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cAmP HeALtHAND SAfety

CAMP HEALTHAND SAFETYBOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 1325 West Walnut Hill Lane P.O. Box 152079 Irving, TX 75015-2079

This manual is designed for use by

• Health and safety committee members

• Council property committee members

• Camping and activities committee members

• Scout executives

• Camp directors

• Camp health officers

• Camp rangers

INTRODUCTION The main objective of this manual is to promote health and safety practices that help ensure a safe and happy camp experience for all. However, an equally important goal is to promote the teaching of health and safety prac-tices that Scout campers can take back with them to their units, homes, and communities.

©1998 Boy Scouts of America Irving, Texas 19-308 2007 Printing

CONTENTS 1 Camp Health 1 Precamp Inspection 1 In-Camp Training 1 Campsites 2 Health Tour 2 Communicable Diseases Policy 2 OSHA’s Bloodborne Pathogens

Regulations 3 Americans with Disabilities Act

(ADA) 3 Management 3 Emergency Procedures Plan 3 Sources of Help 3 Program of Emphasis 3 Youth Leaving Camp Property

5 Personal Health 5 Medical Examinations 5 Sleep 5 Overfatigue 5 Eating Right 6 Sources of Food 6 Clothing and Bedding 6 Immunizations 6 Alcohol and Drugs 6 Showers

7 Camp Medical and Health Operations

7 Camp Physician (Resident) 7 The Supervising Camp Physician 7 Camp Physician (Nonresident) 8 The Camp Health Officer 9 Physical Examination 9 Medical Screening 9 Special Needs and Rejections 9 Daily Sick Call and First Aid 10 Hospitalization 10 Medical Evacuation Plan 11 Serious Injuries or Illness 11 Fatal Injury or Illness 13 Records and Reports 13 Camp Health Inspection 13 Water Supply

15 Camp Health Lodge 15 Opening and Closing

Procedures for the Camp Health Lodge

15 Equipment 16 Health Lodge Medical Supplies

Recommended (Oral, Topical, Injection, Medical Records)

18 Prescription Drugs

19 Swimming Program 19 Health History 19 Swim Periods 19 Water Temperature 19 Foot Care 20 Sinus and Ear Infections

20 Sun and Heat 20 Sunburn 20 Sun Safety Tips 20 Diving 20 Hypothermia

22 Swimming Pools 22 Recirculation System 22 Hair and Lint Removal 22 Filters 22 Disinfectants 22 Control of pH 23 Algae 23 Testing Water

24 Waterfront 24 Boats and Canoes 24 Aquatics Staff 25 Waterfront Storage Facilities 26 Swim Training 26 Swim Classification Procedures 26 Administration of Swim

Classification Test

28 Natural Waters 28 Algae 28 Water Treatment

29 Sanitation

30 Poisonous Plants 30 Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac

32 Pest Control 32 Insects 32 Ants 32 Stinging Insects 33 How to Avoid Stinging Insects 34 Spiders 35 Cockroaches 35 Flies 35 Chiggers 36 Mosquitoes 36 Scorpions 37 Ticks 38 Rodent Control 38 Bats 39 Rabies 39 Rabies Specimens 39 Hantavirus 40 Bears 40 Wolves 40 Snake Control 41 Poisonous Snakes

42 Campsite Selection 42 Shelter Hazards

43 Transportation

43 Kitchen Safety

43 The Importance of Hand Washing

44 Fire Safety 44 Fire Protection 44 Forest-Fire Protection 44 Fireguard Plan Preparation 44 Fire Wardens and Deputies 45 Patrol Fire Warden 45 Cub Scouting Level of

Involvement 45 Fire in Unit Campsite 45 Fire Outside Unit Campsite 46 Year-Round Fireguard Plan 46 Policy on Chemical Fuels 46 Policy and Guidelines 47 Guidelines for Safely Using

Chemical Stoves and Lanterns 47 Bulk Storage and Practices

48 Activities Areas 48 Field Sports 48 Team Sports and Fitness 48 Archery 48 Fishing 48 Shotgun Shooting 49 Rifle Marksmanship 49 Hunter Safety Activity Trail 49 Hiking and Climbing 50 Project COPE 50 Horsemanship Program

Guidelines 52 Use of Cannons by Local Councils

53 Maintenance 53 Flammables and Explosives 53 Plumbing 53 Electrical Equipment 53 Program Equipment

55 Unit Campsite Facilities 55 Sleeping Quarters 55 Water and Cooking 55 Food Preparation 56 Patrol Stove

57 Central Food Services 57 Kitchen Cleanliness 57 Food Preparation 58 Disposable Dishes 58 Food Catering 58 Refrigeration 58 Hot Water 59 Dishwashing 61 Garbage Disposal 62 Dining Hall 62 Toilet Facilities

CAMP HEALTHAdvance planning is essential to any successful camping

experience. Here are steps to be taken in providing adequate health and safety protection. They must comply with the man-datory standards that must be met before camp opens.

Even though the leadership and equipment of the camp community may be excellent, they will not serve their purpose unless backed up by the interest and efforts of all concerned in the camp’s operation.

Every camp leader, volunteer, professional, or council employee has a responsibility for the promotion of health and the prevention of accidents. One uninformed or careless per-son can destroy in a moment the reputation of a camp that has taken years of top management and huge sums of money to build.

Precamp staff training should include information on the importance of the operation of camp in a way to reduce to a minimum the number of accidents of illnesses and to promote positive mental health practices. All members of the camp staff have a relationship to this responsibility.

As a part of precamp staff training, close attention should be given to the safety elements of each leader’s job and to situa-tions that affect the welfare of the camp. Every staff member is a safety trainer and must teach safety practices and skills to leaders who are in camp for a limited time with their own troops. Detailed safety training is given by camp staff members at each activity of skill area. General camp safety practices are a concern of all.

When hiring camp employees who have under-age children, be sure that the employee understands his or her respon-sibility for the well-being of these under-age youth by the parent/employee. A written agreement that specifies the par-ent/employee’s responsibility and stipulates areas that are off limits, such as the waterfront, etc., should be drafted by the council in consultation with the council’s attorney, and signed by the parent/employee.

Precamp inspection is necessary to determine if the facili-ties are ready for opening of summer camp under healthful and safe conditions. The annual operational inspection is con-ducted by an appointed representative of the regional camping committee along with local camping and health and safety committees while the camp is in full operation. This group uses the National Standards for Resident Camp Accreditation of the Boy Scouts of America, No. 19-108E, addressed to the current year, to record its findings. This booklet should be referred to by the camp administration and the health and safety commit-tee to prepare for this inspection.

In addition to the precamp and annual operation inspections, periodic inspections of facilities should be a regular part of the standard operations of the camp.

PRECAMP INSPECTIONThis is a job for the council health and safety, council proper-

ties, and/or council camping committee. These committees do the job with certain experts assigned to study and report on their own specialties, preferably at a meeting of the group on the campsite at the end of the day. It is important to have the

help of experts who know—a public health officer to check on all phases of sanitation, refrigeration, etc.; medical personnel for the health lodge, medical supplies, clean up, and equip-ment; and safety experts to check hazards. The written report and recommendation should be submitted and definite ways found to correct and improve conditions.

Follow up to be sure that recommendations are put into operation and that one or more individuals are designated to see that the job is done.

IN-CAMP TRAINING

Health and safety are a part of the camp program integrated with teaching in such areas as the rifle range, archery range, aquatics, wood tools, and other activities areas. Teaching safety skills in program area may be more important than expertise in the skills of instructional ability.

Many troops do their own cooking in council camps. Most camps also provide opportunities for outpost camping, canoe trips, and pack trips by troops and small groups. All such groups should follow the same basic principle detailed in this booklet for camp orientation, food care and preparation, dishwashing, garbage disposal, and personal cleanliness. Guidelines for these practices can be found in the Camping, No. 33256A, and the Cooking, No. 33349A, merit badge pam-phlets, the Boy Scout Handbook, No. 33105, and the Fieldbook, No. 33104. Camp orientation sessions for unit leaders should stress the use of these resources as a basic guide for health and safety in camp and on the trail. Training should be both at scheduled orientation meetings and in every contact with unit leaders and campers at their sites.

Youth should be made as aware as their leaders are of the measures taken for their safety and the reasons for safety precautions and cooperation. Camping is an ideal situation in which to learn that responsible and safe behavior ensures more opportunity for adventuresome living.

CAMPSITES

Campsites should have appealing adventure possibilities and terrain adaptable to Scouting activities and be relatively free of accident or health hazards. Floods, whirlpools, swift streams with an undertow, unprotected mine shafts, cliffs, and other natural conditions can render a site undesirable. Drainage should be adequate. Acreage should be sufficient to permit the location of troop sites to ensure privacy, a sense of inde-pendence, and freedom from undue interference from outsid-ers. Unit campsites should be 450 feet apart. Each campsite should include a shady area large enough for the unit to hold discussion meetings despite a hot sun. Where trees are scarce, a large tarpaulin can be rigged to provide shade.

A camping area at which one or more units reside for a period of time constitutes a community. The fundamental prob-lems of such a community are potentially the same as those of the community from which the Scouts came. The popula-tion must be provided with food, an adequate and safe water

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supply, dwelling places, sanitary facilities, and necessary medi-cal care. Also, some form of government must be established.

In such a community, the individual’s freedom of action must be subordinated to the welfare of all, and certain uniform rules of action must be followed in order to carry out the purposes for which the camp is established. Because parental control and guidance may no longer directly be in effect, these functions must necessarily be assumed to a degree by the designated leaders. An important part of each unit’s safety procedures is a roll call twice a day of all boys in camp. The leader should report any unaccounted-for campers to the program commis-sioner, who will assume the responsibility for further action.

HEALTH TOURCamp is a logical place to give boys practical instruction in

personal and public health. Many times things are done for the health and protection of Scouts in camp without their knowing why.

If it is possible to arrange it, opening day is the time for a unit to have an exploration tour of camp. While such a tour is for general educational purposes—to acquaint campers with all phases of the camping program—it should emphasize health precautions. Include a visit to the kitchen for an explanation of sanitary practices in dishwashing, refrigeration, drainage, and water and garbage disposal. A trip to the latrines for practical information about their construction, care, and the necessity of wash water will help. Stop at the waterfront and other places in camp where good health practices for the protection of the entire camp community may be observed.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES POLICYBSA Policy Regarding Life-Threatening Communicable Diseases. The following sets forth the official BSA policy regarding life-threatening communicable diseases.

In the event that a situation arises in Scouting involving a life-threatening communicable disease, our traditional mem-bership policy should be followed.

Local Scouting units and their chartered organizations tra-ditionally determine their own membership, absent any legal constraints. Accordingly, units and chartered organizations should determine the feasibility, or desirability, of allowing youth or adult members who have, or are suspected of hav-ing, a life-threatening communicable disease to participate in Scouting activities.

A youth member who is unable to attend meetings may con-tinue to pursue Scouting through the Lone Scout program.

Although it is not anticipated that this will be a widespread problem, preparation should be addressed to meet this con-cern when the situation arises. The External Communications Division at the national office should be notified immediately, through the local Scout executive, about a situation in Scouting involving a life-threatening communicable disease.

Universal Precautions for Health Care Workers/ Caregivers

• Wear blood barrier gloves and goggles or other eye pro-tection when handling blood or other body fluids and items soiled with blood or other fluids (such as bandages and dressings).

• After removing blood barrier gloves, immediately wash hands and other skin surfaces coming in contact with body fluids. Use a disinfectant and/or an antiseptic as a neces-sary precaution against contamination.

• Wear blood barrier gloves and goggles or other eye protec-tion when cleaning up blood spills. Disinfect these spills with bleach.

• If gross contamination occurs, wear masks, face shields (with eye protection), gowns, aprons, and show covers or boots.

• Place bloodsoaked items in leakproof bags for washing or disposal.

• Wash surfaces and equipment contaminated with blood or other body fluids with detergent and water. Then wash the surface with a freshly made 1:10 household bleach solu-tion (1 part chlorine bleach to 10 parts water). Wear gloves. Use paper towels rather than reusable sponges.

• Take further precautions, i.e., disposal of wastes, proce-dures to protect the patient, and housekeeping procedures. Refer to OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1910.1030 or white paper to Scout executives dated April 1992— Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Regulations for Bloodborne Pathogens, No. 19-317A.

• The council must provide at no cost1. To health center employees: masks, eye protection, face

shields, gowns, aprons, and shoe covers or boots, in the event of gross contamination.

2. For all first aid kits and health centers: blood barrier gloves, goggles or other eye protection, and antiseptic, to be used as protection against exposure when giving first aid to bleeding victims. Mouthpieces or mouth-bar-rier devices must be available for CPR.

OSHA’S BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS REGULATIONS

Health care professionals employed by local councils to staff camp health facilities or to fulfill health officer functions at BSA camps are affected by the rule. In addition, all designated responders identified in the local council’s medical emergency response plan are affected by the rule.

