a diet of solid feeds. Depriving calves of drinking water may, as mentioned, decrease starter intake by 31% and decrease weight gain by 38%.

Ref. McKnight, Sharpe and Rana (http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS536w/09%20Nutrition%20and%20Metabolism/voluntary_water_intake_calves.pdf)

Age of the calf (weeks)

Wat

er in

take

(kg

/day

)

01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1

2

3

4

5

6

7Summer

Autumn

Winter

Spring

Voluntary water intake by season

Management of calf feeder

What it takes to make the intensive milk feeding programme as compared to the conventional programme


Rumen development

Rumen developmentAs the calf grows and begins to consume solid feed, its stomach compartments grow and mature accordingly. At birth, the abomasum makes up 60% of stomach capacity, the reticulum and rumen about 30%, and the omasum approximately 10%. By four weeks of age, however, their relative sizes have reversed. The abomasums continues to function as it did at birth and grows in proportion to the calf’s body size. However, the reticulum and rumen greatly increase in size and in function to become the most important part of the stomach system. The newborn calf is a poor digester of carbohydrates (with the exception of lactose or milk sugar). When the calf begins to eat solid feed, particularly grains containing readily fermentable starch, the rumen supplies nutrients to the bacteria which in their turn start to grow and populate the

rumen. The starch produces volatile fatty acids (VFA), which stimulate growth of rumen papillae and metabolic activity in the rumen. It takes about 3 weeks to develop the rumen papillae from the start of feeding starch. Hence, providing free-choice grain starting at an early stage and assisting the calf in eating those first bites can have positive effects on rumen development.

If the calf is fed only milk or milk replacer, development and differentiation of the rumen will be negatively affected. Lack of rumendevelopment may cause decreased growth rates after weaning. A calf fed grain in addition to milk shows better rumen development.

First week

Oesophagealgroove

Oesophagealgroove

Oesophagealgroove

Oesophagus

Oesophagus Oesophagus

PylorusPylorus

Pylorus

Rumen Rumen Rumen

Omasum Omasum Omasum

Abomasum(True stomach)



Reticulum Reticulum Reticulum

Three to four months Maturity

Four weeks old – Diet: milk, hay

Four weeks old – Diet: milk, grain, hay

Development of bovine stomach compartments from birth to maturity

Handling low temperatures

Good growth in all weathersCold stressThe temperatures at which calves, heifers and cows use no energy either to warm or to cool themselves is called the “thermoneutral zone”. For newborns the lower threshold temperature is about 16° C (60° F). At one month of age this thermoneutral value drops to around the freezing point. Thus, as they mature in the weeks up to weaning they become more comfortable with freezing weather. The limiting conditions for wintertime growth are adequate water and energy supply, and a dry lying area without draft. As the calf begins to eat starter grain in addition to milk or milk replacer, providing ad lib warm water that goes into the rumen is essential to efficient growth. Energy is the other major limiting

factor. As mentioned above, make sure that the energy from milk or milk replacer during first month is appropriate to the calf’s needs. For example,calves of up to 3 weeks of age require twice asmuch energy at -25° C, (-13° F) as calves in thermoneutral conditions. To achieve the intake needed it may well be necessary to increase the number of feedings and use milk replacer with higher concentrate of powder with higher fat content and/or transition to whole milk, due to its higher fat content, during the full first week.


Rumen development

Rumen developmentAs the calf grows and begins to consume solid feed, its stomach compartments grow and mature accordingly. At birth, the abomasum makes up 60% of stomach capacity, the reticulum and rumen about 30%, and the omasum approximately 10%. By four weeks of age, however, their relative sizes have reversed. The abomasums continues to function as it did at birth and grows in proportion to the calf’s body size. However, the reticulum and rumen greatly increase in size and in function to become the most important part of the stomach system. The newborn calf is a poor digester of carbohydrates (with the exception of lactose or milk sugar). When the calf begins to eat solid feed, particularly grains containing readily fermentable starch, the rumen supplies nutrients to the bacteria which in their turn start to grow and populate the

rumen. The starch produces volatile fatty acids (VFA), which stimulate growth of rumen papillae and metabolic activity in the rumen. It takes about 3 weeks to develop the rumen papillae from the start of feeding starch. Hence, providing free-choice grain starting at an early stage and assisting the calf in eating those first bites can have positive effects on rumen development.

If the calf is fed only milk or milk replacer, development and differentiation of the rumen will be negatively affected. Lack of rumendevelopment may cause decreased growth rates after weaning. A calf fed grain in addition to milk shows better rumen development.

First week

Oesophagealgroove

Oesophagealgroove

Oesophagealgroove

Oesophagus

Oesophagus Oesophagus

PylorusPylorus

Pylorus

Rumen Rumen Rumen

Omasum Omasum Omasum




Reticulum Reticulum Reticulum

Three to four months Maturity

Four weeks old – Diet: milk, hay

Four weeks old – Diet: milk, grain, hay

Development of bovine stomach compartments from birth to maturity

Handling low temperatures

Good growth in all weathersCold stressThe temperatures at which calves, heifers and cows use no energy either to warm or to cool themselves is called the “thermoneutral zone”. For newborns the lower threshold temperature is about 16° C (60° F). At one month of age this thermoneutral value drops to around the freezing point. Thus, as they mature in the weeks up to weaning they become more comfortable with freezing weather. The limiting conditions for wintertime growth are adequate water and energy supply, and a dry lying area without draft. As the calf begins to eat starter grain in addition to milk or milk replacer, providing ad lib warm water that goes into the rumen is essential to efficient growth. Energy is the other major limiting

factor. As mentioned above, make sure that the energy from milk or milk replacer during first month is appropriate to the calf’s needs. For example,calves of up to 3 weeks of age require twice asmuch energy at -25° C, (-13° F) as calves in thermoneutral conditions. To achieve the intake needed it may well be necessary to increase the number of feedings and use milk replacer with higher concentrate of powder with higher fat content and/or transition to whole milk, due to its higher fat content, during the full first week.


Heat stress Calves may have a hard time coping with hot weather. With indoor housing, the answer is forced ventilation. Fans, open curtain walls, and natural convection are all ways to move air indoors.

Where calves are housed in hutches, ensure that top and back ventilation apertures are open to create air movement and ventilation. There are several types in the market but hutches that are opaque and made of UV-resistant material are strongly recommended. The temperature in these types of hutches will not increase rapidly, giving the calf a chance to adapt. Hutches should always be equipped with adjustable top and back openings to facilitate good draught-free air movement to ensure proper ventilation. Raising the hutches off the ground to ensure ventilation at bedding level is another option.

For all calves provision of free access to clean water is a must. If not, growth rates will decrease. It is also a good idea to take advantage of the cooler morning and evening temperatures when the calves are more energetic and have better appetite and accommodate feeding times accordingly.

Handling high temperatures

Housing systems

Individual vs. group housingIndividual Group

Pros Facilitates supervision of individual calves

Less labour intensive

Reduced risk of transmission of infections Less space requirement

Easier to clean and left empty before the next calf enters

Calves have more opportunity to socialise

Lower risk for cross-suckling Facilitates automated feeding on a free-choice basis compared to a few daily meals

Can exercise and play freely

Group learning, especially for early-starter consumption

Cons Labour intensive regarding feeding, cleaning and bedding management

Higher risk of transmission of infections if the group is large

Requires large area for small numbers of calves

Harder to check individual calves, which is made possible if transponder feeding is used

Social interaction very limited Weak calves need support

No possibility for playing and very limited for exercise

If automated feeding is used, routine cleaning and supervision must be done

Higher bedding consumption Risk of cross-suckling if not handled correctly

Housing systems

Your first decision will involve choosing between indoor and outdoor housing. Indoor systems consist of a building where the climate (temperature, humidity, ventilation) can be controlled. After the first week, when the calf has begun to build up its immune system – provided it is sturdy and readily consumes milk from a nipple – it can be housed individually or moved to group housing. In many countries there are national regulations on how many weeks a calf can be housed individually and at what age group housing becomes compulsory. Whether you choose individual, pair or group housing, sanitation, adequate nutrition and ventilation remain important factors. Like older animals, calves perform best in clean, dry, comfortable and well-ventilated housing with free access to palatable feed and water.

Individual versus group housing


Heat stress Calves may have a hard time coping with hot weather. With indoor housing, the answer is forced ventilation. Fans, open curtain walls, and natural convection are all ways to move air indoors.

Where calves are housed in hutches, ensure that top and back ventilation apertures are open to create air movement and ventilation. There are several types in the market but hutches that are opaque and made of UV-resistant material are strongly recommended. The temperature in these types of hutches will not increase rapidly, giving the calf a chance to adapt. Hutches should always be equipped with adjustable top and back openings to facilitate good draught-free air movement to ensure proper ventilation. Raising the hutches off the ground to ensure ventilation at bedding level is another option.

For all calves provision of free access to clean water is a must. If not, growth rates will decrease. It is also a good idea to take advantage of the cooler morning and evening temperatures when the calves are more energetic and have better appetite and accommodate feeding times accordingly.

