CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
Structural Racism’s Effect on Education Today:
Does School Choice Improve High School Graduation Rates in
Formerly Redlined Communities?
A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of Master of Public Administration in
Public Sector Management and Leadership
By
Lindsay Lezama
May 2019
ii
The graduate project of Lindsay Lezama Lezama is approved:
_________________________________________ ______________
Dr. Rhonda Franklin Date
_________________________________________ ______________
Dr. Philip Nufurio Date
_________________________________________ ______________
Dr. Henrik Palasani-Minassians, Chair Date
California State University, Northridge
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Table of Contents
Signature Page ii
List of Tables iii
Abstract iv
Section 1: Introduction 1
Research Questions 4
Section 2: Literature Review 6
Redlining History 6
The Effects of Graduation Rates on the Community 7
School Choice 9
Section 3: Background 12
School Funding in California 12
California Charter School Legal Battles 13
Section 4: Methodology 15
Section 5: Threats to Internal Validity 17
Section 6: Sample Findings 18
Section 7: Limitations 19
Section 8: Conclusion 21
Section 9: Recommendations 22
Works Cited 23
Appendix A: 26
Appendix B: 27
Appendix C: 28
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Abstract
Structural Racism’s Effect on Education Today:
Does School Choice Improve High School Graduation Rates in
Formerly Redlined Communities?
By Lindsay Lezama
Master of Public Administration:
Public Sector Management and Leadership
California is facing significant changes in legislation regarding charter school operations
and ultimately limiting access to alternative education options. The purpose of this paper is to
identify historically disadvantaged communities and determine if the availability of charter schools
within the identified communities impacts high school completion rates. Previous research will be
presented discussing the effects high school dropout rates have on the individual and society, as
well as how access to alternative education options improve graduation rates amongst students
residing in low socio-economic communities. I will focus on historically redlined communities
within the city of Los Angeles and identify district high schools and charter high schools located
within each outlined community. A comparison between enrolled twelfth grade students at the
beginning of the academic year and the number of graduates at the end of the same year will be
made. The data collected will serve as an assessment which will support the need for an increase
in school choice options should the neighboring district school show low high school completion
rates.
1
Section 1: Introduction
Government officials, school administrators, and even private sector organizations are
always developing policies, advancing technology, creating supportive and inclusive programs,
etc. in order to make education more accessible and effective for our youth. Over the last three
decades, the emergence of public charter schools as a means to provide citizens alternative
education options has caused much debate and many disputes (Cohedes, 2018). Federal and State
government regulation have been established and thousands of legal proceedings between districts,
students and families, employees, and so on have shaped how these schools are not only operated,
but how society views them as a whole (Renzulli and Roscigno, 2007).
Alternative education in America has grown exponentially since the first introduction of
charter schools over 25 years ago. The California Charter Schools Act was passed in 1992 and
required schools operating as charters to adhere to specific terms required by chartering agencies
regarding student performance, governance, and financial stability and oversight (California
Education Code Section 47607). The U.S. Department of Education defines public charter schools
as, “[A] publicly funded school that is typically governed by a group or organization under a
legislative contract (or charter) with the state, district, or other entity.” Charter schools are also
provided an autonomy that district schools do not possess and therefore have more flexibility when
creating their program models. In an attempt to address a national concern over high school
dropout rates, charter schools provide students and their families with alternative education options
that may meet the individual needs of students who have dropped out or are at risk of dropping out
of high school (Greene and Winters, 2006).
Unfortunately, the number of high school dropout rates increase amongst minority groups,
primarily Hispanic and black, and low-income students (De La Rosa, 1998). In neighborhoods that
2
have high concentrations of these populations, the economic and social ramifications of these
increased dropout rates are exhibited in increased costs in crime prevention, welfare and
unemployment, and lost tax revenue (Tyler and Lofstrom, 2009). Given that local school districts
receive funding through tax revenues from the local, state, and federal governments, local district
schools suffer the consequences of poor funding leading to diminished school conditions (Mantel,
2018). These conditions may be professional development of teachers and staff, lack of structural
improvements, deficiencies in technology and access to technology devices, to name a few.