In respect to camp health employees and personnel charged with responding to medical emergencies, the regulations are as follows:1. Maintain a written exposure-control plan, to be reviewed

and updated annually.2. Provide specific employee training on how to avoid expo-

sure and how to respond in the event of possible exposure.3. Provide appropriate protective equipment and clothing.4. Provide free antibody testing and vaccination (a three-shot

series) for the hepatitis B virus.5. Provide confidential medical evaluation and follow-up for

any employee involved in an exposure incident.6. Maintain permanent and confidential employee medical

records.7. Make written exposure-control plan and training records

available for inspection by OSHA or other authorities.All camp employees must understand the medical emer-

gency response plan and the details of the exposure-control plan.

Resources are available from the Health and Safety Serv-ice: White paper—April 1992, Occupational Safety and Health

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Administration (OSHA) Regulations for Bloodborne Pathogens (29 CFR Section 1910.1030), No. 19-317A.

AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1990

On January 26, 1992, the new Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) began to affect every council across the nation in some way.

The law intends to integrate persons with disabilities into every aspect of American society and end the discrimination that has long affected the participation of those persons in even the very basic aspects of life.

While the ADA is sweeping federal civil-rights legislation, the actual determination of what is ‘‘reasonable service’’ or a ‘‘reasonable accommodation’’ will be determined in the courts. Case law will establish the standards. The law does not contain a provision for inspection by the government, e.g., by the OSHA or a similar body.

It does contain opportunities for alternative dispute-resolu-tion systems short of lawsuit in order to mediate disagree-ments between parties.

Every council has excellent resources in their area; for employment matters, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, and for camp matters, Including People With Disabilities in Camp Programs, published by the American Camping Association.

MANAGEMENT

It is recommended that the ‘‘Outdoor Program Policies’’ chapter in Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920A, be studied with great care as it forms the basis of policies on which Scout camps operate.

Even when the best safety precautions are taken, accidents can happen. The most frequently encountered injuries at camp include abrasions, broken bones, bruises, and strains. Experience shows that falls, many occurring when boys walk or run on camp paths, cause over one-fourth of camping accidents. Poisonous plants, insect bites, and misuse of tools account for many of the medical problems. Sunburn, diar-rhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain are common ailments. In addition, summer campers are vulnerable to intestinal flu, virus colds, and ear infections.

Asthma at camp that is well controlled on medication with normal activity at home is often a problem. This is due to increased activity level at camp and increased exposure to pollen from grass, trees, and dust. Scouts with significant problems such that they are on daily medication, inhalers, or nebulizers are likely to need dosages changed for their time at camp. They can be taught to self-adjust by their physicians if they ask before coming to camp.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES PLAN

Develop a camp plan to handle serious accidents, such as evacuation of a possible back or neck injury; serious illness; fatalities; and crises involving the entire camp such as food poisoning, fire, flood, windstorm, search for a lost person, and an outbreak of an apparent contagious disease.

Information about the items listed should be posted in the camp administration office and other areas where the infor-mation might be needed quickly. Include detailed instructions on steps to be taken in emergencies such as fires, serious ill-nesses, accidents, or fatalities.

The responsible individual should have a thorough understanding of these plans prior to the opening of the camp season. See Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920A.

Develop and implement a written plan to inform campers, leaders, and staff of precautions to dangerous encounters with wildlife. The plan should be based on recommendations from local wildlife authorities.

SOURCES OF HELPPost the following emergency names, addresses, and tele-

phone numbers by each telephone: fire, police (state, county, and local), hospital (with which the council has a written agree-ment), emergency medical services (rescue squads/ambu-lances), and physicians (more than one). Additional listings, posted by all business phones, should include the council executive’s office and home, council camping chairman, coun-cil health and safety chairman, health officers (local, county, state), including the coroner’s office, and a local dentist.

PROGRAM OF EMPHASISThe Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

now sustains itself through fines. Our greatest area of insur-ance exposure is our council camping facilities. We must rec-ognize the good that OSHA does and take a proactive stance in the following ways:• Know what to do before, during, and after an OSHA

inspection of council camping facilities.• Keep council camping employees well informed and pro-

vided with the latest state-of-the-art personal protective equipment.

• Identify, recruit and use OSHA trained experts from busi-ness, insurance, and trades to serve as consultants and experts in identifying potential high-risk areas.

YOUTH LEAvING CAMP PROPERTYOnce a boy has checked into the summer camp program, he

is not authorized to leave the property except in an emergency.Authorization can be granted for a boy to be picked up by a

parent or family member using the following guidelines:• The camp director must be notified in writing from the

parent or guardian having custody of the child, through the Scout leader in charge of the unit upon check-in. If a camper is to be picked up prior to the end of the camping season, this notification must also say who is authorized to pick up the child.

• Upon arrival of the adult having permission to pick up the camper from the camp, the adult must check in with the camp director at the camp office.

• The camp director will notify the adult leader of the unit, who will verify whether this is the correct adult to pick up the camper.

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• If the adult picking up the camper is the correct person confirmed by the adult camp leader, the boy will then be contacted and released to the adult by the camp director.

• If an adult camp leader is taking a boy home during the camp week, he must check out with the camp director and must inform the camp director upon his return to camp. If the child is not directly related to the adult leader, two-deep leadership guidelines as stated in the youth protection train-ing must be followed. Upon returning to the camp property, the adult leader must check in with the camp director.

Note: Parents should be encouraged not to pick up a child until the conclusion of the total week’s program. The camp program concludes and youth members are released after breakfast on the last day of camp.

The camp director should develop a camper’s early release form to use when emergency situations occur, such as death in the family or serious injuries, with the following minimum requirements:1. Camper’s name, address, and phone number

2. Unit leader’s name, address, and phone number

3. Unit number of camper and leader and campsite. If multiple reservation camp, camp’s name

4. Unit leader approval of release (signature and date)

5. Name, address, and telephone number of person camper is to be released to

6. Proof of identification of said person

7. Reason for early release

The camp director may use his or her best discretion to attach additional requirements appropriate for the needs of the camp.

A camp staff person should be designated and trained in the proper course of action and the procedures for a camper’s early release. The camper’s early release form(s) should be kept in a permanent file.

PERSONAL HEALTHA great camp experience usually results from all individuals

‘‘feeling great’’ at all times. Good personal health is essential for staff members, as well as unit leaders and campers who attend your camp. In other words, the camp is only as healthy as each boy and each man. A boy cannot do a man’s work without exhaustion, so watch older and larger boys carefully to prevent overfatigue. Precamp fitness enables campers to par-ticipate more fully, even though better fitness can be developed while at a camp.

MEDICAL EXAMINATIONSGood camp health is based on a knowledge of the physical

conditions of everyone who comes to camp. This informa-tion is provided by the parents or guardians of minor-aged Scout campers and adults under 40 on the Personal Health and Medical Record—Class 1 and Class 2, No. 34414B, and by a licensed medical practitioner as indicated. Camp staff and adult leaders 40 and over need a physical examination completed by a licensed medical practitioner. We recommend the Personal Health and Medical Record Form—Class 3, No. 34412B, for staff and adults 40 and over. Details of the medical examination requirements and the followup medical screening are covered on page 9.

SLEEPAdequate, comfortable,

and undisturbed sleep is necessary for boys. Some boys require more sleep than others and should be given an opportunity to obtain it. It has been recom-mended that there should be 10 hours allowed for sleep between Taps and Reveille. Allow time to elapse between Reveille and breakfast. A leisurely start will usually result in a happier day.

Thir ty square feet of space should be allowed for each sleeper. A 7-by-9 tent provides 63 square feet and therefore provides sleeping accommodations for two.

A rest period after lunch is standard practice. Not all campers will wish to sleep but they can be quiet and do

inactive things—letter writing, reading, fishing, handicraft, or just loafing.

OvERFATIGUE

Sometimes campers, in their desire to get everything they can out of their camping experience, try to do too much too fast. At other times their leaders pack too much into the pro-gram, with the result that the campers are practically run ning from one activity to another all day.

Any physically exhausted camper is more likely to become ill and to pick up infection if his resistance is below normal.

EATING RIGHT

The importance of providing clean, safe, and wholesome food and beverages at your Scout camp cannot be overem-phasized. The health and well-being of the Scouts depend upon receiving all food from reliable and approved sources, as

MYPYRAMID HELPS YOU PLANIn 2005, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

replaced their Food Guide Pyramid with the MyPyramid Plan. Because one size doesn’t fit all, MyPyramid Plan can help you choose the foods and amounts that are right for you. All you have to do to find out what and how much you need to eat is go to www.mypyramid.gov and enter your age, sex, and activity level.

MyPyramid.gov has tools to help you plan your meals, and can also give you a detailed assessment of your own food intake and physical activity level over time with MyPyramid Tracker. You can use the advice “Inside MyPyramid” to help you make smart choices from every food group, find your best balance between food and physi-cal activity, and get the most nutrition out of your calories.

Every member of your family has different nutritional needs, and each of them can go to mypyramid.gov to find out what those are. (Or you can do it for them.) That information is what you need to be ready to plan family meals.

By using MyPyramid, you’ll plan a balanced diet that includes protein, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and fiber. You need all of these to grow and stay healthy and strong. See the pyramid on the next page. You need the most each day from the widest areas of the pyramid, and the least amounts from the narrowest areas.

Grains—Make half your grains whole. Eat at least 3 ounces of whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or pasta every day. One ounce is about 1 slice of bread, about 1 cup of breakfast cereal, or ½ cup of cooked rice, cereal, or pasta.

vegetables—vary your veggies. Eat more dark-green veggies like broccoli, spinach, and other dark leafy greens. Eat more orange vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes. Eat more dry beans and peas like pinto beans, kidney beans, and lentils.

Fruits—Focus on fruits. Eat a variety of fruit. Choose fresh, frozen, canned, or dried fruit. Go easy on fruit juices (they are high in sugar and low in fiber).

Milk—Get your calcium-rich foods. Go low-fat or fat-free when you choose milk, yogurt, and other milk products. If you don’t or can’t consume milk, choose lactose-free products or other calcium sources such as fortified foods and beverages.

Meat and beans—Go lean with protein. Choose low-fat or lean meats and poultry. Bake it, broil it, or grill it (don’t fry it).

Vary your protein routine—choose more fish, beans, peas, nuts, and seeds.Fats, sugars, and salt (sodium)—Choose these with caution. Get most of your fat from fish, nuts, and vegetable

oils.Limit solid fats like butter, stick margarine, shortening, and lard. Check nutrition labels to keep your intake low on saturated fats, trans fats, and sodium. Choose foods and beverages that are low in added sugar.

Water—Not on the pyramid, but essential. Be sure you drink plenty of water, too, especially if you’ve been play-ing hard, hiking, or exercising.

Source: www.mypyramid.gov

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well as careful planning, preparation, storage, and service at the camp.

Scouts love to eat. Safe and nourishing food, carefully pre-pared and served, adds much to the enjoyment of the time spent at camp.

Before purchasing milk, consult your local health authorities. Use only pasteurized milk from an investigated source. All bev-erage milk should be served in original containers. See Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B.

Breakfast should be a large and comfortable meal. Early morning, until about an hour after breakfast, is a difficult time for most of us. A breakfast that is pleasant and plentiful can help make the day happy.

The noon meal should be adequate but not too heavy—enough to satisfy but not enough to make the campers slug-gish or sleepy.

The evening meal should probably be the feast of the three. This is consistent with the home schedule of most families.

Laxatives should not be necessary if the diet is right. Constipation among campers indicates the need for a study of the diet.

SOURCES OF FOOD

It is most important that all food received at camp be from sources that are approved and known to be satisfactory. Utmost care must also be used in the handling, storage, refrig-eration, and transportation of the food to the camp in order to prevent spoilage or contamination and the possibility of food-borne disease. Outbreaks of food-borne disease can disrupt the camp and ruin the entire camping period for those seri-ously affected.

It is wise to request the advice of your health authorities well in advance of the camping period as to where satisfactory and approved food may be obtained. This is extremely important; many hours of program planning, staff dedication, and promo-tion can be washed away if food causes an illness among your campers.

CLOTHING AND BEDDING

To ensure the protection of campers from excess heat or cold, stress the wearing of proper uniforms and use of ade-quate bedding and protective coverings.

Appropriate clothing in a Scout camp is the official uniform. Shorts and official camp T-shirts are the proper uniform for the regular informal camp activities. Full camp uniform should be worn for formal activities. When engaged in hiking and out-of-camp trips—where protection is needed from sunburn, thorns, briars, or poisonous plants—long trousers and long-sleeved shirts should be worn. Head coverings should be worn where prolonged exposure to the sun is anticipated. Headaches, sun-stroke, and heat exhaustion are serious hazards when campers neglect to protect their heads from a hot sun.

In cold weather a cotton cover outside the blankets will help to conserve warmth while sleeping. In cold weather it is warmer to sleep on a floor or ground bed than on a raised bed. When sleeping on the ground, a waterproof ground cloth

(heavy plastic, rubber, or oilcloth) should be used. The ground should be level and smooth.

