California Riparian HabitatRestoration Handbook
Second EditionJuly 2009
F. Thomas Griggs, Ph.D., Senior Restoration Ecologist
River Partnerswww.RiverPartners.org
Aerial view of riparian restoration in progress at the Drumheller Slough Unit of the Sacramento River National Wildlife Refuge. Photo by Tom Griggs, River Partners.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page i
California Partners in Flight (CalPIF) initiated the Riparian Habitat Joint Venture (RHJV) project in 1994. To date, eighteen federal, state and private organizations have signed the landmark Cooperative Agreement to protect and enhance habitats for native landbirds throughout California. The RHJV, modeled after the successful Joint Venture projects of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, reinforces other collaborative efforts currently underway which protect biodiversity and enhance natural resources as well as the human element they support. River Partners is a RHJV partner. The RHJV partners identified a need for guidelines for planning and implementing riparian restoration projects on the ground. In 2007 the RHJV convened a group of restoration experts for a workshop to produce a handbook of restoration strategies, standards and guidelines – the birth of this handbook. The goal is to provide practitioners, regulators, land managers, planners, and funders with basic strategies and criteria to consider when planning and implementing riparian conservation projects. The following pages will cover issues such as:
The handbook should be used for planning projects, creating budgets, and assessing restoration success. One aim is to provide a common language for riparian restoration, appropriate planning of projects and effective restoration on the ground. Ecological, biological, and regulatory components of a riparian restoration project are described. Additional resources of riparian restoration project support are provided including web-links and reference articles. Case studies of statewide riparian restoration projects that faced site specific conditions illustrate implementation of the principles presented in this handbook. This will be a living document that will be revised to include new information as it becomes available. This second version was revised in June 2009 (the first edition was completed in September 2008).This handbook emphasizes the ecological river processes operating on floodplains and in river channels that create characteristic vegetation structure that forms wildlife habitat - as the foundation for planning a riparian restoration project. The goal of these guidelines is to explain the proposal/planning process for a site-specific riparian restoration project for wildlife habitat to the first-time as well as the experienced restoration project manager.
Riparian Habitat Joint Venture Goal Statement for Handbook
Riparian Habitat Joint Venture Board of Directors
John Carlon, River PartnersCheryl Carrothers, USFS, Pacific Southwest RegionTony Chappelle, Wildlife Conservation BoardEric Gillies, California State Lands Commission
Geoffrey R. Geupel, PRBO Conservation ScienceBarbara E. Kus, USGS Western Ecological Research CenterCatrina Martin, US Fish and Wildlife Service Myrnie Mayville, Bureau of ReclamationTom Moore, Natural Resources Conservation Service
Tom Pagacnik, Bureau of Land ManagementMichael Perrone, Department of Water ResourcesChris Potter, California Resources Agency Kevin Shaffer, CA Department of Fish and GameErik Vink, The Trust for Public Land
Contact: Scott Clemons, [email protected]. (916) 445-1072
What are the fundamental ecological criteria to consider for producing quality restoration on the ground?How can a restoration project be designed to meet key goals AND provide wildlife habitat?What partnerships, permits, tools and resources are required to implement a restoration project?
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Which field methods should be used to ensure the greatest success given a site’s soils and hydrologic setting?What works and doesn’t work in restoration?When and how should the restoration project be monitored to continue refining restoration techniques?
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Funding for this Handbook was provided by:
Resources Legacy Fund FoundationS. D. Bechtel, Jr. Foundation
F. Thomas Griggs, Ph.D., Senior Ecologist at River Partners developed the first draft of this Handbook.Meghan Gilbart, Irvine Restoration Fellow at River Partners, researched and compiled the June 2009 edition of this Handbook.Layout and design by Tempra Board & Associates.
The following individuals reviewed an early draft of the handbook in the fall of 2007:
Kris Vyverberg – California Department of Fish and GameAndrea Jones – National Audubon SocietyVance Russell – National Audubon SocietyMichael Perlmotter – National Audubon SocietyStacy Small – Environmental Defense FundKevin Shaffer – California Department of Fish and GameGeoffrey Geupel – PRBO Conservation Science
The following attended a workshop to review the first draft in April 2008:
John Anderson – Hedgerow FarmsJohn Carlon – River PartnersAnn Chrisney – RHJV CoordinatorScott Clemons – Wildlife Conservation Board Greg Golet – The Nature ConservancyJames Jones – East Bay MUDBarbara Kus – USGSLaurel Marcus – California Land Stewardship InstitutePeter Perrine – Wildlife Conservation BoardKent Reeves – Yolo County Department of Parks and ResourcesJohn Stanley – Founder of Society for Ecological RestorationNelia White – California Land Stewardship Institute
Restoration on the Drumheller Slough Unit of the Sacramento River National Wildlife Refuge. Photo by Tom Griggs.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ii
Acknowledgements
I. Introduction 1A. Audience B. Geographical FocusC. How to use this Handbook
II. Riparian Restoration Overview 2A. The Value of Riparian HabitatB. Riparian DeclineC. Riparian RestorationD. MitigationE. Setting Goals and Planning Restoration
III. Ecology of a River 8A. Physical River Processes 1. Watershed Area and Elevation 2. Watershed Geology 3. Channel Slope 4. Regional Climate and the Hydrograph B. Plant Response to Physical Processes C. Wildlife Response to Vegetation Structure
IV. Human Impacts on Riparian Systems 15 A. Altered River Processes 1. Dams 2. Levees 3. Bank Stabilization 4. Water Diversions B. Altered Geomorphology 1. Gravel Mining on Floodplains and In-stream 2. Land-leveling for Agriculture
Riparian restoration along Bear River in the Feather River watershed. Photo by Tom Griggs, River Partners.
Table of Contents
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C. Land Use Conversion 1. Agriculture 2. Livestock Grazing 3. Logging 4. Urbanization
V. Restoration Planning Process 19A. Flow-Chart of Planning Process and ExplanationB. Tools for Planning
VI. Design Objectives 24A. Objective 1: The Local Community 1. Flood Damage Reduction 2. Water Quality and Supply 3. Recreation and Public Use 4. Watershed BenefitsB. Objective 2: The Horticultural Potential 1. Soils a. Texture and Stratification b. Depth to Water Table c. Nutrients in Soils d. Irrigation Methods 2. Hydrology, Flood Frequency and Geomorphology 3. Plant Material for PropagationC. Objective 3: Designing the Plant Association 1. Conceptual Model of Riparian Plant Succession 2. Climate Change and RestorationD. Objective 4: Habitat Structure for Wildlife 1. Planting Design for Wildlife Structure 2. Improving Mitigation Design 3. Non-native Invasive Plants
VII. Monitoring Riparian Restoration Projects 31A. Implementation MonitoringB. Measuring “Restoration Success” 1. The Contract Level 2. Horticultural Success 3. Wildlife Use as Restoration Success 4. Mitigation SuccessC. Post-project, Long-term Evaluations
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VIII. Permits 36 A. Pre-project Approval Permits 1. California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) or National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 2. Encroachment Permit 3. Lake and Streambed Alteration Agreement (1600) 4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (404) 5. Water Quality Certification (401) 6. Archeological Survey 7. County Land Use Conversion Ordinances 8. Voluntary Neighbor Agreements 9. Endangered Species ConsultationB. Implementation permits 1. Burn permits 2. Well-drilling permits 3. Herbicide permits
IX. Coordination of Permits, Regulations, and Activities 39 A. Central Valley Flood Protection Board Encroachment PermitsB. Title 23 WatersC. DWR Flood Management DivisionD. Army Corps O&M GuidelinesE. Levee and Reclamation Districts’ ResponsibilitiesF. Regional and County OrganizationsG. Endangered Species Act ConsiderationsH. Adjacent and Neighboring Landuse 1. Agriculture 2. UrbanizationI. Different Definitions of Restoration in Labor Laws 1. Worker’s Compensation 2. Prevailing Wage 3. Agricultural Labor Law 4. U.S. Department of Agriculture 5. California Department of Pesticide Regulation 6. Wildlife Conservation Board, U.S. Fish Wildlife Service, and California Department of Fish and Game 7. County Agencies
X. How to Build a Budget 43
XI. Technical Methods of Project Implementation 44List of Reasons Why Restoration Projects Fail
XII. Link to Glossary and References Cited 51
XIII. Appendices 56 Appendix 1. California Bioregional Restoration Considerations Appendix 2. Restoration Case Studies Appendix 3. Ecological and Landscape Considerations of Riparian Plants
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A. Audience TheintendedaudienceforthisCaliforniaRiparianRestorationHandbookisanyoneresponsibleforwritingaproposalforariparianrestorationproject,anyonebeginningtoplanandimplementtheproject,orthoseresponsibleforcomplianceandmitigationmonitoringofsuchaproject.Thishandbookexplainstheelementsofasite-specificriparianrestorationprojectthatmustbeaddressedinorderforaprojecttobesuccessful.
B. Geographic FocusRiverprocessesoperateonallsizesofriversfromthemajorriversof theworlddowntosmallrivuletsflowing throughamountainmeadow. Theareaoverwhich theyoperateand the timingof theireffectsvarythroughoutthebioregionsofthestate.Restorationobjectivesandrestorationpracticesarelikelytobedifferentonriversandfloodplainsdependingupontheirtopographicandclimaticsettings.ThematerialinthishandbookwasdevelopedprimarilyfromexperiencewithriversinCalifornia’sCentralValley,andisthereforemostapplicabletohabitatrestorationintheCentralValleyandonthefloodplainsofcoastalrivers.Manyof theconceptsareapplicable tootherbioregionsof thestate, thoughthetimingandmagnitudesof restoration taskswould likelybeverydifferent. Anoverviewof themajor restorationobjectivesastheyapplytootherbioregionsthroughoutCaliforniaisprovidedinAppendix1.CasestudiesofriparianrestorationprojectsoutsideoftheCentralValleycanbefoundinAppendix2.
C. How to Use This HandbookWhile this handbook is designed to assistwith projects from start to finish and to anticipate potentialchallenges,itshouldnotbeusedasarecipebookorwithoutotherresources.Theusershouldhaveaccesstolocal expertise concerning riverecology,fluvialgeomorphology,plant horticulture, flood-conveyanceandlocalwildlife.
Thishandbookdemonstrateshowto approach riparian restorationdesign from an ecologicalperspective specific to theprojectlocation.Thishandbookdescribestheexistingecologicalconditionsandphysicalprocessesatthewatershedlevelthatmustbeconsidered when developing anaccurate,site-specificrestorationplan thatwill successfullymeettargetedobjectives,withprioritygiventowildlifehabitat.
I. Introduction
The following handbooks contain additional information andresources for riparian restoration, and there are several othermanualsthataddressriparianrestorationmethodsthatshouldberesearchedforspecificregionsofthestate.
CDFG (California Department of Fish and Game),1998.CaliforniaSalmonidStreamHabitatRestorationManual(sectionVI).NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service),2007.StreamRestorationDesignNationalEngineeringHandbook,Part654.FISRWG(theFederal InteragencyStreamRestorationWorking Group), 1998. Stream Corridor Restoration:Principles,Processes,andPractices.CalPIF (California Partners in Flight), 2008.Bringing theBirdsBack:AGuidetoHabitatEnhancmentforBirdsintheSacramentoValley.
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California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page 2
A. The Value of Riparian HabitatIntheRiparianBirdConservationPlan(RHJV2004),riparianreferstoareasthatare“transitionalbetweenterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, providing linkages between water bodies and adjacent uplands andincludeportionsofterrestrialecosystemsthatsignificantlyinfluenceexchangesofenergyandmatterwithaquatic ecosystems”and theNationalResearchCouncil devotes an entire chapter todefining this term(NRC2002;RHJV2004). For thisHandbook, the definition of “riparian”will refer to land area thatencompassestheriverchannelanditscurrentorpotentialfloodplain.
The riparian zone is characterized by a unique set of physical ecological factors in comparison to thesurroundingregional landscape (Gregoryetal.1991). These factors includefloodingby the river, richandproductivesoils,awatertablethatiswithinreachofplantroots,andspeciesofplantsandwildlifethatareadaptedtothetimingoffluvialeventssuchasflooding,drought,sedimenttransportandchannelmovement.Thisdynamichabitatcreatesawidevarietyofgrowingconditionsforriparianplants,andovertimetheydevelopintovariousstructuralforms(forests,woodlands,shrublands,meadowsandgrasslands)acrossthefloodplain.TheheterogeneityofriparianforestscreatesnumeroushabitatfeaturesthatexplainwhyriparianforestsinCaliforniasupportagreaterdiversityofwildlifethananyotherhabitattype(Smith1980).Riparianvegetationalongriverchannelsalsofunctionsasprimaryregionalmigrationroutesformostwildlife.
Riparianecosystemssupportpeopleaswellaswildlife.Riversandtheirfloodplainsprovidemany“riverservices”tothesurroundinglocalcommunity.(Alsotermed“Multiplebenefits”byfloodwaymanagers.)Theseinclude:
ConveyanceanddeliveryofwatersupplyEffective conveyanceoffloodwaters–Native riparianplantson thefloodplain attenuatefloodwatersandtraplargedebris.Maintenance of water quality – A living river will improve water quality through biologicalprocessingofpollutantsandphysicalfilteringofsedimentsandorganicmaterial.Wildlifehabitatandregionalmigrationcorridor–Vegetatedfloodplainsprovidecoverforwildlifeduringmigration.RecreationOpportunities–Fishing,hunting,boating,andwildlifeviewingareenhancedbynativeriparianplants.
Riverservicesareoptimizedwhenariveranditsfloodplainarehealthy.Healthyriversarefreeofintensiveregulationsuchasdamsandrevetmentandtheirfloodplainssupportamosaicofplantcommunities.
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II. Riparian Restoration Overview
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B. Riparian DeclineTherichsoilsandpresenceofwaterthatmakeriparianareasbiologicallyrich,alsocreateproductivelandsforagricultureanddesirablelocationsforurbandevelopment.Inaddition,sedimentdepositionbyriversovertimehasprovidedopportunitiesforgravelmining.Thewaterthatflowsthroughriversisoftendammedand diverted for anthropogenic use andmost of the large rivers function as primaryflood conveyancestructureforthepurposeofhumansafety.Thesepracticeshaveremovedthemajorityofriparianhabitatavailabletowildlifeandpeopleandreducedtheabilityofriversandfloodplainstoprovideriverservices.Itisestimatedthat95percentofpre-EuropeanacresofriparianhabitatinCalifornia’sCentralValleyhavebeenlosttorecenthumanactivities(Katibah1984).
Transitionofsomeoftheselandsbacktoamorenaturalstatethroughriparianrestorationbenefitsboththeecologyandsocioeconomicsofaregion.Often,riversareseenonlyasameanstotransportwatertocitiesandfarms,orasanunpredictablesystemthatneedstobestraightenedandarmoredtopreventflooddamagetodevelopedareas.Healthyriversandfloodplainscanprotectdevelopedareasfromflooddamageandprovidewatertransportandotherservicestopeoplethatexceedthecostofreplicatingtheseservicesthroughhumaninfrastructure(APEC2005).
Nativeplantsareanecessarycomponentofhealthyriparianareas,andnotsimplybecauseoftheirimportancetonativewildlife.Vegetatedfloodplainsandtheorganismstheysupportcancleanwaterbyremovingthenutrientsthatrunofffromagriculturalfieldsandintodrinkingwatersupplies.Thepresenceofvegetationalsoaeratesthesoilandcreatesplacesforwatertoslowlypercolateundergroundtorechargeaquifersthatsupplywaterforurbanandagriculturaluses.Thedenseforestsalsooffershadyrespiteandrecreationalopportunitiesnotavailableindevelopedareas.
C. Riparian RestorationRiparianrestorationoccursatabroadrangeofscalesdependingon thesizeof theriver, theecologicalhealthofthesite,andtheregionallandscape.Thegoalsforarestorationprojectwillalsovary,fromfloodcontrol benefits to invasive species removal, but the project can still be designed tomaximize habitatavailabletowildlife.(SeeAppendix2forcasestudiesasexamples).Forexample,largeriversintheCentralValleyaremanagedtodayforirrigationwaterconveyanceandflood-damagecontrol.Allareconstrainedbylevees,withmanagementandmaintenanceresponsibilitiescarriedoutbylocal,state,andfederalagencies.Consequently,riverprocessesoperateonlywithinthefloodway(alegallydefinedstructure,oftenalevee-linedchannelthatisdesignedtoconveyaspecificmaximumflowduringfloodevents).Thefloodway’sprimarydesignconsiderationishumansafetyandcurrently,relativelylittleemphasisisgiventoriparianvegetationandhabitat function.However, riparianvegetationcanhavebeneficialflooddamagecontrolimpactsbyslowingbankerosion,directingflowsawayfromstructures,anddirectingsedimenttransport.Furthermore,thelocalinfluenceofrestoredriparianvegetationcanprovidebothfloodcontrolbenefitsandqualitywildlifehabitat.
Smallerrivers,suchasSierrafoothillsandCoastRanges,aretributariestothelargerriversofCalifornia’sCentralValleyandhavemuch smaller localizedfloodplains coveringmuch smaller areas than thoseoflarge,meanderingvalley rivers. On these tributaries, levees are typically protecting small areas (ratherthan regionalprotection).Theemphasisofhuman safety isusuallynot as strongon smaller rivers andinthiswayrestorationdesignisinfluencedbyriversize.Restorationonsmallriverstypicallyinvolvesmanipulation/restorationofchannelmorphologyandfloodplainelevation(e.g.,repairingabandonedopen-
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pitgravelmines).Inthesecases,earth-movementmaybealargepartoftheimplementationbudget(NRCS2007),withlessemphasisontheactualplantings.However,throughrestorationofriverprocessessuchasfloodingandsedimenttransport,eventuallynativevegetationwillestablishandsupportlocalwildlife.
Types of restoration. Theamountofhumaninputrequiredbyriparianrestorationwilldependonthesiteconditions.“Horticulturalrestoration”referstoahighlevelofsitemanagementandexternalhumaninputsthat includesitepreparation(land-leveling,disking),plantingofnursery-growntreesandshrubsinpre-designedpatterns,irrigation,andchemicalweed-controlforthreeormoreyears.Horticulturalrestorationisappropriatealongriverswheretheriver’sphysicalprocesseshavebeenseverelymodifiedbyhumanswithdams,levees,bankstabilization,andwaterdiversions.Attheotherextremeis“processrestoration,”whichstrivestoreestablishriverprocessesontothesite.Processrestorationisappropriateonripariansitesalongariverthatretainsfunctioningriverprocesses(e.g.nodams,andfewleveesorwaterdiversions).Processrestorationattemptstorestoreasitebyworkingwithexistingriverprocesses.Thismayinvolve,forexample,breachingaleveetoreconnecttherivertoitsfloodplainbehindthelevee,orchangingland-use,suchascessationoffarmingoramodifiedgrazingplan,orcreatingtopographybycuttingswalesorbuilding lowbermson thefloodplain.TheRHJVproviderestorationrecommendationsforhorticulturalrestoration (pages79-82)andprocess restoration (pages91-92) in theRiparianBirdConservationPlan(RHJV2004).
D. MitigationMitigation isa regulatoryprocess intended tooffset the lossofnatural resources resulting fromhumandevelopment.Whenmitigationisachievedthroughplantingnativespecies,itcansuperficiallyresemblerestoration.Mitigationplantingsarefrequentlypermittedtoserveascompensationforunavoidable“take”ofimperiledspeciesorhabitats. Takereferstoactivitiesthatwilldirectlyorindirectlyharmindividualwildlifespeciesorhabitattypes,suchaswetlandsorvernalpools.
Mitigationplantingsaretypicallynarrowlyfocusedonthehabitatrequirementsofindividualspeciesorinthecaseofimperiledhabitattypes,theyfocusonspecificplantassociationstorecreatetargetedecosystemservices. Thisnarrowfocusofmitigation is incontrast to thebroadscopeofmost restorationprojectswhichaimtosupportmultiplespeciesandcreateplantingsthatwillprovidenumerousecosystembenefits(seeRiparianversusMitigationbox).
Mitigationisalegalprocessandtheregulatoryagencydependsonthelocationandstatusoftheprotectedresource.MitigationforfederallyprotectedspeciesisregulatedthroughtheFishandWildlifeServiceforterrestrialspeciesorthroughtheNationalMarineFisheriesServiceforaquaticresources. TakeofstateprotectedspeciesinCaliforniamayincurmitigationasmandatedbytheCaliforniaDepartmentofFishandGame.RiparianareasoftenreceiveprotectionundertheUSArmyCorpswhentheyarewithinjurisdictionalwatersoftheUS.Citiesandcountiesmayhavespecificregulationsforwildlifeandplantcommunities,andaccordinglymitigationplantingsmayberequiredtooffsetlossesofthenaturalresources.
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Mitigation versus Restoration
Ideally,restorationshouldbedesignedtomeetthehabitatrequirementsofmultipletargetedwildlifespeciesthatrequireavarietyofplantassociations,densitiesandconfigurations. Inthisway,thetargetedwildlifeserveasumbrellaspeciesthatwillprovidehabitatresourcesforadditionalwildlife. Restorationplantingsshouldalsobedesignedtoprovideabroadrangeofecosystembenefits.Forexample,restorationofnativevegetationonfrequentlyinundatedfloodplains will not only allow the site to improve water quality but could also supportanadromousfish.Similarly,adiverseplantassemblagewillattractasuiteofwildlifethatbothbirdwatchersandhunterswillappreciate.
Mitigationplantingsaretypicallymoreconstrainedthanrestorationplantings.Sincemitigationisarequiredprocess,toooften,onlytheessentialrequirementsaresatisfiedandtheplantingsarenotdesignedtoprovideadditionalbenefits.MitigationforthefederallythreatenedValleyelderberrylonghornbeetle(VELB),forexample,consistprimarilyofdenseplantingsofthebeetle’shostplant,elderberry,alongwithassociatednativeplantsataratioofatleast1nativeplantforeveryelderberryplanted.Beyondthenumbersanddensitiesofplants,thereisnoguidanceaboutdesignofmitigationfortheVELBorconsiderationofhowotherspecieswillusetheplantings.Inaddition,thereisfrequentlyminimalscientificreviewofbiologicaldatawhenthe
mitigation projectsareplanned(Kareivaetal.1999)andthismeans that lossesof wildlife habitator key ecosystembenefits may notfullybeoffsetwhenlowqualityorfailedmitigationplantingsareproduced(Allen1994; Smallwoodetal.1999).
Mitigation for the Valley elderberry longhorn beetle (VELB). Elderberry shrubs impacted by development must be transplanted into a conservation area if the shrubs are large enough to possibly contain VELB larvae.
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E. Setting Goals and Planning Restoration Thegoalsofariparianrestorationprojectshouldbeestablishedpriortotheplanningstage.Projectgoalswithquantifiableobjectivesareessentialfordeterminingprojectsuccessinthefuture.Thegoalsofeachrestorationprojectmaydiffersubstantiallydependingontheprimaryfundersand/ormanagers,andtheirneedsandpriorities.Oneprojectmaybesolelyintendedforwildlifehabitat;anothermaybeusedasahunt-ingpreserve;anothermaybeintendedforrecreationandresearch.ThecasestudiesinAppendix2describethegoalsofdifferentrestorationprojectsandhowtheyinfluencedprojectdesign. Oncecompleted, thesuccessoftheprojectwillbeevaluatedonhowwellthegoalsweremet.
Thegoalsandobjectivesoftheprojectshouldbesetforthclearlyatitsinception,toensurethatprogresscanbemonitoredandmeasuredinthatframework.Throughoutplanning,ask:Areweachievingourob-jectives?Isthetimelineappropriate?Isfundingadequate?Canwemeasureourprogressagainstexistingfinishedprojectsorremnantareas?
Somefactorstobeconsideredduringthedefiningofgoalsforanyriparianrestorationprojectinclude:Community Involvement: Engagethelocalcommunityintheplanninganddevelopmentofprojects;encouragelearningaboutnativewildlifeandbenefitstothecommunitythatrestorationwillprovidesuchasfloodcontrolandrecreationopportunities;identifycommongoals.Target species for wildlife habitat creation: Designtheplantingsinarestorationprojectbasedonthestructuralhabitatneedsofoneormorefocalspecies.Restorationistsoftenusewildlifespecieshabitat requirements as targets for successof a restorationproject.For example, theCaliforniaPartnersinFlightandRHJVRiparianBirdConservationPlanhasidentifiedsixteen“focalspecies”of riparian birds as important indicators of riparian health throughout California. Other focalspeciesintheCentralValleyincludeRiparianBrushRabbit,ValleyElderberryLonghornBeetle,and Salmon. Creation of wildlife habitat is probably the most important regional goal that ariparianrestorationprojectcanhave.Flood Neutrality: Consultwithhydraulicengineerstoensurethattherestorationprojectwillnotaffect theflood conveyancepropertiesof the site, such as transitory storage capacity andbankstabilization,velocity,depthanddirectionofflows.Whatarethefloodprotectionbenefitsoftheproject?Recreation:Assesstherecreationopportunitiesthatareappropriateforthesite–wildlifeviewing,hunting,fishing,andhikingaresomeexamples.Environmental Improvement: Riparianrestorationprojectscanimproveairqualitybecauseplantscaptureandstorecarbonastheygrow.Restorationprojectsalsoimprovewaterquality,byfilteringnutrients fromnearbypoint-sourcepollution, byfiltering largedebris, by stabilizingbanks andreducingsedimentloadintotherivers,andbyprovidinggroundwaterrecharge.Weed abatement: Restorationprojectsincludeweedcontroltosuppressinvasiveweedsandreplacethemwithnativeriparianplants,andthiscouldbenefitneighboringlandusesbylimitingthespreadofweeds.Water conservation:Restorationprojectstypicallyrequireirrigationforthefirstthreeyears.Afterthistimediversionsandwell-pumpingceases,allowingwatertostayintheriverorintheground.Therefore,inthelongtermrestorationprojectscanreducetheamountofwaterconsumptioninthearea.
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Peerreviewatallphasesofplanningandimplementationofarestorationprojectisessentialforthedevel-opmentofqualitywildlifehabitat.Questionsthatshouldbeconsideredduringsiteevaluationandprojectdevelopmentinclude:Isthesystemhealthy?Isthesiteappropriatetosupportrestoration?Isrestorationpossible?Ifso,whatlevelorqualityispossible?Howmightrestorationaffectneighboringlanduse?Atthisstageofsiteevaluation,itiscriticaltoinvolveriverecologistsandbiologists,floodcontrolengineers,fluvialgeomorphologists,regionalorcountyplanningdepartments,andlong-timelocalresidents.
The following sections focusonphysical riverprocesses and their interactionwith riparianvegetation,wildlife,andcommunities. Thisunderstandingis thefoundationfordevelopingasuccessfulecologicalrestorationdesign.
Photos document River Partners’ San Joaquin River restoration project, showing dramatic growth after three years, and the ability of the site to become self-sustaining.
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A. Physical River ProcessesPhysicalriverprocesses–flooding,sedimenttransportandchannelmeander-operateatallscales,frombroad floodplains of theCentralValley that are severalmiles inwidth, down to rivulets in headwatermountainmeadowsthatmaybeonlyinchesinwidth.