Handling high temperatures

Housing systems

Individual vs. group housingIndividual Group

Pros Facilitates supervision of individual calves

Less labour intensive

Reduced risk of transmission of infections Less space requirement

Easier to clean and left empty before the next calf enters

Calves have more opportunity to socialise

Lower risk for cross-suckling Facilitates automated feeding on a free-choice basis compared to a few daily meals

Can exercise and play freely

Group learning, especially for early-starter consumption

Cons Labour intensive regarding feeding, cleaning and bedding management

Higher risk of transmission of infections if the group is large

Requires large area for small numbers of calves

Harder to check individual calves, which is made possible if transponder feeding is used

Social interaction very limited Weak calves need support

No possibility for playing and very limited for exercise

If automated feeding is used, routine cleaning and supervision must be done

Higher bedding consumption Risk of cross-suckling if not handled correctly

Housing systems

Your first decision will involve choosing between indoor and outdoor housing. Indoor systems consist of a building where the climate (temperature, humidity, ventilation) can be controlled. After the first week, when the calf has begun to build up its immune system – provided it is sturdy and readily consumes milk from a nipple – it can be housed individually or moved to group housing. In many countries there are national regulations on how many weeks a calf can be housed individually and at what age group housing becomes compulsory. Whether you choose individual, pair or group housing, sanitation, adequate nutrition and ventilation remain important factors. Like older animals, calves perform best in clean, dry, comfortable and well-ventilated housing with free access to palatable feed and water.

Individual versus group housing


One option – Continue with individual housingOne way to minimise disease transmission is to keep calves housed individually or even better in pairs until they are eight weeks old. They should be separated from older animals in a dry, draught-free environment designed to facilitate easy feeding and bedding and regular observation. Several types of housingmeet these requirements. These include individual calf hutches and boxes/pens outdoors (other solutions are also available), in non-insulated buildings or in well-ventilated insulated buildings. The issue of closed walls around calf boxes versus disease control needs to be considered

when choosing a system, and the rules for social contact between calves differ depending on local market regulations. Experience indicates that proper ventilation is much more important to calf health than temperature. Therefore, select a housing system that provides good ventilation year-round. Outdoor calf hutches or boxes/pens can be used in non-insulated barns that are properly ventilated. If natural ventilation cannot be provided, exhaust fans may be necessary. As mentioned earlier, the challenges are cold and heat stress, and supervision if calves are kept outdoors in hutches and air quality if they are housed indoors.

Individual or pair housing

Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation with supplemental positive-pressure ventilation for buildingsAir quality and respiratory disease in naturally ventilated housing — a challenge Natural ventilation has some advantages in that natural forces are used to ventilate buildings, thus reducing fan and electrical power costs.

However, natural ventilation has a number of shortcomings, especially in calf housing. In the cold calves, unlike adult cows, do not generate sufficient heat to effectively warm the air that surrounds them and extra bedding is required for the calf to maintain its body temperature. Calves that get cold are more vulnerable. Further limitations of natural ventilation occur when the outside air is warmer than the air inside the barn which often occurs during daytime as the sun warms the air outside the barn more quickly than

the air inside. When this happens air entering the cooler interior of the barn will rise, leaving the barn without good mixing near the floor. An effect of limited exchange and mixing of air around the calf is an increase in the number of airborne bacteria per m2 and higher incidence of respiratory diseases.

Because of these limitations, the use of positive pressure tube ventilation systems to supplement natural ventilation of calf barns has been successfully introduced in many barns. This system has been associated with a 50 to 75% reduction in the number of calves with respiratory disease. In addition, calf barn workers report that floors dry out more quickly and that odour is reduced inside the barn.

Recommended air exchange rates per animal in cubic feet per minute

Minimum Rate Transition Rate Transition Rate High Rate

Weight Cold Weather Mild Weather Warm Weather Summer

Calves 0–8 weeks

40–80 kg / 90–180 lbs

15 30 65 100

Calves 2–6 months

0–165 kg / 180–400 lbs

20 40 85 130

Ref. Gooch, Curt A., P.E. “Existing Facilities for Replacement Housing – 4th in a Series: Providing a conducive environment for housing heifers may be possible in older facilities” and “Cow Comfort: An Overview of All Components.” Pro-Dairy Program of Cornell University Cooperative Extension Service, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Cornell University


One option – Continue with individual housingOne way to minimise disease transmission is to keep calves housed individually or even better in pairs until they are eight weeks old. They should be separated from older animals in a dry, draught-free environment designed to facilitate easy feeding and bedding and regular observation. Several types of housingmeet these requirements. These include individual calf hutches and boxes/pens outdoors (other solutions are also available), in non-insulated buildings or in well-ventilated insulated buildings. The issue of closed walls around calf boxes versus disease control needs to be considered

when choosing a system, and the rules for social contact between calves differ depending on local market regulations. Experience indicates that proper ventilation is much more important to calf health than temperature. Therefore, select a housing system that provides good ventilation year-round. Outdoor calf hutches or boxes/pens can be used in non-insulated barns that are properly ventilated. If natural ventilation cannot be provided, exhaust fans may be necessary. As mentioned earlier, the challenges are cold and heat stress, and supervision if calves are kept outdoors in hutches and air quality if they are housed indoors.

Individual or pair housing

Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation with supplemental positive-pressure ventilation for buildingsAir quality and respiratory disease in naturally ventilated housing — a challenge Natural ventilation has some advantages in that natural forces are used to ventilate buildings, thus reducing fan and electrical power costs.

However, natural ventilation has a number of shortcomings, especially in calf housing. In the cold calves, unlike adult cows, do not generate sufficient heat to effectively warm the air that surrounds them and extra bedding is required for the calf to maintain its body temperature. Calves that get cold are more vulnerable. Further limitations of natural ventilation occur when the outside air is warmer than the air inside the barn which often occurs during daytime as the sun warms the air outside the barn more quickly than

the air inside. When this happens air entering the cooler interior of the barn will rise, leaving the barn without good mixing near the floor. An effect of limited exchange and mixing of air around the calf is an increase in the number of airborne bacteria per m2 and higher incidence of respiratory diseases.

Because of these limitations, the use of positive pressure tube ventilation systems to supplement natural ventilation of calf barns has been successfully introduced in many barns. This system has been associated with a 50 to 75% reduction in the number of calves with respiratory disease. In addition, calf barn workers report that floors dry out more quickly and that odour is reduced inside the barn.

Recommended air exchange rates per animal in cubic feet per minute

Minimum Rate Transition Rate Transition Rate High Rate

Weight Cold Weather Mild Weather Warm Weather Summer

Calves 0–8 weeks

40–80 kg / 90–180 lbs

15 30 65 100

Calves 2–6 months

0–165 kg / 180–400 lbs

20 40 85 130

Ref. Gooch, Curt A., P.E. “Existing Facilities for Replacement Housing – 4th in a Series: Providing a conducive environment for housing heifers may be possible in older facilities” and “Cow Comfort: An Overview of All Components.” Pro-Dairy Program of Cornell University Cooperative Extension Service, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Cornell University


Group housing of calves does require excellent management and supervision; existing limitations to cleanliness or good ventilation will need to be addressed before nutritional benefits can be fully realised.

The timing of the calf’s introduction to the group will depend on the farm’s colostrum management, the available facilities and the age range of the group. While it is not recommended that the calf be moved before it is one week old, it should in any case be drinking milk independently, be vigor-ous and healthy before joining a group. It is also important to restrict the age difference and number of calves (max. 15–20 individuals) within a group; the fewer animals in a group the fewer there are to transmit diseases. An age difference of one week works well, while more than 3 weeks increases the group feeding cost as weaning is based on the youngest calf in the group in all-in, all-out systems. An all-in, all-out managementapproach to groups of calves is a strategy which reduces the risk of disease.

Group hutches The sudden transition from an individual hutch to a large group can cause calves unnecessary stress. However, if calves are moved into a ‘halfway house group hutch, they can adapt to being with others,

and learn to access feed and water. The group hutches can be combined with several types of fences to create an area allowing calves to spend time outdoors. This pen makes it easier for the farmer to supervise and observe the calves. Group hutches, which can normally house four to five calves can be sited on their own outdoors. They can also be placed in non-insulated buildings. The buildings may vary in design from three to four walls with a roof, or just a roof.

Bedded areas or partially bedded areasMany types of bedding may be used. Farmers find that clean, dry, long straw works best in colder tem-peratures as it allows the calf to make a nest and thereby control its heat loss.

In straw-bedded areas the calves must always have a dry area to lie down in. The bedding must be properly managed and dry. Before a new group of calves is placed in the area, it needs to be cleaned and sanitised to avoid transmission of diseases to the new group. Always plan for over-capacity in calf areas and allow time for the area to dry before any new animals enter. High pressure cleaners should be avoided if other calves are in the vicinity. The high humidity created is not good for the calves and can increase the risk of disease transmission.

Another option: moving the calf to group housing

Group housing

Example of partially straw-bedded area with milk feeding stationsRecommendations for partially straw-bedded area according to Housing design for cattle 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory Centre. Note that these are minimum dimensions and it is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space due to surges in the number of calvings.