Warning: Sleeping bags should not be used after dry clean-ing until they have been aired thoroughly! Residual fumes from the cleaning process have caused deaths of a number of campers who did not air them properly. If the material in the bag permits, laundering instead of dry cleaning is the saf-est method of sleeping bag care.

IMMUNIZATIONS

Verification of the following protections are strongly recom-mended:1. Tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, and (DPT).2. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) since first birthday with

a booster at age 12 or prior to entering the seventh grade.3. Polio vaccine (oral or injection)—four doses since birth.4. Chicken pox.

ALCOHOL AND DRUGS

It is unlikely that alcohol or drugs will be found in a Scout camp; however, if they should be found, dealing directly with the problem is most important. The camp director and council executive should deal directly with the situation with the assis-tance of the camp physician and other members of the council health and safety committee professionally trained in these problems. Local medical and law enforcement advisers can help camp officials devise a plan for the best procedures.

SHOWERS

Cleansing hot showers are as much a necessity at camp as at home. The fact that a Scout may swim twice each day does not necessarily mean that he is clean—even when the swim-ming water is clear. Most boys in camp will react favorably to hot water showers.

In camps with swimming pools, swimmers must take show-ers before entering the pool. This measure will eliminate a heavy portion of the pool water’s bacteria count.

All campers, leaders, and staff members have access to clean and comfortably warm showers on a regular basis throughout the week. Refer to plans available from the Engineering Service of the Boy Scouts of America.

In accordance with Youth Protection policies, adults and youth are not to shower at the same time. This also applies to youth and adult camp staff members who are 18 years of age or older.

Daily soap showers and close inspection are particularly desirable in tick-infested areas.

Washing the hands after using the latrine is important to good health. Washwater must be inside or near the latrine as campers will go to a washhouse to clean up only if it is handy.

The importance of providing hot showers and wash-ing facilities for cooks and their helpers cannot be over-emphasized.

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CAMP MEDICAL AND HEALTH OPERATIONSCAMP PHYSICIAN (RESIDENT)

Adequate medical attention for campers is a service that parents, as well as the campers, have a right to expect. A licensed health-care practitioner licensed to practice medicine in that state is always in charge of medical care and health supervision of the camp. This must be true whether or not he performs this service as an in-residence physician.

The best plan is to have a doctor in camp at all times. In every camp where it is possible to do so, arrangements should be made to have an in-residence physician on duty during the entire season. This is particularly needed in larger camps and in multiple-camp reservations.

Many organizations and agencies have helped councils get one or more licensed health-care practitioners to cover the season. Medical societies; hospitals; medical schools; the armed services; local, state, and federal health agencies; and others have assisted by find ing licensed health-care practitio-ners or arranging to make them available for these summer positions. No camp should ever assume that this kind of help cannot be obtained until all resources have been explored.

Some camps have arranged a rotation plan with a different licensed health-care practitioner each week or for varying peri-ods of time. The licensed health-care practitioners look on this as a combination service and vacation.

Several local councils get licensed health-care practitioners to sign up by making the service attractive. They have provided a cottage and have set things up so that he and his family can have an enjoyable vacation experience while there. At some camps there is competition among licensed health-care practi-tioners for choice of dates for this medical service. Securing a resident camp physician takes at least six months.

THE SUPERvISING CAMP PHYSICIAN

Although a camp physician in residence is best, many, and in fact most, councils can no longer obtain the volunteer ser-vices of a doctor in camp all summer.

In many councils, a supervising camp physician is used. This physician should be chosen by the Scout executive and direc-tor of camping and approved by the health and safety commit-tee. He is often a member of the health and safety committee. His responsibilities are: 1. To be totally familiar with BSA health and safety policy

and policy literature. 2. To be familiar with the state rules and regulations regard-

ing resident camp facilities in the state in which the camp is located and the state in which the council is headquar-tered, and to be specifically familiar with any differences in policy between the two.

3. To act as a supervisor of all medical concerns of the council camping operations (Cub Scout day camp, Scout camp, high-adventure bases, and special programs).

4. To assist in the selection of a resident and/or nonresident physician for camp if possible, or the selection of a quali-fied camp health officer.

5. To assist with or direct the training of camp physicians or camp health officers (see National Camping School—Camp Health Training module produced by the National Health and Safety Committee).

6. To be involved with the setup of camp health lodge facili-ties and operations directly or indirectly with the camp health officer, the camp ranger, and the camp director, including appropriate training of the entire staff in matters they need to know and understand (OSHA rules, CPR, emergency plan, medical screening on camp arrival, stocking, and supplies).

7. Camp visitation during the summer camp season every two to three weeks to assess the camp health operations and to review the camp first aid logs, No. 33681A.

8. To be available on a 24-hour basis to the Scout execu-tive, the camp director, or camp health officer regarding matters of policy and/or medical treatment.

9. To complete a final review of the first aid logs at the end of summer camp, with a report to the health and safety committee and the risk management committee of any concerns.

10. To have, if possible, a strong interest and background in Scouting.

CAMP PHYSICIAN (NONRESIDENT)When the person in charge is a nonresident physician,

arrangements must be as definite as for a resident physician. The doctor and his associates, if he works with a group of phy-sicians such as a partnership or clinic, can assume responsibil-ity for medical care and health supervision. Often, however, he agrees to accept Scouts and Scouters as well as staff mem-bers from camp as patients on an as-needed basis during the camp season. There should be a letter of agreement prepared. It helps to make contact personally or by phone to work out the agreement. Special attention should be paid to obtaining 24-hour contact with the local camp doctor (nonresident camp physician), an on-call physician, or some other facility that can provide 24-hour or after-hour coverage.

The nonresident camp physician may or may not be the same person as a supervising camp physician.

The nonresident physician should be chosen by the Scout executive, the director of camping, and the camp director, and approved by the health and safety committee with the assis-tance of the supervising camp physician. He is usually located in a nearby town or city. The manner of compensation for these professional services is worked out in advance and understood by the physician and the Scout council.

A person in camp is designated to handle first aid and other health problems under the direction of the nonresident physi-cian. The camp staff member may be a licensed physician’s assistant, a nurse practitioner, a registered nurse, a paramedic, a medical student, a licensed practical nurse, an emergency medical technician, a medical corpsman, or a responsible adult who is currently trained by the American National Red Cross in Advanced First Aid and Emergency Care and has current train-ing by the American Red Cross/American Heart Association in

8

CPR. He or she works under ‘‘standing orders’’ of the camp physician and contacts him by phone for directions in every case not covered by specific instructions previously given by the doctor.

THE CAMP HEALTH OFFICER

This member of the camp staff is designated to provide first aid and other health problem coverage during camp, under the direction of the supervising camp physician and the assistance of the local nonresident camp physician. This camp staff mem-

PERSON LOCATION(Name of camp)

DATES SALARY HOUSING(Needs to

include family)

SUPPORT PEOPLE

SPECIAL SUPPLIES

Physician(MD/DO)

Physician's Assistant(P.A., Specialized P.A.)

Clinical Nurse Practitioner(RN, CNP)

Nurse(RN)Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN)

Emergency Medical Technician(EMT, Military Medic or Corpsman)

Advanced First Aider(A.F.A., Military Medic)

Basic First Aid

• P.A.• RN/CNP• LPN• EMT• Medic• First Aider• CIT(s)

• RN• LPN• EMT• Medic• First Aider• CIT(s)

• EMT• Medic• First Aider• CIT(s)

• EMT• Medic• First Aider• CIT(s)

• Medic• First Aider• CIT(s)

• CIT(s)

CAMP HEALTH OFFICER—LEAST LEvEL OF TRAINING ACCEPTANCE

MAY ASSIST BUT NOT SERvE AS CAMP HEALTH OFFICER

• CIT(s)

MAY ASSIST BUT NOT SERvE AS CAMP HEALTH OFFICER

9

ber must be a licensed physician's assistant, a nurse practitio-ner, a registered nurse, a licensed practical nurse, a medical student (after the second year), a paramedic, an emergency medical technician, or a trained first responder. He/she must be currently trained in CPR by the American Red Cross or the American Heart Association or by any recognized com-munity agency. He/she works under “standing orders” or from protocols in a standard first aid manual (the current edition of the American Red Cross First Aid Manual is recommended). He/she contacts the local nonresident physician or camp supervising physician when the physician has questions or in situations that are not obviously covered by the standard first aid manual. The camp health officer has completed the Camp Health Officer Training Course: Go to: www.scouting.org. In the upper right corner, select “Site Map.” Look under “S” for Safety. Choose “Camp Safety Officer Training (PowerPoint).” You can either open or save the PowerPoint presentation to complete offline. At the end of the course is a card you can print, fill out, and sign.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONAnnual physical examinations by personal or family licensed

health-care practitioners are recommended for all members of the Boy Scouts of America, particularly those who engage in the strenuous activities of hiking, swimming, climbing, or high-adventure activities. Immun izations against polio, tetanus, diphtheria, and chicken pox are recommended for everyone.

Physical examination of all campers and adult leaders is the camp’s first defense against sickness and accident. As a mini-mum standard for Scout camping, this practice has proved its value many times.

For long-term camps, a current health history completed by parents or guardians just prior to camp, or with an update just prior to camp, and a physical examination by a licensed health-care practitioner within the 36 months previous to camp are required of all minor-aged campers. Personal medical condi-tions (1) and some state laws (2) may require a more recent examination.1. Scouts who have lost consciousness during physical activ-

ity, had a concussion, or may have had an illness or injury that limited activity longer than one week since his last physical examination need to provide a current medical evaluation by a physician.

2. At this printing the states of Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire require physical examinations within 12 months.Use Personal Health and Medical Record—Class 1 and

Class 2, No. 34414B, or a state or local form if required. Examinations conducted by licensed health-care practitioners other than physicians will be recognized for BSA purposes in those states where such practitioners may perform physical examinations within their legally prescribed scope of practice.

Camp staff and adult leaders under 40 years of age must provide a copy of a physical examination taken within the last 36 months and signed by a licensed health-care practitioner. All adults 40 years of age and over must have had a physical examination within the past 12 months. Use Personal Health and Medical Record Form—Class 3, No. 34412B, or a state or local form if required. Examinations conducted by licensed health-care practitioners other than physicians will be recognized for BSA

purposes in those states where such practitioners may perform physical examinations within their legally prescribed scope of practice. Food handlers may be required to meet special require-ments established by local, county, or state laws.

MEDICAL SCREENINGIdentifying significant circumstances arising after comple-

tion of the health history is critical, but flexibility is allowed in how this information is obtained and documented. Pertinent information includes (1) any visit to a doctor or clinic since the last exam; (2) any recent illness, injury, rash, or allergic reaction; (3) any ongoing treatment or medication; (4) any medication taken 30 days prior to camp; and (5) if the person feels and looks fine at present. Generally, face-to-face screen-ing of individual participants should be done by a health-care professional or other adult designated and trained by the camp health officer. In some circumstances, it may be sufficient for screening purposes for the unit leader or other adult familiar with the individual participants to identify anyone needing special health or medical consideration or limitation of activi-ties. To be sufficiently informed for this assessment, the adult leader should personally observe and talk to each participant. If the unit leader or camp leadership is not confident with the assessment, the camp health officer should designate an adult to interview and assess the participants.

SPECIAL NEEDS AND REjECTIONSLeaders should be held responsible for reporting cases of

illnesses or injury in their troops.At the first meeting of the camp staff and unit leaders it is

important that they be informed about those whose activities should be restricted because of some physical disability. This may be done verbally or, better yet, in a written memorandum.

Boys who should not go in the water will not have a buddy tag. However, there are many other activities in camp that cer-tain boys may not be able to take part in. Once the camp staff members know the names of these boys, they should make it their business to become acquainted with them and know their faces as well as their names. Although the camp community is composed of many units from a number of districts in the council, the needs of the individual Scout must always be con-sidered.

Limitation of activities or rejection of a camper is difficult, but, if the health of the boy or the camp community may be endan-gered during his stay, it must be done.

Reasons for rejection or limitations are made by the camp licensed health-care practitioner and each case should be con-sidered with a full knowledge of the camp program, physical facilities, and leadership.

DAILY SICK CALL AND FIRST AIDThe health lodge should be open continuously for emer-

gency treatment.The daily sick call period should be scheduled immediately

after breakfast for boys who should see the health officer and for those who have been told to return for a dressing or obser-vation of a minor injury.

10

It is important that the staff and all campers clearly under-stand that any injury, large or small, must have immediate first aid, either at the place where the injury occurs or at the health lodge.

During camp staff training, it would be appropriate for the camp health officer to train all members of the camp staff in emergency first aid techniques and procedures that are likely to occur during the camp season. At least one camp staff member for every 40 campers is to be currently trained in cardiopulmo-nary resuscitation (CPR) basic life support by any recognized community agency before the opening of camp.

Campers should be warned about trying to do too much for themselves and told of the importance of getting help rather than attempting to transport the injured or ill person to the health lodge. This is particularly important because many Scouts who have learned a little first aid are eager to put it to use. The best first aid is to get some help and let the medically trained personnel take over the care.