The School Choice policy debate has been going on for decades with proponents claiming
that the increase in competition amongst school encourages progression within failing schools
and/or districts (Glenn, 1992; Rabovsky, 2011). School choice is arguably an economic issue as
much as it is an educational one as those who have the means, either consciously or not, to reside
in communities housing successful schools. For the poor, working class, this is not an option as
the affordability of homes in these communities is not obtainable for them and their families
(Lareau, 2011). Alternative education institutions, such as charter schools and home schooling, are
the only options residents in communities with failing schools have.
Equity is at the center of this debate as it is required by law that all citizens must have
access to a free and public education (Free and Public Education Section 504, Department of
Education, 1973). As defined by Deborah Stone (Policy Paradox, 2012) equity denotes fair
distribution of public goods ensuring that the same quality of public goods are distributed for
everyone. Understanding that there are 3 factors involved in equal distribution (who, what, and
how) and how the consideration of each individual factors affect equity is key (Stone, p. 42).
Weighing the effects of a lack of school choice when district schools are failing their communities
is not supporting the equity deserved by residents. The communal values are also necessary to
3
address as many neighborhoods housing poor, working class residents often do not hold education
as high in value as a middle class resident might. These people are struggling to survive and look
to child care and employment as highly valued. A community's values can change over time,
however, as accessibility and inclusion of historically excluded communities of citizens become
more included in policy decisions (Stone, 2012). By bringing a variety of cultural, gender, socio-
economic issues to the table, the positions of equity evolve, as well as the community.
4
Research Questions
The research questions that will be addressed are:
1. How many district schools and charter schools are available to residents living in
communities of low socioeconomic means?
2. What are the enrollment numbers at the beginning of an academic year for charter
schools and district schools?
3. What are the percentages of high school completion within the same academic year for
each school studied?
4. Does the number of available school choice options impact graduation rates within a
community that suffers financial disadvantages?
California is facing significant changes in legislation regarding charter school operations
and ultimately limiting access to alternative education options. The purpose of this paper is to
identify historically disadvantaged communities and determine if the availability of charter schools
within the identified communities impacts high school completion rates. Previous research will be
presented discussing the effects high school dropout rates have on the individual and society, as
well as how access to alternative education options improve graduation rates amongst students
residing in low socio-economic communities. I will focus on historically redlined communities
within the city of Los Angeles and identify district high schools and charter high schools located
within each outlined community. A comparison between enrolled twelfth grade students at the
beginning of the academic year and the number of graduates at the end of the same year will be
made. The data collected will serve as an assessment which will support the need for an increase
in school choice options should the neighboring district school show low high school completion
rates. Should any school, charter or district, show low percentages of high school completion,
5
further review will be conducted through the form of student and guardian surveys and school
administration interviews to verify the collected data, but to also gain insight to why these schools
are failing and what needs to be done to increase graduation rates for future academic years.
6
Section 2: Literature Review
In order to determine how graduation rates are affected by the socio-economics of
communities and the availability of alternative education options, i.e. Charter Schools, the
literature will provide background information on the history of “Redlining” policies and their
effects on public school funding. The relationship between school funding and predictors that
negatively affect graduation rates will be discussed and possible solutions to combat these negative
effects will also be presented. Lastly, charter schools will be defined and compared to district
schools in California to identify differences in graduation rates as a measure of institution success.
Redlining History
Between 1933 and 1939, Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to relieve the effects of the
economic depression by lending government support to many private sector institutions. Federal
funds were allocated to states in order to restore the nation’s assets and were delivered in a three
step process: relief, recovery, and reform (Reading, 1973). In efforts to improve the housing
market, FDR established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) that would insure loans made
by banks and other private lending companies in order to make home building and owning more
accessible to American citizens. African Americans, as well as foreign born citizens, were
adversely affected by policies and practices under this administration as underwriters began rating
neighborhoods that had increasing numbers of these populations as “declining” (Kantor and
Nystuen, 1982). Security maps were created between 1935 and 1940 (“Mapping Inequality,” n.d.)
by the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) that color coded neighborhoods by the
creditworthiness and risk of the area which would determine loan interest rates and loan approval.