Beforeonecandeveloparestorationplanforanysite,anunderstandingofhowexistingriverprocessesaffectsiteconditionsanddeterminethefunctionalecologyisnecessary.Physicalriverprocessesmoldtheformandtopographyoftheriverchannelanditsfloodplain(thisistermedfluvialgeomorphology),theydepositsedimentthatwillfunctionassoilforplantgrowth,theyregulateplantestablishmentandgrowthanddriveplantsuccessionthroughfloodingandchannelmeander,andtheyaffecttheresultingvegetationstructurethatprovideswildlifehabitatformorespeciesthananyothervegetation.
Themostimportantphysicalfactorsthatdefineariverarethearea,elevationandgeologyofitswatershed(orcatchment),theslopeorgradientoftheriver‘schannel,andtheregionalclimate.
1. Watershed Area and ElevationTheareaof thewatershedand its elevationdictate thebehaviorofflows in thewatershed.Watershedswithlargeareashavethepotentialtogeneratelargeflowsthatsmallwatershedscannot.Elevationofthewatershedcandictatethesizeoftheflowthroughoutthewatershed.Forexample,manyriversintheSanJoaquinValleyhavelargewatershedsthataresetathigherelevationswhichreceiveabundantsnowduringthewinter.Typically,snowmeltrunoffdoesnotentertheriveruntillatespring/earlysummerwhenitcanthenresultinfloodingrelativelylateinthewater-year.ComparethistoriversoftheSacramentoValleywherewatershedelevationsarenotashigh.ThesnowmeltrunoffhereismuchlessthanintheSanJoaquin,andcausesrelativelyminorflowincreases.
2. Watershed Geology, Sediment Transport Characteristics, and Channel Meander
Watershedcharacteristicsaffectthesedimentloadofariver.Thesedimentloadistheresultofgeologicerosionofitswatershed.Undernaturalconditions,thesedimentwillbecarriedeventuallytothemouthoftheriver.Hydraulicforcesduringbank-fullandhigherflowsdistributethesedimentsacrossthefloodplainandovertime,layersofsedimentareshapedintoacharacteristicgeomorphology.Riversthatflowthroughwidevalleysaretypicallydepositingsedimentsandbuildingtheirfloodplains,whileriversthatflowthroughnarrowcanyonsaremoreerosivebecauseof their increasedvelocity.Themost important resultsof thesedimenttransportprocessarebankerosionandpoint-barformationwhichovertimebuildfloodplainsbydepositionofsediment.Together,bankerosion,point-barformationandfloodplaincreationresultinthelateralmovementofthechannel,orchannelmeander(Figure1).Afterflooding,channelmeanderisthesecondmostimportantecologicaleffectthatariverhasonthefloodplain.
III. Ecology of a River
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Figure 1: Some properties of channel meander exhibited by the Sacramento River. Where streams flow over low gradients through erodable banks, the velocity of the water causes the channel to meander.Erosion occurs on the outerbends where water moves fastest, and sediment is deposited on the inner bends (where water velocity is low) and forms point bars. If a meander bend is cut off from the rest of the channel, an oxbow lake is formed. Images adopted from Earth Science Australia.
Formation of an oxbow lake
Point Bar
Old Channel
Channel Meander along the Sacramento River
Cut Bank
Oxbow Lake
Some properties of channel meander exhibited by the Sacramento River. Where streams flow over low gradients through erodible banks, the velocity of the water causes the channel to meander. Erosion occurs on the outer bends where water moves fastest, and sediment is deposited on the inner bends (where water velocity is low) and forms point bars. If a meander bend is cut off from the rest of the channel, an oxbow lake is formed. Formation of an oxbow lake graphic adopted from Earth Science Australia.
Figure 1: Channel Meander Along the Sacramento River
3. Channel SlopeTheslopeofthechanneldeterminesthevelocityoftheriverflows.Thevelocityshapesthegeometryofthechannelandthepatternsofsedimenttransportanddepositiononthefloodplain.Steepgradientrivershavemoreerosivepowerthanlowgradientriversandmaybedeeplyincisedintothesurroundinglandscapeandadjacentfloodplainareas.Lowgradientriversareoftendepositionalwithlargebroadfloodplains.
4. Regional Climate and the HydrographThe regional climateaffects thequantity and timingof riverflows throughout theyear, termed thehydroperiod.Plantsandanimalsadapttoariver’snaturalvariationinflowvolumesovertimeandthehabitatconditionsthatarearesultoftheseriverflowpatterns.Ahydrographisagraphicaldisplayofaverageflowoveraspecifiedperiodoftime.Inotherwords,ahydrographcanbeusedtoevaluateflowpatternsinaday,overayear,oroverseveralyears.Mostriparianspeciesofplantsandanimalsareadaptedtotheriver’shydrographforreproduction,growth,andsurvival.Forexample,Figure2showsanaturalhydrographoftheTrinityRiveroverlaidbythelifecyclesoftworipariantrees,blackcottonwoodandnarrowleafwillow,andthefall-runChinooksalmon.Thefigureshowshowthetiming
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page �0
of the salmonarrival, their spawning,hatchingand juvenilegrowthalloccurat characteristic timesonthe hydrograph (Adaptation to Hydrograph Box 2). Likewise, cottonwood and narrowleaf willow seedreleaseandseedlingestablishmentrelyuponthetimingandmagnitudeofflowsthatarecontrolledbythehydrograph(AdaptationtoHydrographBox1).Notethatthenaturalhydrographbeforethedamwasbuiltisshowninblue,andexhibitshighvariabilityinflow,whiletheflowsafterdamconstructionshowninyellowexhibitverylittlevariabilityandareingenerallowyearround.Theflowpatternafterthedamisdrasticallydifferentfromthenaturalpatternbeforethedam.Plantsandwildlifedidnothaveenoughtimetoadapttosuchdrasticchanges,andasaresult,theirpopulationshavedeclined.Restorationdesignshavetoconsiderthealteredhydrologyofthesitewhenselectingthespeciestoplant,becausenaturalplantestablishment,survival,andsuccessionaredisruptedbychangestothehydrograph.Studyingthehydrographforariveristhemosteffectivemethodfordeterminingtheecologicalhealthofariver,andplanningtheappropriateplantingdesign.
Periodic flooding by the river is a fundamental characteristic of floodplain and riparian ecology. Thefrequency(recurrenceinterval)anddurationoffloodeventsovertimeshapethephysicalhabitatandcreatetheecological restraints thatdetermine thespeciescompositionandcommunitystructureonasite.ThenaturalhydrographforriversinCaliforniaisaninvertedU-shape,withpeakflowsinthewinterandspring(NovemberthroughJune)(Figure2).Theslowingorreductioninmagnitudeofflowsduringlatespringandearlysummer,asrainfalltaperstonothing,isbiologicallyimportanttomostplantsthatgrowintheriparianzone.Seed-release,seeddispersal,andseedlingestablishmentareadaptationstothehydrographbymostriparianplants.Cottonwoodisthemoststudiedinthisregard(AdaptationtoHydrographBox1),althoughallspeciesofwillowshaveasimilarbehaviorinresponsetothehydrograph.Likewisemostspeciesoffishareadaptedtothehydrograph.Theentirefreshwaterphaseofthesalmonidlifecycleisadaptedtonaturalflowregimesandassociatedwatertemperatures,includingadultupstreammigration,spawning,juvenilerearingandoutmigration(AdaptationtoHydrographBox2). Adultsalmonrequirecold,deepholdingpoolsandcooloxygen-richwatersflowingoverandthroughspawninggravels.Juvenilesalmonexhibithighergrowthrateswhentheyforageinthewarmershallowwatersofinundatedfloodplainsinthespring.ResidentspeciessuchastheSacramentosplittailspawnonsubmergedfloodplainvegetationduringearlyspringfloods.
Damsandseasonalwaterdiversionsforirrigationwillchangethehydrographforareachofariverthatisbelowthem.Thismodificationofthehydrographwillresultinmajordisruptionsinthelifecycleofbothplantsandwildlife,resultinginreducedreproductivesuccessandincreasedmortality(adultandjuvenile),leadingtomajorchangesinplantcommunitystructureandreducedwildlife(especiallyfish)populations.
Figure 2: Trinity River Hydrograph (McBain & Trush, Inc.)
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Fremontcottonwoodreproductivetimingandseedlingestablishmentandgrowtharebothtiedcloselytothetimingofhydrographicevents.Highwinterflowsmobilize sediments at the edgeof the active channels andcreatepointsbarscomposedofsandandsilt,orfloodplainsoilsarescouredofvegetativecoverandmulch.Exposedmineralsedimentsubstrateisessentialforthegerminationrequirementsofcottonwoodandwillowseeds.Cottonwoodtreesflowerintheearlyspring(April),seedmaturesrapidly,andisoftenmaturebylateAprilandearlyMay.Thiscoincideswiththesnow-meltrecessionphaseofthehydrograph.Theseedisreleasedintothewindfromthecapsuleswhenmature.Seedblowswiththewind,comingtorestonthesurfaceoftheriverorotherwaterbody,wheretheysailonthewindandwatercurrentstotheedge,andideallycometorestonmineralsedimentsthatwillremainwetforseveraldays.Heretheseedwillgerminateandinitiaterapidgrowth.Theseedlinggrowsataprootthatgrowsdownwardasthewatertablerecedesdownwardintothesedimentsassnowmeltrunofftransitionsintosummerbaseflows.Thetaprootcangrowatarateofoneinchperday.ByNovembera1.5to2.0metertallsaplingcandevelop.Changestotheshapeandtimingofhydrographeventscannegativelyimpactseedlinggerminationanddevelopment.Damslimitthehighflowsduringthewinterthatcreateseedbeds.Irrigationdiversionsduringseedlingestablishmentanddevelopmentphasescancreaterapiddry-downratesthattheseedlingrootgrowthcannotkeepupwith.Highflowsreleasedforirrigationduringthesummeroftendrowncottonwoodseedlingsonpointbars.AsaconsequenceofdamoperationscottonwoodrarelyreproducesaslargeblocksoftreestodayalongtheSacramentoRiver.
Adaptation to Hydrograph, Box 1: Establishment of Cottonwood Seedlings
ChinookandCohosalmonandSteelheadspawning,juveniledevelopment,andout-migrationarealldeterminedbythetimingofhydrographevents.Highwinterflowsarenecessarytodepositandformgravelbedscomposedofspecificdiametergravelsthatwillfunctionasspawningbedsthefollowingfall.Salmonenteringtheriverfromtheoceaninfalltypicallyspawnbylayingtheireggsintheformofreddsthatareexcavatedbythefemaleincoarsegravels.EggsarelaidsometimeinNovemberbyChinooksalmonandinDecemberandJanuarybyCohosalmon.SeeMoyle,etal.2008fordetailedlife history accounts of California Salmonids.The eggs hatch in the gravel as alevins where theyremainforseveralweeksbeforeemergingintotheriverasjuvenilefish.Juvenilesalmonforageonaquaticand terrestrial insects in thewatercolumnduring the spring intoApril.Duringwinterandspringfloodsjuvenilesalmonswimwiththewaterontoandoverthefloodplain.Floodwatersonthefloodplain are several degreeswarmer and support a greater abundance of invertebrates for food.Consequently,juvenilesalmongrowfasterwhileforagingoverthefloodplainthanfishthatremainintheriverchannel(Sommeretal.2001).SometimeduringlateApril,May,orJunesnowbeginsmeltingfromthemountainssurroundingthewatershed.Thissnow-meltportionofthehydrographprovideshigherflowsthatthejuvenilefish,nowtermedsmolts,ridedowntheriverintotheestuarywheretheypreparetoexitfreshwaterandswimintotheocean.Changescausedbylargedamstothehydrographthatnegativelyaffectsalmonincludereductionofhighflowsnecessaryforspawninggravelmaintenance,andthereductionoffloodplainfloodingthatresultsinslowerjuvenilegrowthrates,thatresultsinsmallerfishenteringtheocean.
Adaptation to Hydrograph, Box 2: Salmon Life-cycle is Keyed to Hydrograph
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B. Plant Response to Physical ProcessesRiparian plant species are characteristically adapted to the hydroperiod of a river, and rely upon it for seed dispersal and predictable water table depths to establish their seedlings. Fremont cottonwood is the most-researched tree species in regards to its dependence upon a river’s hydrograph for reproductive cues and seedling establishment (Mahoney and Rood 1998; Cooper et al. 1999; Cederborg 2003)
In addition, cottonwood and willows, as well as all other riparian plant species, are directly dependent upon patterns of sediment erosion and deposition. For example, a meandering channel undercuts mature vegetation on the bank allowing trees to drop into the channel where they become important substrate for aquatic invertebrates and structure for fish habitat. Opposite the cut bank, the river deposits a point bar of sediments that will be colonized by seedlings of cottonwoods and willows. As these grow into saplings over time (decades), the point bar accumulates finer sediments and grows in elevation, eventually reaching the elevation of the local floodplain. The finer sediments allow other species of trees and shrubs to establish under and near the willows and cottonwoods. After several decades of sediment deposition and organic matter accumulation, a deep layer (1-3 meters) of “soil” allows valley oak and elderberry to establish. Thus, over a period of 40 to 100 years (Strahan 1984; Trowbridge et al. 2004) the plant association on a site will change from a willow-cottonwood woodland to a valley oak dominated forest.
The timing and duration of flooding are important factors in regulating species composition in the riparian zone. Riparian trees and shrubs are differentially adapted to the duration of flood events, most able to tolerate several days, or a few species can tolerate months, of flooding. Many non-native invasive weeds are killed by flooding.
Thus, interactions among the physical processes of flooding, sediment deposition, channel meander, and hydroperiod across a floodplain results in a vegetation mosaic over time that is structurally complex. Groves of trees, patches of woody shrubs, open grassy areas, and open woodlands with an understory of herbaceous perennials and native grasses are scattered and in places intermingle across the floodplain, and diverse habitat types created by channel meander form in the oxbow lakes and cut-off sloughs.
C. Wildlife Response to Vegetation Structure The complexity of vegetation structural types results in a rich diversity of wildlife species that reside or seasonally utilize riparian zones. The abundance of surface water in the riparian zone (river channel and oxbow lakes and ponds) allows large numbers of individuals of these species to survive within the complex vegetation structure. Birds are the most diverse and most studied of the wildlife in the riparian zone. The types of species that riparian vegetation supports range from Swainson’s Hawks that nest in tall cottonwood or valley oak trees, to House Wrens that forage on the floor of the forest and inside debris piles. Sixteen “focal species” of riparian dependent birds have been identified as important indicators of riparian ecological health (Figure 3). One or more of these twelve are often used as targets of a restoration project. The restorationist must, therefore, know the structural habitat needs of the target species as well as the growth characteristics of each tree or shrub in a restoration design, in order to design a vegetation planting that will function as useful wildlife habitat (See the Riparian Bird Conservation Plan, RHJV 2004, for detailed habitat descriptions for each of the riparian focal bird species; for research documenting songbird use of riparian restoration sites, see Gardali et al. 2007; and for a review of wildlife response to riparian restoration on the Sacramento River, see Golet et al 2008).
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Each species of wildlife lives in its own characteristic habitat and shares this habitat with a community of other wildlife species. Within its habitat an animal carries out all of its living-functions: foraging for food and water, seeking cover to hide from predators and the weather, and nesting or denning for reproduction. Habitat provides the physical needs of life for an individual and its species. Habitat is typically described by its physical composition – elevation, topography, availability and seasonality of water - and the species composition and structure of its vegetation. Management and manipulation of vegetation species composition and the arrangement of individual plants on the site are the methods that the restorationist can use to build or restore the vegetation structure that target wildlife will view as habitat.
The restoration planner must have an understanding of the structural needs of the target wildlife species and have the knowledge to cultivate these species into the desired habitat structure. On many rivers without dams and water diversions, river processes can be considered “natural” and process restoration may be accomplished by actions that return river processes to the site – berm/levee/rip-rap removal, swale construction, land use change. These actions are assumed to be sufficient to provide the growing conditions that riparian plant species require in order to develop into a vegetation structure that will function as high quality wildlife habitat. However, on most low-elevation rivers in California, dams, levees and diversions are common and land use on the floodplains is either agricultural or urban. Thus, the physical river processes are not “natural” and the vegetation that develops under them will likely not be of the proper species composition or structure for wildlife use as habitat. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the restorationist to develop a planting design for horticultural restoration of the site that will result in wildlife use and be considered high quality habitat for an array of target species (Gardali et al. 2007).
To design restoration for wildlife habitat, the restorationist should research the target species to understand their structural habitat requirements. For example, the Riparian Bird Conservation Plan (RHJV 2004) provides a usable synthesis of known habitat requirements of birds that use riparian areas. The Riparian Bird Conservation Plan selected the following 16 focal species of landbirds to represent the diversity of niches that occur in riparian habitats in California. The species accounts provide information synthesized from many studies to document the habitat needs and specific vegetation structure required for different behaviors and life stages of these birds.
• Bank Swallow • Bell's Vireo • Black-headed Grosbeak • Blue Grosbeak • Common Yellowthroat • Song Sparrow
• Swainson's Hawk • Swainson's Thrush • Tree Swallow • Tricolored Blackbird • Warbling Vireo
Restoration of Wildlife Habitat
Additionally, the California Department of Fish and Game created the Wildlife Habitat Relationships (CWHR) database which describes the life history and habitat requirements of all birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians that use riparian areas. The California Natural Diversity Database (www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb) is another resource for information about the status and locations of rare plants and animals in California. Their online database can be queried to produce local maps and species lists for a project site.
• Willow Flycatcher • Wilson's Warbler • Yellow-breasted Chat • Yellow-billed Cuckoo • Yellow Warbler
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Most terrestrial mammals found in California spend time in (or require) riparian areas. Common low-elevation mammal species include raccoon, striped skunk, opossum, coyote, and black-tailed deer. Where large cavities exist in old, large trees, ringtail cats can be locally abundant. Rodent species that rely on riparian vegetation are few: beaver and gray squirrel. Ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and meadow voles live only around the margins of riparian areas where woody vegetation is sparse or non-existent. Special status mammals documented using restored riparian habitat in the San Joaquin Valley include the Riparian Brush rabbit, and along the Sacramento River Western mastiff bats, Pallid bats, Western red bats, and Yuma myotis. (Golet et al 2008).
Riparian corridors are the main migration routes for regional movement of all wildlife species. Riparian restoration can have important impacts for the local and regional wildlife diversity and abundance by connecting patches of riparian vegetation that improves the connectedness of the riparian corridor. This function of the riparian corridor will be as important, or more so, in the future with Climate Change scenarios predicting changes in vegetation and consequent need for wildlife populations to migrate.
Trees and shrubs growing on the bank and over-hanging the channel provide shade for the water column adjacent to the bank and deposit insects and nutrients into the river. The vegetation provides Shaded Riverine Aquatic (SRA) habitat for fish and other aquatic life. The shade from the vegetation helps to cool water temperatures in the river and seasonally provides insects for fish to forage. SRA is important to the juvenile salmon and steelhead as they migrate down the river to the sea. Terrestrial insects that live on riparian vegetation fall into the river and provide an important food source for fish. Riparian trees and shrubs will eventually end up in the river channel as floods erode the bank or sweep them from the floodplain. Once in the river channel, the stems, trunks, and branches become very important structural habitat components for aquatic life, including fish. Most of the aquatic invertebrates found in the river occur on the woody debris. These invertebrates, in turn, are the primary food of juvenile salmon and steelhead. Large wood affects the hydraulics of flows around it that results in a more complex channel geomorphology and the storage of spawning gravels. (For more information on fish and invertebrate use of riparian habitat see Moyle et al. 2004, RHJV 2004, USFWS 2005, and the UC Davis California Fish Website.)
Figure 3: Riparian dependent birds and their habitat. The Riparian Bird Conservation Plan (RHJV 2004)
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A. Altered River ProcessesRiparianvegetationandwildlifeareadaptedtothephysicalriverprocessesofflooding,sedimenttransport,andchannelmeander.Riverandfloodplainmanagementbyhumansthroughtheuseofdams,levees,bankstabilization,andwaterdiversionssignificantlymodifiesthetimingandmagnitudeoftheseprocesses.
California’sCentralValley riparianareashavea longhistoryofhumanuse.NativeAmericans lived invillagesonthehigherportionsofthefloodplainneartheriverchannel.Theyharvestedsalmonwiththeuseofin-channelweirs.AtthetimeofcontactwithEuropeansawellusedroadparalleledthechanneloftheSacramentoRiver(asdescribedbySpanishexplorerMoragainKelley1989).TheEuropeansettlersofCalifornialearnedearly-onthataconsistentlivingcouldbegeneratedbyfarmingtherichalluvialsoilsfoundalongmostofthemajorriversintheCentralValley.Theannualthreatoffloodinglimitedpermanentdevelopmentofmuchofthefloodplain.ThroughouttheCentralValleyleveeswereconstructedtoprotectfarmlandfromscourandsedimentdepositionduringfloods.Theconstructionofdamsforfloodcontrolandwatersupplystarted in the1930sandcontinued into the1970s,allowingmost riparian lands tobeconvertedtoagriculture.Today,majordamsblockvirtuallyallthelargeriversintheCentralValley,withtheresultinglossof95percentofpre-Europeanacresofriparianhabitat(Katibah1984).Thedamshavealsomodifiedtheriverprocesses,includingthecut-offofsedimentandorganicmattertransportandthegreatlyalteredseasonalityofflowsbelowthedams.Rockandgravelminingin-channelandonthefloodplainscausesmajordisruptionstoriverflows,sedimenttransport,andtheaquaticecologyrequiredbyfish.Thesechangeshavealteredtheecologyoftheriverchannelsandfloodplainstosuchadegreethatmanycharacteristicriparianspeciesreproduceonlyonrareoccasions.Inaddition,thestructureofthevegetationhaschangedtherebyeliminatinghabitatformanywildlifespecies,andallowingmanynon-nativeinvasivespeciesofplantstodominatethefloodplain.
1. Dams Dams for flood control and forwater storage probably have themost significant ecological impact onfloodplainbiology:
Dams severely modify the amount and timing of flows in the river below the dam (modifiedhydrograph),whichinturnimpactsthelifehistoriesofbothplantsandanimals,resultinginmanyspeciesbeingunabletosurviveorreproduce.Overtime,thisresultsinalteredplantandanimalcommunitystructureandfunction.Dams cut-off sediment transport. Incoming sediment carriedby the river from its watershed istrappedinthereservoirbehindthedam.Consequently,floodplainbuildingmayceasebelowthedam,yetchannelandbankerosionmaycontinue,resultinginentrenchedchannelsthataremuchlowerthanthefloodplainandflooditlessfrequently.Damscut-offorganicmaterialtransport,e.g.largewoodandvegetationdetritus.Thesematerialsprovidenutrients,food,andshelterforaquaticlife.
Theresultingimpactontheriverbelowadamisoftenadramaticchangeinthequalityofthesediments.
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IV. Human Impacts on Riparian Systems
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Thefinersediments(sand,silt,andclay)arewasheddownstreamandonlythecoarsergravelsandcobblesremain.Thissituationcanaffectplantspeciesabilitytoestablishandgrow,andmayalsonegativelyaffectanadromousfish spawning success. In addition, a damusually reduces themagnitudeof thehighfloweventsthathistoricallyreshapeandrejuvenatethechannelthrougherosionanddepositionofsediment.Formoreontheeffectsofdams,seealistofpotentialeffectsontheenvironment(CDA2008).
Thefloodingrecurrenceintervalforasiteundertheinfluenceofexistingfloodcontrolprojects,suchasdams,shouldbedeterminedinordertoevaluatetheimpactsuponthesuccessionofaplantingthroughtime.Areviewofhistoricalfloodflowsandfloodelevationswillgiveinsightintoprobabilitiesoffloodfrequencyonthesite.QuantitativehistoricalflowdataforsitesthroughoutthestatecanbefoundattheCaliforniaDepartmentofWaterResourcesCaliforniaDataExchangeCenter(CDWR2009a)andtheRealTimeWaterDataforCalifornia(USGS2009).Evaluationofcurrentandfuturefloodingrecurrenceonaprojectsitebyafluvialgeomorphologistorhydraulicengineerisusuallynecessarytodevelopaplanthatwillsucceedovertime,andinmanycases,consultationfromtheseexpertsisrequiredtocompletethenecessarypermittingforprojectsinmajorfloodways.
2. LeveesLeveesthatareconstructedtoprotectriversidepropertyfromfloodingeffectivelydisconnect(orisolate)theriverfromitsfloodplain.Thebiologicalresponsetothisisolationisecologicaldegradationoftheplantandanimalcommunitiesandtheinvasionofmanyweedyspeciesthatordinarilywouldnotbepresentduetoflooding.FloodingisessentialtothedefinitionofriparianasusedinthisHandbook,thereforerestorationshouldtakeplaceonthewatersideofleveestoensurephysicalriverprocessesaffecttheprojectarea.
3. Bank StabilizationBankstabilizationoftenisaccomplishedbytheuseofrip-raprockplaceduponthebankfromitstoetoitscrestinordertopreventbankerosion.Inmeanderingsystems,rockusedinthiswaymayhaltnaturalrivermovements, effectively eliminating one form of natural sediment recruitment, and halting or impedingchannelmeanderresponsibleforcreatingandrejuvenatingplantandwildlifehabitat.
Leveesorbankstabilizationthatextendsforlongdistancesonbothsidesofachannel(termedchannelization)willcausehydraulicforcesinthechanneltobemoreintense/extremeduetheincreaseddepthofflows.Thiswill result in increased ratesofbankerosionandchannel-scour,and thedevelopmentofanentrenchedchannel.
4. Water Diversions Water diversions reduce the quantity of water in the downstream channel and greatly change watertemperature,affectingriverprocessesandhydrology.Howthesediversionsimpactthehydrographforaprojectsitemustbeunderstoodiftherestorationplantingistobesuccessful.Specifically,thetiminganddurationofhighwaterreleasesresultingfromwaterdiversionsmustbeknown.
Ground water pumping, including conjunctive use programs may affect local and regional water tabledepths,possiblyaffecting restorationproject successbecause the localwater tablemaydropbelow therootingdepthofvegetation.Formoreinformationaboutconjunctiveuse,seetheCaliforniaDepartmentofWaterResourcesGroundwaterConjunctiveUsewebpage(CDWR2009c).
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B. Altered Geomorphology 1. Gravel Mining on Floodplains and In-stream
Historicgoldminingandmoderngravelmininghaveresultedinextrememodificationofin-streamandfloodplaingeomorphology. Largeminingpits (coveringmanyacres)are leftbehindafterminingends.Thesepitsareunnaturallydeep,theyoftencapturetheactivechannel,andtheysupportnon-nativepredatoryfish (bass). In addition, theminingprocess literally turns the sedimentsupside-down; thechannel andfloodplainendupcomposedprimarilyofcobblesandgravelwithmostofthefinesediments(clayandsilt)washingawayduringminingactivities.Cobblesandgraveldonotsupportplantgrowth.Forexamplesofrestorationprojectswithminingpitssee thisSanDiegoRiverproject (SWRCB)andsection24.8ofLessonsfromtheCaliforniaCampaign(SFU2009).