Recommendations for straw bedding

• Straw should be dry and mould free

• It should be >12 inch (30 cm) deep

• Do the prayer test: If you can kneel down in the calf pen for 60 seconds and your knees are not wet when you stand up, you’re doing a great job

• Change bedding if you smell any trace of ammonia in the air

Straw bedding

Dimensions of joint pens with short, non-littered feeding area

Body weight from, kg Under 60 60 100 150 200 300 400 500

Pen area, min., m2/animal 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.4 4.2 4.8 5.4

Littered area, min., m2/animal 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.3

Short feeding area, length, min., m 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.65 1.75

Pen side height, min., m* 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Step width, m 0.40–0.50

Step height, m 0.15–0.20

Bottom step height, m** 0.30–0.60

* Height is measured from the upper edge of the litter mat.** These measurements are at the same time the maximum difference in level between resting and feeding area in pens with a layer of litter.


Group housing of calves does require excellent management and supervision; existing limitations to cleanliness or good ventilation will need to be addressed before nutritional benefits can be fully realised.

The timing of the calf’s introduction to the group will depend on the farm’s colostrum management, the available facilities and the age range of the group. While it is not recommended that the calf be moved before it is one week old, it should in any case be drinking milk independently, be vigor-ous and healthy before joining a group. It is also important to restrict the age difference and number of calves (max. 15–20 individuals) within a group; the fewer animals in a group the fewer there are to transmit diseases. An age difference of one week works well, while more than 3 weeks increases the group feeding cost as weaning is based on the youngest calf in the group in all-in, all-out systems. An all-in, all-out managementapproach to groups of calves is a strategy which reduces the risk of disease.

Group hutches The sudden transition from an individual hutch to a large group can cause calves unnecessary stress. However, if calves are moved into a ‘halfway house group hutch, they can adapt to being with others,

and learn to access feed and water. The group hutches can be combined with several types of fences to create an area allowing calves to spend time outdoors. This pen makes it easier for the farmer to supervise and observe the calves. Group hutches, which can normally house four to five calves can be sited on their own outdoors. They can also be placed in non-insulated buildings. The buildings may vary in design from three to four walls with a roof, or just a roof.

Bedded areas or partially bedded areasMany types of bedding may be used. Farmers find that clean, dry, long straw works best in colder tem-peratures as it allows the calf to make a nest and thereby control its heat loss.

In straw-bedded areas the calves must always have a dry area to lie down in. The bedding must be properly managed and dry. Before a new group of calves is placed in the area, it needs to be cleaned and sanitised to avoid transmission of diseases to the new group. Always plan for over-capacity in calf areas and allow time for the area to dry before any new animals enter. High pressure cleaners should be avoided if other calves are in the vicinity. The high humidity created is not good for the calves and can increase the risk of disease transmission.

Another option: moving the calf to group housing

Group housing

Example of partially straw-bedded area with milk feeding stationsRecommendations for partially straw-bedded area according to Housing design for cattle 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory Centre. Note that these are minimum dimensions and it is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space due to surges in the number of calvings.

Recommendations for straw bedding

• Straw should be dry and mould free

• It should be >12 inch (30 cm) deep

• Do the prayer test: If you can kneel down in the calf pen for 60 seconds and your knees are not wet when you stand up, you’re doing a great job

• Change bedding if you smell any trace of ammonia in the air

Straw bedding

Dimensions of joint pens with short, non-littered feeding area


Pen area, min., m2/animal 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.4 4.2 4.8 5.4

Littered area, min., m2/animal 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.3

Short feeding area, length, min., m 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.65 1.75

Pen side height, min., m* 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Step width, m 0.40–0.50

Step height, m 0.15–0.20

Bottom step height, m** 0.30–0.60

* Height is measured from the upper edge of the litter mat.** These measurements are at the same time the maximum difference in level between resting and feeding area in pens with a layer of litter.


Health management during first month

Normal calf behaviour

Diarrhoea

Dehorning

Diarrhoea accounts for most fatalities in young calves. However, respiratory disease is still the major cause of death in older calves and heifers, causing substantial economic loss. Costs associated with respiratory disease include prevention, treatment and lost productivity.Apart from increased mortality, there are several negative long-term consequences associated with respiratory disease in young calves: poor growth, reproductive performance, milk production and longevity. Hence it is extremely important to prevent respiratory disease. Read about prevention and treatment of pneumonia in the next section: second month.

DehorningFor safety reasons it is recommended that calves be dehorned (to avoid injury to humans and herd mates). Dehorning can be done when calves are one to three weeks old, when the horn button can be felt. If an electric dehorner is used, calves. should be properly restrained, given a local anaesthetic and a pain killer after the procedure. The dehorner should be heated to cherry red before touching the horn button and constant pressure should be applied for 10 to 15 seconds until a copper-coloured ring can be seen around the base of the horn. Dehorning is painful to calves. Signs of pain include ear and tail flicking, head shaking and head rubbing. The pain of dehorning causes a calf drop in feed intake and slow growth. The pain can be (partly) relieved by administering a painkiller after the procedure.

Normal behaviour of calves

During its first days, a calf will be lying down up to 75% of the time. After the first week, it will start increasing standing and playing time. The more calves can control their bodies the more they jump, play and run around. These movements are voluntary; they use their whole body and perform the movements spontaneously, strengthening muscles, joints, cords and ligaments as well as training the cardiovascular system and the lungs. The calf explores its surroundings and the facility by licking and smelling. Sick calves will not play or explore. Conversely, exercise is a good indicator of a healthy calf. To feel comfortablecalves use barn fittings and equipment to scratch, lick and socialise. Cattle are prey animals and, therefore, try not to show signs of illness. However, though difficult to read, the signs are there to see and understand.

Cross-suckling can be prevented Calves suckling on other calves (cross-suckling) may occur quite frequently in some herds. Following the two first weeks of life, when suckling frequency is higher, calves normally settle down to three to five milk feeds per day for the rest of the suckling period. Calves have a natural desire to suck, an instinct vital to their ability to take milk from their dams.

However, suckling from an udder is exhausting: more than three times as many swallows/sucking acts are needed than when drinking from buckets or calf feeders. Calves drinking from a bucket or fed only once or twice a day will suffer from an unsatisfied suckling desire and will start to suckle and lick other calves or barn equipment.The suckling desire declines during the meal and normally returns to a low level 10–15 minutes after the last intake.

Feeding calves in automated milk stations with large meal sizes (no less than 1.5 litters/quarts) helps avoid cross-suckling. The calves can feed several times a day and thus satisfy their desire to suckle. Calves on a restricted diet, can be restrained for 15 minutes after milk feeding and given concentrate to help prevent cross-suckling.

Calf diarrhoea


Health management during first month

Normal calf behaviour

Diarrhoea

Dehorning

Diarrhoea accounts for most fatalities in young calves. However, respiratory disease is still the major cause of death in older calves and heifers, causing substantial economic loss. Costs associated with respiratory disease include prevention, treatment and lost productivity.Apart from increased mortality, there are several negative long-term consequences associated with respiratory disease in young calves: poor growth, reproductive performance, milk production and longevity. Hence it is extremely important to prevent respiratory disease. Read about prevention and treatment of pneumonia in the next section: second month.

DehorningFor safety reasons it is recommended that calves be dehorned (to avoid injury to humans and herd mates). Dehorning can be done when calves are one to three weeks old, when the horn button can be felt. If an electric dehorner is used, calves. should be properly restrained, given a local anaesthetic and a pain killer after the procedure. The dehorner should be heated to cherry red before touching the horn button and constant pressure should be applied for 10 to 15 seconds until a copper-coloured ring can be seen around the base of the horn. Dehorning is painful to calves. Signs of pain include ear and tail flicking, head shaking and head rubbing. The pain of dehorning causes a calf drop in feed intake and slow growth. The pain can be (partly) relieved by administering a painkiller after the procedure.

Normal behaviour of calves

During its first days, a calf will be lying down up to 75% of the time. After the first week, it will start increasing standing and playing time. The more calves can control their bodies the more they jump, play and run around. These movements are voluntary; they use their whole body and perform the movements spontaneously, strengthening muscles, joints, cords and ligaments as well as training the cardiovascular system and the lungs. The calf explores its surroundings and the facility by licking and smelling. Sick calves will not play or explore. Conversely, exercise is a good indicator of a healthy calf. To feel comfortablecalves use barn fittings and equipment to scratch, lick and socialise. Cattle are prey animals and, therefore, try not to show signs of illness. However, though difficult to read, the signs are there to see and understand.

Cross-suckling can be prevented Calves suckling on other calves (cross-suckling) may occur quite frequently in some herds. Following the two first weeks of life, when suckling frequency is higher, calves normally settle down to three to five milk feeds per day for the rest of the suckling period. Calves have a natural desire to suck, an instinct vital to their ability to take milk from their dams.

However, suckling from an udder is exhausting: more than three times as many swallows/sucking acts are needed than when drinking from buckets or calf feeders. Calves drinking from a bucket or fed only once or twice a day will suffer from an unsatisfied suckling desire and will start to suckle and lick other calves or barn equipment.The suckling desire declines during the meal and normally returns to a low level 10–15 minutes after the last intake.

Feeding calves in automated milk stations with large meal sizes (no less than 1.5 litters/quarts) helps avoid cross-suckling. The calves can feed several times a day and thus satisfy their desire to suckle. Calves on a restricted diet, can be restrained for 15 minutes after milk feeding and given concentrate to help prevent cross-suckling.