The low risk neighborhoods were coded green and the high risk neighborhoods were coded red.
7
The term “Redlining” has become a recognized term by many researchers (Fullilove, 2017;
Kantor and Nystuen, 1982; Lareau 2012; Woods 2012) which identifies neighborhoods rated with
a red grade. The condition of the land and structures as well as the inhabiting population’s majority
were considered when grading neighborhoods. The red graded neighborhoods were mostly
composed of groups of citizens that were considered pervasive, namely Negro and foreign
families, and were in need of structural improvements (Kantor and Nystuen, 1982). As time
progressed, these redlined neighborhoods became more deteriorated both physically and
economically. Lenders recognized the potential risk of investing in these neighborhoods, which
created a self-fulfilling prophecy. Anti-redlining legislation was passed with the Fair Housing Act
of 1968 and Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. However, Kantor and Nystuen (1982) found
that over time, even with this legislation, the secondary mortgage market perpetuated the effects
of redlining. At the time of their study, lenders had only been required to determine loan approvals
based off of previous lending conditions, regardless of conditions that might have been considered
in the past. Lenders were also being accused of committing covert practices of redlining as
potential borrowers were given higher interest rates and down payments, lower loan to value rates,
and shorter loan maturity terms than that of the surrounding residences (Kantor and Nystuen,
1982).
The Effects of Graduation Rates on the Community
After 1940, graduation rates began to decline in communities with high numbers of African
Americans (Juergensen, 2015). A study was conducted in order to identify the cause of this sharp
decline in high school completion amongst African Americans and it was discovered that as
schools became more racially integrated certain practices that were followed by African American
educators from 1920-1940 were slowly being weeded out. The policy of “Separate but Equal”
8
created a racial gap in schools (Margo, 1986), especially in the southern states. An unintended
outcome of this policy was that the segregated institutions served as a place of racial pride and
achievement for students. The educators of this time focused on involving community, holding
high expectations, and fostering caring relationships between students and staff. Students were
also exposed to historical contributions of African Americans and advocacy for education access
was promoted (Juergensen, 2015). These findings show that creating a community connection
within schools can contribute to higher graduation rates amongst African Americans and
potentially all students.
High school dropout rates can negatively affect a community in many ways. In 2009 the
national dropout rate was at a historical high of between 22 to 25 percent and, unfortunately, black
and Hispanic students’ dropout rates were even higher (Tyler and Lofstrom, 2009). The effects on
the community are exhibited through higher spending on public assistance, loss of tax revenue,
and increased crime rates. The individual suffers the consequences of lower income,
unemployment, and health problems. Tyler and Lofstrom (2009) conducted a study on the
problems that occur in a community when students don’t complete high school and what
characteristics and environments these students share that lead to them dropping out of school.
Disengagement over a long period of time contributed to one’s decision to drop out rather than
instantaneously. The influence of adult responsibilities at an early age, such as working full time
and parenting, were also leading causes of high school incompletion. The education level,
occupation and income of parents contribute to the success of their students, as well.
Family history is perhaps the most impactful risk factor for high school incompletion as
the perpetuating nature of disadvantaged communities persists due to early segregation practices
(Margo, 1986; Reardon, Yun, & Kurlaender, 2006. Annette Lareau (2011), looks at family income
9
disparities and the effects it has on children's success in school in her book Unequal Childhoods.
She uncovers a difference in child rearing practices between black and white middle-class,
working class, and poor families that influence each participant’s high school success. It was found
that working class and poor families focused more on providing the basic needs for survival to
their children and relied heavily on the education institution to inform and support academic
progress. On the other hand, the middle class families provide what Lareau terms “concerted
cultivation” (1) which involves extracurricular activities and parental involvement that facilitate
the development of skills and talents for their children. The working class and poor families relied
on academic and social skills and talents to naturally develop through the child’s own experiences
in life.