The health lodge is intended only for the temporary care of sick or injured campers. Boys who are seriously ill or seriously injured should be transported to a hospital where they can be given more adequate care, or taken home, where the parents will then have the responsibility.

HOSPITALIZATIONYou should never assume that hospital doors are always

open. Arrangements must be officially made and verified by correspondence each year. This should ensure prompt admit-tance and attention.

The following plan is for setting up these arrangements for care of injured Scouts or Scouters who might require hos-pitalization. These arrangements should be made with the hospital administrator several months in advance of the camp season. They should include an understanding of the charges for services rendered by the hospital and the camp’s insurance coverage. The council should assume responsibility for seeing that all the bills are paid whether they are the financial responsi-bility of the camp as in the case of the camp staff, the camper’s insurance company, or individual visitors to the camp. Assisting the hospital in securing reimbursement from these sources is good business as well as a source of goodwill. The hospital will not feel it is losing money on the Scout camp.

A member of the council health and safety committee (preferably, the person responsible for health supervision in the camp) can meet with the hospital administrator accom-panied by a member of the council staff, most likely the camp director.

At this conference, agreement should be reached that boys from the camp requiring hospital care for sickness or injury will be admitted to the hospital when emergencies occur. A request should be made of the hospital administrator that he confirm this agreement in a letter.

If the letter of confirmation is not received within the next few days after the interview, the council should write to the administrator outlining the agreement reached and stating that this is the basis on which the camp will operate. If an answer is received from the hospital administrator, it will be the authorization needed when dealing with the hospital dur-ing the camping season.

If no written statement from the administrator is received, then a copy of the letter sent to him, confirming the verbal agreement, should be available for use when patients are taken to the hospital. This letter should be helpful when dealing with a nurse or doctor in charge of admission to the emergency room in case instructions have not been given to them.

While at the hospital, check out their procedure on treating juveniles. They will probably insist on contacting the parent or guardian directly by telephone. The camp director or resident camp physician should contact the parent or guardian as soon as possible after an injury or a serious illness has become known to advise them of the known facts. It may be that they would prefer to have the youngsters seen by their own physi-cians or delivered to a hospital closer to home. Of course, in a life or death emergency there may not be time to contact par-ents until after the patient has been transported.

When parents are contacted, give only the known facts. Do not speculate as to illness or injury, that is for the physician’s judgement.

MEDICAL EvACUATION PLANHow would a bad case be transported from camp to the

hospital or home? The patient must be moved in a vehicle that would permit a bed or stretcher to be used. If the camp does not have one, what arrangements have been made to secure such a vehicle for service, night or day? If an ambulance is called, could the driver find the camp by its guide signs, night or day? Some camps are difficult to locate even in broad day-light.

How is your camp road? Is it so rough that the patient would be given a torturous lurching shake-up that would increase his discomfort and danger, or is it fit for a comfortable ride? In many cases, this very important point has been entirely overlooked.

If it is impossible to improve the road, then advance plans should be made for litter transportation by manpower to a point where a vehicle may be used with safety and comfort.

If the ambulance service (first aid or rescue squad) in your area is independent of the hospital—and most of them

11

are—it would be a good idea to make a direct contact with the commanding officer (normally a captain) to work out details for transporting patients to the hospital. It would be well for one of the officers of the rescue squad to visit your camp and know how to get there—especially at night—and where they should drive the ambulance for further instructions. It is quite possible that some isolated areas of your camp may not be reachable by ambulance. What recommendations does the rescue squad offer for transporting from these areas? Find out before camp opens, not after an emergency occurs.

Check those telephone numbers posted alongside your camp telephone. Are they current? Check your telephone directory or dial a couple of numbers to check them out.

SERIOUS INjURIES OR ILLNESSThe following steps are recommended in the event of a seri-

ous injury or illness on the camp property:

Step One: Immediate ActionA. Of utmost importance is the proper care of the injured or

ailing individual. Immediately contact a licensed medical practitioner to supervise the care, treatment, and/or trans-portation of the injured party.

B. In cases involving lack of breathing or shortness of breath, severe bleeding, or internal poisoning, capable and trained first-aiders should apply their skills to control or assist in the immediate recovery process.

C. Contact camp licensed medical practitioner or local licensed medical practitioner as appropriate.

D. Alert local hospital—provide them with essential informa-tion related to injury or illness.

E. Arrange transportation to the hospital.

Step Two: Local NotificationA. As quickly as possible, parents or other next of kin should

be notified by the Scout executive, camp director, or the Scout executive’s or camp director’s representative about the injury or illness and what steps have been taken to aid the injured or ailing individual. This should be done by a telephone call whenever possible. Be careful not to frighten or excite parents or other next of kin, but rather to reassure them that everything possible is being done.

1. Contact the family licensed medical practitioner if such is the desire of the parent or guardian and be sure that the practitioner’s satisfied with the medical arrangements.

2. Provide transportation, if necessary, for parents or other next of kin to the location of the injured or ailing person.

B. In case of serious injury: 1. Collect all facts, including names of witnesses. 2. Notify authorities—police, sheriff, etc. 3. Notify Scout executive. (The Scout executive notifies

the council president and the chairman of the health and safety committee.)

C. In case of serious illness: 1. Notify health authorities if contagion is suspected.

Follow their instructions. 2. Notify Scout executive. (The Scout executive notifies

the council president and the chairman of the health and safety committee.)

Special Note: If either a serious injury or illness might result in death, the camp director should obtain help as necessary from the camp chaplain or other religious leader.

Check instructions for follow-up steps as described in the folder Report of Fatal or Serious Injury or Illness, No. 19-147A, using form No. 19-148A, Preliminary Report of Fatal or Serious Injury or Illness. Send a facsimile within 24 hours of the incident (sample wording is inside the cover of the pink accident folder, No. 19-147A). Follow up with a hard copy of the Preliminary Report, No. 19-148A, within four days of the incident.

FATAL INjURY OR ILLNESSIn the event a fatal injury or illness occurs on the camp prop-

erty the following steps should be followed:

Step One: Immediate NotificationA. Camp director, event chairman, or Scout executive must

immediately notify local authorities. The police and coroner must institute an inquiry to determine the cause of death—whether responsible precautions were taken to prevent the accident. This will also include a decision as to whether or not standard practices were followed at the time of the accident.

B. Get all the facts, including names and statements of all witnesses.C. If a person other than the Scout executive is the first to

receive the information, contact the Scout executive before any further steps are taken. Give the Scout executive as much of the following information as you can:

• Who? Name and age of subject, Scouting unit and num-ber, name and address of parents, guardians, or other next of kin.

• When? Date and time of day. • Where? Give specific location, including address and

community if possible. • What? Nature of injury or illness. • How? If known—for example, swimming, boating, hiking.

Step Two: Immediate Action

The Scout executive, council president, and family religious leader or council chaplain arrange a place to meet and jointly proceed to the home of the family of the deceased. No phone call is made to the family. A personal visit is the only acceptable way.

A. The Scout executive contacts the following by telephone: • Regional director • Council president • Council health and safety committee chairman • Attorney • Local insurance claims office • Director of external communications at the national office

(Refer to Crisis Communication from the pink folder, No. 19-147B.) Prompt attention is necessary. Establish one “pipeline” to news media. Be sure parents and/or other next of kin are informed by personal contacts before any release is made to the public.

• National director of health and safetyB. Check procedures for followup steps described in the folder

Report of Fatal or Serious Injury or Illness, No. 19-147B.

12

UNIT SANITATION INSPECTION

(To be duplicated locally)

Unit __________________________ Leader _________________________ Date __________________________

(Post on bulletin board.)

DEN/PATROL FACILITIES

Item

Shelters—open and clean

Beds—made or bedding aired

Grounds—clean (not raked)

Personal equipment—neat and orderly

Personal cleanliness—hands and face washed before meals; teeth brushed; clothing clean and mended; regular body elimination

Rating

UNIT FACILITIES

Person Responsible

Rating Item

Equipment in good repair and proper place

Grounds—clean (not raked)

Latrine—clean; pit and seats flyproof; paper and water on hand

Food preparation and service facilities—Tables and benches clean

Floor or ground—clean

Cooking facilities and equipment—clean; in proper place

Dishes—clean; air-dried; properly stored

Cooler or refrigerator—clean and effective if used for perishable foods; must be kept below 45° F (7° C)

Garbage disposal—done following each meal (cans flattened and burned)

E—Excellent G—Good F—Fair U—Unsatisfactory

13

An employee accident resulting in the death of one or more employees, or resulting in the hospitalization of three or more employees, must be reported by the employer (council) either verbally or in writing to the near-est OSHA office within eight hours after the accident has occurred. This requirement applies to any fatal accident of a council employee, and to the hospitalization of three or more council employees that occurs within thirty days of an incident.

RECORDS AND REPORTSA complete record of all accidents and illness cases treated

or referred to other medical sources must be kept in a daily logbook and filed with the council office at the end of the camp season. OSHA requires that a separate log be maintained for (1) campers and volunteer leaders and (2) local council employees, including professional staff, camp ranger, and summertime part-time employees.

The First Aid Log, No. 33681A, meets the requirements of this mandatory camp inspection standard and is strongly recommended. Each entry should be printed clearly, includ-ing the date, the time of day, the legal name of each person seen, a brief summary of the injury or complaint of illness, and any contributing factors causing the injury or illness and other pertinent comments (such as the health officer’s diag-nosis of what the injury or illness might be). Each treatment or disposition (such as ‘‘sent to hospital’’ or ‘‘sent home’’) must be entered on the same line and initialed by the person authoriz-ing or handling the disposition or treatment.

Particular care must be taken to enter situations in the log when the accident victim is transported directly from the scene of the accident to a location outside of the camp such as a hospital, medical clinic, or home, but is never brought into the health lodge where the logbook is located.

It is recommended that the camp health officer retain the Personal Health and Medical Record on anyone who has a

serious or fatal illness or injury during the camping opera-tion and file it at the end of the season with the First Aid Log and copies of submitted insurance claim forms. The logbook and other medical and hospital records should be retained in the council office as long as state laws governing the filing of claims require. The advice of a local attorney should be sought about the statute of limitations.

CAMP HEALTH INSPECTIONAn important responsibility of the camp health officer is

the sanitation of the camp. He should check regularly on the cleanliness of food handlers and their quarters, food, kitchen, refrigeration, garbage disposal, latrines, sleeping quarters, and drinking water.

He may not be an expert in the field of environmental sanita-tion, but he will be interested in preventing illness and acci-dents.

The material on the following pages will be helpful to the health officer and other members of the central staff who have the responsibility for the complete protection of the camp.

Keep a record of daily health inspections covering: sanita-tion, sleeping quarters, personal health and cleanliness, and equipment and grounds. This will aid in the follow-up pro-cess and in carrying out remedial measures where needed. This becomes a good educational device to help boys and leaders understand better the importance of these good housekeeping items to the general health of the camp.

The unit sanitation inspection form illustrated on page 12 may be used by the unit leader to inspect unit facilities with the help of the program commissioner or other staff member who counsels the leader on how to keep the unit healthy.

WATER SUPPLYAn ample supply of potable water in camp for drinking, cook-

ing, and washing hands and dishes is essential. The minimum

14

standard supply of water for long-term camps is 30 gallons per person daily. Not less than 50 gallons per camper daily are required where flush toilets are available.

All piped water in camp should be safe to drink. This includes water to be used in kitchens, food preparation departments, dining areas, showers, and all troop sites. Since boys will not discriminate between drinking water and non-potable washing water, even if faucets are painted red, non-potable water sys-tems are not recommended.

The certificate of approval of the water supply by the city, county, or state board of health, based on a sanitary survey and examination prior to the opening of camp, should be posted on the camp office bulletin board. If such service is not available, then the analysis should be made and certified by an approved commercial laboratory.

Periodic bacteriological tests should be made throughout the season (at least one each month). This test should confirm the absence of coliform microorganisms. A field survey of the source of water supply, plus bacteriological examination, gives more complete protection than does a bacteriological examina-tion alone (which tells only of the water’s condition at the time the samples are taken). Such a survey may reveal a source of contamination that can be eliminated or will indicate the need for constant purification. Water samples should be taken from various taps on the site.

In addition to the bacteriological test, there should be a yearly chemical analysis to ensure compliance with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) chemical standards for drinking water.

Water is generally supplied to a camp from wells, springs, lakes, streams, and public water systems. The best source depends upon local conditions.

Most camps obtain their water supply from drilled wells. Many states require that a potential well site must be approved before drilling the well. Deep wells usually provide a better quality and safer water supply than shallow wells. Disinfection is generally required for all well locations. The pumps and treatment equipment should be housed in a suitable structure. Provision should be made in the construction and piping of the wellhouse for testing and sampling of the water supply.

A public system usually meets the health standards for safe

water. However, bacteriological tests of the water must be

made at the usual intervals.