2. Land-leveling for AgricultureIntheCentralValleymostagriculturefieldshavebeenleveled.Highwaterchannelsonthefloodplainarefilledandthenaturaldrainageisaltered.Land-levelingchangesthelocalpatternsoffloodflowssuchthatcaremustbetakenwheninterpreting/comparinghistoricalaerialphotosduringthesiteevaluationprocess.Ahydraulicengineershouldbeconsultedtodeterminetheprojectsitespecificflowproperties.
Reconstructingnaturaltopographycanbeexpensivebecauseofthehighcostoftheheavyequipmentthatisrequired.Opportunitiesforreconstructionofthenaturaltopographymaybefundediffloodconveyancecanbedemonstratedasabenefit.
C. Land Use Conversion 1. Agriculture
Agricultureconversionphysicallyreplacesthecomplex,multi-layeredriparianvegetationwithauniformvegetationpatterncomposedofonecropspecies.Mostwildlifeonlyuseagriculturalfieldsformovementtoadjacentforestpatches,orforseasonalusessuchasforagingbywaterfowl.Agriculturelandcovertypicallycannotsustainwildlifepopulationsbecausetheydonotprovideenoughcovertypesorfood(Bellemoreetal.2003,Waltertatal.2004).Agriculturalconversioncanresultinahighlyfragmented(non-contiguous)riparianhabitat.Theseremnantsareusuallytoosmalltosupporttheneedsofwildlife.Forexample,thevegetationstructuremightbeperfectfornestingforafocalbirdspecies,butthenumberofacresisnotlargeenoughtosupporttheinsectfoodthatthespeciesrequirestoraiseabrood.
Agricultureoftengeneratesirrigationdrain-water thatfindsitswayintotheriver. Thisdrainwatercandeliver pesticides and fertilizers into the river, changing aquatic communities and compromising waterquality.Drain-wateristypicallyamuchhighertemperatureafterithasflowedthroughafieldandcanhavedeleteriouseffectstolocalfishpopulations,dependinguponthewatervolumeintowhichitdrains.
2. Livestock GrazingLivestockgrazingimpactsthewatershedbyaffectingthetimingofflowsandthetransportofnon-pointfinesedimentsthroughoutthewatershed.Thelivestockcompacttheground,slowingpercolationofwater,andgrazingshortensthevegetation.Compactedsoilsandreducedvegetationcausethevelocityofwaterrunofftoincrease,whichinturncausesmoresurfaceerosioninthewatershedandaddsabundantfinesedimentto the river (Swanson 1988). Intensive grazing over many years in the riparian zone often results in areductionofthecoveranddensityoftheunderstory,thedeepeningofthestreamchannel(entrenchment),
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andtheconsequentreductioninmanyspeciesofwildlifethatrelyupondenseunderstoryvegetationnearopenwater. Inrecentyearsgovernment landmanagementagencies–BureauofLandManagementandtheNaturalResourcesConservationService–havebeenactivelyfencingriparianareas tokeepout thelivestock.
3. LoggingLoggingandtheroad-buildingrequiredtosupportitcanhavemajordisruptiveimpactsuponariveranditswatershed.Loggingpracticesinthewatershedusuallyresultsinanincreaseinfinesedimentrun-offthatcanfilltheriverchannel.ThegeologyoftheCoastRangesofCaliforniaisespeciallysusceptibletoerosionafterlogging.RedwoodCreekinDelNorteCounty(CraterLakeInstitute2009)isanexampleofawatershednegativelyimpactedbyloggingpractices,wheretheriparianzonehasbeenburiedunderthesedimenterodedfromhillsides.
4. UrbanizationUrbanizationalongariverresultsinitschannelizationandtypicallyreductionorremovalofallriparianvegetationandanincreaseinimperviouscoversuchasconcreteandpavement.Imperviouscovercanresultinincreasedrunoffandeliminatespermeablegroundwherewatercanrechargeundergroundaquifers(USEPA2009).Wherepatchesofriparianvegetationremainasparks,wildlifeuseisminimalbecauseofthelackofpropervegetationstructure,highdensityofhumanuse,andferalanimals,mostusuallydomesticcats.
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V. Restoration Planning ProcessFl
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A. Flow Chart Planning Process and ExplanationThe following descriptions of each step in the flow chart providemore detail about the factors to beconsideredateachstageofrestorationplanningandimplementation.InSectionXII,severalrestorationprojectsarepresentedthatillustratehowmanyofthesestepswereaddressed.
Does the Site Flood? Afundamentalquestion.Ifthesitedoesnotflood,thenriverprocessesarenotoperatingonitanditwillnotfunctionasriparianhabitat.
Evaluate Existing Site Conditions Determine how river processes affect the site. Existing site conditions will determine the growth andreproduction of each species that will be planted. What is the potential for future changes to existingconditions?
Land Use HistoryInterviewswithformerlandownersandneighbors,agriculturerecordsofthesite,andFederalandStateAgencypersonnelfamiliarwiththesitecanprovideahistoryoflandusethatcanbeusefulincurrentplantdesign.Ifthesitewaspreviouslyfarmed,thefarmermighthaveusefultipssuchaswhatcropsgrewwellinwhichlocationsandwheretheproblemareasofthesite(e.g.poorsoils,patternsofflooding,sedimentdeposition)werethatneededextrairrigationorwereavoidedalltogether.Thisinformationcangiveaheadstartonselectingtheappropriateplantingdesign.
Hydrology Usingseveralsourcesof information,suchasstreamflowdata,aerialphotos,andinputfromhydraulicengineers,evaluatethefloodrecurrenceintervalonthesite,bothcurrentlyandhistorically.FloodeventshavebeenphotographedfromtheairovertheCentralValleysince1937.Certainareas(e.g.,aroundtheDelta)havehaddetailed landsurveyscarriedout since theearly1900s such thatchannel locationsareknownfromthattime.ThechannellocationoftheSacramentoRiverisknownforeveryyearsince1896,basedupontherecordsofsteamboatsfromthattime.
Soils Evaluationofsoilfeatureswillbethemostimportantecologicalfactorthatdeterminesthegrowthofeachindividualplantofallspecies.Back-hoepitsorsoilaugerholesshouldbeexcavatedatseverallocationsacrosstherestorationsitewithguidancefromanNRCSwebsoilsurveymap.Particularattentionshouldbegiventodepthtowatertable(wintervs.summerlevels),andstratificationofsoiltextures(presenceofsandlensesorclaylayers)fromthetoptothebottomofthepit.Thisinformation,coupledwithknowledgeforeachspeciesaboutitsrooting-depthandpatternsofrootgrowthinvarioussoiltextureswillallowtherestorationplannertodevelopapaletteofspeciesthatwilllikelygrowonthesite.
Sediment Transport Evaluationofbankerosion rateson thesiteandconsequentchannelmeanderacross thesite.Sedimentdepositionacrossthesiteafterafloodshouldbeevaluated.Theexistenceandageofpointbarswilltellmuchaboutthemagnitudeofsedimenttransportatthecurrenttime.
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Existing Vegetation Mapouttheexistingvegetationonthesite.Nativetreesandshrubscanbeincorporatedintotheplantingdesign,whereasinvasivespeciesshouldbetargetedforremoval.Donotforgetaboutnativeherbaceousunderstoryspecies.
Conceptual Site Specific Model of Biology and Physical Succession Baseduponthesiteevaluation,aconceptualmodelcanbedevelopedforplantsuccessionundertheinfluenceofcurrentphysicalriverprocesses.Thismodelisessentiallyasynthesisoftheinformationgatheredduringthesiteconditionsevaluation.Theconceptualmodelhelpsvisualizethebiologicaltrajectoryofthesiteunderthecurrentconditionswithandwithoutrestoration.Forexamplesofconceptualmodels,refertothecasestudiesinSectionXII.
State of the Hydrograph Allplantsandanimalsthatresideonthefloodplainofariverareadaptedtothetimingofflowsthroughouttheyear.Theseasonality,frequency,anddurationoffloodeventstodayshouldbecomparedwithhistoricaldata.Anaturalhydrographshowslowflowsduringthesummerandfall,withhigherflowsduringthewinterandspring.Itisthespringtimerecessionlimbofthehydrograph(movingfromspringintosummer)thatisecologicallycriticalforseeddispersalandseedlingestablishmentonexposedmineralsubstrateofseveralimportantriparianplantspecies.Howcanyoudeterminewhichpathtotakeforaneffectiverestoration?Existingsiteconditionsandlocalknowledgeshouldbesufficienttoanswerthis.However,awaytoobtainanindependentsourceofinformationwouldbetostudyhistoricalandcurrentrecordsofriverflows.Allrivers and streams in California have gaging stations located somewhere along them that continuouslymeasurethewater-elevationoftheriver. Seereal-timewaterdataforCalifornia(USGS2009)andtheCaliforniaDataExchangeCenter(CDWR2009a).Plottingthedailywatersurfaceelevationfortheentireyearwillrevealagraphthatrisesduringrainfalleventsandremainshigherduringthewinterandspringcomparedtosummerandfallelevations.Ifthehydrographindicatessmoothrisingandfallingrelativetorainfallandrun-off,thentheriverhasanaturalhydrograph.Onriverswithdams,thehydrographcanbeastraight,horizontallinethroughtheentireseason,orevenhavehigherflowsduringthesummerthaninthewinter,andpeakstreamflowsmaybemuchlessvariableovertime.Nativeplantswillneverre-establishunderaflat-linehydrographbecausethetiminganddurationoffloodingisnot-naturalornon-existent(flatlinehydrograph).Horticulturalrestorationwouldbecalledforonsuchheavilymanagedrivers.Processrestorationwouldbeindicatedwheretheflowsmimicthenaturalhydrograph.
Horticultural vs. Process RestorationBasedupon the siteevaluation, specifically theexistinghydrologyasdisplayedby thehydrograph, therestoration planner can determine the probability that the site can “restore itself.”Typically, a river inCaliforniawithadamwillrequirehorticulturalrestorationbecausetheriverprocessescannotprovidetheneededconditionsforregenerationofmostspecies(seedlingestablishmentandgrowth).Processrestorationmaybeaviablewaytorestoreasiteifriverprocessesarestillfunctioning.Interventionintheformofleveeremoval,modificationoftopography,landusechanges,andremovalofnon-nativeweedsmayberequiredtoinitiatenaturalbiologicalprocesses.
List of Species Basedupontheconceptualmodel,developalistofplantspeciesthatwillsurviveandgrowonthesiteafterthreeyearsofirrigationandweedcontrol.
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Structure Needs of Target SpeciesWiththelistofplantspeciesthatwillgrowonthesite,andknowledgeofthehabitatneedsofthetargetwildlife,therestorationplannercanarrangeindividualsofeachplantspeciesintoapatternthatthetargetwildlifewilluse.Thatis,theplannercandesigngrovesoftrees,shrubthickets,andherbaceousopenings,allatwhateverareaorproportionofthesitemightbeneeded.Workwithabroadlytrainedwildlifeecologisttoapplyinformationinrestorationplanningefforts.Plentyofgoodqualitativeandquantitativeinformationisavailableinthescientificliteratureandpublishedspeciesaccountsdescribingwildlifehabitatpreferences,suchastheCalPIFfocalbirdspeciesandCWHRdiscussedearlier.
Recreation NeedsAspartoftherestoration,recreationalfacilitiesmaybeincluded.Hikingtrails,riveraccess,andhuntingmaybeincorporatedintotheplantingdesign.
Flood ConveyanceOnthelargeriversthatfunctionasfloodways,arestorationdesignmustbefloodneutral,thatis,theplantingmustnotchangethedepthoffloodwatersbothupstreamanddownstreamofthesite,andtheplantingmustnotdirectflowsintobridges,levees,etc.Plantingdesignscanbedevelopedtoassistinfloodandsedimentconveyancebydirectingflowsawayfromstructuresorprotecting levees fromerosion.Acertifiedcivilengineer,specializinginfloodconveyance,maybeneededtoverifythefloodneutrality.Thismayinvolveahydraulicmodelexaminationoftheplantingdesign.
Neighbor Concerns Howdoes theprojectaffectadjoining landsandotherconservationefforts? Neighborsofa restorationplantingcanusuallyofferusefulinformationaboutthesite.Theymayalsohaveconcernsaboutwildlifeandhumantrespass.Oftentrespassconcernscanbemitigatedbyplantingbuffersorbordersalongtheedgesoftheplantingthatwilldiscouragehumantrespass,suchasrose,blackberry,andpoisonoakhedgerowsthatalsohavewildlifebenefits.
Develop Planting DesignTheaboveevaluationsshouldprovidesufficientinformationtodevelopthefinalplantingdesign.Proportionsofeachspeciesacrossthesite,densityofplants,thepatternoftheplantsacrossthesite,understoryplantingthatwillpreventnon-nativeweedspeciesfromcolonizingand/orspreadingonthesitecanbedeterminedfromthisinformation.
Restoration Plan Developadocumentthatpullstogetherandexplainsecologyandimplementationaspectsofarestorationproject, provides a project timeline, provides a budget, describes implementation methods, describesmonitoringandadaptivemanagementprotocolsforthesite.
Implementation of the planting designImplementation involves planting, effective weed control, irrigation, and monitoring over a three yearperiod.
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B. Tools for Planning
Duringtheplanningprocessofarestorationproject,thesetoolswillbeneededathand:
River Atlas –Severalyearsofmapsoftheriveronyourprojectsitewillhelpillustratethemeanderoftheriverovertime.Manycanbefoundonline,forexample,anatlasoftheSacramentoRiverfromtheSacramentoRiverAreaConservationForumin1997and2007.Aerial Photos – Liketheatlasitwouldbegoodtohaveseveralyearsofaerialphotosfromyourprojectsite,tovisualizehowyoursitefloodsduringmajorfloodevents,andtoseeanypreandpostdamchangestoflows.Manycanbefoundonlineforfreeororderedespeciallyforyourlocationandtheyearspecified.Flood Control Reports – Quantitativehistoricalflowdataforsites throughout thestatecanbefoundattheCaliforniaDataExchangeCenter(CDWR2009a).Thisinformationwillbenecessaryfordesigning the restorationplantings inaway thatwillkeepa sitefloodneutral and increasechancesofplantsurvival.Watershed Plan – For information on watersheds throughout California, check out the UCDavisCaliforniaWatershedAssessmentManual,theUCDavisICECaliforniaRiversAssessmentInteractiveWebDatabase,andtheCaliforniaDepartmentofWaterResourcesWatershedsPage.Aprojectwillbeinfluencedbytheareaandelevationofitswatershed,thepresenceofdamsandriverchanneling,andthelandusesthroughoutthewatershed.NRCS web soil surveys – Soilsurveyswillprovideabaselineofunderstandingofthesoiltypespresentatagivenprojectsite,andthesesurveyscanhelpdecidehowmanysoilcoresshouldbetakenthroughouttheprojectsite.Wildlife Habitat Relationships – Use information about wildlife species that could occur attheprojectsite,todesignarestorationthatwillprovidenesting,foodandcover.TheCaliforniaDepartment of Fish and Game wildlife habitat relationships provide life history and habitatrelationshipsfor694wildlifespeciesthroughoutthestate.Forspecifichabitatdescriptionsoffocalbirdspecies,seetheRHJVRiparianBirdConservationPlan.Hydraulic Models –AllthelargeriversinCaliforniahavehydraulicmodelsthatestimatewaterdepthandvelocityatgivenflowsatspecificriverreaches.Inconsultationwithacivilengineer,ahydraulicmodelcantelltheplannerhowasitefloodsandatwhatflowsfloodingstarts.Potentialplantingdesignscanbetestedusingthehydraulicmodelfortherivertodetermineanyimpactthatavegetationplantingmayhave.Bay Delta Conservation Plan (CALFED) –Regionalconservationplansmayexistforyourriver.The California Bay-Delta Plan encompasses the entire watershed of the Sacramento River andidentifiesareaswherehabitatrestorationshouldbetakingplace.Central Valley Joint Venture (CVJV) Implementation Plan –ProvidesquantitativeobjectivesfortheconservationoffocalspeciesofriparianbirdsbygeographicregionsoftheCentralValley.www.centralvalleyjointventure.org.
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A. Objective 1: The Local CommunityArestorationplanmustdescribehowtheproposedrestorationwillinteractwiththelocalneedsandusesoftheriver.Localresidentscanofferaperspectiveofthelocalecologybaseduponmanyyearsofexperience.Engagingneighborsearlyintheplanningprocessisalwaysagoodideasothattheirexperienceandconcernscanbeincorporatedintotherestorationplan.
1. Flood Damage ReductionHowtherestorationprojectaffectslocalfloodcontrolstructuresandtheirmanagementmustbedescribedindetail.Consultationwithlocalleveemaintenancedistricts,theCentralValleyFloodprotectionBoard,ortheArmyCorpsofEngineersmayberequired.Anevaluationoftheplantingdesignbyacivilengineerthatspecializesinthehydraulicsoffloodflowsmaybeneeded.Modificationofadesignmayberequiredbaseduponmodelingresultstoensureaflood-neutralrestorationdesign.
Aflood-neutral riparian restoration project is defined as a restoration planting that does not cause anychangeintheexistinglocalwatersurfaceelevationorvelocityofwaterflowduringaflood,anddoesnotdirectflowsintoleveesorotherstructures.Inotherwords,thewaterelevationduringafloodwillremainwithinthethresholdofmaximumflowthatthefloodwaywasengineeredtocontainaftertherestorationplantingshavegrown.
2. Improve Water Quality and Increase SupplyTheconveyanceofagriculturalandurbanwaterforthelocalcommunityisamajoruseofthelargeriversinCalifornia. Diversionsaffectquantityofwater in thechanneland thehydrographof the river. Therestoration planner must accommodate the existing water management regime into the proposed plantdesign.Forexample,irrigationconveyanceoftencausestherivertoflowrelativelyhigh(sometimesthisis thehighestflowof theyear)ata timeof theyearwhenflowswouldnaturallybereceding.Thiscanraisehavocwiththenativeplantsandanimalsthatareadaptedtothenaturalflowregime(seeAdaptationtoHydrographboxes1and2).Ontheotherhand,theecologicallyartificialhighflowsmayresultinanelevatedwatertablethatwillbenefitsomespeciesofplants.
3. Recreation and Public UseRecreationalusewillhappenontherestorationsite,regardlessofsignageorpatrols.Therestorationplanshouldaddressfutureopportunitiesforhuntingandfishing,wildlifeviewingandnatureappreciation.Thismayinvolvedevelopmentoftrailsthatdirectusersawayfromsensitiveareasorplantingbufferssuchasrose,blackberryorpoisonoakthatphysicallykeeppeopleawayfromsensitiveareasandprivateproperty.AspecialuseinsomeregionsisfortherestorationprojecttoalsofunctionasaNativeAmericancollectionsiteforplantmaterialfortraditionaluses.
VI. Design Objectives
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4. Watershed Benefits
Riparianrestorationcanhavemanypositivebenefitstothesurroundingregionallandscapeandthelocalcommunity,andtheseshouldbecommunicatedtothepublictoincreaseawareness.Often,thepotentialsitesforrestorationareagriculturalfieldsthatarenoteconomicallyviablebecauseoftheirproximitytothe riverandfrequencyofflooding,and these landscan thenbepurchasedfromwillingsellers. Therearealsoseveralfederalcostshareprogramstoassistwithexchangeoflandandhabitatimprovementonprivatelands(BudgetSectionIX).Restoredriparianhabitatcanprovideseveralbenefitstothesurroundingcommunitiessuchas:
Enhancing Flood Control by directing flows, stabilizing banks, and trapping large debris andsediment(ChagrinRiverWatershedPartners,Inc2001).Improving air andwater quality through carbon sequestration and by filtering nonpoint sourcepollution.Providingandenhancingrecreationonthesite(hiking,canoeingetc.)andbysupportingfishandwildlife(birdwatching,hunting,andfishing)(OppermanandMerenlender2004).Supportingadjacentagriculturebyattractingbeneficial insectsand throughsuppressionofnon-nativeinvasiveweeds(CaliforniaFarmBureauFederation2008).
B. Objective 2: The Horticultural Potential
Oneofthefundamentalcomponentsofarestorationplanistheidentificationofreferencesitestouseasguidesfordevelopingthelistofspeciestobeinstalled,theirdensitiesandassociationstobeplantedacrosstherestorationsite.Fromanecologicalperspectivethis,arguably,cannotbedonebecausetheinfluenceofriparianecologicalprocessesareverydifferenttodayintheCentralValleythanwhentheriverswerenotregulatedbydams,leveesanddiversions.Inotherwords,today’sfunctioningofriparianecologicalprocessesisnotnatural,andthisimpedesourabilitytopredictplantsuccessionandsurvivaldecadesintothefuture.However,referencesitesareespeciallyusefulforcommunicatingarestorationvisiontoclientsand the community.A series of reference sites that are shared with others during a peer-review of therestorationplancanbeveryusefulandimportantastheplannerdevelopstheplantdesign.Informationandknowledgegapscanbeidentifiedearlyonintheplanningprocess.Horticulturalrestorationrequiresknowledgeoflocalsiteconditionsinorderforaplantingtosuccessfullyestablish.Itiscommonforrestorationprojectstoincludeathreeyearmaintenanceregime,duringwhichtheplantsareirrigated,weedsarecontrolledandmortalityiskeptunderaspecifiedlevelbyre-planting.Beyondthisperiodofmaintenance,specieswillonlysurviveiftheyarewellmatchedtothesiteconditions.Speciesofplantsmustbematchedtosoiltypesandhydrologicconditionsunderwhichtheywillgrowandprosper.Consequently,thefirststepindevelopingaplanandalistofspeciesforanyriparianrestorationprojectisadetailedsiteevaluationthatdescribessoilsandlocalhydrology.EcologicalpreferencesofselectriparianplantsareprovidedinAppendix3.Animportantdesignstrategyistoplantmoreindividualplantsperacrethancanpossiblysurvivetoamaturesize.Thiswillforcecompetitionamongspeciesandindividuals,withsomeindividualsofsomespeciesdyingovertheyears.Theresultwillbeaplantcommunitycomposedofspeciesthatarewell-adaptedtotheexistingecologicalconditionsofthesite.Thisstrategyforcestheplannertocarefullyconsiderwhatspeciestoinstallandtopayattentiontothetreetoshrubratioofthedesign.Forexample,toomanycottonwoodsperacrecanresultwithinfiveyearsinaclosedcanopycottonwoodforestwithnounderstorybecauseofcompetitionforsunlight.Whatistoomanycottonwoods?Theanswerwillinvolveanunderstandingofbothcottonwoodgrowthcharacteristicsandtheabilityofthesitetoprovidefavorablegrowingconditions.
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1. SoilsSoil conditions are the most important factors that determine the survival and growth of any species. (If any species cannot grow in the soil on a site, then the restoration planting will fail). Examination of the NRCS web soil surveys for the project site will help determine how many soil cores are needed to ground truth the soil maps. Soil cores will also provide information about the soil texture and stratification across the site. Depth to the water table must also be determined at multiple locations throughout the site. The number of soil cores and measurements to water table depth will vary by site but soil surveys, river atlases, and aerial photos can help determine this.
a. Texture and Stratification
Soil texture, the proportion of gravel, sand, silt, and clay (Figure 6), usually varies greatly across the entire site. Often this variation is because riparian floodplains receive coarse sediments – sand and gravel – during
Figure 5: Root-Soil Profile Interaction
Lenses of course soil in the soil profile will affect the growth of plants; lenses of gravel may prevent species that require access to the water table from surviving.
Figure 4: Soil Particle Sizes
The diameter of soil particles determines their classification as either clay, silt, or sand.
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overbankflowswhichdepositontopof finer sediments. Likewise, soiltexture can dramatically vary withdepth,resultinginstratificationofthesoilprofile.Thislayeringofdifferenttexturescanresultincoarsesediments– sand and gravel – lying above orbelowmuchfinersiltsandclays.Plantroot growth will be greatly affectedby these discontinuities in the soilprofile. The movement of irrigationwaterthroughthesoilprofilealsowillbe affected by these discontinuities,whichinturnwillaffectrootgrowth(Refer to Section XII, BuffingtonCase Study to see how soil profilesinfluencedplantingdesign).
To a large extent, soil texture,determines the survival and growthrate of each species (see SectionXIII for a comparison of ecologicaltolerances among selected riparianspecies). For example, species suchas cottonwood and sycamore growrapidlyinsoilsthathaveahighproportionofsand,whilevalleyoakgrowbestinheaviersoilscomposedmostlyofsiltandclay.Soiltextureiscriticaltoplantsurvivalandgrowthbecausethesoilparticlesizesdetermine thewater holding capability. Largeparticles such as sand allowwater to drainquickly andcannotholdwaterforextendedperiods.Smallerparticlessuchassiltdonotallowwatertodrainquicklyandasaresultwaterisavailabletoplantrootsforalongerduration.Asaresult,soiltexturecandeterminethemethodof irrigation. Forexample,apredominantlysandysitemaynotallowfor theuseofflood-irrigationduetorapiddrainage,soadrip-irrigationsystemmayberequired.Othermanagementpracticesareaffectedbysoiltexture.Iftheprofileishighlystratified,rootgrowthmayberestrictedtoonlythelayerswithfinertexturesresultinginpoorrootsystemdevelopmentandconsequentlossoftop-growth.Onasitewithhighlystratifiedsoil,apost-holeaugerorbackhoemayberequired todigplantingholes thatwillhomogenizethesoilprofile,allowingrootdevelopmenttopenetratedownward.
b. Depth to Water Table Depth to water table is second in ecological importance behind soils for determining species survival,growthandthecommunitystructureofthevegetation(Figure7,nextpage).Depthtowatertablemustbeknownforseveralpointsacrossasite,asitmayvarybyseveralfeet.Deepsoil-augurcoresandsoilpitsamplestakenonthesitewillallowthedepthtowatertabletobemeasuredifwaterisreached,orestimatedifsoilbecomesmoistatthebottomofthepit.Depthtothewatertablecanalsobemeasuredwithmultiplepiezometersplacedintothegroundthatreachthegroundwatertable.Cottonwoodandwillowsabsolutelymustgrowtheirrootsintotheupperportionofthewatertablewithinthethree-yearmaintenanceperiod,ortheywilldiewhenirrigationisstopped.Otherspeciesoftreesandshrubswillprosperbygrowingtheirrootsintothewatertable,however,thisisnotarequirementforsurvival.Soilprofileanddepthtowatertableinteractandcanbeaproblemforrootgrowthifthetopofthewatertableiswithinalayerofcobblesorgravelwhererootscannotgrowwell,makingthewatertablefunctionallyout-of-reachoftheroots.
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/1411/1445480/FG12_15_wo_arrows.JPGFigure 6: Soil triangle illustrating the classification of soil textures based on the percent clay, silt and sand.
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/1411/1445480/FG12_15_wo_arrows.JPG
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c.NutrientsinSoils(naturalvs.fertilizer)Riparian soils are some of the richest in the state. Deep loamy soils, in combination with a water table within reach of plant roots, support rapid growth throughout the growing season for all species. Naturally occurring nutrients in the soil are abundant and readily available for plant growth. For example, stem cuttings of willow and cottonwood can grow to 6 feet tall the first season and valley oak grown from an acorn can grow to 4 feet the first year. With this kind of plant performance, additional fertilizer at the time of planting is not necessary.
d.IrrigationandWeedControlareDeterminedbySoilsWhen implementing restoration, characteristics of the soil on the site will determine the hardware needed for irrigation, the timing of application of irrigation, and the timing and logistics for weed control. Soils composed predominantly of sand will drain rapidly after irrigation or a rainstorm. On sandy soils, irrigation must be by sprinklers or drip system; flood-furrow method will not work efficiently due to the rapid drainage. By contrast, on soils composed predominantly of silts and clay, drainage of irrigation and rain is much slower. For this reason irrigation by flood-furrow may be feasible. However, rain will turn these soils into mud that will not allow tractors and spray-rigs to enter a field for many days longer than when compared to sandy soils, affecting the logistics of weed control.