School Choice
Given the effects low graduation rates have on society, it can be argued that schools become
the driving force behind the overall wellbeing of a community. As stated before, 70 percent of
education funding comes from local taxes (Mantel, 2018), thus relying heavily on the community’s
fiscal health to support school performance. In historically redlined communities, the lack of
education funding reflects itself in the success of the community’s students graduating high school.
State aid also plays a factor in school funding as it is set up to redistribute intercommunity wealth
from the higher income taxpayers and funnels into local schools (De Bartolome, 1997). However,
in communities that are unanimously comprised of working class and poor residents, this
redistributive method is ineffective.
Research has been done to acknowledge the impact of per capita income on school districts
and income-based school assignment policies were analyzed to see if these policies would make
schools more “race neutral” (Rardon, Yun, & Kurlaender, 2006). Given that socio-economics
10
include all racial backgrounds, some policymakers believe that income dictates a student’s success
more so than race. However, it was found that the long standing residential racial segregation
practices have made this type of school attendance distribution ineffective, as well.
Given that the community in which a school district is located, the size of the residential
area as well as the tax base impacts individual school funding. During the last decennial census in
2000, it was reported that approximately 12 percent of American households were considered to
be at or below the poverty level, with approximately 24.4 million being African-American
households and 24.2 million Hispanic households (Mogull, 2011). Green and Winters (2011)
researched the effects large school districts have on graduation rates and focused on how states
can increase high school completion averages by decreasing the average size of school districts
and increasing the number of school districts at the state level. They discuss the Tiebout choice
(1956) which states that access to more school districts allows residents the freedom to relocate to
their desired school district location, thus increasing competition in school performance. In cities
such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, who house the largest school districts in America
(National Center for Education Statistics, 1999-200), residents that are at or below the poverty line
are not afforded the freedom to relocate in order to access schools within other school districts.
Whereas those who are more economically advantaged are able to relocate if they deem a school
district to be more desirable.
The move towards privatizing education has ignited many studies on the effects of charter
schools’ within a community (Greene and Winters, 2006; De La Rosa, 1998; Mitchell, 2018) The
introduction of charter schools within a district can alleviate the discrepancies of limited school
choice by offering parents more options for their children’s academic success while remaining
within their community district. While studies have shown that there is not a significant difference
11
in achievement between students who attend charter schools and those who do not (Cohodes, 2018;
Renzulli and Roscigno, 2007), it is recognized that offering long standing, high quality charter
school options can help in closing the achievement gap in American schools.
Drawing the research back to redlining practices and their potential effects on today’s
education system, research has shown that residents from marginalized communities are aware of
the social disadvantages they face and the advantages others possess (Fullilove, 2017; Mitchell,
2018). In a case study conducted by Miller (2018), geographical awareness was examined amongst
a middle school for girls, aged 13 to 14 years old, that was located in a historically poor community
and was becoming increasingly gentrified in the southern part of Seattle. These participants not
only were aware of spatial patterns that institutionalized racism within their community, but they
were also able to draw on social patterns they became accustomed to from their home life that
were present in how they performed in their daily school environment.
The research shows that district size and access to school choice improves the achievement
gap (Greene and Winters, 2006). It also proves that socioeconomic status and family history play
a part in a student’s ability to complete high school (Juergensen, 2015, Tyler and Lofstrom, 2009).
The continued effects of redlining practices from the 1930s to the 1950s on poor, working class
communities are believed to still be present today, however research has not been conducted to
support this belief. Within these low income communities are disproportionate populations of
minority groups that might continue to be marginalized if their children’s access to education
continues to be limited by their residential status.
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Section 3: Background
School Funding in California
The People of California voted Proposition 98 into State constitutional law in 1988. This
was in reaction to increases in attendance in California schools. The state was experiencing
overcrowded classrooms and classroom instruction was thought to be in need of instruction
improvements. Also, as a byproduct of the passage of Proposition 13 which capped property tax
at 2%, school districts took a hit in local tax revenue funding. A Minimum Guarantee of funding
would be provided to school districts that would account for economic growth and increase in
student attendance (California Department of Education, n.d.).