Calf diarrhoea


Second month: maintaining healthy growth with stress-free weaning


• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1.65 lb (500 g / 1.1 lb) per day

• Monitor concentrate consumption

• Use a respiratory score card to identify and treat sick calves promptly

• Design a hygiene programme for group housed calves to limit disease transmission

• Isolate sick animals

• Wean gradually based on solid feed intake


• Reducing milk before the calf reaches an intake of 200g/d of starter for three days in a row

• Sudden changes in feed volume and type

• Changing housing and group composition close to weaning

Do Avoid

Stress free and healthy weaning

At the start of the second month of life the calf is still taking both milk and solid feed, and management should focus on maintaining healthy growth through stable feeding routines and daily supervision of health.

The most important event from the calf’s perspective during second and third month is the complete shift to solid feed. Its daily milk intake will depend on the feeding system. The total amount of milk fed during rearing period can vary from more than 550 litres of milk with ad lib feeding to as little as 150 litres with only single daily feeding. But, as discussed earlier, intensive rearing involving large amounts of milk is highly recommended.

Calves are sensitive to stress and disease during weaning, with subsequent reduction in growth. The best way to keep stress to a low level is to wean calves off milk gradually and to base milk reduction on consumption of concentrate. This will prevent weight loss and can easily

be done by using automated milk and grain/concentrate feeders in combination.

Switching calves to a new pen or barn or to a new group can create a lot of stress and should be avoided. Leave the calves where they are until they fully recover from weaning and are adapted to the new feeding regime. To avoid stress the same starter should also be fed for at least two weeks after weaning and should then be mixed with the special starter for weaned calves. We must remember that respiratory disease, the biggest health challenge in young calves, is highly prevalent during the second month of life and particularly so around weaning, so everything that can be done to avoid stress will be beneficial to the calf’s health and growth rate.

Shift to only solid feed

Feeding at weaningWhen the calf begins eating dry feed (starter and hay) the rumen bacteria start to grow and volatile acids (VFA) are produced. After about 3–4 weeks of stable consumption, the calf and rumen start preparing for the change to a pure solid feed diet.

Calves can be weaned from milk either abruptly, in steps or gradually. We strongly recommend that milk feeding be reduced in steps or better still gradually. Gradual weaning improves starter intake and daily weight gains and is, therefore, recommended. This also minimises stress and daily gains can continue at high levels.

Weaning should take at least 10 days and calves should be weaned on the basis of their intake of solid feed, not age. In a few cases, calves can be weaned as early as five weeks of age (with adequate rumen development), while others will be up to 10 weeks old before weaning is appropriate. If the rumen is not prepared to handle dry feed the calf will suffer from growth depression for up to three weeks after weaning. Thus it is important to follow the calf’s grain/concentrate consumption.

Feeding at weaning


Second month: maintaining healthy growth with stress-free weaning


• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1.65 lb (500 g / 1.1 lb) per day

• Monitor concentrate consumption


• Design a hygiene programme for group housed calves to limit disease transmission

• Isolate sick animals

• Wean gradually based on solid feed intake


• Reducing milk before the calf reaches an intake of 200g/d of starter for three days in a row

• Sudden changes in feed volume and type

• Changing housing and group composition close to weaning

Do Avoid

Stress free and healthy weaning

At the start of the second month of life the calf is still taking both milk and solid feed, and management should focus on maintaining healthy growth through stable feeding routines and daily supervision of health.

The most important event from the calf’s perspective during second and third month is the complete shift to solid feed. Its daily milk intake will depend on the feeding system. The total amount of milk fed during rearing period can vary from more than 550 litres of milk with ad lib feeding to as little as 150 litres with only single daily feeding. But, as discussed earlier, intensive rearing involving large amounts of milk is highly recommended.

Calves are sensitive to stress and disease during weaning, with subsequent reduction in growth. The best way to keep stress to a low level is to wean calves off milk gradually and to base milk reduction on consumption of concentrate. This will prevent weight loss and can easily

be done by using automated milk and grain/concentrate feeders in combination.

Switching calves to a new pen or barn or to a new group can create a lot of stress and should be avoided. Leave the calves where they are until they fully recover from weaning and are adapted to the new feeding regime. To avoid stress the same starter should also be fed for at least two weeks after weaning and should then be mixed with the special starter for weaned calves. We must remember that respiratory disease, the biggest health challenge in young calves, is highly prevalent during the second month of life and particularly so around weaning, so everything that can be done to avoid stress will be beneficial to the calf’s health and growth rate.

Shift to only solid feed

Feeding at weaningWhen the calf begins eating dry feed (starter and hay) the rumen bacteria start to grow and volatile acids (VFA) are produced. After about 3–4 weeks of stable consumption, the calf and rumen start preparing for the change to a pure solid feed diet.

Calves can be weaned from milk either abruptly, in steps or gradually. We strongly recommend that milk feeding be reduced in steps or better still gradually. Gradual weaning improves starter intake and daily weight gains and is, therefore, recommended. This also minimises stress and daily gains can continue at high levels.

Weaning should take at least 10 days and calves should be weaned on the basis of their intake of solid feed, not age. In a few cases, calves can be weaned as early as five weeks of age (with adequate rumen development), while others will be up to 10 weeks old before weaning is appropriate. If the rumen is not prepared to handle dry feed the calf will suffer from growth depression for up to three weeks after weaning. Thus it is important to follow the calf’s grain/concentrate consumption.

Feeding at weaning


If bucket grain feeding is used, it is advisable to weigh 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of grain and mark the amount on the container used to improve the accuracy of the estimate.

Automatic concentrate feeding machines can,display individual calf feed intake data (depending on the machine). The advantage of using automatedmilk and grain calf feeders is that it allows weaningto be adjusted to an individual calf’s intake of solid feed. It is never advisable to begin reducing milkbefore the calf has maintained an intake of 200 g/dayof starter for three days. Calves can be completely weaned off milk when they are eating about 1.0 kg/day (2.2 lbs) for three consecutive days. Using this method calves will on average be weaned at around 60 days.

It is of course better to use integrated calffeeder systems that provide milk and concentrate.The machine will show milk and concentrateintake and concentrate provision can be adjustedbased on milk intake information. If the weaningis done manually, it must be done stepwise withdecreases of 0.5 kg (1.1 lbs) of milk in each step.The best way to wean high milk fed calves (10–12 l/day) is to not reduce milk until the calf reaches the above intake of starter. Calves will eat 200 g per day from as early as 3–4 weeks. More slowly developing calves willl do so only much later.

A stepwise reduction in milk intake over three or four steps is recommended. Grain. Step1: 200 g; Step 2: 400–600 g; Step 3: 800–1 kg; Step 4: 1–1.5 kg/day for three days. Reduce milk correspondingly to nine litres in the first step, to six litres, then three litres, finally dropping to 0 in Step 4, to reach 1–1.5 kg/day. By 10 weeks the few calves that have not already started should be weaned gradually. This can easily be done by using the automated milk and grain feeders in combination.

Example of a feeding plan for milk and concentrateThe graph below shows a milk and concentratefeeding pattern for intensive calf rearingduring the milk feeding period, through gradualweaning with milk feeding ending at 63 days. Thisfeeding scheme has the advantage of sustaining a higher milk intake for longer while encouraging agradual increase in concentrate intake than the traditional restricted milk feeding pattern. Thescheme is based on many recent studies that haveshown good growth and development of calves fedalong these general lines.

Feeding plans

3000

Con

cent

rate

(g/d

l)M

ilk l/

day

Age (days)

0

0

0

0

500

1

1000

2

1500

3

2000

4

2500

5

6

7

8

9

7

7

14

14

21

21

28

28

35

35

42

42

49

49

56

56

63

63

Housing: wait before moving and regrouping

Respiratory diseaseand other health disturbances

Once calves have recovered from weaning, a mini-mum of two weeks is recommended before mov-ing individually housed calves to group housing. One way of reducing stress when moving the calf is to provide generous space to walk around, play and lie down. If calves are frequently disturbed while lying down their stress levels rise. In par-ticular, calves that have never experienced group housing need visible, easily accessible water and feed. Ensure that all calves have space to eat at the same time. More space means less variation in growth rates. To facilitate supervision the num-ber of calves per pen should be limited. Biggergroups require greater skills on the part of those responsible for supervising the calves.

Important factors to remember in the post-weaning period are the ability to identify calves that are adapting poorly to group life or are sick, and to have housing facilities where heifers can be handled during for routine tasks with a minimum of stress (sorting, vaccination, etc).

Up to 20–30% or more of calves aged one to seven months experience respiratory disease.

Germs associated with respiratory diseaseRespiratory disease often begins with a virus infection which may be followed by a second-ary bacterial pneumonia after a couple of days. Germs associated with respiratory disease in calves are (bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), bovine respiratory corona virus (BRCV), parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV3), or bacteria (Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia his-tolytica, Mycoplasma bovis and other bacteria). These germs are spread by air and direct contact between animals.

Detection of respiratory diseaseAs the effects of a respiratory disease can be deleterious it is vital to detect sick calves at an early stage. This can be done by using a respiratory score card to identify sick calves and scoring the severity. The respiratory score should be based on rectal temperature, nasal discharge, eye and ear appearance and the presence of cough (see figure).

Risk factors for respiratory disease

• Inadequate provision of colostrum

• Other diseases such as diarrhoea, navel infection etc.