Water supplied from surface lakes and streams requires

treatment to assure both quality and purity. Treatment consists

of coagulation, sedimentation, sand filtration, and disinfection.

If springs or artesian wells are used as a water supply, spe-

cial care must be taken. Since they are essentially a surface

source, they are vulnerable to contamination. In all cases, the

spring should be protected from surface-water pollution by

constructing a deep diverting ditch or equivalent above and

around the spring. The area around springs should be fenced

and posted. Water traveling through limestone or similar type

channeled or fissured rock spring is not purified to any appre-

ciable extent and thus should be chlorinated and have periodic

bacteriological examinations.

A water distribution system using an elevated water stor-

age reservoir or tank provides a more reliable camp source of

water than a pressure tank system. At least a two-day storage

capacity is recommended. Based on a per camper daily usage

of 30 gallons, the daily demand of a camp of 250 persons

would be 7,500 gallons. All piping and fixtures in the system

should be rated and approved for water supply use. The entire

water system and storage tank should be com pletely flushed

and disinfected each spring.

Paper drinking cups or approved bubblers must be provided.

Public drinking cups must never be tolerated in camp. Unless

its source is certified by authorities, water used on trips away

from the camp should be treated by boiling or by the use

of water-purification tablets or approved water-purification

devices. Instruction for the use of cholrine and for testing water

in which it is used can be secured from local health officers.

15

CAMP HEALTH LODGEEvery camp, of course, needs a cool, quiet, properly

equipped place in which to give temporary care to ill or injured campers. In small camps this may only be a good tent with a fly. The tent should have a floor and there should be adequate protection against insects. Larger camps should have a build-ing for this purpose, a building which should never be used as a supplementary sleeping place for visitors or staff members, except those who are there on duty.

The health lodge should include a reception room, a clinic, a ward room for the temporary hospitalization of campers, sleep-ing quarters for the doctor or health officer, toilet, and bath. Plans for a health lodge are available from the Engineering Service of the Boy Scouts of America.

The health lodge should be located conveniently near the central part of camp, but far enough away from other facilities to provide privacy. On a Scout reservation, each camp needs its own health lodge or health facility.

It should be near enough to the center of camp life so that in case of injury a long trip by stretcher will not be necessary. A convenient location will encourage campers to report promptly for first aid treatment. It should also be placed adjacent to a road so that an ambulance or automobile can be driven right to the door. Don’t forget the width of the door—make it wide enough for a stretcher.

It should be close enough to the camp kitchen so that hot meals may be carried to patients. Running hot water, waste disposal, telephone, and electricity are necessary.

The health lodge should be neat and clean and as attractive as camping conditions will permit. The surroundings should be pleasant for those who are in the health lodge. Such a place has a morale-building effect upon parents as well as campers.

You will find a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes the minimum essentials in equipment and supplies for a camp health lodge. Part of the answer may depend upon the dis-tance from medical and hospital services and the avail ability of supplies on short notice. If someone can hop in a car and go to a drugstore and be back in half an hour, that is one thing. But if it will take half a day over rough roads to get to town, that is something else. Equipment and supplies needed depend also on whether or not a physician lives in camp or is there on a part-time basis.

OPENING AND CLOSING PROCEDURES FOR THE CAMP HEALTH LODGE

Opening Procedures for the Health Lodge

1. Clean the health lodge thoroughly (rest rooms, sinks, toilet, walls, windows, and equipment).

2. Inventory the equipment and order the appropriate replace-ments.

3. Ensure that all paperwork, first aid manuals, forms, emer-gency plans, phone lists, and associated supplies are present.

4. Police the outside area around the health lodge and replace all defective light bulbs inside and outside.

5. Additional assignments following the camp director's instructions, including:

A. Participation in camp staff training B. Completion of OSHA requirements C. Completion of CPR training D. Completion of contacts with off-camp referral agencies,

such as the local nonresident camp physician, super-vising camp physician, referral emergency rooms, local ambulance service, paramedics or EMTs, and local police and fire companies

E. Ensuring that proper disposal procedures for medical wastes are ready to function.

Closing Procedures for the Camp Health Lodge

1. Complete a closing inventory.2. Prepare all medical supplies, transportation, and/or stor-

age.3. Return staff medical forms.4. Clean and defrost the refrigerator for post-camp nonuse.5. Discard all trash, do a final cleaning of the building.6. Arrange for disposal of the last bag or box of medical

wastes.7. Store all permanent camp health lodge equipment as

directed.8. Complete final reports on the summer camp health lodge

operation, with copies to the camp director, the council camping director or council program director, the supervis-ing camp physician, the council health and safety commit-tee, the council risk management committee, and others as directed, such as the camp ranger, or a file copy for next year's camp health officer.

EQUIPMENTAs previously mentioned, the health lodge should contain

several rooms, if possible. The ward room should include at least two hospital-type beds, a bedside table, chair, and adequate light. Windows should provide cross ventilation and be well screened. Beds should be made up at all times—ready for use with mattresses, pillows, sheets, pillowcases, and blan-kets.

The clinic or first aid room, which is used for the treatment of minor injuries, examination of patients, daily sick call, and for medical inspections of incoming Scouts and leaders, should include the following:

Examination and treatment table of a rigid, high, and narrow table long enough for any person to lie upon while receiving treatment.

Chairs

Desk or table

A locked container, preferably a wall cabinet, for the storage of dressings, medicines, and instruments, available to desig-nated camp health officer or first-aider

A sharps disposal container

A disposal can for waste dressings with a flyproof lid opened by a foot pedal

A disposal can/bag (red) with a cover for medical waste

Equipment for sterilization such as a hot plate, a water container, a sterilizer, or liquid sterilizing solutions such as Cidex

A small or large refrigerator

The following equipment may be considered as a minimum. It should be kept clean and ready for use:

1 folding litter1 large backboard1 bedpan1 urinal1 hot-water bottle1 icebag2 handbasins1 kidney basin1 pair of bandage scissors1 pair of surgical scissors2 hemostat forceps (artery clamps)1 dressing forceps1 splinter forceps1 needle forceps1 surgical knife with several packages of disposable blades1 cutting pliers for removal of fishhooks4 fever thermometers or digital thermometer or adhesive

temperature dots1 set ear speculum—three sizes1 flashlight with extra batteries and bulbs4 splintsPaper towels Eye protectionPaper cups Face shieldsPaper plates GownsSafety pins ApronsMasks Shoe covers or bootsStethoscope Blood pressure cuffEar and nose as well as eye scope, either separate or com-bined

To these essentials there may be added such items as the camp physician may require. It is assumed that he will bring his own stethoscope and blood-pressure apparatus, head mirror, and such nose and throat instruments as he may desire.

Reference: OSHA Standard CFR 1910.1030, in the BSA document called OSHA Compliance and Model Camp/Council Policies, No. 19-317 (available as a bin item from the National Distribution Center).

HEALTH LODGE MEDICAL SUPPLIES RECOMMENDED (ORAL, TOPICAL, INjECTION, MEDICAL RECORDS)

For a camp of 150 campers—suggested as a basis for pre-paring a list specifically adapted to the needs of your camp and the wishes of the camp physician, including prescription items.

Emergency medicine10 epinephrine injection, USP, 1:1000, ampules20 tuberculin syringes, 1 cc w/25g needle

1 glucagon injection, USP (self-contained kit with dilutant and syringe)

2 activated charcoal, USP, 30 gm (oversized bottle for recon-stituting with water)

1 syrup of ipecac, USP, 30 cc

Antihistamine/decongestants100 Benadryl capsules, 25 mg1 Benadryl elixir, 12.5 mg/5 cc, 4-oz. bottle1 Benadryl cream (Caladryl), 1%, 11⁄2 -oz. tube2 Benadryl spray, 2%, 2-oz. bottles100 Sudafed tablets, 60 mg1 Sudafed liquid, 30 mg/5 cc, 4-oz. bottle50 Sudafed SA capsules, 120 mg50 Actifed tablets50 Chlor-Trimenton tablets, 12 mg200 Valhist tablets (cold relief tabs)100 Atrohist LA tablets (prescription required)

Analgesics/antipyretics100 aspirin tablets, 5 gr500 Tylenol tablets, 325 mg1 Tylenol liquid, 80 mg /1⁄2 tsp., 4-oz. bottle500 Motrin tablets, 200 mg

Antidiarrheal/antacids2 Mylanta liquid, 4-oz. bottles4 Pepto-Bismol tablets, 24 per pack2 Imodium AD tablets, 24 per pack3 Kaopectate liquid, 8-oz. bottles

Antitussives/expectorants2 Robitussin, 16-oz. bottles2 Robitussin DM, 16-oz. bottles

Miscellaneous8 Cepastat sore throat lozenges, 24 per pack4 Cepacol dry throat lozenges, 24 per pack4 Solarcaine-type burn spray, 3-oz. spray cans2 Silvadine cream, 1%, 20 gm tubes1 Calamine lotion, 6-oz. bottle1 tincture of benzoin, 2-oz. bottle1 Nu Skin, 2-oz. bottle1 skin moisturizing cream, 8-oz. jar8 sterile eye wash, 1⁄2 -oz. single-use1 sterile eye wash, 8-oz. bottle1 antihistamine eyedrops, 1⁄2 -oz. bottle1 anesthetic eyedrops, 1⁄2 -oz. bottle3 Visine AC eyedrops, 1⁄2 -oz. bottles

The following are offered for consideration and are not nor-mally stocked at camp.

Tetanus toxoid, given at camp after a doctor's order, will keep a Scout at camp instead of sending him in for a booster.

Isoproterenol/Proventil inhalers can be used as backups for lost or empty Scout-held medihalers.

Tape10 Dermicel, 1⁄2 " x 10 yards24 Dermicel, 1" x 10 yards6 Dermicel, 2" x 10 yards6 adhesive, 1" x 10 yards6 adhesive, 2" x 10 yards1 adhesive, 3" x 10 yards

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Bandages and dressings250 Band-Aids plastic strip, 1" x 3"50 Band-Aids extra large, 2" x 4 1⁄2 "50 fabric fingertip, 2" x 1 1⁄2 "50 fabric knuckle, 1 1⁄2 " x 3"24 elastic (Ace), 2" x 5 yards24 elastic (Ace), 3" x 5 yards24 elastic (Ace), 4" x 5 yards6 elastic (Ace), 6" x 5 yards4 Kling sterile, 4" x 5 yards12 Kling nonsterile, 4" x 5 yards24 triangular, 48" x 38" x 38"50 Telfa, 3" x 4"250 gauze pads sterile, 2" x 2"500 gauze pads sterile, 4" x 4"600 gauze pads nonsterile, 4" x 4"10 oval eye pads, 2 1⁄8" x 2 5⁄8"1 box tube gauze (elastic-net) #11 box tube gauze (elastic-net) #31 box tube gauze (elastic-net) #5Note: An applicator is needed for size #1 and is usually a

separate item.

Miscellaneous500 cotton tip applicators, nonsterile, 6" wood500 tongue depressors, nonsterile, standard500 medicine cups, 1-oz. plastic10 Steri-Strips, 1⁄8" x 3" (5 per package)10 Steri-Strips, 1⁄4" x 3" (3 per package)6 boxes Kleenex tissues3 boxes latex exam gloves, beaded cuff, amb/ind. 100s1 finger guard, 4 each small, medium, large per set1 otoscope, head and handle, rechargeable2 oral thermometers, digital2 oral thermometers, glassPenlights, bandage scissors, blood pressure cuff (large and

small)Medical waste containers, 2 per campRed bags for medical waste (2–4 per week)

Solutions and ointments200 surgical scrub brushes with betadine1 bottle betadine prep solution, 16 oz.2 bottles isopropyl alcohol, USP 16 oz.2 bottles hydrogen peroxide, USP 16 oz.

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2 bottles sterile water for irrigation, 500 cc2 bottles sterile saline for irrigation, 500 cc6 bottles sterile ophthalmic irrigation, 1⁄2 oz.6 bottles Visine LR (for eye allergies), 1⁄2 oz.1 box alcohol swabs, ind., 100/box1 box iodine swabs, ind., 100/box4 tubes triple-antibiotic ointment, 1 oz.2 tubes hydrocortisone cream, 1⁄2 %, 1 oz.2 tubes Ben-Gay, 3 oz.3 bottles disinfectant, spray on/wipe off, 32 oz.2 bottles Cal-Stat hand rinse, 15 oz. with pump2 cartons Gatorade-type drink mix, bulk serve can, 16 oz.

Splints4 wire ladder splints, 31⁄2 " x 31"4 basswood splints (short arm) 31⁄2 " x 18"2 long arm and long leg splints (homemade)1 backboard, standard, with straps. Note: Lake has one

complete set; pool has only a board and a set of straps.1 cervical collar set, small, medium, large. Note: Pool and

lake have one set each.2 inflatable splints; long arm and leg, short leg

Oxygen therapy2 oxygen tanks, size E. Note: Tank holders are needed, either

commercial or homemade.2 oxygen regulators

8 nasal cannulas, standard, single-use8 non-rebreathing masks, standard, single-use8 humidifiers, oxygen, single-use4–5 airways, plastic, assorted sizes

Needed supplies6 wool blankets, GI type, surplus store; 2 each at lodge, pool,

and lake1 stethoscope2 splinter forceps, very fine point1 up-to-date PDR

Reference: OSHA Standard CFR 1910.1030, in the BSA document called OSHA Compliance and Model Camp/Council Policies, No. 19-317 (available from Health and Safety Service).