Funding would be generated through the State’s General Fund and local property tax
revenues. Taxes would not be raised, however, the condition of the state’s General Fund and Per
Capita Personal Income would be taken into account when determining the Minimum Guaranteed
annual funding. Today, 70% of K-12 funding comes from the General Fund and local property tax
revenue and two-thirds of community college funding comes from the same funds (Mantel, 2018).
There were two initial formulas that would be used to determine fund allocation and a third
formula was added in 1990 (Proposition 111) in response to an economic recession that reduced
the General Fund’s ability to meet the minimum guarantee. This third test would be enacted during
years of potential economic stagnation or decline. The formulas are as follows: (1) Districts were
given 39% of General Fund revenues from 1986-87 and served as the initial baseline for the
following year. (2) Funding is based off of the previous year’s funding level and adjusted according
to K-12 attendance and per capita personal income. (3) Funding is based off of the previous low-
income communities were presented. The schools receiving grants from this program since its start
in 2004 had an average of 78 percent of students receiving Free or Reduced Priced Meals (FRPM),
13
with 35 percent of these schools serving over 90 percent of students receiving FRPM (Appendix
A). Another target of the report was in communities that had large proportions of low-performing
students as measured by State testing scores and it was found that many of these geographic areas
also contained high numbers of low-income students. In both targeted school environments,
achievement levels rose in State testing and academic performance since the grant program’s
initiation. Even with these improved student performance outcomes, charter school organizations
still face political and legislative action that hinders their ability to operate.
California Charter School Legal Battles
The debate for and against the presence of charter schools in California has led to the
passing of two historical decisions that impacted educational funding for these schools
significantly. The most recent change charter schools are facing is written in an amendment (E. C.
Sec. 7. 47604) to the California Education Code that requires charter schools to be run or associated
with a non-profit public benefit corporation. Before this legislation passed, for profit charter
schools were legal and abundant in California's public schools, thus introducing public market
values to public good services (Rabovsky, 2011). Market advocates argue that principles such as
competition and anti-monopolistic holds encourage higher performance by traditional public
schools (Zimmer and Buddin, 2009). As with previous research stated in the literature review,
these beliefs proved to still have little impact on achievement comparisons between charter and
public schools.
Education code is also determined by Supreme Court rulings, which leads to the second
legal decision affecting charter school funding. The case of Anderson Union High School District
v. Shasta Secondary Home School initiated this drastic change in funding for charter schools who
are considered to be non-classroom schools, such as home schools, independent study programs,
14
and computer based learning platforms. It was found that non-classroom charter schools operating
outside of their sponsoring district, are considered to be in violation of the geographic restriction
set forth in State Education Code Section 47605(a)(1). This decision has created a restriction on
these types of school and their funding, as charter schools are not funded by local tax revenue.
They are, however, partially funded through a sponsoring district who receives that tax revenue
(Appendix B). If the district in which the school is operating within denies sponsorship, the charter
school is then left to apply to the County’s Office of Education or the State Office of Education
for sponsorship.
These two events have made this public administration issue more complex as there are
more limiting factors in a family’s right to school choice. Should families be at a financial
disadvantage that places them in communities with failing schools, the issue of human rights is
now present and must be deterred.
15
Section 4: Methodology
It is the purpose of this paper to examine whether the number of alternative education
institutions, i.e. charters schools, have an effect on graduation rates in districts that have a majority
of disadvantaged populations, predominantly low-income, minority groups. Through the literature
review, support has been provided that show that communities that have high populations of low
income residents who are also predominantly African American and Hispanic will benefit from
increases in alternative education options (De La Rosa, 1998; Glenn, C. 1992; Lareau, 2014).