• Underfeeding

• Bad climate (Ammonia > 10 ppm/m2, Humidity > 80 % and draughts)

• Mixing of age groups (Maximum 3 weeks age difference)

• Large groups

Group housing

Weaning


If bucket grain feeding is used, it is advisable to weigh 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of grain and mark the amount on the container used to improve the accuracy of the estimate.

Automatic concentrate feeding machines can,display individual calf feed intake data (depending on the machine). The advantage of using automatedmilk and grain calf feeders is that it allows weaningto be adjusted to an individual calf’s intake of solid feed. It is never advisable to begin reducing milkbefore the calf has maintained an intake of 200 g/dayof starter for three days. Calves can be completely weaned off milk when they are eating about 1.0 kg/day (2.2 lbs) for three consecutive days. Using this method calves will on average be weaned at around 60 days.

It is of course better to use integrated calffeeder systems that provide milk and concentrate.The machine will show milk and concentrateintake and concentrate provision can be adjustedbased on milk intake information. If the weaningis done manually, it must be done stepwise withdecreases of 0.5 kg (1.1 lbs) of milk in each step.The best way to wean high milk fed calves (10–12 l/day) is to not reduce milk until the calf reaches the above intake of starter. Calves will eat 200 g per day from as early as 3–4 weeks. More slowly developing calves willl do so only much later.

A stepwise reduction in milk intake over three or four steps is recommended. Grain. Step1: 200 g; Step 2: 400–600 g; Step 3: 800–1 kg; Step 4: 1–1.5 kg/day for three days. Reduce milk correspondingly to nine litres in the first step, to six litres, then three litres, finally dropping to 0 in Step 4, to reach 1–1.5 kg/day. By 10 weeks the few calves that have not already started should be weaned gradually. This can easily be done by using the automated milk and grain feeders in combination.

Example of a feeding plan for milk and concentrateThe graph below shows a milk and concentratefeeding pattern for intensive calf rearingduring the milk feeding period, through gradualweaning with milk feeding ending at 63 days. Thisfeeding scheme has the advantage of sustaining a higher milk intake for longer while encouraging agradual increase in concentrate intake than the traditional restricted milk feeding pattern. Thescheme is based on many recent studies that haveshown good growth and development of calves fedalong these general lines.

Feeding plans

3000

Con

cent

rate

(g/d

l)M

ilk l/

day

Age (days)

0

0

0

0

500

1

1000

2

1500

3

2000

4

2500

5

6

7

8

9

7

7

14

14

21

21

28

28

35

35

42

42

49

49

56

56

63

63

Housing: wait before moving and regrouping

Respiratory diseaseand other health disturbances

Once calves have recovered from weaning, a mini-mum of two weeks is recommended before mov-ing individually housed calves to group housing. One way of reducing stress when moving the calf is to provide generous space to walk around, play and lie down. If calves are frequently disturbed while lying down their stress levels rise. In par-ticular, calves that have never experienced group housing need visible, easily accessible water and feed. Ensure that all calves have space to eat at the same time. More space means less variation in growth rates. To facilitate supervision the num-ber of calves per pen should be limited. Biggergroups require greater skills on the part of those responsible for supervising the calves.

Important factors to remember in the post-weaning period are the ability to identify calves that are adapting poorly to group life or are sick, and to have housing facilities where heifers can be handled during for routine tasks with a minimum of stress (sorting, vaccination, etc).

Up to 20–30% or more of calves aged one to seven months experience respiratory disease.

Germs associated with respiratory diseaseRespiratory disease often begins with a virus infection which may be followed by a second-ary bacterial pneumonia after a couple of days. Germs associated with respiratory disease in calves are (bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), bovine respiratory corona virus (BRCV), parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV3), or bacteria (Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia his-tolytica, Mycoplasma bovis and other bacteria). These germs are spread by air and direct contact between animals.

Detection of respiratory diseaseAs the effects of a respiratory disease can be deleterious it is vital to detect sick calves at an early stage. This can be done by using a respiratory score card to identify sick calves and scoring the severity. The respiratory score should be based on rectal temperature, nasal discharge, eye and ear appearance and the presence of cough (see figure).

Risk factors for respiratory disease

• Inadequate provision of colostrum

• Other diseases such as diarrhoea, navel infection etc.

• Underfeeding

• Bad climate (Ammonia > 10 ppm/m2, Humidity > 80 % and draughts)

• Mixing of age groups (Maximum 3 weeks age difference)

• Large groups

Group housing

Weaning


Treatment of respiratory diseaseWhen respiratory disease is evident, a veterinarian should be consulted and the calf treated with ap-propriate antibiotics where necessary. Antibiotics act against bacterial infections, not against viruses. Treatment will be most effective when begun soon after the onset of symptoms and anti-inflammatory drugs can support treatment.

What to do with chronically ill calves/laggardsEvery herd includes calves that do not thrive as well as their herd mates. Intake and growth rates are too low and coats are rough; simple visual

inspection will often confirm that they are not performing as they should. These calves require substantial investment in terms of labour. They can be disease spreaders and moreover are likely to remain problem animals for the rest of their lives. With two or more of these chronically ill “problem“ calves in the herd, management (especially colos-trum feeding routines) and hygiene procedures on the farm should be evaluated. At an individual ani-mal level, culling of these calves should be consid-ered since they will never become high-producing cows.

An example of Calf Health Scoring Criteria

Ref. Modified from Poulsen K.P. and McGuirk S.M.

Calf health scoring criteria

Rectal temperature

100–100.9°F37,8-38,4°C

101–101.9°F38,5-38,8°C

102–102.9°F38,9-39,4°C

≥103°F≥39,5°C

Cough None Induce single cough Induced repeated coughs or ocassional spontaneous cough

Copious bilateral muco-purulent discharge

Eye scores Normal Small amount of ocular discharge

Moderate amount of bilateral discharge

Heavy ocular discharge

Ear scores Normal Ear flick or head shake Slight unilateral droop Head tilt or bilateral droop

Respiratory diseases

Ruminal bloatRuminal bloat is a condition in which the rumen fills with gas or fermented feed. It rarely occurs in calves younger than 5 weeks because of the un-developed state of the rumen before this age. The cause of bloat in young calves is often milk entering the undeveloped rumen or high intake of grain and concentrate among older calves. As a result, an excessive amount of gas is produced. Under nor-mal circumstances, this gas can be evacuated by belching, but in the case of bloat gas accumulates in the upper part of the rumen, rumen contractions decrease and belching is hampered.

Treating bloat can be done by lowering a flexible stomach tube coated with mineral oil into the oesophagus and down into the rumen to releasethe trapped gas. In severe cases, when the rumen becomes greatly extended, it may be necessary to insert a large needle or trocar through the calf’s left flank. The trocar will create an opening allowing gas to escape.

Diarrhoea in older calvesWhen we think of diarrhoea in calves, this is usually associated with neonatal diarrhoea. However, diarrhoea in older calves can also have economic impacts due to death of the calf, treatment costs and growth retardation. Most important germs associated with diarrhoea in older calves are Coccidiosis, BVD, Salmonella and worm infections from pasture.

Symptoms of ruminal bloat

• Abdominal swelling behind the rib cage on the left flank sometimes accompanied by – Diarrhoea – Colic: kicking belly, frequently lying

down and standing up, stretching and vocalising

• Poor hair coat

• Reduced growth

• Severe cases: the enlarged rumen will press onto the diaphragm causing heavy breathing. If left untreated, this can lead to death by asphyxia

Prevention of ruminal bloat in older calves

Calves that suffered from bloat once run a higher risk of developing subsequent bouts of bloat

• Provide calf starter from first week: this will promote rumen development

• Avoid sudden changes in feed volume and feed type (e.g. transition from milk to concentrate at weaning)


Treatment of respiratory diseaseWhen respiratory disease is evident, a veterinarian should be consulted and the calf treated with ap-propriate antibiotics where necessary. Antibiotics act against bacterial infections, not against viruses. Treatment will be most effective when begun soon after the onset of symptoms and anti-inflammatory drugs can support treatment.

What to do with chronically ill calves/laggardsEvery herd includes calves that do not thrive as well as their herd mates. Intake and growth rates are too low and coats are rough; simple visual

inspection will often confirm that they are not performing as they should. These calves require substantial investment in terms of labour. They can be disease spreaders and moreover are likely to remain problem animals for the rest of their lives. With two or more of these chronically ill “problem“ calves in the herd, management (especially colos-trum feeding routines) and hygiene procedures on the farm should be evaluated. At an individual ani-mal level, culling of these calves should be consid-ered since they will never become high-producing cows.

An example of Calf Health Scoring Criteria

Ref. Modified from Poulsen K.P. and McGuirk S.M.

Calf health scoring criteria

Rectal temperature

100–100.9°F37,8-38,4°C

101–101.9°F38,5-38,8°C

102–102.9°F38,9-39,4°C

≥103°F≥39,5°C

Cough None Induce single cough Induced repeated coughs or ocassional spontaneous cough

Copious bilateral muco-purulent discharge

Eye scores Normal Small amount of ocular discharge

Moderate amount of bilateral discharge

Heavy ocular discharge

Ear scores Normal Ear flick or head shake Slight unilateral droop Head tilt or bilateral droop

Respiratory diseases

Ruminal bloatRuminal bloat is a condition in which the rumen fills with gas or fermented feed. It rarely occurs in calves younger than 5 weeks because of the un-developed state of the rumen before this age. The cause of bloat in young calves is often milk entering the undeveloped rumen or high intake of grain and concentrate among older calves. As a result, an excessive amount of gas is produced. Under nor-mal circumstances, this gas can be evacuated by belching, but in the case of bloat gas accumulates in the upper part of the rumen, rumen contractions decrease and belching is hampered.