PRESCRIPTION DRUGSAll prescription drugs (including those needing refrigeration)

are to be locked up. An exception may be made for a limited amount of medication to be carried by a camper, leader, par-ent, or staff member for life-threatening conditions, including bee-sting or heart medication and inhalers, or for a limited amount of medication approved for use in a first aid kit.

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SWIMMING PROGRAMThere is no more popular activity in camp than swimming.

We encourage it as a healthful activity.The camp director, camp health officer, and aquatics direc-

tor should consider the following precautions as they plan for an active program:

HEALTH HISTORYThe health history and medical examination should identify

those campers who have a history of heart disease, epilepsy, ear or sinus infection, or other problems that may limit activity in the water.

The examining physician should be aware of the program of activities in the water and determine whether or not campers with such history should have limited activity or none at all.

SWIM PERIODSWater activities are strenuous and lower body resistance.

Under no conditions should boys be in the water for more than 30 minutes during a swim period. In most cases, boys should be limited to two swim periods a day. One hour of activity in the water during the day is enough.

The old idea of a required morning dip before breakfast has just about disappeared. Such dips are not recommended and should never be compulsory. This should not prevent those wishing to practice for the Mile Swim BSA from doing so under proper supervision and safety.

It is important the program of the camp be set up in such a way that the swimming activities will not be scheduled until at least 1 hour after meals.

WATER TEMPERATUREThe ideal temperature of the water for swimming is 27° C

(80° F). Care should be taken to shorten swim periods if the water is cold. For example, if the temperature of the water is as low as 21° C (70° F), nonswimmers should not be in the water for more than 20 minutes. Sometimes this may be a difficult problem to solve. Members of the aquatics staff need to watch for boys with symptoms such as shivering and blue lips.

FOOT CARESwimming activities that soften the skin of the feet may

result in itching, redness, peeling skin, and cracks between the toes. Although these may have the appearance of foot infec-tions, they are really the result of poor foot hygiene.

It is of utmost importance that bathers wear shoes to the waterfront for the protection of their feet and do not remove them until they have entered the waterfront enclosure.

Emphasis should be placed on the importance of swimmers drying their feet thoroughly, particularly between the toes, wearing clean socks, and using foot powder.

Any foot infection should be reported to the camp health officer for treatment.

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SINUS AND EAR INFECTIONSAllowing water to stay in the external ear canals for a long

period of time often causes external ear infection and pain. Following swimming it is advisable to be sure that the water has come out of the external ear canal. If not, then wipe out the water from the ear canal very carefully. If the ear starts to hurt sometime after swimming, it is advisable to see a physician.

SUN AND HEATIn their eagerness to take full advantage of the outdoor life

afforded at the camp, many boys expose themselves unduly to heat and sun, especially during the first few days of camp. This is something leaders must be alerted to as results may be serious. They must be wary of scheduling prolonged activities on the waterfront of open areas, especially when the sun is directly overhead.

Camp leaders should see that campers are exposed to the sun gradually and wear sufficient covering to protect their skin from sunburn. Campers should be taught to avoid excess exposure to the sun; to seek shade and rest at the onset of any suspicious symptoms. They should be warned against the danger of sunstroke and heat exhaustion and be taught how to recognize the symptoms.

The waterfront is the scene of most sunburns. Illness from heat is most likely to occur during strenuous, prolonged activity.

SUNBURNOver the years, we have been led to believe that soaking up

the sun makes us healthy in general, but that isn’t so. It is true that a small amount of sunlight has health benefits. Sunlight, for instance, helps make vitamin D in the skin. Only a few min-utes of sunlight a day, however, are necessary for adequate formation of vitamin D.

Most folks like the look of a suntan. But appearance can be deceiving. A tan is really a sign of injury to the skin. In an effort to protect itself from further damage, the skin cells pro-duce a pigment called melanin, which darkens the skin. By the time a tan develops, permanent damage that will some-day show up in the form of wrinkles, blotches, sagging tissue, and even skin cancer has already been done. So the term ‘‘healthy tan’’ is a contradiction in terms.

An immediate result of overexposure to the sun’s ultraviolet rays is severe sunburn. Many have suffered the painful blis-ters, fever, and other discomforts that come from too much sun too fast.

Sunburn and prematurely aged skin are not the worst results of constant overexposure to the sun. Skin cancer is.

Precautionary measures include:• Watch the time. The sun’s rays are most intense between

10 a.m. and 4 p.m. daylight savings time. Special precau-tions should be taken during this time when exposed to sun, sand, and water.

• Use a sunscreen. Because sunscreens contain substances that filter out the damaging rays of the sun, they are an important element of the sun protection program. The higher the SPF (sun protection factor), the greater the pro-tection offered. Experts recommend sunscreens with SPF rating of 15 or more. It should be applied to all exposed

areas 30 minutes before exposure. Most sunscreens need time to penetrate and adhere to skin cells before the active ingredients are effective. Sunscreens should be reapplied at intervals, especially after swimming or sweating. Using a sunscreen should not be an excuse for overexposure to the sun. Sunscreens offer relative, not absolute protection.

• Cover up with a sun hat, long-sleeve shirt, and long pants. Choose tightly woven fabrics and double layers when pos-sible. Darker colors provide better protection than lighter shades.

• Beware of reflected light. Many surfaces—water, sand, and cement—can reflect harmful radiation. Sitting in the shade or under an umbrella does not guarantee protection. Be careful on cloudy days, when up to 80 percent of the sun’s radiation reaches the ground.

(Reproduce and use throughout camp)

SUN SAFETY TIPS

From the American Academy of Dermatology

It is best to be out of the sun between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m., when the sun's rays are the strongest. Be sure to protect yourself by following the tips below:• Apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen with a sun protection

factor (SPF) of at least 15.• Reapply sunscreen every two hours when outdoors,

even on cloudy days.• Wear protective, tightly woven clothing, such as a long-

sleeved shirt and pants.• Wear a broad-brimmed hat and sunglasses, even when

walking short distances.• Stay in the shade whenever possible.• Avoid reflective surfaces; they can reflect up to 85 per-

cent of the sun's damaging rays.• Protect children by keeping them out of the sun, minimiz-

ing sun exposure, and applying sunscreens beginning at six months of age.

DIvINGBecause some of the most serious injuries at camp are

related to careless diving, strict rules need to be established and adhered to at pools and waterfronts. Ample depth is required for diving from the water’s edge such as pool or pier as well as for diving from boards or towers. Minimum depth for any dive at the water’s edge is 10 feet for Scout aquatic activities. Greater depths are required for diving from boards or towers.

HYPOTHERMIAHypothermia is the lowered internal body temperature which

occurs when the body loses heat faster than it can produce it. When a person is immersed in cold water, the skin and nearby tissues may cool very fast. However, it may take 10 to 15 minutes for the temperature of the heart and brain to begin to drop. When the core temperature reaches 32° C (90° F),

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unconsciousness may occur. When it drops to 29° C (85° F), heart failure is the usual cause of death.

After an individual has succumbed to hypothermia, he will lose consciousness and then drown. The following chart shows the effects of hypothermia.

Water Exhaustion Expected Temperature or Time Degree Celsius Uncon- of Fahrenheit sciousness Survival

Over 80° F 27° C Indefinite Indefinite 80–70° F 26–21° C 3–12 hours 3 hours to indefinite 70–60° F 21–15° C 2–7 hours 2–40 hours 60–50° F 15–10° C 1–2 hours 1–6 hours 50–40° F 10–4° C 30–60 min. 1–3 hours 40–32.5° F 4–0° C 15–30 min. 30–90 min. 32.5° F 0° C Under 15 Between minutes 15–45 min.

Personal Flotation Devices (PFDs) can increase survival time because of the insulation they provide. Naturally, the warmer the water the less insulation one would require.

Survival in cold water depends on many factors. The temperature of the water is only one. Others include body size, fat, and activity in the water, to name a few. Large people cool slower than small people. Fat people cool slower than thin people. Children, because they are small, cool faster than adults. By swimming or treading water, a person will cool about 35 percent faster than if remaining still.

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SWIMMING POOLSThis subject will only be treated generally here, as it is

covered in greater detail in Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B.

As each pool is a separate and distinct operation, only general principles are outlined in the CD-ROM entitled “Swimming Pools and Spas Interactive Training” available at www.cdc.gov/healthyswimming/swim_cd.htm. This CD was developed by the Volusia County Health Department. Each council will have to become familiar with the specific state and local health department regulations which apply to their particular camp. Each camp must have staff members who are thoroughly familiar with the requirements of its aquatic facilities.

RECIRCULATION SYSTEMIn the operation of the recirculation system, water is with-

drawn from the pool, generally from the deep portion, by means of a recirculation pump. This water is pumped through the recirculation system and returned to the pool, after treat-ment, through a series of inlets located around the edge of the pool. By this method, recirculated water, which has been filtered and which has had disinfectant added, is uniformly dis-tributed back into the pool.

HAIR AND LINT REMOvALHair and lint and other large foreign materials are removed

in a hair and lint strainer placed just ahead of the inlet to the pump. The strainer basket in this device should be removed daily and allowed to dry for later cleaning with a stiff brush. When removed, the strainer basket should be replaced imme-diately with a spare unit.

FILTERSThere are two basic kinds of filters used in swimming pool

systems, the pressure sand filter and the diatomaceous earth filter. These units remove objectionable materials from the water by a straining action and hold this material for later disposal. When the filters have accumulated the maximum amount of foreign material, the filters are ‘‘backwashed.’’ In this process, the accumulated debris is removed to a disposal point such as a sewer or leaching pit. The operator can deter mine when the filters need backwashing by referring to pressure gauges located on the inlet and outlet pipes to the unit.

One of the most critical points in the operation of the filtration system is the maintenance of the filters in continuous opera-tion. To be effective in the removal of foreign material and the maintenance of good water quality, these units should be run 24 hours per day, during the entire swimming season, and shut down only for backwashing or necessary repairs. This point is difficult to overemphasize.

Pressure sand filter. The pressure sand filter accomplishes filtration by causing the water to pass through 30 to 36 inches of graduated sand, held up by an underdrain system. The filtration action is assisted by the addition of a coagulant,

such as alum (aluminum sulfate). Alum is fed onto the top of the sand surface through the solution pot feeder (alum pot). A quantity of lump alum, amounting to 2 ounces for each square foot of sand surface area, is added to the pot just after the filter has been backwashed and is fed into the filter over a period of 6 to 8 hours. No additional alum is added until after the filter is again backwashed. The ‘‘floc,’’ formed by the reaction of the alum and water, settles on top of the sand surface and assists in the removal of finely divided solid material and micro-organisms.

Diatomaceous earth filter. With this newer type of filter unit, filtration is accomplished by the use of the filter aid diatomaceous earth. Diatomaceous earth, which is the skel-etal remains of small marine animals, is impinged on porous frames inside the filter in a thin coating. The water must pass through this coating of diatomaceous earth and is filtered in the same manner as in the sand filter. The diatomaceous earth is fed into the unit prior to the beginning of recircula-tion of the pool water and also continuously throughout the filtration run. This filter aid is fed in with a device similar to the alum pot feeder.

DISINFECTANTS

A number of disinfectants are available for use in swim ming pools. The most commonly used is chlorine, but bromine and iodine are becoming increasingly popular. To be effective, the disinfectant must be added by a mechanical device and must be returned to the pool through the recirculation inlets.

The quantity of chlorine, bromine, or iodine residual main-tained in the pool water may be measured with a device similar to that used for measuring pH. When bromine is used, the residual in the pool should be maintained between 1.0 to 1.5 ppm (parts per million). When iodine is used in the pool, the residual should be maintained between 0.2 and 0.5 ppm. When cholrine is used, the residual in the pool should be maintained between 0.4 and 1.0 ppm.

Chlorine gas dispensers are among the most economical and foolproof devices for use in large pools. Hypochlorinators, which are positive displacement piston pumps, are commonly used with smaller pools. Hypochlorite, which is fed with the use of these devices, is available in powdered or liquid form. In mixing these solutions from the powdered form, care should be taken to prepare them 12 hours in advance of use so that suspended materials in the hypochlorite solution can be settled out.

CONTROL OF pH

It is important that the pH in the pool be maintained at optimum level. Measurements of pH are made with a colo-rimetric test kit. The pH of the pool should be maintained between 7.4 and 7.6 to provide for the most efficient filtration, and absence of swimmer irritation (eye burning).

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The most frequent problem is maintaining the pH high enough. This can be accomplished by adding soduim carbon-ate (soda ash). In a few pools, difficulty is experienced in main-taining the pH low enough. In this case, sodium bisulfate can be added to reduce the pH.