A needs assessment model will be created that will identify communities that are at risk of
suffering low high school completion rates that also fall under historically low socioeconomic
residencies. Stakeholders involved will be twelfth grade students residing in the area; along with
their guardians should further investigation be needed. In addition to the data that will be collected
through the California Department of Education’s DataQuest archive, schools that show high
discrepancies between graduation and enrollment numbers will be confirmed and followed up on
with each identified high school’s administrative team using an open ended interview format. Most
of the data collected will be from secondary sources, a minimal budget would be required in this
needs assessment, however, compensation for time provided by student guardians might be
necessary to elicit desired information. This needs assessment should be completed within the
current school year it was initiated in and should take a minimum of one semester to complete all
steps: (1) assessment, (2) data collection and analysis, (3) create assessment report, (4) share results
with key stakeholders and allow for questions, clarification, and/or rebuttal.
Given that Los Angeles School District (LAUSD) is one of the largest school districts in
America and encompasses many formerly redlined districts (FRD), both charter high schools and
district schools will be identified within each determined community. Based on the Home Owners
16
Lending Corporation’ security maps obtained by the University of Richmond’s Mapping
Inequality (Nelson, Winling, et al., 2019). I will cross reference LAUSD local district maps (2015-
2016) that represent the six (central, east, northwest, northeast, south, and west) regions of the
school district to identify LAUSD high schools and charter high schools within the same
community.
Lastly, a five year inventory of each charter school and district school within the same
designated FRD community will be taken through DataQuest (California Department of
Education, n.d.) as secondary data source. This data search engine will first provide the number of
twelfth grade students enrolled at the beginning of an academic year and compare it to the number
of graduates produced at the end of the same academic year. For each school, I will record these
percentage rates between the academic years of 2011-2012 to 2015-2016. I expect that FRD
communities will show higher numbers of high school graduates collectively, charter and district
combined, when the number of alternative education options present are increased within the
boundaries of the community.
A report will be comprised that will show neighboring schools that have similar
demographics and a comparison will be shown through a table and chart in order to provide easy
to read information. Should this project move forward, the report will be shared with the
administrative staff at the identified school before further action is taken. If it is determined that
there is a need for the introduction of a new charter school, the report will then be shared with the
local district (LAUSD) and if warranted, the California Department of Education.
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Section 5: Threats to Internal Validity
The secondary data that will be analyzed only provides a small picture of school success
and the measures used can be viewed by some to be too narrow of a definition. Secondly,
individual transfers can skew the data and tracking of these moves would provide more accurate
data. Unfortunately, this type of information is prohibited for the public to view as it violates
privacy laws under The Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) (Department
of Education, n.d). Lastly, more current statistics regarding median household income, ethnic
population counts, and graduation rates would provide a more accurate portrayal of the
communities being researched.
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Section 6: Sample Findings
In efforts to ensure my methodology was viable, a sample study was conducted that looked
at five communities that are formerly redlined districts. It was intended that the communities
studied were in proximity to each other as they share similar socioeconomic patterns and possess
a high number of minority populations (US Census Data, 2010). These communities are listed
below along with their red graded district code and the LAUSD region it is assigned to:
-Belvedere Gardens, D53, East
-Boyle Heights, D54, East
- Central Avenue District, D52, Central
-Florence Industrial District, D60, South
-Watts, D61, South
An inventory of district schools and charter schools within these communities was taken
along with the graduation percentage rates from 2011-2016, as prescribed in the methodology.
While it was difficult to find significant patterns in in such a small sample study, there were two
district schools that showed an alarmingly low percentage of high school graduates over the course
of the five year study.
Theodore Roosevelt High School, located in Boyle Heights, and David Starr Jordan High
School, located in Watts, showed consistently low graduation percentage rates over the five year
period. While most of the district schools averaged eighty to one-hundred percent, these schools
were below seventy-five percent. The lowest percentage for Roosevelt was fifty-four percent in
the 2013-2014 school year and approximately fifty-nine percent for David Starr in the 2011-2012
school year. Upon further investigation of these graduation rate trends, it was not surprising to see
that charter schools within the same communities of Roosevelt and David Starr had much higher
19
graduation rates within the same period. Synergy Quantum Academy High School, located in
Boyle Heights, had over one-hundred percent graduation percentages, suggesting that students had
transferred during their twelfth grade year.