Treating bloat can be done by lowering a flexible stomach tube coated with mineral oil into the oesophagus and down into the rumen to releasethe trapped gas. In severe cases, when the rumen becomes greatly extended, it may be necessary to insert a large needle or trocar through the calf’s left flank. The trocar will create an opening allowing gas to escape.

Diarrhoea in older calvesWhen we think of diarrhoea in calves, this is usually associated with neonatal diarrhoea. However, diarrhoea in older calves can also have economic impacts due to death of the calf, treatment costs and growth retardation. Most important germs associated with diarrhoea in older calves are Coccidiosis, BVD, Salmonella and worm infections from pasture.

Symptoms of ruminal bloat

• Abdominal swelling behind the rib cage on the left flank sometimes accompanied by – Diarrhoea – Colic: kicking belly, frequently lying

down and standing up, stretching and vocalising

• Poor hair coat

• Reduced growth

• Severe cases: the enlarged rumen will press onto the diaphragm causing heavy breathing. If left untreated, this can lead to death by asphyxia

Prevention of ruminal bloat in older calves

Calves that suffered from bloat once run a higher risk of developing subsequent bouts of bloat

• Provide calf starter from first week: this will promote rumen development

• Avoid sudden changes in feed volume and feed type (e.g. transition from milk to concentrate at weaning)


CoccidiosisCoccidiosis is caused by intracellular parasites belonging to the group Eimeria. Although most calves are exposed to these parasites in their lives, the infection is usually without symptoms and self- limiting. Coccidiosis becomes a problem when management factors like poor hygienic conditions allow a build-up of parasites in the environment or when the animals’ immunity is compromised. Equally common, however, is badly planned animal flow. Always use boxes in the same order and keep young animals in deep-bedded areas. Calves are infected by ingestion of microscopic eggs (oocysts) excreted in the faeces from infected herd mates. This may be via direct contact with infected ani-mals, or ingestion of contaminated feed or water. As a result, the intestine is damaged and nutrient up-take will be compromised). Since houses and pens used for subsequent groups of young animals can become highly contaminated, control programmes for Coccidiosis should focus on hygiene measures to reduce exposure to pathogens in animal flows Preventive use of coccidiostats may be considered for high-risk animals (e.g. calves which are already sick) or for herd mates of infected animals. Always contact your veterinarian for advice.

SalmonellosisIn cattle, Salmonella dublin and Salmonella ty-phimurium are the most common Salmonella types in calves. Affected calves are usually under two months of age with a range from one week to six months.

The course of disease (asymptomatic, mild or severe) may differ between animals, depending on infection dose, immunity and virulence of the infection. Since Salmonella is contagious for hu-mans, strict hygiene measures should be set and respected when managing calves with Salmo-nella. Consult your veterinarian for advice.

Symptoms of coccidiosis

• Decreased feed intake

• Weight loss

• Growth retardation

• Profuse diarrhoea, sometimes containing mucus and blood

• Fever

• Rough hair coat

• Spasms of the anal sphincter

• Severe cases: anaemia

Controlling coccidiosis

• Reducing stocking density and stress

• Regular removal of manure from pens and/or use of slatted floors

• Disinfection

• Chlorine based products are not sufficient (oocysts have a resistant shell). Use of disinfectants with documented effect on coccidia such as quaternary ammonium salts is therefore recommended

• Thorough cleaning

• Allowing boxes or hutches to dry and leaving them empty for at least 3 weeks

• Isolating sick animals and attending to them last

• Cleaning and disinfecting buckets and drinking nipples

• Ensuring farm workers use clean clothing

Symptoms of Salmonellosis

• Watery diarrhoea, sometimes with blood or fibrin

• Faeces with putrid, foul odour

• Dehydration

• Fever

• Anorexia

• Severe cases: septicaemia with organ failure, shock, death

From weaning to 6 months

• Monitor body weight, withers height and average daily gains

• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1,65 lb (500 g / 1.1 lb) per day

• Provide a well-balanced post-weaning ration, with a good proportion of protein and energy

– Analyse protein and energy of the forage given

– Feed minerals if needed


• Regrouping or moving earlier than 2 weeks after weaning

• Large groups

• Several regroupings

• Low protein content in feed

• Low energy content in feed

• Grazing without supplementary feeding

Do Avoid


CoccidiosisCoccidiosis is caused by intracellular parasites belonging to the group Eimeria. Although most calves are exposed to these parasites in their lives, the infection is usually without symptoms and self- limiting. Coccidiosis becomes a problem when management factors like poor hygienic conditions allow a build-up of parasites in the environment or when the animals’ immunity is compromised. Equally common, however, is badly planned animal flow. Always use boxes in the same order and keep young animals in deep-bedded areas. Calves are infected by ingestion of microscopic eggs (oocysts) excreted in the faeces from infected herd mates. This may be via direct contact with infected ani-mals, or ingestion of contaminated feed or water. As a result, the intestine is damaged and nutrient up-take will be compromised). Since houses and pens used for subsequent groups of young animals can become highly contaminated, control programmes for Coccidiosis should focus on hygiene measures to reduce exposure to pathogens in animal flows Preventive use of coccidiostats may be considered for high-risk animals (e.g. calves which are already sick) or for herd mates of infected animals. Always contact your veterinarian for advice.

SalmonellosisIn cattle, Salmonella dublin and Salmonella ty-phimurium are the most common Salmonella types in calves. Affected calves are usually under two months of age with a range from one week to six months.

The course of disease (asymptomatic, mild or severe) may differ between animals, depending on infection dose, immunity and virulence of the infection. Since Salmonella is contagious for hu-mans, strict hygiene measures should be set and respected when managing calves with Salmo-nella. Consult your veterinarian for advice.

Symptoms of coccidiosis

• Decreased feed intake

• Weight loss

• Growth retardation

• Profuse diarrhoea, sometimes containing mucus and blood

• Fever

• Rough hair coat

• Spasms of the anal sphincter

• Severe cases: anaemia

Controlling coccidiosis

• Reducing stocking density and stress

• Regular removal of manure from pens and/or use of slatted floors

• Disinfection

• Chlorine based products are not sufficient (oocysts have a resistant shell). Use of disinfectants with documented effect on coccidia such as quaternary ammonium salts is therefore recommended

• Thorough cleaning

• Allowing boxes or hutches to dry and leaving them empty for at least 3 weeks

• Isolating sick animals and attending to them last

• Cleaning and disinfecting buckets and drinking nipples

• Ensuring farm workers use clean clothing

Symptoms of Salmonellosis

• Watery diarrhoea, sometimes with blood or fibrin

• Faeces with putrid, foul odour

• Dehydration

• Fever

• Anorexia

• Severe cases: septicaemia with organ failure, shock, death

From weaning to 6 months

• Monitor body weight, withers height and average daily gains

• Feed for growth rates above 750 g /1,65 lb (500 g / 1.1 lb) per day

• Provide a well-balanced post-weaning ration, with a good proportion of protein and energy

– Analyse protein and energy of the forage given

– Feed minerals if needed


• Regrouping or moving earlier than 2 weeks after weaning

• Large groups

• Several regroupings

• Low protein content in feed

• Low energy content in feed

• Grazing without supplementary feeding

Do Avoid


Feeding requirements to maintain healthy growth

During this period easy access to well composed feed goes hand in hand with a high growth rate. If growth is lost the calf will always lag behind, possibly resulting in a later calving and lower yielding cow. Up to six months of age the ration fed to replacement heifers should be energy and protein rich. Diets offered at this time are often insufficient in protein. Extra protein is needed in the first year as the calf builds up its musculoskeletal structure and rumen size. Growth rate can be very high, reaching up to 1 kg (2.2 lbs) per day, which is good. However, if the percentage of protein is low relative to energy the heifer calf may become small, fat and podgy. Such a heifer is unlikely to achieve high milk production.

That said, the energy content of the diet fed to young heifers should be kept at a high level. Underfeeding should be avoided as this can cause stunted growth and delayed breeding. Further development of the rumen is dependent on the amount and quality of microbial protein along with the volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced by rumen bacteria.

VFAs from a high starch diet are also efficient forms of energy for the young heifer as they are needed for rapid rumen growth and development.

During the first two-three weeks after weaning, the ration and housing should be similar to that before weaning to avoid stress. Changes in the grain mix should be made gradually to avoid nutritional scours. Calves should continue to be kept in small groups for the first two months after weaning so that they can adjust to group feeding and in order to minimise competition for feed.

To balance the transition from the milk to the solid rearing period, weaning animals should have an intake of 1.5 to 2.0 kg (2.6–4.4 lbs) of concentrate in the week following weaning, androughage with high-energy and protein density. If you use low quality roughage you will need to add concentrate to meet nutritional requirements. At two months of age the calf should weigh at least 85 kg.