2.Hydrology,FloodFrequency,andGeomorphologyFlooding frequency on a site, or the flooding recurrence interval, will determine the plant species that will be able to prosper on the restoration site. The geomorphology of the site (its topography) will interact with flooding recurrence interval to provide a broad range of hydrologic conditions over a small amount of
Rooting depth requirements of riparian species must be known, along with the depth to the water table across the site, so that planted species will survive and thrive after irrigation is no longer applied.
Figure7: Rooting Depth Requirements of Select Riparian Species
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area.Forexample,plantspeciescanadapttodifferentfloodingdurationsorregimesthatvaryinelevationonthescaleofinchesandfeet.Floodingfrequencywillalsodetermineweedcommunitycompositionandthelevelofrodentpopulations.Forexample,asitethatfloodsannuallywillhaveaverydifferentweedcommunityandmuchlowerrodentpopulationscomparedtoasitethatmayfloodonceeveryfiveyears.
3. Plant Material for Propagation Seedsandstem-cuttingsfromlocalsourceswillgeneratethebestresultsforsuccess.Allplantspeciesarecomposedofpopulations thatareadapted to the local soil andhydrologicconditionswhere theygrow.Populationsthatareseparatedbygreatdistances,elevation,orgrowondifferentsoiltypeswithinthesamewatershedaregeneticallyadaptedtothesedifferentecologicalsites.Inarestorationplan,thesourceofthelocalplantmaterialshouldbeidentified.Whatisthedefinitionoflocal?Localreferstotheecologicalsimilarityof theplantmaterial collection sitetotherestorationsite.Ecologicalsimilarityisdefined by soils, hydrology, and geographicdistance. Plant material collected from a sitewith the same soil type and flooding regimeandashortgeographicaldistanceawaywouldfit the definition of local. When contractingforplantmaterialfromacommercialnursery,besurethatthecontractspecifiespropagationfrom local genetic sources. Many of theplant species used in low-elevation riparianrestoration grow throughout California, yetthey are all adapted to the local hydrologicconditions of the watershed that they growin. For example,Oregonashgrowing in theSacramentoValleybeginsnewgrowth in lateMarch, while the same species at the southedge of theDeltawaits untilMayfirst. Theinitiation of spring growth is controlled bydifferentgeneticmakeupoftheashinthetwogeographicregions.
Locallycollectedseedandcuttingswillalwaysperformbetterthanseedfromoutsidethewatershed. Populationsofallspeciesthatweseetodayhavebeenpresentsincethedistantpast,atleastsincethelastice-age20,000yearsago;mostprobablyformuchlonger.Thesepopulationshaveexperiencedclimatechangebeforeandtheyhaveadapted.Thus,thereislikelysufficientgeneticvariationwithintoday’spopulationstomeettheenvironmentalchallengesofglobalwarmingandclimatechange.Inordertocapturethegeneticvariationpresentinapopulationoneshouldcollectfromasmanyindividualsasispossible,overarangeofelevations,andthroughoutthefloweringandseed-setseason(earlyandlatebloomers).
Therestorationistmaybeaskedtoplantagenetic“super-tree”thatcangrowfasterandtallerthananywildindividual.Thisisaforestryapproachtorestoration,notanecologicalapproach.Theproblemwiththe“super-tree”isit’srelativegeneticuniformity(theyareallthesame)andconsequentinabilitytoadjusttofutureclimatechangesbecausetheyhavenogeneticvariationtocalluponforadaptingtoclimatechange.
The following links describe genetic issuesinvolved in restoration, conservation, andlandscapingingreatdetailduetothesignificanceofthisissue.
CaliforniaNativePlantSociety,GuidelinesforlandscapingtoprotectnativevegetationfromgeneticdegradationUniversityofCaliforniaGeneticResourcesConservationProgram,factsheetongeneticsUSDAForestService,GeneticallyappropriatechoicesforplantmaterialstomaintainbiologicaldiversitySocietyforEcologicalRestoration,AnIntroductiontoRestorationGenetics
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C. Objective 3: Designing the Plant AssociationKeeping in mind current and future site conditions, plant an association of species that will proceed through ecological succession into a sustainable community OR that will maintain a desired physical structure.
1. Conceptual Model of Riparian Plant SuccessionWhenselectingplantspeciesforarestorationproject,itisimportanttounderstandhoweachspecieswillrespondover time to thesite-specificecologicalconditions.Thedevelopmentofaconceptualmodelofplantcommunitysuccessionovertimerelativetoriverprocessesisanimportantexerciseduringrestorationdesign.Fourconceptualmodelsareshown,oneforeachcasestudyinSectionXII.
Theconceptualmodelforsuccessionontherestorationsiteallowstheplannertoestimatefutureconditionsoftheproposedrestorationdesign.Therestorationplannermusthavesomepredictionofthesuccessionaltrajectoryfortheplantdesign.Thetermsuccessionaltrajectoryreferstochangesinthespeciescompositionoftheplantcommunityovertime(yearsanddecades)onasite.Forexample,onanintensivelymanagedriverwithmultipledamsanddiversions, riverprocesses arevirtuallynotoperatingbecausehighflowsandfloodingrarelyoccur.Aplantingalongthistypeofriverwillfollowadifferentsuccessionaltrajectorycomparedtoariverwhichstilliscapableoffloodingitsfloodplainonafrequenttimeline.Thechangesin species composition will be a result of the magnitude and timing of ecological river processes thatoperateontherestorationsite.Eachspecies’adaptationtotheseprocesseswilldetermineitsgrowthandreproductive abilities on the site.The restoration planner must have some knowledge of each species’abilitytopersistundertheecologicalprocessesthatexisttoday,andthosethatareexpectedinthefutureonarestorationsite.Isthewatertablewithinreachoftherootingdepthofspeciesthatrequireabundantsoilmoisturethroughtheentireyear?Willthesoiltextureprofilesupportthedevelopmentofthesizeofplants(largetree/shrubvs.small)afterdecadesofgrowth?
A possible solution is to plant early successional species – willow and cottonwood – along with latersuccessionalspeciessuchasvalleyoakandelderberry–orplantingof“twoforests”.Thefirstwillprovidestructurefromrapidlygrowingspecies,whiletheslowergrowingoaksandelderberrywillbecomedominantinthefuture.
2. Climate Change and RestorationClimateChangeinthefuturewillalterriverphysicalprocesses,modifyingthesurvivalofplants,andfurtherconfusing riparianecology inCalifornia. Whatcan theplannerdo toaccount for the largelyunknownmagnitudeofchangesinthefuture?Theansweristoplanforecologicalresilience.Ecologicalresiliencemeans that a population of organisms will adapt to environmental changes over decades and centuriesandpersistintothefuture.Ecologicalresilienceofarestorationplantingmightmeanthatitwillpersistintothefutureprovidinghabitatastheclimatechanges.Planningforecologicalresiliencemightinvolvetheplantingof“twoforests”composedofspeciesfrombothearlyandlaterseralstages.Atthelevelofindividual species, plant material for the restoration should be composed of the range of local geneticvariationofeachspeciesthatwillallowforfutureadaptationtoclimatechange.
Before,during,andafterclimatechange,riparianareaswillremainimportantcorridorsforwildlifeastheirlocalhabitatschange.Aschangesinclimatebecomebetterunderstood,theoptimallocationsforriparianrestorationmaymove, inorder tokeep these corridors as contiguousaspossible. Methods in riparianrestorationwillhavetorespondtoclimatechangesastheyoccur.
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D. Objective 4: Habitat Structure for WildlifePlant an association of species that can support high native wildlife richness through a diverse structure, pattern, and density of vegetation.
1. Planting Design for Wildlife StructureAllspeciesofwildliferequirecharacteristictypesofvegetationstructureforbreeding,foraging,andnesting.Vegetation structure canbedefinedas the foliagevolume (or coverof foliage)byheight for adefinedarea.Forexample,amaturecottonwoodforestprovidesahigh(tensofmetersabovetheground)layerofcanopycoverthatshadesouttheshrubandgroundlayersofvegetation,dependingonthedensityofthecottonwoodtrees.Wheretherearegapsinthetrees,enoughsunlightisavailabletolowergrowingspecies.Shrubsplantedtoodenselywillnotallowsufficientherbaceouscovertodevelop.Aplantingofamixtureoftreesandshrubswillhavevegetativecoveratawiderangeofheightsandvolumeabovethesoilsurface.Amixtureof densityof theplantingsof trees and shrubs is also important.Groundcover such as lowherbaceousandforbspeciessurvivebestinopeningsofcoverwheretreeandshrubdensitiesarelow.Anyrestorationdesignshouldincludeashrubandherbaceousunderstorycomponent.Anunderstorycomposedofwoody shrubs,herbaceousperennial forbs,nativegrasses, sedgesand rushes is an importanthabitatstructuralcomponentformanyspecies.Inaddition,adenseunderstorywillkeepnon-nativeweedsfromflourishing.Mosaicsofstructureanddensityinrestorationplantingsprovidearangeofnesting,foraging,andcoverforwildlife.
If fish are known to use the floodplain during flood, the restoration planner can design vegetation toaccommodate theirneeds.Forexample, theSacramentosplittail spawnsonfloodedfloodplains inmid-spring,attachingitseggstosubmergedherbaceousvegetationwheretheyhatchbeforethewaterrecedes.Several recent studieshave linkedhigh levelsoffloodplainprimaryproductivity (Schemel et al. 2004,Lehmanetal.2007)withincreasedfishgrowthandsurvivalrates(Sommeretal.2001,Feyreretal.2006).Riparianvegetationisavitalcomponenttothequalityoffloodplainhabitattoanadromousfish,andfishspeciesrichnessincreaseswherethereareavarietyofriparianplantcommunities(Feyreretal.2004).Themovementofwateristypicallysloweronfloodplainsthaninthemainchannel,temperaturesarehigherandlargequantitiesofphytoplankton,invertebrates,andplantmaterialssuchasleaves,fruits,andseedsareabundant.Theseconditionsallowfishtolowerenergyexpendituresandincreasemetabolism,resultinginfastergrowth(Sommeretal.2001).Asdiscussedearlier,theRHJVhasidentifiedsixteen“focalspecies”ofripariandependentbirdsthatareoftenusedastargetsofrestorationprojectsinCalifornia.Othernon-birdspeciesthatareoftenthefocalspeciesforarestoration,includetheRiparianbrushrabbitandtheValleyElderberryLonghornBeetle,botharelistedspeciesundertheEndangeredSpeciesAct.Designingandplantingavegetationstructureforatargetspeciescanbeaccomplishedbyadjustingthedensityandpatternofindividualplants.Patternreferstotherelativeplacementoftreesandshrubsthatwillresultinvariousstructures.Forexample,plantingclustersofatreespeciescanaffectwildlifethatusethetreespeciesbyappearingasalargeplotofhabitat,largerthanasingletreewouldappear.Likewise,densityofplanting,whichreferstothenumberofplantspeciesperarea,affectshowthehabitatisperceivedbywildlife.Thedensityofplantspeciescanbealteredtomeettheneedsoftargetwildlifespecies.Plantspeciesthatareimportantforpollinatorinsectscanbeinstalledinrelativelylargernumbers.Likewise,clustersoffruit-bearingshrubscanbeplantedtobenefitfrugivorousbirdsthroughouttheyear.
Predatorsand/ornestparasitesarecriticalmortalityfactorsforriparianwildlifeinalteredsystems.Closeexamination of these factors is necessary for setting management goals in conjunction with restoringvegetationstructure.
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2. Improving Mitigation for WildlifeThesinglespeciesdesignandnarrowfocusofmitigationplantingsrestricttheecosystembenefitsthattheplantingscanprovide.However,mitigationplantingscanbeincorporatedintolargerrestorationprojects,increasing the value of the overall project. Regulatory agencies responsible for overseeing mitigationprojectscanbeflexible.Ultimately,theirgoalistooptimizethevalueoftheplantingsforthetargetedspeciesorecosystemfunction,andthiscanbeinlinewiththegoalsofbroaderscopedrestorationprojects.
3. Non-native Invasive PlantsRiparian areas in the CentralValley support the richest soils in California.This coupled with the highwatertableswithinreachofrootsallowsforrapidgrowthbyplants.Non-nativeinvasiveplants(weeds)rapidlycolonizeanddominatethesesoilsintheunderstoryandexcludeseedlingsofnativetreesandshrubs.Abandonedfarmfieldstypicallyremaindominatedbyinvasiveweedsforyearsanddecades,especiallyonsitesthatrarelyflood.Woodyinvasives,suchasArundo(Arundodonax)andTamarisk(Tamarixspp),candeveloplargestandscomposedofdensestems.Thesespeciesprovidelittle,ifany,habitatvaluetowildlifeand can cause flood conveyance problems.Restoration plans should address short termweedmanagementonsiteandattempttodesignweed-proof plantings so that invasive speciescannot gain a foothold in the future. Careshouldbetakentolimitthespreadofinvasiveplantstoadjacentareasoftheprojectsite.
For references about invasive identification,impactsandcontrol,see:
CaliforniaInvasivePlantCouncilInvasiveSpeciesDefinedinaPolicyContext:RecommendationsfromtheFederalInvasiveSpeciesAdvisoryCommitteeUniversityofCaliforniaWeedResearchandInformationCenter
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References for Invasives Identification, Impacts and Control
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A. Implementation Monitoring Thepurpose,significance,andsuccessofariparianrestorationprojectcanbe,andattimesarerequiredtobe,monitoredthroughouttheentireprocess.Thismeansmonitoringcantakeplacebeforeimplementation,during restoration, and after implementation. The California RapidAssessment Method (CRAM) is astatewide,standardizedmethodtomonitorwetlands(whichincluderiparianareas)inacost-effectiveandscientificallydefensiblemanner.Themethodsandhandbookareavailableonline(www.cramwetlands.org).Giventheecologicalcomplexityofanyrestorationsite,manyunknownswillaffecttheperformanceoftheplants.Consequently,implementationrequiresanadaptivemanagementapproachtothetimingandlevelofintensityofmanagementactionsduringimplementation.Adaptivemanagementrequiresthefieldmanagertocarryoutsmall-scaleexperimentsinthefieldthatwillinfluencehismanagementactionsinthefuture.
Implement management
Evaluate (progress
toward objective?)
Implement alternative
management
Develop objectives and design
yes
no
Monitor project
Modify?
Forexample,howoftenshouldirrigationbeapplied?Allplantspecieshaveinherentlydifferentrequirementsfor soilmoisture foroptimumgrowth. Inaddition, soilprofilesvaryacrossa site. Together, theplantspecies’individualrequirementsandthevariabilityinsoilsmeansthatuniformirrigationlevelsacrossthesitewillnotimpactallplantsequally.Thefieldmanagermustcarryoutsimpleexperiments,or“test-plots”,todeterminetheoptimalirrigationscheduleandamountsatdifferenttimesoftheyearthatwillresultintheactivegrowthofallspecies.
Timingofimplementationtasksiscriticaltoprojectsuccess.Delayingweedcontrolorirrigationbyevenafewdayscanhavedisastrous impactson thegrowthandsurvivalofplants. Monitoringtodeterminemaintenanceneedsmust takeplaceweekly,andduringcertain timesof theyear(e.g.midspring)dailymonitoringmayberequired.
VII. Monitoring Riparian Restoration Projects
Figure 8
One example of an adaptive man-agement procedure, where any step in project implementation can be revised as information is gathered, including the original objectives.
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B. Measuring “Restoration Success”Restoration success of the project will be determined by how well the goals for the project were met. Not only will success therefore be different for each restoration project, success can also be measured at several different levels.
1. The Contract Level Contracts require some kind of quantitative measure of performance to evaluate success. Most call for a cumulative survival of all plants and trees after the maintenance period of at least 70 percent. Percent cover of the entire site by native species is a reasonable performance goal when grasses or other herbaceous species are planted.
2. Horticultural Success In addition to survival, height and cover, or diameter at breast height of individuals of all species can be measured annually to track growth. Permanently marked sample plots are the ideal design, since they can also be used for post-project monitoring. Recent advances in the restoration of riparian understory species allows for restoration success to be defined as the percentage of the entire site that is covered by native species.
3. Wildlife UseMonitoring of use of the restoration planting by wildlife species is the ultimate measure of success of any riparian restoration project. The methods of monitoring depend on the original goals of the project and wildlife for which the restoration was designed. Monitoring methods will also depend on the resources available for monitoring, including time. Long-term monitoring is the best way to understand how wildlife respond to the project site. It is best to select wildlife that are considered umbrella species, which are species that represent many other species, and to select a range of umbrella species that represent multiple habitat requirements (Block et al. 2001). Landbird monitoring is an excellent way to measure restoration success, because birds are relatively easy to locate and observe and they cover a wide range of habitat types (RHJV 2004, Gardali et al. 2007). A diversity of birds on the site means the restoration successfully provided a diversity of habitat to them. Presence and absence monitoring is a useful indicator of the wildlife present on the site. More detailed surveys that can provide demographic data such as nesting success, mortality rates and monitoring over many years will indicate whether the site is functioning as quality habitat for breeding or as a site that wildlife use temporarily.
4. Mitigation SuccessMitigation can take the form of creating new habitat to replace the lost or enhancing existing habitat through for example, additional plantings and invasive species removal. Whether or not mitigation is successful depends on how suitable and accessible the habitat is for the targeted species, or how well the created habitat replicates the ecosystem services of the disrupted natural system. Unfortunately, evaluations of the mitigation process from the scientific assessment and quantification of the resources, to the monitoring of completed mitigation projects, have revealed many shortcomings (Holyoak et al. 2009). For one, multiple small scale mitigation projects that replace intact ecosystems, result in fragmented habitat (Noss et al. 1997). The timing of mitigation plantings with respect to take of natural habitat is also rarely addressed. Mitigated habitats may take decades or even centuries before they develop fully to provide all the resources needed by the imperiled species (Morris et al. 2006). All forms of mitigation require a monitoring plan, but these are frequently lacking in quality or missing altogether (Kareiva et al. 1999, Holyoak 2009). Too often mitigation allows development to proceed under the incorrect assumption that the losses of natural resources are offset through mitigation activities. New information (2009) suggests the effect of these habitat offsets on conservation is more placebo than clearly beneficial.
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C. Post-project, Long-term Evaluations in the Distant FutureLong-term evaluations of the success of restoration projects will be critical for refining methods andobjectives. However, restorationcontracts fundonly implementation tasks for three tofiveyears. Thequestionfortheimplementer,asacontractapproachesitsend,iswhatcanbeleftbehindthatwillallowforfutureevaluationoftheproject?Themostimportantitemsincludethefinaldraftoftheimplementationplanandanas-builtdrawingofthefinalplantingpatternsandspeciescompositions.Thecarefulplacementofpermanentmonitoringplotsandpermanentphotopointsacrossthesitewillalsoprovidesomelongtermmonitoringopportunities.
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A. Pre-project Approval Permits1. CEQA or NEPA
California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) or National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) environmental compliance is dependent upon the funding source for the restoration project and the ownership of the project area. Typically, restoration on federal lands requires NEPA compliance. Funding from a state program (for example the Wildlife Conservation Board or Department of Water Resources Flood Protection Corridor Program) necessitates CEQA compliance.
2. Encroachment PermitAn encroachment permit must be secured from the Central Valley Flood Protection Board for all projects which encroach into rivers, waterways and floodways within and adjacent to federal and state authorized flood control projects and within designated floodways adopted by the Central Valley Flood Protection Board. Depending on the district and river, there may be additional encroachment permits required by one of the several flood control districts throughout the state. As part of the encroachment permit application process, adjoining landowners and local levee districts must be contacted and informed of the restoration project. An endorsement must be obtained by the local levee district. If an application contains an endorsement from the local levee district, the General Manager of the Central Valley Flood Protection Board may issue an encroachment permit. If an application does not include such an endorsement, the Central Valley Flood Protection Board must meet to review the application and vote to issue a permit. During the review process by the Board, the project design and hydraulic analysis are examined. Once an encroachment permit is issued, a levee inspector from the Department of Water Resources must be notified and requested to conduct a site inspection 10 days prior to the start of the restoration project. General information regarding an application for encroachment permit can be found at the California Department of Water Resources encroachment permits page (CDWR 2009b).
3. Lake and Streambed Alteration Agreement (1600)Section 1600 of the California Fish and Game Code requires that, prior to implementing a restoration project, activities that could significantly modify a stream, lake or river be identified. The California Department of Fish and Game must be notified and consulted with to determine whether or not an activity could substantially adversely affect an existing fish and wildlife resource.
Notify the Department of Fish and Game if any activity will: Substantially obstruct or divert the natural flow of a river, stream, or lake. Substantially change the bed, channel, or bank of a river, stream, or lake. Use any material from the bed, channel, or bank of a river, stream, or lake. Deposit or dispose of debris, waste, or other material containing crumbled, flaked, or ground pavement where it can pass into a river, stream, or lake.
••••
VIII. Permits
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If it is determined by the Department that there is an adverse effect on natural resources, a Lake or Streambed Alteration Agreement is required. For more information, forms and instructions see the California Department of Fish and Game’s Lake or Streambed Alteration page.
4. Army Corps of Engineers 404 Section 404 of the Clean Water Act requires that permits are obtained prior to activities that could result in discharge into wetlands, streams, rivers and other U.S. waters. The Corps is responsible for issuing these permits. For an overview of Section 404, see US EPA 2009.
5. Water Quality Certification (401)Section 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act grants each state the right to ensure that the State’s interests are protected on any federally permitted activity occurring in or adjacent to Waters of the State. In California, the State Water Resources Control Board is the agency mandated to ensure protection of the State’s waters.
A project that requires a federal permit or involves dredge or fill activities that may result in a discharge to U.S. surface waters and/or “Waters of the State” are required to obtain a Clean Water Act Section 401 Water Quality Certification and/or Waste Discharge Requirements (Dredge/Fill Projects) determination from the Regional Water Quality Control Board, verifying that the project activities will comply with state water quality standards. If a project does not require a federal permit but does include dredge or fill activities, the Regional Water Quality Control Board may exercise the right to issue either a Water Discharge Requirements or Waiver of Waste Water Discharge Requirements determination.
It should be noted that CEQA compliance must be completed before consultation with the Regional Water Quality Control Board.
6. Archaeological SurveySeveral federal and state regulations, such as the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) and California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), may require an archaeological survey or disclosure of known archaeological or cultural resources within or near the project area, and an assessment of potential impacts to these areas. If the restoration project is on state or federal land, an archaeological survey may have already been conducted. Consult with the state or federal agency and identify any known sensitive areas. Depending on the scope of the project and the potential impacts to culturally sensitive area, a more detailed archaeological survey and/or consultation may be needed.
Another source for obtaining information on archaeological and historical resources information is the California Historical Resources Information System (CHRIS), which includes the statewide Historical Resources Inventory (HRI) database maintained by the Office of Historical Preservation (OHP) and the records maintained and managed, under contract, by twelve independent regional Information Centers (ICs). Individuals and government agencies seeking information on cultural and historical resources should contact the regional IC which services the county in which the resource is located. The locations, contact information, and counties served by each regional IC can be found on the CHRIS regional information center.
7. County Land Use Conversion Ordinances During the planning stages for the restoration project, research local land use conversion ordinances. There could be county ordinances that require a permit to convert agricultural lands to habitat, e.g., Butte County.
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ManyfarmsareundertheWilliamsonActwhichfreezespropertytaxesatsomehistoricrate.Whenfarmingisnolongercarriedoutontheland,backtaxesmustbepaid.
8. Voluntary Neighbor Agreements Specialplantingareastofunctionastrespassbarriers/bufferswithneighboringpropertyoftenareaconstraintthatcanaffect restorationdesignobjectives.Aneighboring landownermayrequest that the restorationdesignincludesuchabarrierthatcanbedesignedusingblackberry,rose,andpoisonoak.Anotherbarriermightinvolveplantingadensehedgerowoftreestointerceptpesticidedriftfromneighboringproperties.Suchhedgerowscanalsofunctionasextremelyvaluablehabitat.
9. Endangered Species ConsultationProjectsonfederalpropertyshouldbereviewedbytheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceortheNationalMarineFisheriesServicetodeterminepotentialimpactstofederallylistedspeciesanddesignatedcriticalhabitats.Under the authority of California State law, the Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has jurisdictionover the conservation, protection, and management of wildlife, native plants, and habitat necessary tomaintainbiologically sustainablepopulations.DFGservesmultiple roles indealingwith theCaliforniaEnvironmentalQualityAct.
B. Implementation Permits1. Burn Permits
Preparingasiteforarestorationprojectmayincludeburningtoeliminatedebrisandcontrolweeds.Aburnpermit,whichisissuedbythelocal(County)AirQualityControlDistrict,mustbesecuredpriortoanyburningofvegetativematerial.
2. Well Drilling Permits Priortodrillinganewproduction-wellwithintheprojectarea,acountywelldrillingpermitmustbeissued.Contact thecountypublichealthdepartmentor environmentalhealthdepartment forwell construction/deconstruction permit application. Every county will have different requirements and processes. Forexample,GlennCountywillallowapplicantstodecommissiontheirwells,whileTehamaCountyrequiresthatlicensedC-57drillerstoperformdecommission.Aninspectionisrequiredpriortoinstallingasanitaryseal after drilling a well and a final inspection and receipt of a satisfactory abandonment report anddisinfectionstatementisnecessaryfordecommissioningawell.Pumpingirrigationwaterfromtheriverrequiresafish-friendlyscreenovertheintakeandthelegalrighttotakethewater–forinformationonwaterrightsandpermitscontacttheStateWaterResourcesControlBoard.
3. Herbicide PermitsDependingontheownershipoftheprojectarea,severalpermitsarerequiredpriortotheinitiationofanherbicidemaintenanceprogram.Workonfederallands,suchasareasunderU.S.FishandWildlifeServicejurisdiction,requiresafederalPesticideUsePermit.RestorationprojectsonpropertiesunderCaliforniaDepartmentofFishandGamejurisdictionrequiresaStatePesticideUseRecommendationForm(880).
Allherbicideapplicationsshouldbecalibratedand/orconductedbyaPestControlAdvisor(PCA)orpersonnelwithaQualifiedApplicator’sLicense(QAL)orPrivateApplicator’sLicense(PAL).AllapplicationsshouldbedocumentedandreportedtotheCountyAgriculturalCommissioner,whichwillthenbereportedtotheDepartmentofPesticideRegulation.
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How is my project incorporated into the surrounding landscape?
A. Central Valley Flood Protection Board Encroachment PermitsTheCentralValleyFloodProtectionBoardischargedwithregulatingdevelopmentindesignatedfloodwaysin theCentralValley.ApermitmustbesecuredfromtheBoardbasedupontheconstruction/restorationplan.Plantingdensity,pattern,androworientationareimportantdesignfactors.Aflood-neutralplantingdesignisrequiredfortheBoardtoissueapermit.