20
Section 7: Limitations
Secondary data is convenient and, in the case of this project, easy to access by the public.
Given that public education is the subject of the research, each data source that is accessed is valid
as most are produced by government organizations. The limitations to this data source, however,
is the lack of the most up-to-date information and the tracking of transferred students. The
definition of academic success as measured through graduation rates could also be viewed as
fallacy, as there are many components to the academic success or lack thereof within a school
(Royce, 2009, p.75).
The Redlined District Map accessed through the Mapping Inequality website created by
Richmond University, only provides redlined districts found in Los Angeles and San Diego. Cities
that are not these two are subject to the same economic hardships and another identification method
would have to be used if a needs assessment is warranted. Further research should also be
conducted in cities that are included in the Redlined District Map that are in different states in
order to solidify and support the research conducted in this current study.
Lastly, some of the identified schools have not been opened as long as others and
determining graduation patterns is inconsistent. A study of schools that have been opened for the
same number of years being evaluated should be focused on, however, data retrieved from all
schools in each area should be considered and presented.
21
Section 8: Conclusion
Upon the completion of this sample study, I found that the methodology I created is viable,
however, more data should be collected that show the current socio-economics of the communities
identified as well as the ethnic makeup of those residing within the neighborhoods. Furthermore,
I would increase the scope of the study to include the other districts located in the Western and
Northern regions of LAUSD in order to gain further knowledge of the effects of increased charter
school access.
If access to alternative education institutions increase graduation rates within communities
that have high populations of low income residents, the hypothesis will have been proven accurate
and a need for these communities’ welfare is warranted. Deborah Stone discusses the paradox of
public welfare in regards to needs in her book Policy Paradox (3rd ed. 2012). She presents how
public welfare can viewed in intangible and tangible means and that a communal need has many
dimensions. While it is argued that charter schools take from district school funding, the
effectiveness of the educational services the district schools provide should be measured and
compared to that of other school choices. In addition, the non-local funding charter schools can
receive from State and Federal Grants can also limit local tax revenue from being diverted from
local school district.
22
Section 9: Recommendations
Should it be the case that communities with high levels of school choice options show
improved high school completion rates, it is recommended that charter school access be increased
within communities that meet the needs meet through the assessment provided in this paper. A
five year assessment must be taken that identifies historically low socioeconomically communities
and locate district schools and charter schools within the community. A survey of the graduate
rates compared to enrollment will be taken and then an ethnicity report will also be collected from
the schools showing high levels of graduate and enrollment discrepancies within the five year
period. After analysis, it is recommended if all criteria are met, that alternative education options
be explored and implemented within the community appropriately.
A current trend in California politics that hinders charter school growth has been shown
through the amendment to the Charter School Act (AB406) banning for-profit charter schools and
the Shasta ruling previously discussed. A continued affront on these alternative education options
leaves communities that have no means of supporting local district schools by way of property tax
revenue without the right of school choice. By allowing large school districts to monopolize public
education, the critical market principle of competition that leads to improvements in quality and
performance is undermined. Residents that are economically limited to live in communities that
suffer from the effects of a lower tax base are drawn into a perpetual cycle of disenfranchisement.
The majority population within these communities are minority groups that have been
systematically siphoned into communities that are deemed as investment risks by the government
funded agency HOLC. The decades of undervalued property investments and declining local tax
revenues have left public schools within these communities to be underfunded with the children
attending these schools left as the victim.
23
Work Cited
Butler, J., Carr, D., Toma, E., & Zimmer, R. (2013). Choice in a World of New School Types.
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 32(4), 785-806.
Cohodes, S. (2018). POLICY ISSUE: Charter Schools and the Achievement Gap. The Future of
Children, 1-16.
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Appendix A
1California’s Charter Schools: Percentages of charter school awardees free and reduced meal plan
recipients. (2010-2014)
1U.S Department of Education. (2019). Project Narrative Final. [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/programs/statecharter/californianarrative.pdf
27
Appendix B
Charter Type Charter Authorizer Program/Population Served by
Charter
Charter Sponsor
(entity
responsible for
In-lieu of taxes)
Regular Charter
School
EC 47605
District Regular program serving K-12 ADA The district that
authorized the
charter school.