The post weaning ration must be balanced

• To ensure adequate growth rates, 750–1.000 g/day

• To maintain proper body condition

• To achieve desired height and weight

Balancing the rations

To maintain average daily weight gains of over 0.7 kg/1.5lb per day, the weaned dairy calf needs a diet supplying:

• 16–18% crude protein with sufficient amounts of by-pass protein not degraded in rumen

• 35% ADF acid detergent fiber

• 11 MJ ME/kg DM

Mineral supplementation to be provided in concentrates. The rates are as follows:

Supplement Grams/day Grams/1kg DM

Calcium (Ca) 22 5.6

Phosphorus (P) 13 3.4

Magnesium (Mg) 6.7 1.7

Sodium (Na) 2.3 0.6

Potassium (K) 17 4.3

At 5 months of age calves should weigh about 150 kg. The calf should be offered forage, but 2/3 of total dry matter feed intake should come from concentrate, which must, therefore, be monitored. Forage quality should be

carefully selected. Fine-stemmed, mould-free hay or hay silage are preferred, but high-quality corn silage can also be fed. Free access to fresh water is a given.

Feeding requirements

Housing weaned calves: 2–6 months old

Calves should stay in the same housing and groups until 2 weeks after weaning in order to avoid stress. At this time calves that have been kept in single housing may be grouped initially in small groups, preferably according to their nutritional requirements. Grouping by body size and age is also important. The size and number of groups will obviously depend on herd size and available housing.

Housing should, as always, be clean with dry bedding, good ventilation, easy access to water and feed, etc. Opportunities for competition between young calves should be avoided. Sufficient feeder space for all calves to eat at the same time especially when a concentrate is fed in restricted amounts is essential. As heifers grow, there are considerable changes in their need for space to rest and feed. In addition, many management practices require animal restraint (vaccination, parasite treatment, measuring height, taping for weight, etc.) Facilities for older heifers must be designed to meet an animal’s

size and ensure safety and ease of work for the operator. Calves housed in groups from earlier age can continue to be housed in these same groups.

From around 5 month of age it is also possible to house them in a free stall barn with cubicles. The cubicles need to be adapted to the size of the animals and have adequate bedding or other soft surface to provide good comfort and insulation for lying down. When the size is correct, the calves easily learn how to lie down in the cubicle. This is beneficial if the animals will later be housed in free stall barns.

Housing weaned calves

Body weight from, kg 100 150 200 300 400 500

Width, minimum, m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.85 0.95 1.10

Length (row agains wall), min., m 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.95 2.15 2.40

Length (double rows) **, min., m Bottom front rail, height above bedding:

1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.25

– Either min., m 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.69 0.73 0.76

– Or max., m 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10

Brisket board from rear kerb ***, +/- 0.05 m

1.25 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.60 1.65

Neck rail from rear kerb, +/- 0.05 m 1.20 1.25 1.35 1.50 1.55 1.60

Neck rail height, +/- 0.05 m 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05

Cubicle bedding downard slope, %, +/- 11% 5

Cubicle bedding height above alley floor ****, m 0.15–0.25

* The width must be increased by 10% in cubicles with walled side partitions.** These measurements presuppose double rows without walled frontal partitions which inconvenience young animals when getting up and

lying down naturally.*** May be necessary if the flooring slopes down below 4% and/or to prevent young animals from lying down too close to the cubicle front.**** These measurements state the bedding height above floor, inclusive mat or mattress, if any

Dimensions of cubicles according to housing design for cattle, 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory centre. Observe that these are minimum dimensions. It is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space.

Dimension of calves and young stock cubicles for heifers from 100–500 kg.


Feeding requirements to maintain healthy growth

During this period easy access to well composed feed goes hand in hand with a high growth rate. If growth is lost the calf will always lag behind, possibly resulting in a later calving and lower yielding cow. Up to six months of age the ration fed to replacement heifers should be energy and protein rich. Diets offered at this time are often insufficient in protein. Extra protein is needed in the first year as the calf builds up its musculoskeletal structure and rumen size. Growth rate can be very high, reaching up to 1 kg (2.2 lbs) per day, which is good. However, if the percentage of protein is low relative to energy the heifer calf may become small, fat and podgy. Such a heifer is unlikely to achieve high milk production.

That said, the energy content of the diet fed to young heifers should be kept at a high level. Underfeeding should be avoided as this can cause stunted growth and delayed breeding. Further development of the rumen is dependent on the amount and quality of microbial protein along with the volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced by rumen bacteria.

VFAs from a high starch diet are also efficient forms of energy for the young heifer as they are needed for rapid rumen growth and development.

During the first two-three weeks after weaning, the ration and housing should be similar to that before weaning to avoid stress. Changes in the grain mix should be made gradually to avoid nutritional scours. Calves should continue to be kept in small groups for the first two months after weaning so that they can adjust to group feeding and in order to minimise competition for feed.

To balance the transition from the milk to the solid rearing period, weaning animals should have an intake of 1.5 to 2.0 kg (2.6–4.4 lbs) of concentrate in the week following weaning, androughage with high-energy and protein density. If you use low quality roughage you will need to add concentrate to meet nutritional requirements. At two months of age the calf should weigh at least 85 kg.

The post weaning ration must be balanced

• To ensure adequate growth rates, 750–1.000 g/day

• To maintain proper body condition

• To achieve desired height and weight

Balancing the rations

To maintain average daily weight gains of over 0.7 kg/1.5lb per day, the weaned dairy calf needs a diet supplying:

• 16–18% crude protein with sufficient amounts of by-pass protein not degraded in rumen

• 35% ADF acid detergent fiber

• 11 MJ ME/kg DM

Mineral supplementation to be provided in concentrates. The rates are as follows:

Supplement Grams/day Grams/1kg DM

Calcium (Ca) 22 5.6

Phosphorus (P) 13 3.4

Magnesium (Mg) 6.7 1.7

Sodium (Na) 2.3 0.6

Potassium (K) 17 4.3

At 5 months of age calves should weigh about 150 kg. The calf should be offered forage, but 2/3 of total dry matter feed intake should come from concentrate, which must, therefore, be monitored. Forage quality should be

carefully selected. Fine-stemmed, mould-free hay or hay silage are preferred, but high-quality corn silage can also be fed. Free access to fresh water is a given.

Feeding requirements

Housing weaned calves: 2–6 months old

Calves should stay in the same housing and groups until 2 weeks after weaning in order to avoid stress. At this time calves that have been kept in single housing may be grouped initially in small groups, preferably according to their nutritional requirements. Grouping by body size and age is also important. The size and number of groups will obviously depend on herd size and available housing.

Housing should, as always, be clean with dry bedding, good ventilation, easy access to water and feed, etc. Opportunities for competition between young calves should be avoided. Sufficient feeder space for all calves to eat at the same time especially when a concentrate is fed in restricted amounts is essential. As heifers grow, there are considerable changes in their need for space to rest and feed. In addition, many management practices require animal restraint (vaccination, parasite treatment, measuring height, taping for weight, etc.) Facilities for older heifers must be designed to meet an animal’s

size and ensure safety and ease of work for the operator. Calves housed in groups from earlier age can continue to be housed in these same groups.

From around 5 month of age it is also possible to house them in a free stall barn with cubicles. The cubicles need to be adapted to the size of the animals and have adequate bedding or other soft surface to provide good comfort and insulation for lying down. When the size is correct, the calves easily learn how to lie down in the cubicle. This is beneficial if the animals will later be housed in free stall barns.

Housing weaned calves

Body weight from, kg 100 150 200 300 400 500

Width, minimum, m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.85 0.95 1.10

Length (row agains wall), min., m 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.95 2.15 2.40

Length (double rows) **, min., m Bottom front rail, height above bedding:

1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.25

– Either min., m 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.69 0.73 0.76

– Or max., m 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10

Brisket board from rear kerb ***, +/- 0.05 m

1.25 1.30 1.40 1.55 1.60 1.65

Neck rail from rear kerb, +/- 0.05 m 1.20 1.25 1.35 1.50 1.55 1.60

Neck rail height, +/- 0.05 m 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05

Cubicle bedding downard slope, %, +/- 11% 5

Cubicle bedding height above alley floor ****, m 0.15–0.25

* The width must be increased by 10% in cubicles with walled side partitions.** These measurements presuppose double rows without walled frontal partitions which inconvenience young animals when getting up and

lying down naturally.*** May be necessary if the flooring slopes down below 4% and/or to prevent young animals from lying down too close to the cubicle front.**** These measurements state the bedding height above floor, inclusive mat or mattress, if any

Dimensions of cubicles according to housing design for cattle, 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory centre. Observe that these are minimum dimensions. It is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space.

Dimension of calves and young stock cubicles for heifers from 100–500 kg.


Throughout the period it is important to avoid competition at feeding. One feeding place per animal is recommended and the feeding rack should facilitate access of young stock to the

feed, while separating animal and feed enough to prevent faecal contamination of feed and feed spills.

As already mentioned in the previous section, surges of respiratory disease and scours may occur during the weaning period and can in a worst case scenario continue to be a problem particularly in calves that have been previously ill. These cases should of course be managed as described above.