B. Title 23. Waters (California Code of Regulations) ThisStateCodeofRegulationsdescribestheresponsibilitiesoftheCentralValleyFloodProtectionBoard.Itincludesalonglistofspeciesofplantsthatcanbeplantedonornearlevees,alistofunacceptablespecies,andspecificsofmanagementofplantsincloseproximitytoalevee.
C. Department of Water Resources (DWR) Flood Management DivisionTheStateofCaliforniaDepartmentofWaterResources(DWR)operatesandmaintains theStateWaterProject,includingtheCaliforniaAqueduct.TheDWRalsoprovidesdamsafetyandfloodcontrolservices.DWRisresponsibleforthemaintenanceof1,600milesofleveeswithinthestate,whichisfundedbytheGeneralFund.Theremainderistheresponsibilityoflocalleveeandreclamationdistricts.
D. Army Corps Operating & Maintenance (O&M) GuidelinesThe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) influences restoration projects from two perspectives-infrastructuredevelopmentandregulation.Corpsengineershavedesigned,built, inspectedandcertifiedleveestofloodrecurrencestandards(RiversandHarborsActof1890).ConstructionactivitieswithintheNation’swaterwaysmustbeissuedapermitfromtheCorps.Inaddition,theCorpsisresponsibleforissuingCorps404permits for thefillingorotherdisturbanceofwetlandsandotherwatersof theUS (FederalWaterPollutionControlActamendmentsof1972).TheCorpswritestheO&MguidelinesforleveeandfloodwaymaintenanceandgivesthesetoDWR.Thesesameregulationsaretransferredtolocalleveeandreclamationdistrictsforimplementation.
IX. Coordination of Permits, Regulations, and Activities
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E. Levee and Reclamation Districts ResponsibilitiesLocalleveeandreclamationdistricts,undertheauthorityofStateWaterCode,weredevelopedtoprotectlands fromoverflow through the erectionof levees, dikes andotherfloodcontrol systems.These localdistrictsareresponsibleformonitoringleveeintegrityandforthemaintenanceofthesefloodprotectionsystems. Planning for restoration should include notification of the local leveemaintenance district asit may affect the district’s maintenance activities. Properties within the district are taxed to help fundmaintenance.
F. Regional and County OrganizationsResourceConservationDistricts(RCDs)aretypicallyorganizedattheCountylevel.RCDsworkcloselywithprivatelandownerstoimplementgovernment-fundedlandmanagementprojectsonprivatepropertywiththedirectassistanceoftheNaturalResourcesConservationService.Watershedgroupsareorganizedaroundwatershedboundariesandareoftenthesponsorofriparianrestorationprojects.AnexampleistheSacramentoRiverConservationAreaForum(SRCAF).
G. Endangered Species Act (ESA) ConsiderationsIfarestorationprojectwillpotentiallyaffectalistedendangeredorthreatenedspecies,thenaconsultationwiththeEndangeredSpeciesOfficeoftheU.S.FishandWildlifeServicewillberequired.Therestorationprojectmustnotnegativelyaffectalistedspecies,evenifatthecompletionoftheprojectthespecieswillbenefit.Iftherestorationprojectshouldattractlistedspeciesthatpreviouslywerenotpresentonthesite,thenfutureliabilitiesundertheESAcanbemanagedbyaUSFWSSafeHarboragreement.
ThereareseveralexamplesofprivatelandownersandwaterservicesthathaveSafeHarborAgreementsthatallowfornormalmanagementactivitiesaroundlistedspecies.
H. Adjacent and Nearby Land Use 1. Agriculture
Ifarestorationprojectsiteisadjacenttoagriculturalland,thereareseveralconsiderationsthatwillhavetobediscussedwiththelandmanagersandowners.Manyfarmersworrythatarestorationprojectwillhavedirectnegativeimpactstotheircrops,forexamplebyincreasingthepopulationsofpestspeciessuchaspheasants,deer,groundsquirrels,volesandrats.Thesefearscansometimesleadtodrasticmeasures,suchastheremovalofadjacentriparianvegetationtospinachfarmsinSalinasValleyfortheunlikelyassumptionthatwildlife(asopposedtocattle)wereresponsibleforinfectingthecropwithE.colibacteria(formoreinformationseetheWildlandFarmAlliance).Insectpeststhatoverwinterinrestorationsitesareacommonworry,butjustasmanybeneficialinsectpredatorssuchaspreyingmantisandparasitoidsthatkillharmfulinsectsoverwinterinrestorationsites.Pollinatorslikenativebeesmayalsospreadfromrestorationsitestofarms.Riparianvegetationcanreducetheimpactsoffloodingbyslowingflowsandtrappinglargedebris.Riparianareascanalsocleanwaterbyfilteringandtrappingnutrientsandpesticides.Restorationistsshouldalsobeawarethatadjacentlandusecannegativelyimpacttheproject,forexample,livestockgrazerscouldgetontothesite.Onemeasuretoreduceinteractionbetweentherestorationprojectandadjacentlanduseistocreatesetbackzonesorbuffersbetweenthetwoareas.
Onecommonconcernrestoringlandspreviouslyusedforagricultureorrangelands,isthattherestorationsitestakelandoutofproductionresultinginanetlossofeconomicvaluetothecommunity.Often,these
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sitesarepurchasedbecausetheyarenotproductivelandsinthefirstplace,becausetheyarepronetoflooding.Furthermore,theimpactsriparianareasprovidetoacommunitydonothaveaquantitativevalue.
2. Urbanization Restoration projects adjacent to urban areas must also consider the impacts of one land cover type ontheother.Forexample,dependingonthecountyrequirements,mosquitoabatementmayberequiredasa component of the restoration project.The restorationist should contact the local mosquito abatementprogramforspecificdetails.Attheplanningstage,theurbansettingoftheprojectsitewillalsoneedtobeevaluated.Iftherearelightsadjacenttothesitethatwillremainonallnightanddisruptwildlife,perhapsadenserowoftallnativetreescouldhelplessentheimpact.Restorationprojectsadjacenttourbanareaswilllikelyhavetodealwithferalanimals,especiallydogsandcats,thatcanharassandkillwildlife.Often,residentsencourageferalanimalpopulationsbyleavingfoodoutatnight,eitherdeliberatelyoraccidently.Petanimalscanbeequallydisruptive.Activeengagementandeducationofneighborstorestorationprojectsmayhelpreducetheseactivities.Finally,therewillbespecificzoninglawsandlandusechangesrestrictionswithinthecountythatshouldbecompliedwithduringprojectplanning.
I. Different Definitions of Restoration in Labor Laws Differingmanagementapproachesto,anddefinitionsofRiparianHabitatRestorationbyagencymanagerscanbeconstraintsthataffectrestorationprojectimplementationintermsoflaborcodes.Therearenumerousinconsistenciesinthewaythatriparianhabitatrestorationisdefinedbyvariousagenciesbecauseoftherecognition,orlackthereof,ofrestorationasauniqueprojectactivity.Therefore,differentlaborcodesmayapplydependingontheclassificationgiventorestorationbygrantingagencies,whichcouldbeRestoration,Landscaping,Construction,orAgriculture.
1. Worker’s CompensationUnderworkerscompensationlawdefinitions,thereisnocategorycalledrestoration.RestorationworkisclassifiedasLandscaping.Therefore,inordertoinstallarestorationprojectthatisdefinedasLandscaping,astate-issuedLandscapeContractor’slicensemustbeheldbytherestorationist.
2. Prevailing Wage RequirementsRestorationprojectsfundedthroughFederalgrantsorincontractwiththeUnitedStatesthatexceed$2,000arerequiredtopayworkersatthesitenolessthantheprevailingwagesoftheprojectlocality(Davis-BaconAct and McNamara-O’Hara Service ContractAct). Prevailing wage requirements are dependent uponseveralfactors,whichincludethefundingsource,projectlocationandtypeofwork.Thegrantagreementorcontractwillhavespecificlanguagethatstateswhetherprevailingwagesarerequired.Thedesignationof the typeofwork that is beingdone is significant.Restorationmaybedefined as either landscapingorconstruction,dependingonthescopeofworkfortherestorationproject.Typically,aclassificationofconstructionwillrequireprevailingwages.Todeterminewhichclassificationtherestorationprojectfallsunder,contacttheDepartmentofIndustrialRelations.
3. Agricultural Labor LawRestoration projects often are installed using conventional, large-scale agricultural technology andequipment.Agriculturallaborlaws,whichtypicallyimpactagriculturaloperations(e.g.,60hourworkweek,insteadof40hours),arenotafactorinriparianhabitatrestoration.Theselaborlawsapplytooperationsthat
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produceamarketablecommodity.Restorationisnotdefinedashavingamarketablecommodity.Therefore,theselaborlawsdonotapply.
4. U.S. Department of AgricultureTheNaturalResourcesConservationService,anagencyoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,providestechnicalassistanceandfundingtosupportlandownersinprotectingandconservingtheirsoil,water,andothernaturalresources.Restorationisdefinedasanagriculturalpracticeinthiscaseandnotlandscapingorconstruction.Because thenatureof theirprogram iscollaborationwith landowners,usually farmers,restorationprojectsarecategorizedasagriculture,inwhichagriculturallaborlawsthenapply.
5. California Department of Pesticide RegulationMost herbicides do not include riparian species on the labels.The Department of Pesticide Regulationrecognizestheuseofherbicidesonrestorationprojectsasnon-agriculturaluses.
6. Wildlife Conservation Board, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and California Department of Fish and Game
Fundingagencies,suchasWildlifeConservationBoard,andstateandfederalagencies,suchastheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceandCaliforniaDepartmentofFishandGame,definetheseprojectsasrestoration.Unlike other agencies, restoration work is not classified as agricultural, landscaping or constructionactivities.
7. County AgenciesThe County Agricultural Commissioner and the County Air Quality Control identifies restoration asagriculturalactivities.
8. Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)OSHAregulationsandrequirementsshouldbereviewedduringtheplanningprocess.Theyregulatethedepthofunreinforcedexcavations(soil testpits)plus theymandaterequirementsforworkerhealthandsafety.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
Buildingarestorationbudgetforaprojectthathasnotyetbeenproposedisachallengingaffair.However,potentialfunderswillrequireareasonablelevelofdetailwhenaproposalissubmitted.
Obviously,morethanonebidperproductorserviceshouldbesolicited.Whenestimatingabudgetforaproposal,beawarethatmanyyearsmaypassbeforefundingarrivesforyourrestorationproject.Costswillbedifferent,typicallyincreasingwithtime.Yetthefunderwillmostlikelyrequirethattheoriginalbudget,aspresentedintheproposal,befollowed.Acontingencylineitemisalwaysagoodidea.Tenpercentismostoftenused.Beawareofthebillingrequirementsofthefunder,aswellasitspaymentschedule.Paymentsaretypicallyaftertheworktobebilledhasbeenaccomplishedandmaybeseveralmonthsafteryousubmityourinvoice.Some funders may require retention, usually 10 percent, be withheld until completion of theproject.Fundersmayrequiresubstantialsupportbeincludedinbillings.Thismayrequiremoretimeandattentionbytheprojectadministrator.Somefundersmaynotcoverallexpenditures.RefertoOMBA-122(CircularNo.A-122issuedbytheUSOfficeofManagementandBudget)forallowablecosts.Beawareofyourownorganization’sadministrativecostsoverthelifeofacontract.Donotshort-changeyourself.Beawareofwhatthefunderwillpayforprojectadministration.Thepercentagemaybelimitedandlessthanyouractualcosts.Beawareofanyadditionalcostsrequiredbyafundersuchasthecostofaneasementontheprojectsite,oramanagementendowmenttocoverlong-termmanagementcosts.
••
••
•
•
•
•
•
•
X. How to Build a Budget
Program Name Description Incentive
WildlifeHabitatIncentiveProgram(WHIP)http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/whip/
Voluntaryprogramforpeoplewhowanttodevelopandimprovewildlifehabitatprimarilyonprivateland.
Upto75%costsharefor5to10years
ConservationReserveProgram(CRP)http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/
Assistancetofarmersandranchersregardingsoil,waterandnaturalresourcesconcernsandcompliancewithFederal,Stateandtriballaws.
Financialandtechnicalassistance
EnvironmentalQualityIncentivesProgram(EQIP)http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/PROGRAMS/EQIP/
Voluntaryconservationprogramforfarmersandrancherstoimplementstructuralandmanagementpracticestoimproveenvironmentalquality.
Financialandtechnicalassistance,1to10yearsandupto75%costshare
CaliforniaWetlandsReserveProgramhttp://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp/states/ca.html
Farmerscanselleasementoflandsforconversiontowetlandsandriparianhabitat,andmayalsobenefitfromsaleofhuntingrights.
Financialandtechnicalassistance
Table 1: Federal Cost Share Programs for Habitat Development
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
Therearemanydifferentwaysofinstallingarestorationplanting.Theexactmethodswillbedeterminedinpartbysitehistory.Ifthesitehasbeenfarmedinthepast,itmayhaveanirrigationsysteminplace.Thesitemayhaveanuniquesuiteofweedspeciesduetopastlanduses.Ifthesitewasonceinfarming,whywasitsoldforrestoration?Theanswerwillusuallybeduetoeconomicreasons–thesitedoesnotproduceaneconomicallyviablecommodity,duetopoorsoils,poorwaterquality,highwatertable,expenseofclean-upafterfloods.Thisknowledgewillallowtherestorationplannertoadjusttheplantoaccommodatethesesite-specificcharacteristics.Table2listsvariousfieldmethodsthatcanbeusedtoaccomplishimplementationtasksandcomparestheiradvantagesanddisadvantages.
What Can Go Wrong - Why Projects FailImplementation of a restoration plan into the field requires a special skill set that few people possess.Plannersandmostbiologistsarenotimplementers.Onlysomeonewithmanyyearsoffarmingexperiencepossessesthejudgment,knowledge,andskilltomaketimelydecisionsthatresultinahealthy,weed-freerestorationplanting.
Restorationprojectstypicallyfailduetoproblemsthatariseduringthefirstyearofimplementation.Manyproblems can be avoided through considerable planning and preparation. Skilled personnel and goodcommunicationamongworkers,alongwithfamiliaritywiththesitewillimprovethechancesofsuccess.Frequently,projectsfailbecauseofinexperienceoralackofpreparationforthefollowingconsiderations:
Scale: afive-acreprojectwillbemanagedverydifferentlyfroma100acreproject.Methodsforweedcontrolandirrigationarecompletelydifferent–requiringdifferenttools–ifthegoalistoproduceahealthy,successfulproject.ThemanagermustThinkDifferently,accordingtothescaleoftheproject.Weed control: Weedsoftenwinbyoverwhelming(burying)nativeplants,causingthemtodieorgrowmuchmoreslowly.Thisisacommonproblemthatinexperiencedmanagersusuallysufferbecause they do not understand weed ecology and the life history characteristics of individualweedspecies.Controlmeasuresare typicallyappliedtoolate in theplant’sdevelopment.Largecosts,includingplantmortality,andsignificanttimearerequiredtoremovethelargeweedsfromthefield.Planting day unpredictability: Many things can go wrong, even with careful planning. Theweathercanbehotwithadrywindblowingatplanting.Theirrigationpumpbreaksdown,resultinginnowaterfornewplants.Thenurserydeliverssmallplantsonedayearly,meaningnoirrigationuntilinstalled.Thenurserydeliverstheplantsonedaylate,meaningtheplantingcrewhasnothingtodo.Irrigation system failure due to delivery problems,e.g.,pumpbreaksdownandcannotberepairedforseveraldaysduringhotweather;waterlinesbreak(andhead-ditchfailure)compromisingentiresystem;riverleveldropsoutfromunderthepumpintake,resultinginnowater.Failureduetowaterqualityissuesusuallyinvolvetheconcentrationofsaltsintheirrigationwaterwhicheitherkillsplantsorslowstheirgrowth.
•
•
•
•
XI. Technical Methods of Project Implementation
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
Rodents: beavers (Castor canadensis), meadow mice (Microtus sp.), gophers (Thomomys sp.),groundsquirrels(Spermophilus beecheyi).Allrodentspeciesarecapableofeatinganddestroyingayoungrestorationplanting.Site conditions are not as described in plan/construction drawings,ortheconstructiondrawingcannotbeinstalledasdrawn.Thisisespeciallydemoralizingtotheimplementer.Planner and Implementer work for different companies,meaningthattheimplementerhadnoinputintotheplan.Implementer not a farmer.Knowshowtomanagegolf-coursesandlawns.
•
•
•
•
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
TAB
LE2
.R
ESTO
RAT
ION
FIE
LDM
ETH
OD
SSU
MM
ARY
ME
TH
OD
SA
DVA
NTA
GE
SD
ISA
DVA
NTA
GE
S
I. FI
EL
D
PRE
PAR
ATIO
NProperfieldpreparationwilleaseplantingandhastenplantestablishm
ent.Fieldpreparationmethodslisted
may
be
used
inc
ombi
natio
n.S
eeA
lso
Wee
dC
ontro
l.
•D
isci
ngGoodforlargeorsmall-scalefieldclearing.
Turn
swee
dsin
toso
ilke
epin
gai
sles
cle
ar.
Con
serv
esso
ilm
oist
ure.
Seed
ban
kis
turn
edo
vere
xpos
ing
seed
sto
light
and
w
ater
,see
dsg
erm
inat
ew
ithra
ino
rirr
igat
ion.
Fie
ld
mus
tbe
clea
red
ofa
llla
rge
debr
isto
pro
perly
ope
rate
di
sc.
•B
urni
ngGoodforlarge-orsmall-scalefieldclearing.
Rem
ovesweedsanddebrisfrom
field.
Bur
npe
rmits
are
requ
ired,
not
allo
wed
ata
llsi
tes.
M
ustb
eca
refu
llyp
lann
eda
ndti
med
forb
estb
urn.
Ex
perie
nced
per
sonn
elre
quire
d.W
on’t
supp
ress
pe
renn
ialw
eeds
,suc
has
John
son
gras
s.
•La
nd
Leve
ling
Requiredforfl
oodirrigationsystem
sandfor
impr
oved
ope
ratio
nof
equ
ipm
ent.
Additionalcostswithtemporarybenefits.
II. P
LA
NT
ING
Indi
vidu
alsp
ecie
smay
be
plan
ted
usin
gdi
ffere
ntm
etho
dsfo
rthe
opt
imum
est
ablis
hmen
tand
cos
tsav
ings
.U
sing
nur
sery
gro
wn
cont
aine
rsto
ckis
the
conv
entio
nalh
ortic
ultu
ralm
etho
d.
•R
ippi
ngR
ipsa
ndfr
actu
resp
lant
ing
row
to3
feet
dee
p.
Allo
wse
asie
rpla
ntin
gan
dim
prov
edro
ot
deve
lopm
ent.
Can
’tbe
don
eon
site
with
exi
stin
gtre
est
umps
and
irr
igat
ion
syst
ems.
Cre
ates
air
spac
esin
soil.
Firm
ly
tam
pso
ilw
hen
plan
ting.
•A
ugur
ing
Mixesstratifiedso
illayerstoeightfeetdeep.
Impr
oves
root
dev
elop
men
t,es
peci
ally
with
do
rman
tcut
tings
.
Addstofieldpreparationtim
eandcosts.Limited
benefitinso
ilswithsand,largegravel,cobbles,ordeep
wat
erta
ble.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
ME
TH
OD
SA
DVA
NTA
GE
SD
ISA
DVA
NTA
GE
S
•D
irect
See
dH
ighl
ysu
cces
sful
met
hod
foro
aks(
acor
ns)a
ndg
ood
succ
essw
ithro
se.
Cos
tsav
ings
with
outp
ropa
gatio
nco
sts.
Sho
rtte
rmp
lann
ing
time
requ
ired
with
mos
tse
edsc
olle
cted
infa
llan
dpl
ante
din
win
ter.
Lim
ited
succ
essf
orso
me
ripar
ian
spec
iesi
nex
perim
ents
.Seedsw
ashedaw
ayorburiedonflood-pronesites.
Seed
lings
will
not
com
pete
with
fast
-gro
win
gex
otic
wee
ds
insp
ring
and
sum
mer
.
•N
urse
ry
Gro
wn
Con
tain
er
Stoc
k
Hig
hly
succ
essf
ulc
onve
ntio
nalm
etho
dfo
rall
spec
ies.
C
anb
epl
ante
dfr
omfa
llto
late
sprin
g.E
stab
lishe
dse
edlin
gsw
ithd
evel
oped
root
syst
ems.
Incr
ease
dco
stsw
ithle
ngth
ypr
opag
atio
npr
oces
sfro
m
seedstratificationtohardening-off.A
pproximately
twel
veto
eig
htee
nm
onth
snee
ded.
Req
uire
spla
nnin
gan
des
timat
ing
two
year
sin
adva
nce.
•D
orm
ant
Har
dwoo
dC
uttin
gs
Hig
hly
succ
essf
ulm
etho
dfo
rFre
mon
tcot
tonw
ood
and
will
owsp
ecie
s.E
asily
col
lect
ed,s
tore
d,a
nd
plan
ted
fors
mal
l-an
dla
rge-
scal
esi
tes.
Winterrainsandfloodswilllimitaccesstocollection
site
sdur
ing
criti
calc
olle
ctio
ntim
e.H
igh
mor
talit
yin
dr
yw
inte
rsa
ndsp
rings
ifir
rigat
ion
can’
tbe
appl
ied.
R
efrig
erat
edst
orag
ere
quire
dif
can’
tbe
plan
ted
imm
edia
tely
.
III.
WE
ED
C
ON
TR
OL
Thoroughweedcontrolisn
eededinfieldpreparationandthefirstyearafterplanting.Inthesecondandthirdyear
afte
rpla
ntin
g,w
eed
cont
rolc
anb
ere
duce
d.T
heli
sted
wee
dco
ntro
lmet
hods
can
be
used
inc
ombi
natio
n.
•D
isci
ngTu
rnsw
eeds
into
the
soil.
Low
equ
ipm
entc
osts
and
in
vest
men
t.R
emov
esro
dent
cov
er.
Con
serv
esso
ilm
oist
ure.
Mus
tbe
repe
ated
seve
ralt
imes
dur
ing
the
seas
onb
ecau
se
new
lye
xpos
edw
eed
seed
swill
ger
min
ate
with
nex
tirr
igat
ion
orra
in.
•H
erbi
cide
sEf
fect
ive
clea
ring
ofa
isle
s,ro
wsa
ndir
rigat
ion
mai
nlin
es.
Spot
app
licat
ions
ati
ndiv
idua
lpla
nt
loca
tions
.A
pply
atc
ritic
alti
mes
toli
mit
seas
onal
ex
otic
spec
ies.
Cos
tlyfo
rlar
ge-s
cale
and
repe
ated
app
licat
ion.
R
estri
ctio
nso
nus
e.C
aref
ulu
sere
quire
dto
redu
ce
haza
rds.
Lim
ited
byw
eath
erc
ondi
tions
such
as
tem
pera
ture
and
win
d.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
ME
TH
OD
SA
DVA
NTA
GE
SD
ISA
DVA
NTA
GE
S
•M
ulch
ing
Ath
ick,
org
anic
mul
chw
illsu
ppre
ssw
eed
seed
ger
min
atio
n.R
eple
nish
esso
ilor
gani
cm
atte
r.C
onse
rves
soil
moi
stur
e.
Highcostwithlaborandmaterials.Diffi
culttoapplyonlarge-
scalesites.Decom
poses,short-termbenefit.M
ulchfloatsaway
ifsiteisflooded.
•La
ndsc
ape
Fabr
ic/W
eed
Mat
s
Supp
ress
esg
erm
inat
ion
ofw
eed
seed
s.H
igh
cost
swith
inte
nsiv
ela
bora
ndm
ater
ialc
osts
,esp
ecia
lly
inla
rge-
scal
eap
plic
atio
ns.
A3
’x3’
squa
reis
requ
ired
fore
ach
plan
ting
loca
tion.
Pap
erfa
bric
ssup
pres
swee
dsfo
ronl
yon
eye
ar.
Synt
hetic
fabr
icla
stsm
any
year
sand
may
nee
dto
be
rem
oved
.
•C
over
Cro
psR
eple
nish
esso
ilnu
trien
ts.
Succ
essf
ulw
eed
supp
ress
ion
whe
nm
anag
ed.
Hig
hco
stsf
ora
shor
t-ter
ma
pplic
atio
n(o
neto
thre
eye
ars)
.C
onve
ntio
nalc
over
cro
pse
edm
ixtu
resa
ren
otd
esig
ned
for
rest
orat
ion
appl
icat
ions
and
con
tain
prim
arily
exo
ticsp
ecie
s.
•M
owin
g/Fl
ail
type
Efficientinlarge-scaleapplications.Keeps
aisl
esc
lear
ofw
eeds
.A
llow
slig
htto
reac
hsa
plin
gs.
Inex
pens
ive
appl
icat
ion
cost
s.
Can
’tbe
use
don
row
sori
ndiv
idua
lpla
ntin
glo
catio
ns.
Fiel
dm
ustb
ela
ido
utto
acc
omm
odat
eeq
uipm
ent.
Equ
ipm
ent
requ
iresw
ell-t
rain
edo
pera
tors
,bec
ause
mow
erm
ayh
arm
irr
igat
ion
lines
orp
lant
s.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page �9
ME
TH
OD
SA
DVA
NTA
GE
SD
ISA
DVA
NTA
GE
S
IV.
IRR
IGAT
ION
Fact
orss
uch
asw
ater
qua
lity,
soil
cond
ition
s,an
dex
istin
geq
uipm
entw
illd
eter
min
eirr
igat
ion
syst
emd
esig
n.T
he
met
hods
list
edb
elow
hav
ebe
enu
sed
succ
essf
ully
toe
stab
lish
rest
orat
ion
site
s.E
ach
syst
emw
illre
quire
regu
lar
mai
nten
ance
dur
ing
the
irrig
atio
nse
ason
.Fi
rsty
eari
rrig
atio
nsh
ould
be
appl
ied
top
ush
max
imum
gro
wth
.In
the
seco
nd
andthirdyearirrigationssh
ouldbelessfrequentandlongertoencouragedeeprootdevelopmentandfinallyadjusttosite
cond
ition
s.
•D
ripAhighlyefficientsy
stem
,especiallyinsm
allapplications.
Low
fuel
orp
ower
cos
tsfo
rpum
ping
.D
eep
and
thor
ough
at
indi
vidu
alp
lant
ing
loca
tions
.In
divi
dual
em
itter
swat
er
asm
alla
rea.
Lim
ited
wee
dgr
owth
ina
isle
,whe
ren
oirr
igat
ion
isa
pplie
d.
Ah
igh-
mai
nten
ance
syst
emth
atre
quire
sthe
cos
tof
equi
pmen
ttha
tusu
ally
can
notb
ere
used
,i.e
.,dr
ipli
nes.
M
ustm
aint
ain
indi
vidu
ale
mitt
ersw
ithso
me
syst
ems.
Diffi
culttoremoveandreuseequipm
ent.Rodentschew
lines
.C
onsi
dera
ble
dam
age
and
repa
irsto
syst
emso
nflood-pronesites,sinceitcannotberemovedattheendof
seas
on.