Regular
Charter
School
EC 47605
COE Regular program serving K-12 ADA The district that denied the
charter school.
Regular
Charter
School
EC 47605
SBE Regular program serving K-12 ADA The district that denied the
charter school.
Countywide
Charter
EC 47605.6
COE Regular K-12 program that may operate at one or
more sites within the county; provides services not
generally provided by a COE (not a county-type
program)
District of residence, if basic aid
in prior year.
County
Program
Charter
EC 47605.5
COE K-12 program serving pupils the COE would
otherwise serve (primarily special education,
county community school, and juvenile court
school)
District of Residence, except for
pupils who meet criteria in
EC47631(b)
Statewide
Benefit
Charter
EC 47605.8
SBE Regular K-12 program that provides services of
statewide benefit Not applicable.
2California Department of Education: In Lieu of Property Taxes Sponsoring District Chart
2 California Department of Education. (2018) In Lieu of Property Taxes. Retrieved from
https://www.cde.ca.gov/fg/aa/pa/inlieucs.asp
Appendix C
28
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016
GR
AD
UA
TE
PE
RC
EN
TA
GE
(# O
F G
RA
DU
AT
ES
/#
OF
EN
RO
LL
ED
12
TH
GR
AD
ER
S)
ACADEMIC YEAR
FRD Charter School Graduation Percentages(2011-2016)
Amino Jackie Robinson Synergy Quantum Academy High School
Oscar De La Hoya Animo Charter High School Alliance Collins Family College-Ready High School
Animo Pat Brown Charter High School Alliance Cindy & Bill Simon Technology High School
2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016
Amino Jackie
Robinson
123/126 97.6
138/142 97.2
119/138 86.2
135/139 97.1
143/151 94.7
Synergy Quantum
Academy High
School
57/47
121.3 61/64 95.3
139/134 103.7
129/118 109.3
Oscar De La Hoya
Animo Charter
High School
134/142 94.4
121/133 91
124/145 85.5
142/148 95.9
135/148 91.2
Alliance Collins
Family College-
Ready High School
141/139 101.4
155/156 99.4
148/146 101.4
Animo Pat Brown
Charter High
School
91/128 71.1
102/128 79.7
103/125 82.4
108/124 87.1
143/146 98
Alliance Cindy &
Bill Simon
Technology High
School
75/79 95
111/118 94.1
133/133 100
Appendix C
29
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016
GR
AD
UA
TE
PE
RC
EN
TA
GE
(# O
F G
RA
DU
AT
ES
/#
OF
EN
RO
LL
ED
12
TH
GR
AD
ER
S
AXIS TITLE
FRD District School Graduation Percentages2011-2016
Thomas Jefferson High School Wallis Annenbereg High School
Theodore Roosevelt High School Esteban E. Torres High School
James A. Garfield High School Linda Esperanza Marquez High School
David Starr Jordan High School South East High School
2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016
Thomas Jefferson
High School
254/330 77
207/253 81.8
221/242 91.3
189/230 82.2
Wallis
Annenbereg High
School
100/106 94.3
102/107 95.3
79/78 101.3
83/85 97.6
100/99 101
Theodore
Roosevelt High
School
81/119
68.1 321/595
54 299/468
63.9 322/447
72
Esteban E. Torres
High School 71/147
48.3 134/163
82.2 184/187
98.4 Changed
school format Changed
school format
James A.
Garfield High
School
490/522 93.9
516/622 83
426/490 86.9
535/642 83.3
479/559 85.7
Linda Esperanza
Marquez High
School
99/121
81.8 70/101 69.3
123/142 86.6
David Starr
Jordan High
School
166/282 58.9
161/244 66
91/143 63.6
91/128 71.1
100/154 64.9
South East High
School 508/592
85.8 528/581
90.9 528/553
95.5 403/423
95.3 407/445
91.5