Health management from weaning to 6 months

Health management

Feeding area dimensions for heifers from 100–500 kg


Trough rear edge, height above feeding area level, m

0.4 0.4 0.45 0.45 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.55

Feeding area width, +/- 0,05 m 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65

Height above feeding level of trough bottom, min., m

0.15

Trough width, max., m 0.4 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.55 0.6 0.6

Width of acid-proof trough surface, min., m

0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85

Feeding rack upper rail above feeding area, min. m

1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4

Trough cubic content, min., l 15 15 20 25 30 35 40 40

Feeding landing height, max., m 0.10

Feeding landing width, min., m 0.40

Ringworm Ringworm is a fungal infection of the skin, hair, hoofs and horns. The great majority of lesions commonly found in young cattle are caused by Trichophyton verrucosum. The fungus can infect people so take care to avoid touching the lesions. The environment stays infectious for a long time (years). Young animals are more susceptible due to lack of prior exposure and immunity.

Risk factors for ringworm

• High stocking density

• Poor nutrition (low protein level or generally under-nourished calves)

• Calf already has another disease

• Environmental factors: such as hot and humid climate

Symptoms

• Hair loss

• Scaling and crusting

• Multiple lesions usually on the head, neck, shoulders and sides of the thorax

• Pruritus (itching) is variable but usually mild

Calf with typical ringworm lesions around the eyesRef. Image from blog.mycology.cornell.edu

Ringworm treatmentSince ringworm usually is a self-limiting and spontaneously regressing disease, treatment is generally not necessary except for severely affected animals. A veterinarian should be consulted to advise on a recommendedtreatment protocol. To prevent spreading within the herd, topical therapy with fungicidal products can be applied. In some countries calf vaccination at dehorning has been successful in controlling and eradicating infection in the herd.

Vaccination programmes for youngstock Infectious disease continues to be the most common cause of losses and lower growth rates in dairy calves. Vaccination against certain diseases can be an important management tool to prevent heifers from getting sick by preparing their immune system to fight future infections. It must be stressed though that no vaccine programme will protect all animals when the challenge is overwhelming.Vaccination must therefore be combined

with good management practices (colostrum, optimal ration, hygiene and housing conditions as described in this booklet) since these factors, if badly managed, can limit heifers’ ability to adequately respond to the vaccine.

Before designing a vaccination programme, the following factors should be considered:

• Presence and degree of challenge posed by the disease on the farm

• Management practices on the farm that support or hinder vaccination programmes

• Time or age at which the disease occurs• Presence of stressors that can be linked to

disease outbreak • Documented effect of vaccine

Since there are regional differences in available and recommended vaccines and local legislation varies, a veterinarian should be consulted for the design of a farm-specific vaccination programme.

Ringworm

Vaccination

References

A list of references can be found on: http://www.delaval.com/en/-/Dairy-knowledge-and-advice/Calf-management/

Ref. Dimensions of feeding area according to housing design for cattle, 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory centre. Observe that this is minimum dimensions and it is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space.


Throughout the period it is important to avoid competition at feeding. One feeding place per animal is recommended and the feeding rack should facilitate access of young stock to the

feed, while separating animal and feed enough to prevent faecal contamination of feed and feed spills.

As already mentioned in the previous section, surges of respiratory disease and scours may occur during the weaning period and can in a worst case scenario continue to be a problem particularly in calves that have been previously ill. These cases should of course be managed as described above.

Health management from weaning to 6 months

Health management

Feeding area dimensions for heifers from 100–500 kg


Trough rear edge, height above feeding area level, m

0.4 0.4 0.45 0.45 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.55

Feeding area width, +/- 0,05 m 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65

Height above feeding level of trough bottom, min., m

0.15

Trough width, max., m 0.4 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.55 0.6 0.6

Width of acid-proof trough surface, min., m

0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85

Feeding rack upper rail above feeding area, min. m

1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4

Trough cubic content, min., l 15 15 20 25 30 35 40 40

Feeding landing height, max., m 0.10

Feeding landing width, min., m 0.40

Ringworm Ringworm is a fungal infection of the skin, hair, hoofs and horns. The great majority of lesions commonly found in young cattle are caused by Trichophyton verrucosum. The fungus can infect people so take care to avoid touching the lesions. The environment stays infectious for a long time (years). Young animals are more susceptible due to lack of prior exposure and immunity.

Risk factors for ringworm

• High stocking density

• Poor nutrition (low protein level or generally under-nourished calves)

• Calf already has another disease

• Environmental factors: such as hot and humid climate

Symptoms

• Hair loss

• Scaling and crusting

• Multiple lesions usually on the head, neck, shoulders and sides of the thorax

• Pruritus (itching) is variable but usually mild

Calf with typical ringworm lesions around the eyesRef. Image from blog.mycology.cornell.edu

Ringworm treatmentSince ringworm usually is a self-limiting and spontaneously regressing disease, treatment is generally not necessary except for severely affected animals. A veterinarian should be consulted to advise on a recommendedtreatment protocol. To prevent spreading within the herd, topical therapy with fungicidal products can be applied. In some countries calf vaccination at dehorning has been successful in controlling and eradicating infection in the herd.

Vaccination programmes for youngstock Infectious disease continues to be the most common cause of losses and lower growth rates in dairy calves. Vaccination against certain diseases can be an important management tool to prevent heifers from getting sick by preparing their immune system to fight future infections. It must be stressed though that no vaccine programme will protect all animals when the challenge is overwhelming.Vaccination must therefore be combined

with good management practices (colostrum, optimal ration, hygiene and housing conditions as described in this booklet) since these factors, if badly managed, can limit heifers’ ability to adequately respond to the vaccine.

Before designing a vaccination programme, the following factors should be considered:

• Presence and degree of challenge posed by the disease on the farm

• Management practices on the farm that support or hinder vaccination programmes

• Time or age at which the disease occurs• Presence of stressors that can be linked to

disease outbreak • Documented effect of vaccine

Since there are regional differences in available and recommended vaccines and local legislation varies, a veterinarian should be consulted for the design of a farm-specific vaccination programme.

Ringworm

Vaccination

References

A list of references can be found on: http://www.delaval.com/en/-/Dairy-knowledge-and-advice/Calf-management/

Ref. Dimensions of feeding area according to housing design for cattle, 5th rev, Danish Agriculture Advisory centre. Observe that this is minimum dimensions and it is always recommended to plan for at least 10% extra space.


Concluding remarksand acknowledgements

The aim of this booklet is to give you, the reader, a high degree of understanding of where to focus your main efforts in order to be successful with your calves, and of where it would be senseless and counter-productive to cut corners, expressed by the ‘Do’s’ and ‘Avoids’ at the start of each section. Another aim is to provide you with a detailed understanding of how to achieve high-quality calf management and growth.

We have made this effort because we strongly believe basic knowledge is the starting point and a perquisite of improvement.

As stated in the introduction to this booklet we are fully aware that conditions differ around the globe and that everything cannot be practiced everywhere, but all big changes begin with a first step.

We are proud to say that we have benefited from the invaluable, unselfish support, input and expertise of some of the world’s leading experts in this field. We wish to convey a special thanks to Catarina Svensson of the Swedish University of Agriculture, and Anne Marie de Passillé of the University of British Columbia, for their willingness to share their wide knowledge and expertise in the field of calf feeding, management and health.

Among those who have inspired us to write this booklet we would particularly like to mention Ken Nordlund, of Madison Wisconsin University, Mike van Amburgh of Cornell University and Jeffrey Rushen of the University of British Columbia, who with their work on the importance of nutrition and accelerated growth, management and environmental impacts on calves gave us the initial impetus to embark on this work.


Concluding remarksand acknowledgements

The aim of this booklet is to give you, the reader, a high degree of understanding of where to focus your main efforts in order to be successful with your calves, and of where it would be senseless and counter-productive to cut corners, expressed by the ‘Do’s’ and ‘Avoids’ at the start of each section. Another aim is to provide you with a detailed understanding of how to achieve high-quality calf management and growth.

We have made this effort because we strongly believe basic knowledge is the starting point and a perquisite of improvement.

As stated in the introduction to this booklet we are fully aware that conditions differ around the globe and that everything cannot be practiced everywhere, but all big changes begin with a first step.

We are proud to say that we have benefited from the invaluable, unselfish support, input and expertise of some of the world’s leading experts in this field. We wish to convey a special thanks to Catarina Svensson of the Swedish University of Agriculture, and Anne Marie de Passillé of the University of British Columbia, for their willingness to share their wide knowledge and expertise in the field of calf feeding, management and health.

Among those who have inspired us to write this booklet we would particularly like to mention Ken Nordlund, of Madison Wisconsin University, Mike van Amburgh of Cornell University and Jeffrey Rushen of the University of British Columbia, who with their work on the importance of nutrition and accelerated growth, management and environmental impacts on calves gave us the initial impetus to embark on this work.


Notes


Notes

Calf managementLifetime productivity starts when the calf is born

is a registered trademark of Tetra Laval Holdings & Finance S.A. and DeLaval is a registered trade/service mark of DeLaval Holding AB. The manufacturer reserves the right to make design changes. B-201409

www.delaval.com

DeLaval Headquarters

DeLaval International AB

PO Box 39

SE-147 21 Tumba, Sweden

Visiting address:

Gustaf de Lavals väg 15

Send us an email (please write

to us in English):

[email protected]

Phone: +46 (0)8 530 660 00

facebook.com/smartfarming

Date post:	30-May-2020
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	2 times
Download:	0 times

Calf management Lifetime productivity starts when the calf ... · identi cation of disease or other...

Documents