ALGAEAlgae, which cause problems in swimming pools, may be

considered generally in the category of foreign materials that are removed in the normal course of events in a recirculation system. However, since they constitute a major problem in pool operation, their occurence deserves special consideration.

If the filter system is operated on a 24-hour basis and the disinfectant is added continuously to maintain a residual of dis-infectant in the pool, during the day and night, algae problems will never occur. These innate aquatic plants, which require sunlight for life, multiply luxuriously in the absence of residual disinfectant. In the event the algae begin to appear profusely in the pool, because of some breakdown of recirculation of dis-

infection routine, special control measures may be instituted. These include the application of superchlorination to 10 ppm for a 12-hour period; the addition of copper sulfate (blue stone) at the rate of 10 pounds per million gallons of water; and, as a last resort, draining the pool and scrubbing the sides with a hypochlorite slurry.

TESTING WATERBacteriological analysis of the pool water to determine

whether safe swimming limits are being maintained should be taken every 2 weeks. The local or state health depart-ment should be willing to sample and analyze swimming pool waters.

Daily tests for disinfectant residual and pH level can be made using the colorimetric test kit, available from swimming pool equipment dealers throughout the country. The kits are inexpensive and not difficult to operate. A daily log should be maintained of these readings.

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WATERFRONT• Participate in a swamped-boat safety demonstration, includ-

ing a demonstration of the use and care of life jackets (PFDs).The use of canoes should be limited to those who have

passed the following canoe test:• Pass Swimmer’s and Rowboat-Handling Tests.• As stern paddler (tandem with a partner), demonstrate

ability to launch canoe properly, paddle a straight course for 100 yards, turn, come back, land, and rack canoe.

• Jump out of canoe, hold onto it, and climb back in without swamping.

• Get into a swamped canoe and paddle it to shore.

AQUATICS STAFFIn this appealing field of boy activity, it is important that lead-

ers be adequately trained and of sufficient maturity and judg-ment to carry out these activities safely. The aquatics director must be at least 21 years of age (preferably older) and must hold a valid training card from the National Camping School as an Aquatics Instructor, BSA and be currently trained in American Red Cross Standard First Aid, which includes CPR, or National Safety Council First Aid and CPR Basic. Instructors on the aquatics staff must be at least 18 years of age and also hold an Aquatics Instructor rating from a National Camping School. All other members of the aquatics staff should be qualified by hav-ing current lifeguard training from the Boy Scouts of America, the American Red Cross, or the YMCA, and be at least 16 years of age.

The aquatics staff must provide the best possible instruc-tion to units in camp. During each unit’s stay at camp (usually only 1 week), it is important that unit leaders receive training in how to conduct safe unit swims, how to teach nonswimmers to swim, and how to coach boys in improving their swimming strokes. As many boys and leaders as possible should be encouraged to qualify as BSA Lifeguards.

At waterfronts located on natural bodies of water, depths of areas to be utilized, underwater growth, currents, as well as prevalence of wind and waves must all be taken into account. Structures must be developed that will withstand the environ-ment anticipated. Approved layouts like the one illus trated on page 19 should be installed to ensure best use of facilities for the aquatics program.

While presenting fewer problems than those encountered on the natural waterfront, pools and man-made facilities are sub-ject to the same principles of construction and operation.

Waterfront protection is covered in detail in the Aquatics Program manual, which is used in aquatics training at National Camping Schools.

BOATS AND CANOESFacilities for boating and canoeing in a Scout camp should

be separate from the waterfront area used for swimming. Life jackets and kneeling pads should be provided.

A person who has not been classified as a “swimmer” may ride as a passenger in a rowboat or motorboat with an adult swimmer, or in a canoe, raft or sailboat with an adult who is trained as a lifeguard or a lifesaver by a recognized agency. In all other circumstances, the person must be a swimmer to par-ticipate in an activity afloat. Personal flotation devices (PFDs) shall be properly worn by all persons engaged in activity on the open water (rowing, canoeing, sailing, water-skiing, sail-boarding, rafting, kayaking, or tubing.)

Boats carrying passengers are not to be towed behind motorboats. All boats used for ferry purposes and boats used for programs under sail or power must meet minimum requirements established by the U.S. Coast Guard.

Campers should not go out in boats unaccompanied until they have passed the Swimmer’s Test (p. 27) and the following Rowboat-Handling Test:• Demonstrate ability to launch a boat properly, row a straight

course for 100 yards, turn, come back, land, and moor boat properly.

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SWIM TRAINING

Safe Swim Defense is a primary training objective for unit leaders and older boys. Every unit should have the opportunity to learn how to conduct its own safe unit swim under the lead-ership of a camp aquatics expert.

All boys should witness water-safety demonstrations, and these can often be arranged at such a time that parents also can see them. Perhaps the opening day of each camp period is best. The length of swim periods should be limited so that boys are in the water no more than 30 minutes. Leaders should see that boys do not enter the water when chilled, tired, or overheated.

SWIM CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURES

The swim classification of individuals participating in a Boy Scouts of America activity is a key element in both Safe Swim Defense and Safety Afloat. The swim classification tests should be renewed annually, preferably at the beginning of each outdoor season. Traditionally, swim classification tests have only been conducted upon arrival at summer camp. However, there is no restriction that this be the only place the test is con-ducted. It may be more useful to conduct the swim classifica-tion prior to a unit’s arrival at summer camp.

All persons participating in BSA aquatics are classified according to swimming ability. The classification tests and test procedures have been developed and structured to demon-strate a skill level consistent with the circumstances. The swim-mer’s test demonstrates the minimum level of swimming ability required for safe deep-water swimming. The beginner’s test demonstrates that the Scout is ready to learn deep-water skills and has the minimum ability required for safe instructional and

recreational activity in a confined swimming area in which shal-low water, sides, or other support are less that 25 feet from any point on the water.

The various components of each test evaluate the several skills essential to the minimum level of swimming ability. Each step of the test is important and should be followed as listed below:

Swimmer’s test. Jump feetfirst into water over the head in depth, level off, and begin swimming. Swim 75 yards in a strong manner using one or more of the following strokes: sidestroke, breaststroke, trudgen, or crawl; then swim 25 yards using an easy, resting backstroke. The 100 yards must be completed in one swim without stops and must include at least one sharp turn. After completing the swim, rest by floating.

Beginner’s test. Jump feetfirst into water over the head in depth, level off, swim 25 feet on the surface, stop, turn sharply, resume swimming as before, and return to starting place.

ADMINISTRATION OF SWIM CLASSIFICATION TEST

The council chooses one of these options.

Option A (At camp). The swim classification test is com-pleted the first day of camp by aquatics program personnel.

Option B (Council-conducted/council-controlled). The council controls the swim classification process by predeter-mined dates, locations, and approved personnel to serve as aquatics instructors. When the unit goes to a summer camp, each individual will be issued a buddy tag under the direction of the aquatics program director for use at the camp.

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Option C (At unit level with council-approved aquatics resource people). The swim classification test done at a unit level should be conducted by one of the following coun-cil-approved resource people: Aquatics Instructor, BSA; Cub Scout Aquatics Supervisor; BSA Lifeguard; certified lifeguard; swimming instructor; or swim coach. When the unit goes to a summer camp, each individual will be issued a buddy tag under the direction of the aquatics program director for use at the camp.

Special note. Although swim tests may be conducted prior to summer camp, the aquatics director is expected to review or retest any Scout or Scouter whose skills appear to be inconsistent with his classification. Additionally, the aquatics program director is authorized to retest any Scout or group of Scouts when he is rea-sonably concerned that precamp swim tests were not properly administered.

It should be clearly understood that this swimmer’s test is the only one to be used as the standard for permitting boys to swim in deep water. Swimming merit badge or other tests requiring more proficiency in strokes than the standard stated above should not be used.

After boys have taken their swimming test, they will use only the area set aside for their particular degree of skill and always use a buddy system for check-in. They will keep track

of their ‘‘buddy’’ while swimming and checking out. Standard procedures for using this system are in the “Aquatics” sec-tion of Camp Program and Property, No. 20-920B. All water- connected sports involve the use of the buddy principle.

Basic rescue equipment at the waterfront should include reaching poles, ring buoys, heaving lines, and grappling irons. The swimming area should be fenced with only one gate for exit and entrance.

Simple personal water-safety principles and rescue methods should be taught to all boys in camp. Each Scout should learn to:• Never go swimming, boating, or canoeing alone.• Know his own ability and limitations and not attempt to

exceed them.• Leave the water before becoming cold and exhausted.• Stay within the swimming area to which he is assigned.• Report any unsafe situation in the water as soon as it

comes to his attention.• Be familiar with basic rescue methods in their order of

application, namely, reach, throw, and row; and only as a last resort go into the water.

Due to their great appeal to boys, aquatics activities become a real magnet in camp. By teaching the skills that ensure safety, staff members must make it possible for this to be an enjoyable experience.

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NATURAL WATERSNatural water swimming facilities require special attention

since all elements that govern water clarity and purity are not readily controllable. You should check with local or state health authorities for the applicable standards for your area, then see that your facility complies with the established laws. Since the authorities recognize that turbidity often depends on storms and water stages in a running storm, standards for this factor are rarely considered. However, bacterial standards are closely checked so that the likelihood of water-borne infections are minimized.

ALGAE

Lakes and streams often provide fine growth conditions for algae. Algae can be controlled by application of an algicide such as copper sulfate. Check with your state conserva-tion department regarding the concentrations to be applied, methods to be used to prevent unwarranted fish kills, and contamination downstream in the watershed system.

WATER TREATMENT

At some waterfronts it has been the practice to treat the water where the treatment effects can be confined sufficiently to merit the expense. For instance, in Cleveland, an area of Lake Erie confined behind a plastic curtain suspended from floats is being treated. However, this is quite an engineering problem and should only be attempted where expert advice and counsel recommends that it be done. Get in touch with local friends of Scouting for help in finding good consultants.

The bacteriological test is the most important test to be applied regularly to any natural swimming area. This deter-mines if the waters meet standards for swimming as sanc-tioned by local health departments. Health department directions recommended to those taking and transporting samples to the laboratory must be followed. Control tests to determine the effectiveness of suggested corrective treatment must be made according to methods recommended by the agency involved.

This diagram shows how a small lake or pond can be treated over a period of several days by dragging chemicals from the stern of a rowboat.

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SANITATIONA single long-term camp is a community of as many as

250–300 persons living together for 8 to 10 weeks in the summer season. There are many factors that make it different from other communities serving a like number of people. Living quarters (troop sites) are dispersed over many acres, and each unit campsite should provide sanitary facilities for one troop only. Central facilities such as kitchens, showers, and health lodge require sanitation. The best method of sewage disposal depends upon use, layout of the camp, types of soils, climate, local health codes, and other conditions.

Proper disposal of sewage and other wastes is vital to the health of campers and their neighbors. State and local ordi nances govern methods of sewage and waste disposal. Wastes must be disposed of in such a manner that they will not contaminate drinking water supplies or recreational water. Moreover, they must not produce nuisance odors or unsight-liness or be accessible to rodents, insects, or other carriers that may come in contact with food or water supplies.

Based on these general conditions, sewage and waste disposal installations in a camp usually include:• dry pit or vault latrines at each unit camp site• septic tank and grease trap with absorption field for kitchen

wastes• absorption pits for waste water• septic tank and absorption field for shower wastes• septic tank and absorption field for wastes from health

lodge, administration building, ranger residence, and living quarters for cooks and adult staffThe septic tank and absorption field may be separate for

each facility, or combination may be possible. Some camps construct a sewer collection system and treatment facilities to handle all of the site sewage.

A septic tank is a watertight tank disigned to slow down the movement of raw sewage and wastes passing through so that solids can separate or settle out and be broken down by lique-faction and anaerobic bacterial action. Tank sizes are based on the expected load or flow of liquid volume determined for each facility. The septic tank does not purify, but conditions sew-age—or effluent—so that is can be disposed of normally by subsurface absorption or other treatment system.

At each unit campsite it is necessary to dispose of dishwater and wastes for the toilet and washstand. The most common, and usually the most practical toilet for troop use is the dry-pit latrine. Through the action of bacteria, much of the organic sol-ids in human waste are reduced into liquid and absorbed into the soil. Chemicals inhibit bacterial action and must not be put into the pit. Proper ventilation of the pit, percolation of liquids into the soil, and fly-tight construction are important elements of the dry-pit latrine.

A vault latrine is a water-tight concrete box that acts as a container for the wastes of the latrine facility. It must be pumped out periodically to remove the wastes. Vaults tend to produce objectionable odors since leaching action does not take place. Here again, ventilation and fly-tight construction are important.

The central shower, which often includes toilet facilities, produces large quantities of waste water. The disposal system

must be designed to handle the amount of waste water pro-duced.

Kitchen wastes are from dishwashing, food preparation, and the cooking staff toilet. Waste water containing soap and grease may be prepared for disposal by passing through a grease trap and thence into the septic tank. Grease traps should be skimmed weekly.