•Sp
rinkl
er
Solid
Set
Am
oder
atel
yad
apta
ble
syst
emth
atw
illa
pply
larg
eam
ount
sofw
ater
.C
anb
ein
stal
led
onu
neve
nsi
tes.
Cov
ers
row
sand
ais
lest
oen
cour
age
late
ralr
ootg
row
th.
Hig
heq
uipm
entc
osts
toin
stal
lper
man
ents
yste
mw
ith
burie
dla
tera
lsa
ndm
ainl
ine.
Can
notb
ere
used
.D
amag
etorisersfrom
floatingdebrisonflood-pronesites.High
pow
erc
osts
forp
umpi
ng.
Abu
ndan
twee
dgr
owth
.
•Sp
rinkl
er
Han
dlin
eA
hig
hly
adap
tabl
esy
stem
with
mov
able
mai
nlin
es,l
ater
als,
and
sprin
kler
s.G
ood
insm
allt
ola
rge-
scal
eap
plic
atio
ns.
Equi
pmen
tcan
be
mov
eda
cros
ssite
and
reus
edo
not
her
site
s.C
over
spla
ntin
gro
wsa
nda
isle
sto
enco
urag
ela
tera
lro
otd
evel
opm
ent.
Can
be
parti
ally
rem
oved
infa
llfr
om
flood-pronesitesandreassembledinsp
ring
Hig
hen
ergy
cos
ts.
Abu
ndan
twee
dgr
owth
acr
osss
ite.
Add
ition
alla
borc
osts
tom
ove
syst
ema
cros
ssite
.
•Fl
ood
Dee
pan
dth
orou
ghir
rigat
ion.
Low
equ
ipm
entc
osts
.Si
tem
ustb
een
gine
ered
,lev
eled
,orc
onto
ured
to
acco
mm
odat
e.A
bund
antw
eed
grow
th.
Furr
owsm
ustb
ere
-est
ablis
hed
afte
reac
hirr
igat
ion.
•W
ater
Tan
kD
irect
pla
cem
enta
ndq
uant
ityo
fwat
erd
eter
min
edb
yop
erat
or.
Mostinefficientm
ethodduetohighcostsforlaborand
timerequired.U
suallycannotirrigatelargefieldina
timel
ym
anne
r.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page �0
ME
TH
OD
SA
DVA
NTA
GE
SD
ISA
DVA
NTA
GE
S
V. P
LA
NT
PRO
TE
CTO
RS
Criticaltoprotectindividualplantsfromrodentdam
ageandherbicidedriftfirsttwoyears.Shouldbeinstalled
inlatesp
ringonflood-pronesites.
•B
lue-
X/T
ube-
XR
etai
nhe
ata
ndh
umid
ityto
enc
oura
gen
ewg
row
th
ine
arly
sprin
g.P
rote
ctfr
omro
dent
and
her
bici
de
dam
age.
Gra
dual
lyb
reak
dow
nov
erse
vera
lyea
rs.
Varie
tyo
fsiz
esa
vaila
ble.
Mor
eex
pens
ive
foro
ne-t
otw
o-ye
aru
se.
Can
notb
ere
used
and
may
nee
dto
be
rem
oved
from
site
afte
rthirdorfourthyear.Weedsinsideprotectordiffi
cultto
rem
ove.
•C
ardb
oard
(milk
ca
rtons
)Pr
otec
tfro
mro
dent
and
her
bici
ded
amag
e.
Inex
pens
ive.
Bre
akdo
wn
afte
rone
seas
onw
ithre
duce
dpr
otec
tion
in
seco
ndy
ear.
Mou
sen
ests
ina
few.
Sha
dess
eedl
ings
duringcriticalfirstm
onths.
•W
irec
ages
mad
eoffield-fenceor
chic
ken-
wire
.
Effe
ctiv
epr
otec
tion
from
her
bivo
ryb
yro
dent
sand
de
er;r
euse
able
.M
ater
iala
ndc
onst
ruct
ion
cost
s;m
ustb
ere
mov
eda
tso
me
poin
tso
asto
not
impe
dep
lant
gro
wth
.
•R
apto
orp
erch
es
and
barn
ow
lne
stin
gbo
xes
Effe
ctiv
ero
dent
-con
trolb
yra
ptor
sin
new
pla
ntin
gs.
Mat
eria
land
con
stru
ctio
nco
sts.
Goo
dpr
ojec
tfor
a
Boy
Sco
ut.
VI.
LA
BO
R S
OU
RC
ES
Av
arie
tyo
flab
orso
urce
scan
be
used
toa
ccom
plis
hre
stor
atio
n.
•Vo
lunt
eers
Will
ing
tod
olig
htta
sksu
sual
lyfo
rone
day
.Lo
w
cost
s.U
niqu
esk
illsf
orsp
ecia
lpro
ject
s.D
evel
ops
com
mun
itysu
ppor
tfor
pro
ject
.
Staf
ftim
ene
eded
tore
crui
tand
coo
rdin
ate
from
loca
lcommunities.Usuallywillnotworkunderharshfield
cond
ition
s,su
cha
srai
nor
ext
rem
ehe
at.
•Sh
ort-t
erm
Sta
ffC
aree
rort
rain
ing
oppo
rtuni
ty.
Can
be
hire
dfo
rsh
ort-t
erm
pro
ject
nee
ds.
Low
cos
ts.
Ret
rain
ing
ofn
ewst
affn
eede
dev
ery
six
mon
ths.
•Pe
rman
entS
taff
Skill
scan
be
deve
lope
dov
erti
me.
Long-termfinancialcom
mitm
ent.
•C
ontra
ctL
abor
Canbehiredforspecificprojectofshortduration.
Mee
tem
erge
ncy
labo
rnee
ds.
Maylacksp
ecificskills.
May
dam
age
plan
tings
.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page 51
APEC (Asia Pacific Environmental Exchange) 2005. Ecosystem services enhanced by salmon habitat conservation in the Green/Puwamish and Central Puget Sound Watershed. Department of Natural Resources and Parks, Water and Land Resources Division, Seattle, Washington.
Beck, George K., Kenneth Zimmerman, Jeffrey D. Schardt, Jeffrey Stone, Ronald R. Lukens, Sarah Reichard, John Randall, Allegra A. Cangelosi, Diane Cooper, and John Peter Thompson. 2006. Invasive species defined in a policy context: recommendations from the Federal Invasive Species Advisory Committee. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1614/IPSM-08-089.1
Bellemore, Jesse, Glenn Motckin and David R. Foster. 2003. Legacies of the agricultural past in the forested present: an assessment of historical landuse effects on rich mesic forests. Journal of Biogeography 29(10-11) 1401-1420.
Block, William M., Alan B. Franklin, James P. Ward, Jr., Joseph L. Gary, and Gary C. White. 2001. Implementation of monitoring studies to evaluate the success of ecological restoration on wildlife. Restoration Ecology 9(3) 293-303. Last accessed February 2009. https://library.eri.nau.edu:8443/bitstream/2019/390/1/BlockEtal.2001.DesignAndImplementationOfMonitoring.pdf
California Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. State Water Resources Control Board laws and regulations page. http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/laws_regulations/\
California Farm Bureau Federation. October 2008. Farmers work to encourage native bee habitat. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.cfbf.com/agalert/AgAlertStory.cfm?ID=1147&ck=A1D50185E7426CBB0ACAD1E6CA74B9AA
California Office of Historic Preservation. California Historical Resources Information System. Last accessed February 2009. http://ohp.parks.ca.gov/pages/1068/files/IC%20Roster.pdf
CalPIF (California Partners in Flight) 2008. Bringing the Birds Back: A Guide to Habitat Enhancment for Birds in the Sacramento Valley (R. DiGaudio, K. Kreitinger and T. Gardali, lead authors). California Partners in Flight Regional Conservation Plan No. 2. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.prbo.org/calpif.
California Invasive Plant Council. Invasive Plants. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/index.php
XII. References & Links Cited
Glossery of Terms Used in Riparian Ecology:http://water.nv.gov/WaterPlanning/dict-1/ww-index.cfm.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page 52
California Native Plant Society. December 2001. Guidelines for landscaping to protect native vegetation from degradation. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.cnps.org/archives/landscaping.htm
CDA (Canadian Dam Association) 2008. Frequently Asked Questions. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.cda.ca/cda_new_en/interesting%20links/faq/faq.html#q4
CDFG (California Department of Fish and Game) California Salmonid Stream Habitat Restoration Manual (section VI). 1998. Last accessed February
2009. http://www.dfg.ca.gov/fish/Resources/HabitatManual.asp California Wildlife Habitat Relationships. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.dfg.ca.gov/
biogeodata/cwhr/ Lake and Streambed Alterations Program. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.dfg.ca.gov/
habcon/1600/
CDWR (California Department of Water Resources) 2009. a. California Data Exchange Center. Last accessed February 2009. http://cdec.water.ca.gov/cgi-progs/
mapper b. Encroachment Permits. Last accessed February 2009. http://wwwdoe.water.ca.gov/Services/Real_
Estate/Encroach_Rel/ c. Groundwater Conjunctive Use. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.fao.org/docrep/v5400e/
v5400e0c.htm d. Watersheds. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.watershedrestoration.water.ca.gov/
watersheds/
CRAM (California Rapid Assessment Method) Homepage. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.cramwetlands.org/
Cederborg, Michelle. 2003. Hydrologic requirements for seedling establishment of riparian cottonwoods (Populus fremontii) along the Sacramento River. MS Thesis California State University, Chico.
Cooper, David J., David M. Merritt, Douglas C. Andersen, and Rodney A. Chimner. 1999. Factors controlling the establishment of Fremont Cottonwood seedlings on the Upper Green River, USA. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management. 15:419-440. Last accessed February 2009. http://forest.mtu.edu/faculty/chimner/Regulatedrivers1999.pdf
Chagrin River Watershed Partners, Inc. October 2001. Why riparian setbacks? Last accessed February 2009. http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/waters/watermgmt_section/shoreland/wrs_buffers.pdf
CNDDB. 2006. California Natural Diversity Database, Available at: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/whdab/html/cnddb.html. . California Dept. of Fish and Game, Biogeographic Data Branch, California Natural Diversity Database, Contacts: D. McGriff, D. Warenycia and L. Holmes. 1807 13th St, Suite 202, Sacramento, CA 95814. phone: 916-322-7307.
Crater Lake Institute. Klamath network water quality repor (Phase II)t. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.craterlakeinstitute.com/online-library/klamath-network-water-quality/sec3rnsp.htm
Feyrer, F., T.R Sommer, S.C. Zeug, G. O’Leary, and W. Harrell. 2004. Fish assemblages of perennial floodplain ponds of the Sacramento River, California (USA), with implications for the conservation of natives fishes. Fisheries Management and Ecology 11:335-344. HYPERLINK “http://iep.water.ca.gov/AES/Feyrer_2004_FME.pdf” pdf
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page 53
FISRWG (10/1998). Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, Processes, and Practices. By the Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (FISRWG)(15 Federal agencies of the US gov’t). GPO Item No. 0120-A; SuDocs No. A 57.6/2:EN 3/PT.653. ISBN-0-934213-59-3. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/stream_restoration/
Gardali, T., A. Holmes, S. Small, N. Nur, G. Geupel, and G. Golet. 2006. Abundance Patterns of Landbirds in restored and Remnant Riparian Forests on the Sacramento River, California, U.S.A. Restoration Ecology 14: 391-403
Golet, Gregory H.; Thomas Gardali; Christine A. Howell; John Hunt; Ryan A. Luster; William Rainey; Michael D. Roberts; Joseph Silveira; Helen Swagerty; and Neal Williams. 2008. Wildlife Response to Riparian Restoration on the Sacramento River. San Francisco Estuary and Watershed Science. Vol. 6, Issue 2 (June), Article 1. http://www.sacramentoriver.org/SRCAF/publications/Golet%20Compresed-2008.pdf
Gregory, Stanley V., Frederick J. Swanson, W. Arthur McKee, Kenneth W. Cummins. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. Bioscience 41(8) 540-551. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.humboldt.edu/~storage/pdfmill/Batch%202/riparian.pdf
Katibah, E. F. 1984. A brief history of riparian forests in the Central Valley of California. In R. E. Warner and K. M. Hendrix (eds). California Riparian Systems: Ecology, Conservation, and Productive Management. University of California Press, California. Pages 23-29.
Kelley, Robert Lloyd, 1989 Battling the inland sea : American political culture, public policy, and the Sacramento Valley, 1850-1986 University of California Press, Berkeley.
Mahoney, J. M., and S. B. Rood. 1998. Streamflow requirements for cottonwood seedling recruitment: an integrative model. Wetlands 18:634–645.
Moyle PB, Baxter RD, Sommer T, Foin TC, Matern SA. 2004. Biology and population dynamics of Sacramento splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus) in the San Francisco Estuary: a review. San Francisco Estuary and Watershed Science [online serial].
Vol. 2, Issue 2 (May 2004), Article 3. Last accessed February 2009. http://repositories.cdlib.org/jmie/sfews/vol2/iss2/art3
Moyle, Peter B., Joshua A. Israel, and Sabra E. Purdy. 2008. Salmon, steelhead and trout in California: Status of an emblematic fauna. California Trout, Inc. Available online at: http://www.caltrout.org/article.asp?id=359&bc=1
NRC (National Research Council) 2002. Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) Stream Restoration Design National Engineering Handbook, Part 654, August 2007. Last accessed
February 2009. http://policy.nrcs.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21433 Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/
whip/ Conservation Reserve Program. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/
CRP/
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page 54
California Wetlands Reserve Program. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp/states/ca.html
Web Soil Surveys. Last accessed February 2009. http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm
Opperman, Jeff J. and A M. Merenlender, 2004. The effectiveness of riparian restoration for improving instream fish habitat in four hardwood-dominated California streams.
North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 24 (3), pp. 822-834. Postprint available free at: http://repositories.cdlib.org/postprints/259
RHJV (Riparian Habitat Joint Venture). 2004. The riparian bird conservation plan: a strategy for reversing the decline of riparian associated birds in California. California Partners in Flight. Last accessed February 2009 http://www.prbo.org/calpif/pdfs/riparian_v-2.pdf
Sacramento River Conservation Area Forum. Welcome to Sacramento River.org. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.sacramentoriver.org/
Schemel, L.E., T.R. Sommer, A.B. Muller-Solger, and W.C. Harrell. 2004. Hydrologic variability, water chemistry, and phytoplankton biomass in a large floodplain of the Sacramento River, CA, USA. Hydrobiologia 513:129-139. HYPERLINK “http://iep.water.ca.gov/AES/2004_Schemel%20et%20al_Hydrobio.pdf” pdf
SFU (Simon Frasier University). Chapter 24: Water wars: lessons from the California campaign by Michael Healey. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/resources/water/pdf/Water-Ch24.pdf
Society for Ecological Restoration. November 2001. An introduction to restoration genetics. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.ser.org/pdf/SER_restoration_genetics.pdf
Sommer, T. R., M. L. Nobriga, W. C. Harrell, W. Batham, and W. J. Kimmerer. 2001. Floodplain rearing of juvenile Chinook salmon: Evidence of enhanced growth and survival. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58(2):325-333. HYPERLINK “http://iep.water.ca.gov/AES/Sommer_et_al_2001.pdf” pdf
State Water Resources Control Board. Restoration of a reach of the San Diego River in the unincorporated community of lakeside, San Diego
County, CA. Last accessed February 2009. http://swrcb2.swrcb.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/nps/docs/success/r9_lakeside.pdf Dredge/Fill (401) and Wetlands Program. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.waterboards.
ca.gov/water_issues/programs/cwa401/ Water Rights. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.waterrights.ca.gov/ Strahan, J. 1984. Regeneration of riparian forests of the Central Valley, In R. E. Warner and K. M. Hendrix
(eds). California Riparian Systems: Ecology, Conservation, and Productive Management. University of California Press, California. Pages 58-67. Last accessed February 2009. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1c6003wp/
Swanson, Sherman. 1988. Using stream classification to prioritize riparian rehabilitation after extreme events. Presented at the California Riparian Systems Conference; September 22-24; Davis, California. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr110/psw_gtr110_c_swanson.pdf
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page 55
Trowbridge, W., S. Kalmanovitz, and M. Schwartz, 2004. Growth of Valley Oak (Quercus lobata Nee) in four floodplain environments in the Central Valley of California. Plant Ecology 176:157-164.
University of California at Davis. California Watershed Assessment Manual (Volumes I and II). Last accessed February 2009. http://cwam.ucdavis.edu/
University of California at Davis Genetic Resource Conservation Program. “Why do we care about genetics.” A downloadable series of 12 factsheets. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.grcp.ucdavis.edu/projects/FactSheetdex.htm
University of California at Davis Information Center for the Environment. California Rivers Assessment Interactive Web Database. Last accessed February 2009. http://cwam.ucdavis.edu/
University of California Cooperative Extension at UC Davis. 2009. California Fish Website. Last accessed February 2009. http://calfish.ucdavis.edu/index.cfm Weed Research and Information Center. Last accessed February 2009. http://wric.ucdavis.edu/
US Army Corps of Engineers, Headquarters. Regulatory (Wetlands). Last accessed February 2009. http://www.usace.army.mil/CECW/Pages/cecwo_reg.aspx
USDA Forest Service. Genetically appropriate materials to maintain plant diversity. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/publications/botany/plantgenetics.pdf
US Environmental Protection Agency Ecosystems Research Division. Impervious Cover. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.epa.gov/ATHENS/research/impervious/
US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 2009. Oceans, coasts and estuaries page. Overview of section 404. http://www.epa.gov/owow/invasive_species/invasives_management/cwa404.html. Last accessed April 2009.
USFWS (US Fish and Wildlife Service. Endangered species Program. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.fws.gov/Endangered/permits/
index.html Safe Harbor Agreements for Private Landowners. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.fws.gov/
Endangered/factsheets/harborqa.pdf
USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). 2005. Sacramento River National Wildlife Refuge Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Final June 2005. Prepared by the California/Nevada Refuge Planning Office, Sacramento, CA and Sacramento National Wildlife Refuge Complex, Willows, CA.
USGS Real Time Water Data for California. February 2009. Last accessed February 2009. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ca/nwis/rt
Waltert, Matthias, Ani Mardiastuti, Michael Muhlenburg. 2004. Effects of land use on bird species richness in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Conservation Biology 18(5) 1339-1346.
Wildland Farm Alliance. Environmental destruction in the Salinas Valley: “Food Safety” requirements to remove habitat make leafy greens less safe. Last accessed February 2009. http://www.wildfarmalliance.org/resources/WFA%20FS%20EnvDestruct2.pdf
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
XIII. Appendices
1. California Bioregional Restoration Considerations
2. Restoration Case Studies
3. Ecological and Landscape Considerations of Riparian Plants
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
The
Bay
/Del
ta B
iore
gion
Gua
lala
Riv
er *
Nap
a Ri
ver *
Pet
alum
a Ri
ver *
Rus
sian
Riv
erL
ocal
Com
mun
ityH
ortic
ultu
ral
Pote
ntia
lO
ptim
al P
lant
Com
mun
ityW
ildlif
eH
abita
tH
eavi
lyp
opul
ated
regi
onth
at
supp
liest
wo-
third
sofC
alifo
rnia
’s
wat
er.P
ublic
con
cern
sinc
lude
ba
nke
rosi
ona
ndlo
sso
fper
sona
lpr
oper
tya
ndw
ater
qua
lity.
Hig
hbi
odiv
ersi
tya
ndra
nge
ofv
eget
atio
nty
pesi
nth
isre
gion
,big
pot
entia
lfo
rcom
mun
itya
war
enes
sand
in
volv
emen
t(vo
lunt
eers
)with
re
stor
atio
n.
Pote
ntia
lfor
larg
ere
stor
atio
npr
ojec
ts
islo
wb
ecau
seo
ffew
are
asw
ithla
rge
floodplains.Whereriversaresm
aller,
scal
epl
antin
gsm
ayb
eim
plem
ente
d.
Des
ign
rest
orat
ion
base
don
hyd
raul
ic
mod
elst
hatw
illd
ecre
ase
bank
ero
sion
re
sulti
ngfr
omh
uman
infr
astru
ctur
ean
din
crea
seb
ank
stab
iliza
tion
to
prot
ectp
erso
nala
ndp
ublic
pro
perty
.Pr
oces
sres
tora
tion
idea
lfor
som
esm
alle
rstre
ams.
Plan
tspe
cies
that
will
ach
ieve
pu
blic
goa
lso
fban
ker
osio
nan
dde
crea
sed
sedi
men
tloa
ds
butt
hatc
ana
lso
surv
ive
and
pers
istu
nder
the
site
con
ditio
ns.
Alte
red
hydr
olog
yin
this
are
afr
omin
tens
ere
gula
tion
ofth
eriv
ersm
eans
man
ypl
ants
will
no
tnat
ural
lyc
olon
ize
and
esta
blis
h,so
pla
ntin
gca
nju
mp
star
tthe
fore
sts.
Inva
sive
spec
ies
requ
iree
radi
catio
nfo
rsuc
cess
ful
esta
blis
hmen
tofn
ativ
es.
Plan
tspe
cies
that
stab
ilize
ba
nksa
ndp
rovi
de
terr
estri
alw
ildlif
efo
rage
,co
vera
ndb
reed
ing
habi
tat,
and
prov
ide
shad
efo
raq
uatic
hab
itat.
Rip
aria
npl
antin
gsc
ana
lso
redu
ce
sedi
men
tloa
din
toth
eriv
ers,
whi
chc
anim
prov
est
eelh
ead
and
salm
on
habi
tat.
Can
als
oen
hanc
egr
avel
bed
satt
hesi
tew
ith
appr
opria
tesi
zed
grav
el.
The
Cen
tral
Coa
st B
iore
gion
Big
Sur R
iver
* C
arm
el R
iver
* G
uada
lupe
Riv
er *
Nac
imie
nto
Rive
r * S
an B
enito
Riv
er *
Sal
inas
Riv
er *
San
ta Y
nez R
iver
Loc
alC
omm
unity
Hor
ticul
tura
lPo
tent
ial
Opt
imal
Pla
nt C
omm
unity
Wild
life
Hab
itat
Hea
vyp
opul
atio
ngr
owth
,big
ag
ricul
tura
lind
ustry
,val
ley
ripar
ian
habi
tati
srar
e.W
ater
ish
eavi
ly
regu
late
d,st
ream
scha
nnel
ized
for
floodcontrol.Erosionandbank
stab
iliza
tion
also
con
cern
inso
me
area
s.W
ater
qua
lity
com
prom
ised
fr
omu
rban
runo
ff.O
ppor
tuni
ties
forv
olun
teer
sand
edu
catio
n,p
lus,
recr
eatio
nan
dae
sthe
ticv
alue
of
ripar
ian
area
s.
Expa
nsiv
ede
velo
pmen
tmea
ns
frag
men
ted
ripar
ian
area
s.St
ream
ch
anne
lizat
ion
can
bere
mov
edfr
om
som
est
ream
sand
rest
orat
ion
can
be
implem
entedonwidenedfloodplains,
ono
ther
s,re
vege
tatio
nca
non
lyo
ccur
on
ban
kto
ps.O
ppor
tuni
tiesa
nd
chal
leng
esfr
oma
djac
entl
and
use:
so
me
priv
ate
owne
rsw
antt
ore
stor
ela
nds.
Veg
etat
ion
mus
tnot
incr
ease
floodingintourbanareas.
Plan
tspe
cies
that
can
stab
ilize
banks,improvefilteringof
nutri
entl
oad
ofw
ater
sfro
m
urbanrunoff,andmaintainflood
conv
eyan
cep
rope
rties
ofs
tream
s.
Inva
sive
spec
iesc
ontro
lnee
ded
forp
lant
est
ablis
hmen
tand
su
rviv
al.
Plan
tspe
cies
app
ropr
iate
to
targ
eted
wild
life
for
food
and
cov
er.V
eget
atio
nsh
ould
con
nect
with
ex
istin
gst
ands
and
ble
nd
appr
opria
tely
soa
brup
tve
geta
tion
diffe
renc
esd
ono
tdet
erw
ildlif
epa
ssag
e.
1. California Bioregional Restoration Considerations
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
California Bioregional Restoration Considerations, Cont.
The
Col
orad
o D
eser
t Bio
regi
onAl
amo
Rive
r * L
ower
Col
orad
o Ri
ver *
New
Riv
er *
Whi
te R
iver
Loc
alC
omm
unity
Hor
ticul
tura
lPo
tent
ial
Opt
imal
Pla
nt
Com
mun
ityW
ildlif
eH
abita
tSe
cond
leas
tpop
ulat
eda
rea.
Des
ert
regi
on,s
ow
ater
issc
arce
and
thus
di
verte
dfo
rurb
and
rinki
ngw
ater
and
irr
igat
ion
fora
gric
ultu
re.
Educ
atio
nne
eded
tore
duce
pla
ntin
gsin
urb
an
area
sofi
nvas
ive
tam
aris
k,a
ndto
en
cour
age
nativ
epl
antin
gso
frip
aria
nsp
ecie
s.
Big
gest
thre
atst
osc
arce
ripa
rian
area
sare
redu
ced
wat
ersu
pply
and
sa
ltier
wat
erth
atfa
vore
stab
lishm
ent
ofin
vasi
veta
mar
isk.
Prio
ritie
sare
to
pro
tect
nat
ive
ripar
ian
stan
dsa
nd
rem
ove
tam
aris
k.I
nso
me
area
s,restorationofnaturalflow
andflood
regi
mes
isp
ossi
ble,
this
can
hel
pre
duce
ta
mar
isk
and
favo
rsn
ativ
eve
geta
tion
esta
blis
hmen
t.
Esta
blis
hmen
tand
surv
ival
of
nat
ive
ripar
ian
spec
ies
isdeterredbyalteredflow
andfloodregimes,lack
ofse
dim
entd
epos
ition
(n
utrie
ntsf
orp
lant
s)a
nd
inva
sion
oft
amar
isk.
The
na
tura
lint
erva
lbet
wee
nfloodscanbeyearsto
deca
des,
ther
efor
e,p
lant
ed
spec
iesm
uste
ither
be
able
to
reac
hth
ew
ater
tabl
eor
irr
igat
ion
may
be
nece
ssar
y.
Tam
aris
kdo
esn
ot
prov
ide
suita
ble
wild
life
habi
tat.
Nat
ive
plan
tsa
re
nece
ssar
yfo
rthe
rich
bi
odiv
ersi
tyo
fspe
cies
in
the
regi
onw
hich
incl
udes
hi
ghn
umbe
rofe
ndem
ic
spec
ies.
Rip
aria
nar
easi
nth
isre
gion
are
par
ticul
arly
im
porta
nta
smig
rato
ry
stop
over
and
win
terin
ggr
ound
sfor
neo
tropi
cal
mig
rato
ryso
ngbi
rds.
The
Kla
mat
h B
iore
gion
Eel R
iver
* K
lam
ath
Rive
r * M
ad R
iver
* M
atto
le R
iver
* R
ussi
an R
iver
* S
alm
on R
iver
* S
cott
Rive
r * S
hast
a Ri
ver
Smith
Riv
er *
Tri
nity
Riv
erL
ocal
Com
mun
ityH
ortic
ultu
ral
Pote
ntia
lO
ptim
al P
lant
C
omm
unity
Wild
life
Hab
itat
Vast
are
aof
nat
iona
lfor
ests
and
not
he
avily
pop
ulat
ed.P
astl
and
use
ofm
inin
gan
dlo
ggin
gha
vele
dto
er
osio
npr
oble
ms,
whi
chp
ose
thre
ats
top
ublic
and
priv
ate
deve
lopm
ents
.W
ater
div
erte
dfo
ragr
icul
ture
.Pub
lic
conc
ern
over
ero
sion
,sed
imen
tatio
nof
riv
ersa
ndin
crea
sed
river
tem
pera
ture
s.O
ppor
tuni
tiesf
ore
duca
tion,
vol
unte
erin
g–
stron
gin
tere
stin
pre
serv
atio
nof
na
tura
lveg
etat
ion,
wild
life.
Largefloodplainsavailablefor
rest
orat
ion,
but
ofte
nha
veb
een
cut
offf
rom
rive
rby
berm
sfor
med
from
willow
growthinpreviouslyhighflood
pron
egr
avel
bar
s.R
emov
alo
fber
ms
andreconstructionoffloodplainoften
nece
ssar
y(s
eeT
rinity
Riv
erC
ase
Stud
y).V
eget
atio
nca
nhe
lpst
abili
ze
bank
s.Fl
ood
conv
eyan
ceis
ap
riorit
y.If
naturalhighflowsarereleased,natural
vege
tatio
nre
crui
tmen
tmay
occ
ur.
Loca
lpla
ntst
ock
and
nativ
eve
geta
tion
will
surv
ive
best
.R
ipar
ian
area
sin
this
regi
on
are
adap
ted
toin
freq
uent
fires,firesu
ppressionin
the
area
cou
ldim
pact
na
tura
lpla
ntsu
cces
sion
.R
egio
nre
ceiv
eslo
tso
fpr
ecip
itatio
n,th
ough
less
fa
llsin
the
valle
ysth
ana
thi
gher
ele
vatio
ns.
Vege
tatio
nth
atsh
ades
th
eriv
eris
par
ticul
arly
im
porta
ntfo
rsm
alle
rst
ream
stha
thav
era
pidl
yfluctuatingtemperatures.
Plan
tings
use
dto
stab
ilize
ba
nksh
ould
be
plan
ted
in
asso
ciat
ions
and
den
sitie
sth
atw
illp
rovi
dem
ultip
le
stru
ctur
esto
be
used
by
wild
life.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page �9
California Bioregional Restoration Considerations, Cont.
The
Mod
oc B
iore
gion
Fall
Rive
r * P
itt R
iver
* S
usan
Riv
er
Loc
alC
omm
unity
Hor
ticul
tura
lPo
tent
ial
Opt
imal
Pla
nt
Com
mun
ityW
ildlif
eH
abita
tLe
astp
opul
ated
are
a.L
and
owne
rshi
pis
40%
priv
ate
and
60%
pu
blic
.M
ostp
rivat
ela
ndsa
re
used
fora
gric
ultu
re,l
ives
tock
and
fo
rest
ry.
Ban
ker
osio
nis
ac
once
rn
forp
rivat
ela
ndow
ners
.In
crea
sed
sedi
men
tatio
nfr
omc
hann
elw
iden
ing
(due
tog
razi
ngp
ract
ices
)and
hi
ghw
ater
tem
pera
ture
sare
als
oco
ncer
ns.
Invo
lvem
ento
fcom
mun
ity
inre
stor
atio
nis
nec
essa
ryfo
rlan
dac
quis
ition
and
fund
ing.
Thoughthevalleyfloorsaremostly
flat,thereareonlynarrowstripso
frip
aria
nve
geta
tion,
mos
tofw
hich
ha
sbee
nre
mov
ed.
Res
tora
tion
can
invo
lve
chan
nels
tabi
lizat
ion
and
ripar
ian
plan
tings
.Fi
reri
skm
ay
nece
ssita
tep
resc
ribed
bur
nsto
redu
ce
fuel
load
s.C
onife
rsto
ckin
gha
sals
ore
duce
dna
tura
lrip
aria
nve
geta
tion
esta
blis
hmen
t,an
dcl
earc
uttin
gis
ne
cess
ary
toim
plem
entr
ipar
ian
vege
tatio
n.
Gra
zing
man
agem
ent
prac
tices
will
hel
prip
aria
nve
geta
tion
esta
blis
han
dsu
rviv
e.I
fcha
nnel
inci
sion
an
dla
tera
lwid
enin
gar
ere
duce
d,e
phem
eral
stre
ams
can
once
aga
inb
ecom
epe
renn
ial,
and
sust
ain
larg
erri
paria
nve
geta
tion
stan
ds.
Rip
aria
nve
geta
tion
that
can
stab
ilize
the
river
cha
nnel
ssho
uld
ben
ativ
ean
dfr
om
loca
lsto
ck.
This
will
su
ppor
tnat
ive
wild
life.
Th
est
able
cha
nnel
swill
co
ntin
ueto
pro
vide
wat
er
adja
cent
mea
dow
sand
th
ew
ildlif
eth
atd
epen
don
thes
eha
bita
ts.
The
Moj
ave
Bio
regi
onAm
argo
sa R
iver
* C
olor
ado
Rive
r * M
ojav
e Ri
ver
Loc
alC
omm
unity
Hor
ticul
tura
lPo
tent
ial
Opt
imal
Pla
nt
Com
mun
ityW
ildlif
eH
abita
tLa
rge
ina
rea,
mod
erat
ebu
tgro
win
gra
pidl
yin
pop
ulat
ion.
Lar
gep
ortio
nof
pub
licla
nds,
buto
ff-hi
ghw
ay
vehi
chle
(OH
V)u
seis
com
mon
,and
la
ndre
sour
ceu
seim
pair
ripar
ian
area
s.In
vasi
vesa
ltce
dari
sah
uge
prob
lem
,priv
ate
land
owne
rsn
eede
dto
take
par
tin
rem
oval
ofs
altc
edar
on
priv
ate
land
s.E
duca
tion
abou
tO
HV
and
gra
zing
impa
ctst
ola
nd
coul
dhe
lp.
His
tory
ofm
inin
g,ra
nchi
ng,g
razi
ng,
alteredflowandfireregimesandoff-
high
way
veh
icle
use
hav
ede
grad
ed
ripar
ian
area
sand
mad
eth
em
susc
eptib
leto
inva
sive
saltc
edar
.Th
est
ands
ofs
altc
edar
can
be
mon
otyp
ic
and
leav
eno
room
orr
esou
rces
for
nativ
eve
geta
tion.
Rem
oval
isfe
asib
le,
espe
cial
lyw
ithb
urni
ngfo
llow
edb
yhe
rbic
ides
.
Plan
tnat
ive
vege
tatio
nbe
fore
rein
trodu
ctio
nof
saltc
edar
.R
e-ro
ute
OH
Vtr
ails
and
enc
lose
pl
antin
gsfr
omg
razi
ngto
al
low
nat
ive
vege
tatio
nto
est
ablis
han
dsu
rviv
e.
Rem
oval
ofu
pstre
am
sour
ceso
npr
ivat
ela
ndsc
anre
duce
futu
re
intro
duct
ion
ofsa
ltced
ar.
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
npr
ovid
esth
eha
bita
tst
ruct
ure
and
reso
urce
sth
atn
ativ
ew
ildlif
ear
ead
apte
dto
.Mon
otyp
ic
stan
dso
fsal
tced
ar
extra
ctw
ater
and
nut
rient
re
sour
cesf
rom
not
onl
ypl
ants
but
wild
life,
ina
nar
eaw
here
reso
urce
scan
be
scar
ce.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page �0
California Bioregional Restoration Considerations, Cont.
The
Sie
rra
Bio
regi
onEa
sto
fcre
st:C
arso
n Ri
ver *
Ow
ens R
iver
* T
ruck
ee R
iver
* W
alke
r Riv
erW
esto
fcre
st:A
mer
ican
Riv
er *
Con
sum
nes R
iver
* F
eath
er R
iver
* K
awea
h Ri
ver *
Ker
n Ri
ver *
Kin
gs R
iver
* M
erce
d Ri
ver
San
Joa
quin
Riv
er *
Sta
nisl
aus R
iver
* T
uolu
mne
Riv
er *
Yub
a Ri
ver
Loc
alC
omm
unity
Hor
ticul
tura
lPo
tent
ial
Opt
imal
Pla
nt
Com
mun
ityW
ildlif
eH
abita
tEx
tens
ive
wat
erd
iver
sion
sand
re
gula
tion,
min
ing,
logg
ing,
gra
zing
,ag
ricul
ture
,rur
alsp
raw
land
inva
sive
pl
ants
peci
esim
pact
the
ripar
ian
syst
ems.
Wat
erq
ualit
yan
dba
nk
eros
ion
are
maj
orc
once
rns.
Res
ourc
em
anag
ersa
ndla
ndow
ners
are
will
ing
toin
vest
tim
ean
dm
oney
into
co
nser
vatio
npr
actic
esa
nda
reo
pen
tod
esig
ning
mor
eec
olog
ical
lyso
und
man
agem
entp
ract
ices
.C
omm
unity
in
volv
emen
tand
edu
catio
nar
elik
ely
tofindsu
pport,toprotectthearea’s
natu
ralh
igh
biod
iver
sity
and
pro
tect
th
em
any
thre
aten
eda
nde
ndan
gere
dsp
ecie
s.
Logg
ing,
road
con
stru
ctio
n,g
razi
ng
and
wat
erd
iver
sion
shav
ede
grad
ed
mou
ntai
nst
ream
s.Lo
sso
frip
aria
nve
geta
tion
and
eros
ion
caus
edc
hann
els
tom
igra
tea
ndin
cise
dee
pch
anne
ls,
lead
ing
tofu
rther
ero
sion
,hig
hse
dim
ent
load
sdow
nstre
am,a
ndc
utof
ffro
m
mou
ntai
nm
eado
ws.
On
thes
est
ream
s,ph
ysic
alp
lugg
ing
ofn
ewc
hann
elc
an
re-d
irect
stre
amto
his
toric
cha
nnel
.A
long
the
east
ern
sier
ra,i
nar
idre
gion
s,restoringmorenaturalflow
regimeshas
been
succ
essf
ulin
allo
win
grip
aria
nve
geta
tion
ton
atur
ally
rest
ore
itsel
f.
Reducedandmodified
graz
ing
prac
tices
and
ac
tive
plan
ting
can
spee
dre
cove
ryo
fmou
ntai
nm
eado
wst
ream
sand
in
mor
ear
idre
gion
s.
Encl
osur
esa
ndm
anag
ed
graz
ing
are
need
edto
en
sure
veg
etat
ion
can
surv
ive.
Res
tora
tion
ofnaturalflow
regimes
need
edto
con
tinue
re
crui
tmen
tofn
ewri
paria
nsp
ecie
sand
toa
llow
pla
nt
succ
essi
on.
Dec
isio
ns
aboutfunctionalflow
re
gim
esa
ndg
razi
ng
prac
tices
will
requ
ire
adap
tive
man
agem
ento
nin
divi
dual
rive
rs.
Res
tora
tion
ofm
ount
ain
stre
amss
uppo
rts
wild
life
that
use
ripa
rian
vege
tatio
nan
dal
so
reco
nnec
tsto
mea
dow
sw
hich
supp
orta
dditi
onal
w
ildlif
esp
ecie
s.W
ith
mou
ntai
nst
ream
re
stor
atio
n,th
ere
are
oppo
rtuni
tiest
ocr
eate
ad
ditio
nalw
ildlif
ere
sour
cess
uch
asp
onds
fo
rwat
erfo
wla
ndo
ther
w
ildlif
eth
atc
anb
ecr
eate
dw
hen
soils
are
excavatedtofillinthe
new
and
dee
ply
inci
sed
chan
nels
.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
California Bioregional Restoration Considerations, Cont.
The
Sou
th C
oast
Bio
regi
onO
tay
Rive
r * L
os A
ngel
es R
iver
* S
an D
iego
Riv
er *
San
Gab
riel
Riv
er *
San
Jac
into
Riv
er *
San
Lui
s Rey
Riv
er
* Sa
nta
Ana
Rive
r *S
anta
Cla
ra R
iver
* S
anta
Mar
gari
ta R
iver
* V
entu
ra R
iver
Loc
alC
omm
unity
Hor
ticul
tura
lPo
tent
ial
Opt
imal
Pla
nt
Com
mun
ityW
ildlif
eH
abita
tTh
isb
iore
gion
isc
hara
cter
ized
by
havi
ngm
ajor
citi
esa
ndh
eavi
ly
popu
late
dar
easa
mon
ga
dive
rse
mos
aic
ofn
atur
ala
reas
and
reso
urce
s.Fi
resi
nth
esu
mm
era
ndb
igst
orm
sin
the
win
terl
ead
toh
uge
land
slid
es,
eros
ion
isa
con
tinuo
usp
robl
emfr
om
loss
ofv
eget
atio
n,p
oorly
loca
ted
road
s,m
inin
g,g
razi
ng,l
oggi
ng,
agric
ultu
re,a
ndd
evel
opm
ent.
Riparianareasarenaturalfirebarriers
due
toh
igh
moi
stur
eco
nten
toff
uel,
butw
hen
inva
ded
bya
rrun
doth
ey
areveryflam
mable.A
rundoalso
increasesfl
ooding.C
oncernover
erosion,firesandlandslidesprovide
oppo
rtuni
tiest
oac
quire
land
for
rest
orat
ion
and
educ
ate
the
publ
ic
abou
tnat
ural
cos
teffe
ctiv
eso
lutio
ns.
Mul
tiple
land
use
shav
ere
duce
drip
aria
nve
geta
tion,
stre
amb
anks
erode,floodplainsareremoved,and
largefloodstearthroughthestream
sca
usin
gm
ore
eros
ion
and
grea
ter
dow
nstre
amse
dim
entl
oads
.D
redg
ing
and
sedi
men
tdis
posa
lare
exp
ensi
ve,i
tis
mor
ecl
earn
owth
atth
eco
sto
flan
daquisitionandfloodplainrebuildingis
less
exp
ensi
vea
ndm
ore
succ
essf
ul.
A
maj
orfo
cuso
fres
tora
tion
isre
mov
al
ofA
rund
o(s
eeS
anta
Mar
garit
aC
ase
Stud
y).R
eveg
etat
ion
alon
eis
not
al
way
seno
ugh
tost
abili
zeb
anks
,andfloodplainsareoftenphysically
recontouredtomanageoverflowof
bank
s.Le
vees
are
setb
ack
orre
mov
ed.
Gra
zing
mus
tbe
man
aged
to
kee
prip
aria
nve
geta
tion
inp
lace
.Er
osio
nco
ntro
lan
dba
nkst
abili
zatio
nar
epr
iorit
ies,
ther
efor
eve
geta
tion
that
est
ablis
hes
and
grow
squi
ckly
is
pref
erre
d.H
owev
er,
effo
rtsto
sele
cta
ppro
pria
te
spec
iesa
dapt
edto
the
loca
lcon
ditio
nsw
illb
esu
cces
sful
inth
elo
ng
term.Similarly,floodplain
vege
tatio
nsh
ould
not
on
lym
eett
heh
ydra
ulic
m
odel
ing
need
sand
dire
ct
flowsp
roperly,butinclude
aw
ella
dapt
edsu
iteo
fsp
ecie
stha
tcan
surv
ive
the
curr
enth
ydro
logi
cre
gim
e.
Inva
sive
spec
iess
uch
asa
rrun
dow
illre
quire
re
mov
ala
ndm
anag
emen
tun
tiln
ativ
eve
geta
tion
is
wel
lest
ablis
hed.
Rip
aria
nve
geta
tion
on
man
yriv
ersa
ndst
ream
sin
this
regi
onis
muc
hre
duce
d,th
ough
onc
ees
tabl
ishe
dit
can
prov
ide
the
com
plex
veg
etat
ion
stru
ctur
esa
ndsp
ecie
sne
eded
tosu
ppor
tdiv
erse
w
ildlif
ein
the
regi
on.
Thoughfloodcontrol,
erosionandfirecontrol
are
the
maj
orp
riorit
ies,
the
ripar
ian
vege
tatio
nca
nbe
des
igne
dw
ith
wild
life
spec
iesi
nm
ind.
Arr
undo
doe
snot
pr
ovid
ead
equa
teh
abita
tfo
rmul
tiple
nee
dso
fw
ildlif
e,re
mov
ala
nd
reve
geta
tion
with
nat
ive
and
dive
rse
spec
iesc
an
mee
tthe
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2. Restoration Case Studies
Case Study #1: Restoration at Buffington Tract on the Stanislaus River: Horticultural RestorationProject SummaryThishorticulturalriparianrestorationprojectwasimplementedtoconnectwithexistingriparianvegetationon thesiteandremnantriparianforestandshrub landsadjacent to theprojectboundary to increase theamountofriparianvegetationforspecificwildlifespecies.Amajorgoaloftheprojectwastobuildhabitatrequirementsoftargetedwildlife.Specificwildlifeneedswereincorporatedintotherestorationplantingdesignthroughplantspeciesselection,communityassociations,anddensityofplantings.
RestorationtookplaceontheStanislausRiver,whichisatributarytotheSanJoaquinRiver,andishuman-impactedtoadegreethatnaturalprocessescannotregulatetheriparianecosystem.Waterdiversion,flowregulation,floodplainlevelingandclearing,andinvasivespecieshavestressedthenativeplantandwildlifecommunities.Very rare flood events on the site occasionally reconnect the floodplain to the river, butrestorationplantingdesignhadtoconsiderthedecreaseinfrequencyandmagnitudeofnaturaldisturbances(floodingandpossiblyfire).Thealteredhydrographthatriparianspeciesareadaptedtomodifiessurvivalandsuccessionofplantedspecies,therefore,aconceptualmodelofplantsuccessionforthesitewascreatedduringtheplanningprocess.Therelativelyflattopographyofthesiteresultingfrompreviouslanduseslendeditselfwelltohorticulturalrestorationtechniquesandcontinuedirrigationandweedcontrolforthreeyears.Becausehorticulturalrestorationdesignforspecificwildlifewasthemajorfocusofthisproject,siteevaluationwasa considerableportionof theplanningprocess, alongwithdevelopmentof theplantingdesign.
Project Name BuffingtonTractCounty, River, Bioregion SanJoaquin/StanislausCounties,StanislausRiver,SanJoaquin
ValleyBioregionProject Goals – Primary reason for restoration
Restoreriparianvegetationtoconnectwithexistingvegetationtoincreaseamountofpotentialhabitatfortargetedwildlifespecies,including:riparianbrushrabbit,riparianwoodrat,leastBell’svireo,Valleyelderberrylonghornbeetle,neotropicalmigratorysongbirds,residentsongbirds,andquail.
Long term goals and considerations
Establishself-sustaining,plantcommunitieswithinathreeyearperiod
Partnerships U.S.FWS,CaliforniaBay-DeltaAuthority,CSUStanislaus,PRBO,RHJV,CaswellStatePark,privatelandowners
Restoration Planning Process (Steps in Flow Chart) Here,afewofthestepsintheflowchartthatwereamajorpartofthisrestorationarediscussed,formorespecificdetailsseeabovelinktothecompleterestorationplan.
1.Designation of Site as RiparianThesitewasconsideredriparianbecauseevenaftertheregulationoftheStanislausbytheNewMelonesdamintheearly1980’s,thesitestillexperiencesoccasional(thoughveryrare)floodevents.
2.Evaluation of Site Conditions: How river processes operate on the site
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Hydrology –The historic and current hydrologic conditions at the site were determined by examininghistoricflowdataandaerialphotographsfromseveraldecadesbothpreandpostdamconstruction.DailystreamflowdischargedatafromtheUSGSoftheStanislausRiverfrom1946to2006showedmuchhighervariabilityinamountofwaterintheriverbeforedamconstructioninthe1980’s(Figure1).Thenaturalhydrographforriversintheseregionsischaracterizedbypeakflowsduringwinterstormsandlatespringsnow run-off. With regulationof riverflowsby thedam, the resultinghydrograph is characterizedbysmaller,shorterhighflowevents.Lesswaterflowingthroughtherivermeanstherearefewopportunitiesforwatertoflowovertheriverbanksontothefloodplainandintooxbowlakesandsidechannels.Regulationofriverflowsalsokeepstheriverinitscurrentchannel,sothereisnomoresanddeposition,bankerosionorlateralchannelmigration.Treespecies,suchaswillowsandcottonwoods,whichdependonanaturalhydrographforrecruitmentandsurvival,arethereforeunlikelytoestablishnaturallyatthissite.Figure1.StanislausRiverstreamflowatRipon,Californiafortheperiodofrecord1940-2007.
Data shows much higher variation before the New Melones Dam became operational in the early �9�0’s.
Vertical red line indicates 1982, the year New Melones Reservoir filled.
Aerialphotosshowedthepre-damdynamicnatureoftheriver,whichcreatedoxbowlakes,sidechannelsandnewlyexposedsandbars.Liketheflowdata,thesepicturesrevealapost-damriverthatisrelativelystaticandlikelytoremaininitscurrentchannel.Aphotoofalargepost-damfloodevent(Figure2)providesevidencethattheriveriscapableofoverflowingitsbanksandrechargingoxbowlakesandsidechannels,eventhoughthisisarareevent.
DRAFT RIPARIAN RESTORATION DESIGN GUIDELINES 8River Partners 7/13/2009
streamflow discharge data from the USGS of the Stanislaus River from 1946 to 2006 showed much higher variability in amount of water in the river before dam construction in the 1980’s (Figure 1). The natural hydrograph for rivers in these regions is characterized by peak flows during winter storms and late spring snow run-off. With regulation of river flows by the dam, the resulting hydrograph is characterized by smaller, shorter high flow events. Less water flowing through the river means there are few opportunities for water to flow over the river banks onto the floodplain and into oxbow lakes and side channels. Regulation of river flows also keeps the river in its current channel, so there is no more sand deposition, bank erosion or lateral channel migration. Tree species, such as willows and cottonwoods, which depend on a natural hydrograph for recruitment and survival, are therefore unlikely to establish naturally at this site.
Figure 1. Stanislaus River streamflow at Ripon, California for the period of record 1940-2007.
Data shows much higher variation before the New Melones Dam became operational in the early 1980’s. Vertical red line indicates1982, the year New Melones Reservoir filled.
Aerial photos showed the pre-dam dynamic nature of the river, which created oxbow lakes, side channels and newly exposed sand bars. Like the flow data, these pictures reveal a post-dam river that is relatively static and likely to remain in its current channel. A photo of a large post-dam flood event (Figure 2) provides evidence that the river is capable of overflowing its banks and recharging oxbow lakes and side channels, even though this is a rare event.
Figure 1. Stanislaus River streamflow at Ripon, California for the period of record 1940-2007.
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Soils–Adetailedsiteevaluationofsoilsincludedanalysisofsoiltexture,stratification,depthtothewatertable,andhistoryof landusebyconsultingtheNRCSsoilmaps,diggingsoilpits,andconsultingwithneighborsandpreviouslandowners.Soilsurveymapsshowedthatsoilsonthissiteareamosaicofloamy,alluvialsoiltypesderivedprimarilyfromgranite,moderatelywelldrained,withlittletonoslopes(Figure3). Excavation of several backhoe pits during summer, fall and winter to capture seasonal variation ingroundwaterdepthrevealed thewater table tobebelow12feet. Insomelocations,sandfilled thepitsat3feetindepth.Thereareareasinthisprojectsitethatretainednaturaltopography,andareasofhigherelevationwereusedtobuildfloodrefugiafortheriparianbrushrabbitsduringhighwaterevents.
Figure 12. 1950 aerial photograph of Buffington project area. Courtesy of McHenry Museum, Modesto, CA.
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Figure 3. Soils Map and Soil Pit Locations for the Buffington Tract, Stanislaus County, California.
SedimentTransport –The streamflowdata and aerial photos indicated that theStanislausRiver in thisstretchbelowthedamislikelytoremainfixedinitschannel.Therefore,depositionisnotoccurringonthissiteandtherearenonewlyexposedsandbars,whichmeansthereislittlechanceofnaturalrecruitmentofcottonwoodandwillowsatthissite.Thereissomescouroftheriverchannel,sobankstabilizationwasenhancedbyplantingriparianvegetation.
ExistingVegetation–Severalareasofoldriparianspeciesarepresentthroughoutthissite.Afewoftheseprovide foragingandnestinghabitat for the riparianbrush rabbit and riparianwoodrat, andprovidedareferenceconditionof thevegetationstructure that is requiredby thesespecies.Restorationon thissiteconnectedtheseareasofriparianvegetation.
3.Conceptual Model of Physical and Biological Successional TrajectoryAconceptualmodelisessentialinchoosinglocation,typeanddensityofspeciestoplant,becauseitforcestherestorationisttoconsiderhowsiteconditionsandplantsuccessionwillchangetheplantcommunitiesovertime.Theaerialphotosshowedevidenceofpre-damchannelmeanderandflooding,thatcreatedoxbowlakesandsidechannels,anddepositedsedimentandbuilt sandbars.Post-damphotosshoweda lackofre-chargeintothelakesandchannels,shrubcolonizationofpointbarsandnonewsanddeposition,andlargetreesnexttooxbowlakesandsidechannelsappearedtobesenescing.Withoutrestorationonthesite,slowshrubsuccessionwouldtakeplacewithheavyweedcompetition.Treeslikewillowsandcottonwoodswouldnotbeabletonaturallyrecruitandsurviveonthissite.Basedonthesoilsprofilesandhydrologyof
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
thesite,itwasdeterminedthattheprojectareacouldsupportriparianforest,shrubandherbaceousspecies,butthetargetedwildlifespeciesprimarilyrequiredshrubandherbaceousspecies.Therefore,aselectionofshrubspecieswaschosentobeplantedinseveralcommunities,andtheirpredictedsuccessionalpathalongthisriverwithitsveryrarefloodevents,isshowninFigure4.Becauseofthevariationinsoilprofilesandtextures throughout thesite, itwasexpected thatnotallplantswouldsurviveuniformly throughout thesite.Suchvariablesurvivalislikelytocreateapatchworkdesignofvegetationthroughoutthesite,withopeningsthatpromotegroundcoverspeciesandprovidebaskinglocations,andthereforethevariabilitywasnotconsideredtobeaproblem.Toretainthegoalof70%survivalatthissite,however,somespecieswereplantedathigherdensitiestolimittheneedforreplanting.
References: RiverPartners.2008.RestorationPlanfortheBuffingtonUnit,SanJoaquinRiverNationalWildlifeRefuge.S.SmallandT.Griggs.Modesto,California.
DRAFT RIPARIAN RESTORATION DESIGN GUIDELINES 66River Partners 4/16/2009
Pre-regulationChannel Movement (Now frozen in place)
Active(Regulated)
Stream Channel
OxbowLakes
Gravel Bar
Willow Scrub Plant more
willowScrub species
SideChannels
Mixed Riparian Forests
Cottonwood, Valley Oak, Regenerating shrubs
Plant more shrubs
Valley Oak Forest Valley Oak,
Blue elderberry, Rose Plant more shrubs
InvasiveWeeds
Some shrubs remain
Plant aggressive native herbaceous
Grazing
Shrub land Mixed shrubs,
native herbaceous layer
Lack of WeedManagement
BiologicalSuccession
Disturbance
Figure 4: Conceptual Model of Restoration and Plant Succession on the Regulated Stanislaus River
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Case Study #2: Restoration on the Santa Margarita River:Arundo donax Removal
Project SummaryThefocusofrestorationontheSantaMargaritariverhaslargelybeencontrolofthenon-nativeinvasive,highlyvigorousandrapidlyspreadingArundo donax. Introduced intosouthernCaliforniaoriginallyforbankstabilization,thisweedfromAsiaisresilient,growsrapidly,andunlikenativeriparianvegetation,itishighlyflammableandregeneratesquicklyafterburning(Bell1997).Thoughitsseedsarenotviablehere,itcanspreadvegetativelyandsproutfrompiecesoftheplantsthattearoffandfloatdownstreamwheretheyrestonriverbanks(Lawsonetal.2005).WhereA. donax establishes,itquicklyoutcompetesnativevegetationandformsmonotypicculturesofavegetationtypethathasnotproventobearesourceoffoodornestingstructurefornativewildlife(Bell1997).Inaddition,tomeetitsrapidgrowthraterequirements,A. donaxconsumeswateratsucharatethatevenwildlifemustcompetewiththeplantforwater.Arundo donaxdisplacesnative treesandshrubs suchaswillows,cottonwood,andmulefat thatprovidenestinghabitatfortheFederallyEndangeredLeastBell’sVireo,whichisatargetspeciesforrestorationalongthisriver.
Restorationisguidedbycoordinated,largescaleremovalofA.donax,andlong-termmonitoringandre-treatmenttoensurelongtermeradicationoftheweed.Removalistheactivephaseofrestoration,whichallows physical processes such as floods to regenerate native vegetation along floodplainswithout theoppressivecompetition.TheSantaMargaritawatershedretainsfloodregimesthataresufficienttocauseoverbankflooding,depositsediment,anddistributeseedsofnativeplants,butthehydrographisalteredbyriverregulationandwaterdiversions.Asecondfocusofrestorationonthisriverisadaptivemanagement;themostsuccessfulmethodshavebeenlearnedthroughouttheprocess,withchangesmadetothemethodsas needed. Experimental plots were set up and monitored to learn the most effective techniques. Inaddition,smallscalehorticulturaltechniquesweretestedtodeterminecost-effectivemethodsofenhancingrevegetation.
Project Name SantaMargaritaRiverArundo donaxControlProjectCounty, River, Bioregion SanDiegoCounty,SantaMargaritaRiver,SouthCoastBioregionProject Goals – Primary reason for restoration
RemoveA. donax(andotherinvasiveweeds)toallownativevegetationthechancetore-establishandsupporttargetedwildlifespeciesincludingtheLeastBell’sVireo.
Long term goals and considerations
PermanentlyeradicateA.donaxfromtreatedareaswithinitialremovalandfollowwithlongtermmonitoring.
Partnerships MarineCorpsBaseCampPendelton,TheNatureConservancy,MissionResourceConservationDistrict,privatelandowners
Restoration Planning Process (Steps in Flow Chart) Here,afewofthestepsintheflowchartthatwereamajorpartofthisrestorationarediscussed,formorespecificdetailsseeabovelinktothecompleteeradicationmethods.
1.Designation of Site as RiparianTherearetwodamsontheupperwatershedoftheSantaMargaritaRiver,buttheyreleaseflowsthatroughlymimictheundammedhydrograph,allowingtherivertoretainarelativelynaturalflowregime.Therefore,floodingandsedimentdepositionstillconnectthefloodplainstotheriver.
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2.Evaluation of Site Conditions: How river processes operate on the siteBecause of the semi-natural hydrograph, high flows inundate portions of the flood plain, recharginggroundwater, depositingnutrient rich sediment anddistributingnative seeds.The frequency and extentoffloodinghasbeenaltered,andingeneral,baseflowsarereducedandpeakflowsareincreased.ManyportionsoftheSantaMargaritaRiverareprotected,sothereisriparianfloodplainavailabletoberestored.ThebiggestfactorlimitingnativevegetationisthewidespreadinvasiveA. donax.Removalofthisweedhas been the major focus of restoration, therefore site evaluation has largely consisted of mapping A. donax, and deciding the best locations for removal. To prevent A. donax from spreading downstream,effortsweremade tobeginremovalupstreamandprogressdownstream,andacoordinationof removaleffortswasalsoimplementedtolimitthespreadofA. donaxintoareasasaresultofremovaltechniques.Severalexperimentalhorticulturalrestorationtechniquesweretestedinplotsthroughouttheprojectarea.Attheseplots,soiltextureandstratificationwasexamined,anddistancetothemainchannelwasrecordedasasubstituteforrelativeelevationtothewatertable.Survivalofrestorationplantingswasmeasuredandrelated tomeasuredvariables.Through theseexperiments,preferredsoilconditionsandpositionon thefloodplainpreferencesforspecificnativeriparianplantswererevealed;suchplantpreferencescouldthenbeappliedtofuturerestorationplantings.
3.Conceptual Model of Physical and Biological Successional TrajectoryConceptual models used in horticultural restoration can help the restorationist decide which species toplant,atwhatdensities,andatwhichlocations.Themodelcanthenallowaguesstobemadeabouthowsiteconditionsandplantsuccessionwillaffectthefuturecompositionandplantcommunitystructureovertime.They are also beneficial for process restorationwill be implemented at a site.Process restorationwasimplementedontheSantaMargaritaRiver;byremovingtheinvasiveweedA. donax,itwasassumedthatnatural riverprocesseswouldallownativeplants tore-vegetateareasclearedof theexoticspecies.Aconceptualmodel for theSantaMargaritaRiver showshowA. donax preventsnatural successionofplantcommunitiesfromtakingplace,andhelpssubstantiategoalsthatcanbeevaluatedduringvegetationmonitoringafterremoval(Figure1,nextpage).
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DRAFT RIPARIAN RESTORATION DESIGN GUIDELINES 69River Partners 4/16/2009
Channel Movement Flooding
Biological Succession Aggradation
A. donax Removal
Arundo donax Contamination
Active Stream Channel
Gravel bars And Braids
Willow Colonization
Willow Scrub
Willows, mulefat, Herbaceous understory
Willow Riparian Forest
Cottonwoods,willows
Cha
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Mea
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Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Plant Succession Influence of A. donax on the Santa Margarita River
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Case Study #3: Restoration on the Trinity River: Berm RemovalProject SummaryPriortotheCentralValleyProject’screationoftheTrinityRiverDiversion(TRD)intheearly1960’s,theTrinityRiversupportedabundantpopulationsofsalmonandsteelhead(TrinityRiverEIR).Withthelossof109milesofcriticalfishhabitatabovetheLewistonDamontheTrinityRiver,andupto90%ofthewaterdivertedtotheCentralValley,fishpopulationsdeclinedrapidly(TrinityRiverEIR).TheTrinityRiverRestorationProgramisanongoingprojecttorestoretheTrinityRiverBasinfishandwildlifepopulations.
Historically,flowsthroughtheTrinityRiverwereextremelyvariable,withhighfloodsexceeding70,000cfs,butaftertheTRD,foralmosttwodecadesaconstantlowflowof100to150cfsflowedthroughtheTrinityRiver (TrinityRiverBiologicalMonitoring2007).Withoutvariableflows, fastgrowingwillowsestablishedclosetotheriverchannel.Overtime,thewillowsaccumulatedsedimentandadditionalshrubbyspecies established, until narrow but often high banks of vegetation were formed that would normallyhavebeenscouredawaybyoccasionalhighflowevents.Thesebermsactasnaturalleveestoisolatethefloodplain from the channel, preventing bank overflow onto the floodplain, groundwater recharge andsedimentdeposition.Isolatedfloodplainsarenolongerabletorecruityoungtreesandshrubsandeventuallythematureforestsdecline.Eventuallythebermsgrewsolargethathydraulicmodelingrevealedthatevenintentionallyreleasedhighflowswouldnotbeabletoremovethem(TrinityRiverFlowEvaluation1999).
AmajorcomponentofrestorationalongtheTrinityRiverismechanicalremovalofberms,andphysicalreconstructionofthedamagedfloodplain.AsecondnecessarycomponentofrestorationontheTrinityhasbeenanincorporationofvariableannualinstreamflowsthatcanpreventfuturebermformations,encouragenativeriparianvegetationestablishment,andimprovefishhabitat.Restorationeffortsincludeintroductionofcoarsesedimenttoincreasegravelstorage,improvechanneldynamics,andincreasesalmonspawningandrearinghabitat.Revegetationofrebuiltfloodplainsisexpectedtooccurnaturallywithincreasedflows,but native riparian vegetation is planted on some floodplains to quickly stabilize banks and decreasesediment loads into theriver.Restorationalong theTrinityRiverrequiresapplyingnewtechniquesandlearningabout the system throughout theprocess.Toensure scientificmonitoringandevaluationcouldinfluence restorationdecisions throughout implementation, anAdaptiveEnvironmentalAssessment andManagementProgramwasformed.
Project Name TrinityRiverRestorationProgramCounty, River, Bioregion TrinityCounty,TrinityRiver,KlamathBioregionProject Goals – Primary reason for restoration
Restorefishandwildlifehabitatbyallowingtherivertofunctionmorenaturally–removeberms,rebuildfloodplains,restorevariableflowregime,stabilizeriverbankswithnativevegetation.
Long term goals and considerations
Throughphysicalremovalofberms,rebuildingofthefloodplain,andallowingamorevariableflowregimethroughtheriver,thetrinityrivershouldbeabletomaintainfishandwildlifehabitatsnaturally,butcontinuedmonitoringmayrevealthatalteredflowsareneeded.
Partnerships BureauofReclamation,U.S.FishandWildlifeService,ForestService,NationalMarineFisheriesService,CaliforniaResourcesAgency(includingtheDepartmentsofWaterResourcesandFishandGame),TrinityCounty,theHoopaValleyTribe,andtheYurokTribe
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Restoration Planning Process (Steps in Flow Chart) Here,afewofthestepsintheflowchartthatwereamajorpartofthisrestorationarediscussed,formorespecificdetailsseeabovelinktotheTrinityRiverRestorationProgram.
1.Designation of Site as RiparianLewistonDamregulatesreleasesintotheTrinityRiver.Historicstreamflowswerehighlyvariable,andthiskeptthechannelactivelycreatingfloodplains,sloughs,andscouredawayopportunisticwoodyvegetationinlowflowreaches.WithlowflowreleasesaftercreationofLewistonDam,riparianbermformationactedasnaturalleveesandisolatedfloodplainsfromtheriverchannelinseveralreachesoftheriver.Removalofbermsandreleaseofhigherbaseflowsandannualvariabilityinflowswillreconnectthefloodplainswiththeactivechannel,designatingthefloodplainsasriparianareas.
2.Evaluation of Site Conditions: How river processes operate on the siteHydraulicModeling: In1984, theTrinityRiverBasinFishandWildlifeActwas signed,with thegoalofrestoringfishandwildlifepopulationstopre-regulationlevels.Itwasrecognizedthatriparianbermshadformedalongtheriverandwerealteringthemorphologyoftheriverchannel.Naturally,thechannelgentlyslopedfromthedeepestpartofthemainstreamchanneluptothelowerfloodplainterrace,providingmicrohabitatsforfish.Onthisgentleslope,duringlowflows,riparianvegetationestablishedandcontinuedlowflowswerenotstrongenoughtoscourthevegetationaway.Assedimentgatheredamongthevegetationandthebermsformed,thechannelbecamenarrowwithsteepsidesastheriverwasconfined. Thefishhabitatcreatedbythegentleslopeswaslostwiththeformationofberms.Isolatedfloodplainsalsosufferedwiththelackofconnectiontotheriverchannel.Youngtreesandshrubswereunabletorecruitwithoutoverflowonto thefloodplains, andmaturevegetationno longer receivednutrients from sediment inputor groundwater recharge. Overtime the riparian vegetation on floodplains declined.The first phase ofrestorationontheTrinityRivercalledforhydraulicmonitoringtoevaluatewhether thebermscouldberemoved by releasing high flows. Hydraulicmodeling revealed that even the highest controlled floodreleaseswouldnotbepowerfulenoughtoremovealloftheberms.Thismodelinginformedrestorationiststhatmechanicalbermremovalwouldbenecessary.Modelingdidshowthatonceremoved,variablehighflowreleaseswouldbesufficienttopreventnewbermformation.
Sediments:EnhancingfishpopulationsareaprimarygoaloftheTrinityRiverRestorationProgram.Inadditiontoisolationfrom109milesofspawninghabitatabovethedamandalteredmorphologyoftheriverbelowthedam,fishpopulationssufferedduetolossofcoarsespawninggravelbelowthedam.Studiesofspawninggravelavailabilityshowedthatdirectlybelowthedam,mostofthecoarsesediment–cobblesandgravel,hadbeentrappedbythedam.Therefore,afterbermremoval,floodplainreconstructionandsidechannelcreations,fishhabitatclosetothedamwasenhancedbytheadditionofspawninggravelsizedsediment.Isolationoffloodplainsfromtheriverchannelbyriparianbermseliminatedmuchoftheriparianshrubsandtreesalongthechannel,whichcausesadditionalfinesedimentloadintotheriverfrombankerosion.Stabilizationofthebankswithnativevegetationhelpsreducethesedimentload.
3.Conceptual Model of Physical and Biological Successional TrajectoryAconceptualmodelof theprocessesof theriverchannelandplantsuccessionontheTrinityRivercanillustratehowover-regulatedflowsandriparianbermformationcanalterthenaturalcourse.Themodelcanalsohelpplanwhichnativeplantstousetorevegetatesidechannelsandnewlycreatedfloodplains(Figure1,nextpage).
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Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Plant Succession on the Trinity River - Influence of Riparian Berms
DRAFT RIPARIAN RESTORATION DESIGN GUIDELINES 72River Partners 4/16/2009
Reconstruction
Hardwoods and Conifer Uplands
Active Stream Channel
Gravel bars Gentle slope from deep channel to gravel bar
provides fish microhabitats
Willow, Alder, CottonwoodColonization
Cottonwood,Willow,
Maple, Ash, Alder Riparian Forest
Side Channels Fish spawning and
rearing habitat
Isolated FloodplainMature declining
forests – no youngtrees and shrubs
Berm Formation (Non-variable flows over many years)
Berm
Mechanical Removal
BiologicalSuccession
Channel Movement
Flow Regulation
Physical Removal/ Reconstruction
Cha
nnel
Mea
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Case Study #4: Restoration on the Upper Truckee RiverBank Stabilization
Project SummaryTheUpperTruckeeRiverflowsintoLakeTahoe,andhasbeenidentifiedasthelargestcontributorofsedimentintothelakefromerodingstreambanks(Simonetal.2006).IncompliancewiththeTotalMaximumDailyLoaddevelopedforLakeTahoe,andasapriorityoftheLakeTahoeEnvironmentalImprovementProgram,theSunsetReachoftheUpperTruckeeRiverisasiteofprocessrestorationthatwillphysicallyrebuildthechannelandcontourthesurroundingmeadowsandriparianfloodplainswiththegoalofreducingsedimentloadsintothelake.
Ahistoryofurbandevelopment,flowregulation(decreasedflowsandchannelstraightening)gravelmining,grazing,infrastructuredevelopment,andlogginghasincreasedthesedimentloadintotheriver.Theriverhasadjustedthroughbankfailures,channelwideningandincising.Thecombinationofalargerchannelandalowervolumeofwaterreleasedthroughtheriverrarelyallowoverbankflowandthegroundwatertableislowered.Theriparianfloodplainsarethereforerarelyinundated,andinmanylocationsthewatertableistoolowformeadowvegetationtoreach.Undernaturalconditions,waterflowsthroughsinuouschannelswithbanksstabilizedbynativemeadoworriparianplants,andthere is littlebankerosion.Duringhighflows(andnaturalconditions)muchofthesedimentisdistributedontothefloodplainwhereitistrapped,reducingtheloadcarriedbythechanneltoLakeTahoe.Undercurrentconditions–straightened,incisedchannelsandlowerreleasedflows–thevegetationadaptedtodrierconditionsthatestablishesalongthebankshasshallowerrootsandcannotpreventbankerosion.Thewidenedchannelsaremostlyfilledwithsand. Highqualityfishhabitat–poolsandcoarsegravel riffles–hasdeclinedalongwith theprimaryaquaticproductionthatsustainsfishpopulations.
RestorationonthisreachoftheTruckeeRiverisfocusedonreducingsedimentloadduetochannelerosionandimprovingfishhabitat.Theproposedmethodforrestorationistocreatenewchannelsoftheappropriatewidthanddepthtoaccommodatethesedimentloadsandcurrentflows.Oldchannelswillbefilledinandrevegetated.Thenewchannelswillbe stabilized toprevent futureerosionwith riparianvegetationandstructuralsupportssuchassodblocks,largewoodymaterialsandrocks.Thechannelswillbeconstructedtoincludedeeperpoolsandgentlegravellinedslopesforfishspawningandrearinghabitats.Thefloodplainswillalsobereconstructedtoincludeseasonallywetdepressions.Riparianandmeadowvegetationwillbeplantedalongtheriverchannels.Additionally,whereconifershaveencroachedintotheriparianzone,theywillberemoved.
Project Name SunsetReachoftheUpperTruckeeRiverCounty, River, Bioregion ElDoradoCounty,TruckeeRiver,SierraBioregionProject Goals – Primary reason for restoration
ImproveclarityofLakeTahoebyreducingsedimentloadfromtheUpperTruckeeRiverduetostreambankerosion.Restorefishandwildlifehabitatthroughchannelconstructionandplantingriparianvegetation.
Long term goals and considerations
Thechannelwillberebuilttoaccommodatecurrentflowandsedimentregimes,andwillbestrengthenedbyriparianvegetationandstructuralsupports.Modelspredictthesemodificationswillpreventfutureerosion.
Partnerships NationalForestServiceLakeTahoeBasinManagementUnit,CaliforniaTahoeConservancy
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Restoration Planning Process (Steps in Flow Chart) Here,afewofthestepsintheflowchartthatwereamajorpartofthisrestorationarediscussed,formorespecificdetailsseeabovelinktotheProposedActionfortheUpperTruckeeRiver(SunsetReach).
1.Designation of Site as RiparianThisreachoftheUpperTruckeeRiverishistoricallycharacterizedbyalowerchannelgradientandbroaderfloodplain,withlargemeadowswithinreachofthegroundwatertable.Asaresultofchannelalterations,inmanylocationsthemeadowsarenolongerabletoreachthegroundwater.Currently,flowshighenoughtooverflow thebanksandconnect thechannel to thefloodplainand rechargegroundwateroccuraboutevery2to5years.Throughrestoration,flowsthroughthenewlyconstructedchannelsshouldoverflowonanaverageof1.4years,andsmaller,repositionedchannelsshouldsustaingroundwaterlevelsrequiredbymeadowspecies.Eventhoughthemeadowsareprimarilyconnectedtotheriverchannelthroughgroundwater, overflows are still necessary to their function. Themeadows floodplains within this reach areconsideredriparian.
2.Evaluation of Site Conditions: How river processes operate on the siteAerialphotographsoftheSunsetReachshowlargemeanderscarsthatdescribethehistoricsinuosityofthechannel. This reachof theUpperTruckeeRiver is lessconstrainedbyvalleywallswhichgive theriver space tomeander.When thematrixofvegetationon thesite isexamined, it canbeseen thatwetmeadowspeciesaredominantinlowerelevationreachesofoldchannels,whichareclosertogroundwater,whileshrubbyriparianspeciesarefoundalongrecentlydepositedpointbarsorrecentlyeroded,shallowstreambanks.Astherivermeanderedandleftolddepressionsbehindwheremeadowspeciesthrive,anddepositednewcoarsesedimentsthatfavorriparianshrubsandtrees,thematrixofvegetationgrewmorecomplicated.Aerialphotographsdocumentthechangestochannelmeanderandshapeasaresultofhumanactivities.Loggingpractices,grazingandagricultureinparticulardisruptedthesystembystraighteningthechannelandalteringflows.Straightenedchannelstendtobecomedeeperorwiderinordertocarrywaterandsediment loadsoverashorterdistance.Thisprocesscreatespositivefeedbackbecause theslopeofthechannelalsoincreaseswhichleadstoanincreaseinvelocityandfurthererosivepower.Theincisedchannelscarrywaterlowerrelativetothefloodplain,andtherootsofwetmeadowspeciescannotreachthegroundwater.Similarly,eventhougherodedbanksaretypicallycolonizedbyshrubbyspecies,ifthechannelistoodeeprelativetothebank,theshrubsdonotgetfloodedfrequentlyenoughtoestablish.Restorationatthisreachoftheriverwillinvolvecreationofanewchannelthatcanmeetthehydrologicneedsoftheriparianandmeadowspecies.Todeterminetheappropriatechannelwidthanddepth,streamgaugescanbeusedtodocumentcurrentbaseflowsandhighflows.RestorationistsdeterminedthatfortheSunsetReach,channelsneededtofloodanaverageof1.4yearswhenflowsreached450cubicfeetpersecond(cfs).
The history of sediment distribution across the floodplain is also reflected in thematrix of vegetation.Meadowspeciesaretypicallymoresuccessfulinfinersoilsrichinorganicmatter.Theseconditionsarefrequent in old channels where sediments were deposited in layers overtime. Shrubs however cannotcompetewiththefastgrowingherbaceousmeadowspeciesinthefinersoils,buttheycangrowfastthroughcoarsesoilsinopenareaswheretheirrootscanquicklyreachthewatertable.Withoutnaturalmeandertocreatecutoffbanksanddepositcoarsesedimentonpointbars,shrubspecieslosetheabilitytorecruit.Asthedeeperchannelisunabletooverflowitsbanks,meadowspeciesdonotreceivenutrientsattachedtofinesediments.Thenewlyconstructedchannelswillbesmallerandshallower.Thebankswillbereinforcedbyplantingriparianshrubspeciesalongthechannelbanks.Meanderintotheoldincisedchannelswillbediscouragedbyfillingthechannelsbutmaintainingalowdepressiontobeplantedwithmeadowspecies.Examinationofsedimentsizesinthealteredchannelsshowedhighlevelsofsandrelativetocoarsergrainspreferredbyfish.Inthenewchannels,coarsesedimentswillbeaddedtospecificallycontouredslopestocreatefishspawningandrearinghabitat.
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
3.Conceptual Model of Physical and Biological Successional TrajectoryAconceptualmodelofphysicalprocessesandplantsuccessionontheSunsetReachoftheUpperTruckeeRiverundertheinfluenceofalteredchannelsisusefultodeterminetheneedforrestoration,andtopredicttheoutcomeofconstructinganewchannel(Figure1).
Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Plant Succession on the Upper Truckee River: Influence of Eroding Channel Beds
DRAFT RIPARIAN RESTORATION DESIGN GUIDELINES 76River Partners 4/17/2009
Active Natural Channel
Point Bars Riparian shrubs
colonize
Old Channel Meadow species colonize
the depressions
Mixed riparian shrubs in matrix of meadow spp
IsolatedOld Channel
Meadow species decline Drier adapted herbaceous
plants colonize
Senescing MixedRiparian Shrubs Young shrubs unable
to recruit without overbank flow
Biological Succession Aggradation
Channel Movement
Disturbance
Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Plant Successionon the Upper Truckee River:
Influence of Eroding Channel Beds
Channel Reconstruction
Reconstruction
Cha
nnel
Mov
emen
t
IncisedErodingChannel
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
3. Ecological and Landscape Considerations of Riparian Plants
Table 1: ECOLOGICAL TOLERANCES OF RIPARIAN PLANT SPECIES
HYDROLOGIC TOLERANCES
Species Water Table Required
Maximum Depth to Water Table
Tolerates Long Duration Flooding
Drought Recovery***
Black willow Salix gooddingii Yes 3 meters Yes Yes
Sandbar Willow Salix exigua Yes 2 meters Yes Yes
Arroyo willow Salix lasiolepis Yes 3 meters Moderate** Moderate
Red willow Salix lasiandra Yes 7 meters No No
Fremont Cottonwood Populus fremontii Yes 7 meters Yes Yes
Buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis
Yes 3 meters Yes Yes
White alder Alnus rhombifolia Yes <1 meter No No
Western Sycamore Platanus racemosa Yes 7 meters No Yes
Oregon Ash Fraxinus latifolia No Yes Yes
Box-Elder Acer negundo No No Yes
Valley Oak Quercus lobata No Yes Yes
Blue Elderberry Sambucus mexicana No No Yes
Coyote Brush Baccharis pilularis No No Yes
Rose Rosa intermontana No Yes* Yes
Blackberry Rubus ursinus Yes 3 meters Yes* No
Creeping rye grass Leymus triticoides No Yes Yes
Basket sedge Carex barbarae No Yes Yes
Mugwort Artemisia douglasiana No No Yes
Gumplant Grindelia camporum No No Yes
*If top is above water, **many stump-sprout after top-death, ***Recovery after drought induced leaf-drop
California Riparian Habitat Restoration Handbook July 2009 Page ��
Table 2: RIPARIAN PLANT SPECIES ON THE LANDSCAPE
Species OPTIMAL LANDSCAPE SETTING USES BY WILDLIFE
Black willow Salix gooddingii
Heavy clay soils; seasonal wetland basins; perimeter of permanent wetlands
Leaf insects
Sandbar Willow Salix exigua Sandy soils; on point bars Allows other species to colonize inside
stand due to more open canopyArroyo willow Salix lasiolepis Loamy soils; upper bankfull flow Early spring source of leaf-insects
Red willow Salix lasiandra Upper floodplain; on tributaries Leaf insects
Fremont Cottonwood Populus fremontii
Sandy and Loamy soils, lower floodplain Tall structure
Buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis
Perimeter of Permanent wetland; freshwater tidal marsh (Delta) Nectar/pollen
White alder Alnus rhombifolia Edge of channel Source of insects to SRA
Sycamore Platanus racemosa Sandy loams; well-drained Denning/nesting cavities/heron rookery
Oregon Ash Fraxinus latifolia
Edge of channel; loamy soils in basins. Leaf insects
Box-Elder Acer negundo Mid to upper floodplain; loamy soils Leaf insects
Valley Oak Quercus lobata
Upper Floodplain; fine textured, well-drained soild during growing season
Leaf/bark insects/acorns
Blue Elderberry Sambucus mexicana Loams on upper floodplain Host of VELB/pollen/nectar/fruit/
insectsCoyote Brush Baccharis pilularis Upper floodplain Evergreen cover/pollen/nectar in Fall
Rose Rosa intermontana Thickets across floodplain Pollen/nectar/fruit/cover/important
nesting siteBlackberry Rubus ursinus Thickets lower on floodplain Pollen/nectar/fruit/cover
Creeping rye grass Leymus triticoides Sun or shade across floodplain Sod-forming
Basket sedge Carex barbarae Shade/frequently flooded Soil stabilization/”Fire cooler”*
Mugwort Artemesia douglasiana Sun; mineral soil Important for Cover/weed control
Gumplant Grindelia camporum Sun Pollen/nectar/large seeds
Individuals of all species can be found anywhere on the floodplain. This table describes conditions where the species dominates stands of vegetation and the resources they provide wildlife. All plant species provide cover and nesting sites, and contribute organic matter into rivers.*Carex barbarae burns at a lower temperature than dry grass, resulting in survival of tree around which it grows.