The liquid effluent from septic tanks is disposed of through a seepage pit, stabilization pond (or lagoon), subsurface sand filter, evapotranspiration bed, or absorption field system.

Seepage pits are not generally considered as satisfactory as the absorption field; but, in porous soil and for small amounts of effluent, they may be acceptable. If used, the pit excavation should stop at least 4 feet above the groundwater table. It is important that the capacity of a seepage pit be computed on the basis of percolation tests of the area.

Stabilization ponds (also known as sewage lagoons or oxidation ponds) treat raw sewage, piped to the pond, through natural digestion of the organic matter in the sewage. Chlorination of the effluent will be required before discharge. Daily discharge records are normally required.

In areas where the absorption quality of the soil is very poor, the construction of a subsurface sand filter should be consid-ered. The sewage effluent is piped to an area and allowed to filter down through a layer of sand. The filtered effluent is then collected through an underdrain system, chlorinated, and dis-charged to a stream or gully.

In areas where treatment must be accomplished where the available soil has no absorptive quality or where little or no top-soil exists over hardpan or rock, the evapotranspiration system can be effective. The sewage effluent is piped onto a bed and covered with gravel or crushed rock. A layer of paper or hay separates the gravel layer from a layer of clean sand. Topsoil over the sand is seeded to grass. Capillary action transfers the liquid from the transvap bed to the air through the blades of grass and vegetation in the area.

The conventional absorption field system is the desired method of disposal. System size depends upon the percola-tion of sewage effluent into the soil. Open joint pipe laterals are distributed in trenches in lengths according to the abosorptive quality of the soil.

The design and construction of all subsurface sewage dis-posal systems require the services of a sanitary engineer and approved by state or county health department. Percolation tests of the soil to determine the best method of disposal for sewage wastes must also be conducted under the supervision of a qualified sanitarian.

Sanitary landfills for the disposal of solid wastes usually require approval of the city, county, or state health department. Garbage and refuse is dumped into a trench where it is spread, compacted, and covered with a layer of earth by a bulldozer or tractor. Equipment and an operator must be available for daily operation of the pit for acceptable sanitation of the area.

Maps and drawings showing locations and details of con-struction of septic tanks, grease traps, filter beds, and other sanitation facilities should be maintained at the camp.

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POISONOUS PLANTSWhile seldom fatal, with the exception of eating certain wild

mushrooms, poisonous plants cause more discomfort and illness in camps than any other factor, outside of falls. The regrettable part is that this type of injury could be eliminated almost entirely if poisonous plants were cleared from the area before camp-ing began. Investigation of the types of poisonous plants to be encountered on the trails around the camp, followed by education of campers, would eliminate danger of encounter with poisonous plants on most hikes and camping trips.

Every boy should be taught how to recognize and identify the poisonous plants that may be encountered in the area. He should learn how to aviod contacting them with his skin and understand what to do should it occur. He should be warned against eating wild berries or other unfamiliar fruits, mush-rooms, or roots.

The chemicals found effective in eradicating the most frequently encountered poisonous plants such as poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are listed below in approximate order of effectiveness. They include ammonium sulfamate, 2, 4-D (2, 4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), ammonium thio cyanate, borax, carbon disulfide, coal-tar creosote oil, fuel oil, sodium chlorate, and sodium arsenate. Most of these are toxic sub-stances and should be handled with care, being stored under lock and key when not in use. All of these chemicals except borax are best applied as a spray. Borax is scattered dry on the soil around the plants.

Sprays get the best results when applied in the early morn-ing or late afternoon when the air is cool and moist.

No method of chemical eradication can be depended upon to kill all the plants with one application. Three to four light additional treatments, made as soon as the new leaves are fully expanded, may be necessary.

If it is necessary for campers or leaders to work with poison-ous plants, some protection can be achieved by wearing pro-tective clothing or by using protective barrier creams or lotions.

Sometimes cottonseed oil, olive oil, or petrolatum is applied as a protective ointment when contamination is anticipated. Later, the oil must be totally removed by repeated washing.

POISON IvY, OAK, AND SUMACPoison ivy, oak, and sumac cause some of the most com-

mon skin rashes seen in a physician’s office. Allergic reactions from these plants will affect millions of Americans every year. These rashes are most commonly caused by contact with the plant’s colorless or yellowish oil, called urushiol (u-roo-she-ol). The plant oil is released when the plant stem or leaves are cut or crushed. The plant oil is invisible and sticky and may be car-ried on tools or in the smoke of a burning plant.

Poison ivy—a climb-ing vine with three ser-rated-edge, pointed leaves—grows in the East, Midwest and South. In the northern and western states, poison ivy grows as a non-climbing shrub.

Poison oak also has three leaves. It grows in the sandy soil of the Southeast as a small shrub. In the western United States poison oak is a very large plant that grows as a standing shrub or climbing vine.

Poison sumac is a shrub or bush with two rows of seven to 13 leaflets. It is most com-mon in the peat bogs of the northern United States and in swampy southern regions of the country.

POISON OAK

POISON SUMAC

POISON IvY

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How are rashes from plants treated? Mild rashes may be treated with non-prescription prepara-

tions, but hydrocortisone creams are usually ineffective. If the reaction is severe, your doctor may prescribe a corticosteroid drug.

Who is affected?Researchers have found that 85 percent of the popula-

tion will develop an allergic reaction if exposed to poison ivy. Sensitivity seems to develop over several exposures, usually during childhood, and tends to decrease as individuals reach their 30s. About 10 percent of the population will have severe reactions, and an equal number of people will not be sensitive at all.

What are the symptoms of plant rashes?The rash can affect any part of the body but the commonly

affected areas are the hands, forearms, and face. Once the plant oil touches the skin, it begins to penetrate in a matter of minutes. The rash appears as a line within 12 to 48 hours after exposure to the plant oil. Redness and swelling are followed by blisters and severe itching; within a few days the blisters become crusted and scaly. The rash will heal in about 10 days.

How can I prevent plant rashes?The most common way to get a rash from a poisonous plant

is to come in contact with the plant oil. Once you have the rash it cannot be spread to other parts of your body or to another person by touching the blisters or the fluid. The rash is spread by the plant oil on the hands, for example, wiping the forehead with the hand. Learn to recognize and avoid the plant. If you find the plant growing, use gloves to pull it up by the roots, and discard the plant carefully, then discard or wash the gloves. When walking through wooded areas, wear long pants and long sleeves. Brushing up against the plant’s leaves seldom results in breaking out in a rash because the plant’s oil is not released unless the stem or leaf surface is broken. However, if you are exposed to the plant oil, wash the affected area with cold water as soon as possible. Carefully remove all exposed clothing and wash it. Wash off all camping and sporting gear as well, if there is a chance that it has been contaminated.

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PEST CONTROLMosquitoes, ants, flies, spiders, wasps, bees, beetles, chig-

gers, ticks, rodents, snakes, and other pests can become a serious menace to campers, if not kept under control. Wherever possible, they should be eliminated before camp opens. In the case of insects, insecticides and repellents must be used early and repeatedly to achieve desired action.

Recommended insecticides such as malathion or sevin or other locally recommended ones should be carefully used in camp by following specific instruction printed on the outside of the container for any specific insect. Recommendations for the proper solution strength are included in these instructions.

The utmost caution should be observed in use and stor-age of these chemicals as they are often toxic to humans. Directions for safe storage are provided by manufacturers on outside of containers and should be followed exactly.

INSECTSIt may be necessary to use a variety of methods in order to

do the job; but careful planning, good camper education, and vigilance will pay off.

The material in the following pages has been carefully and thoroughly prepared by the U.S. Public Health Service to help in dealing with the insect control problem in Scout camps. As you use the methods suggested for controlling each insect, remem-ber that there is no substitute for cleanliness and sanitation.

Insecticides frequently fail under dirty and unsanitary condi-tions. Basic rules of sanitation are always necessary to keep a camp free from dangerous and troublesome insect pests. Good housekeeping is the best practice.

The camp exploraton tour provides an opportunity to point out possible breeding places and sources of attraction for insects, methods of insect control, and ways campers can help in keeping them under control. One way is to make sure that nothing that will attract insects remains in camp.

The daily inspection of all camp sanitary facilities is basic. The presence of a few flies around the kitchen should start a search for their source.

Take these ordinary precautions in handling and storing any insecticide:• Avoid applying it on eating utensils and food.• Store it out of reach of campers.• Keep it in a safe place where it cannot be used accidentally

for flour, baking powder, or simple powdery foods.• Wash your hands when you have finished applying any

insecticide.• Never use oil preparations of insecticide on animals.• Do not spray oil solutions near open fires, as the oil might

catch fire.

ANTSAnts are not known to be important in the spread of disease,

but they are serious pests and several species are to be avoided because of their pugnacious nature.

Stinging ants. These ants include the imported fire ant, whose workers are rusty red; the California or Mexican fire

ant, whose workers have a yellowish-red head and a black thorax and abdomen; the Texas harvester or agricultural ant with a black head, thorax, and legs and a red abdomen; and the California harvester ant with a light rusty-red body and yellow legs.

Physicians recommend antihistaminic ointment and taking antihistamines orally for ant sting. An early application ofa paste made from meat tenderizer will decrease swellingand pain.

Household ants. Common household ants can be prevented from coming into camp by sanitation or good housekeeping, especially around the kitchen and dining hall. Commercial ant poisons are easy to obtain, but should be used only under careful supervision. These ant poisons are applied as a residual treatment and will kill any crossing treated areas for several weeks after application.

Locations requiring treatment are crevices around windows and doors, points of entry behind loose baseboards, and utility openings in the floor or walls. The ant poisons may be applied with a squirt-type oil gun, with a small sprayer, or with a paint-brush. In some cases, it will be necessary to treat openings in the foundation and the sills beneath buildings.

STINGING INSECTS 1. The majority of insect stings in the United States come

from yellow jackets, hornets, wasps, bees, and fire ants. These insects occur throughout the United States, except for fire ants, which are found only in the southern states.

2. Over 2 million Americans are allergic to stinging insects. 3. More than 500,000 people enter hospital emergency

rooms every year suffering from insect stings, and 40 to 150 people die as a result of an allergic reaction to these stings.

4. An allergic reaction to an insect sting can occur imme-diately, within minutes, or even hours after the sting (although never more than 24 hours). Such a reaction is characterized by hives, itchiness, and swelling in areas other than the sting site, difficulty in breathing, dizziness or a sharp drop in blood pressure, nausea, cramps or diarrhea, unconsciousness and cardiac arrest.

5. Patients who have experienced a systemic allergic reac-tion to an insect sting have a 60 percent chance of a similar (or worse) reaction if stung again.

6. An allergic reaction in progress can be stopped with epi-nephrine, either self-injected or administered by a doctor. People who carry these sting kits must keep them close at hand wherever they go and remember that one dose is not always enough to stop a reaction. If you are stung, seek medical attention immediately.

7. A person suffering from insect sting allergy can have this condition treated with venom immunotherapy (VIT), a 97 percent effective desensitization therapy administered by an allergist.

8. Stinging insects are most active during the summer and early fall when nest populations can exceed 60,000 insects.

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9. These insects are most dangerous in the vicinity of their nests. A passer-by is viewed as a threat to the safety of their home and is often chased out of the area by a sting(s).

10. Yellow jackets, hornets, and wasps can sting repeatedly. Honeybees have barbed stingers which are left behind in their victims’ skin. These stingers are best removed by a scraping action rather than a pulling motion which actu-ally squeezes more venom into the skin.

11. Stinging insects are especially attracted to sweet fra-grances (perfumes, colognes, and hair sprays), picnic food, open soda and beer containers, and garbage areas. Avoiding these attractants will lessen a person’s chance of being stung.

HOW TO AvOID STINGING INSECTS

Stinging insects do not seek sustenance from humans, as do the biting insects, such as mosquitoes, flies, and fleas. The sting of these insects is only used against people for self-defense or defense of the nest.

Honeybees. These bees travel in a straight line from flower to hive, and stings usually occur when someone interrupts a bee in flight, or strikes a flower in which a bee is working. Honeybees are attracted by flower fragrances, bright colors, and smooth-water surfaces. Fragrant perfumes, colognes, and powders also act as attractants. The fragrance of some house paints has been known to excite honeybees and cause them to behave aggressively. For safety, clothing should be light in color. Hair should be short or tied up during the warm months to avoid entanglements that cause stings. If a person is stung and cannot identify the insect, see if the stinger is embedded in the sting site. If it is, chances are the sting was from a honeybee.

Wasps, yellow jackets, and hornets. Wasps feed on the lar-vae of other insects, which they kill with repeated stings. The stinger is not embedded in the sting site.

The adult wasp lives on juices, sap, and nectar; it is attracted by odors such as spoiling foods, soft drinks, fruit juices, leather, perspiration, bright colors, and a water supply.

Yellow jackets make their nests in the ground, and the paper hornet’s nests may be close to the ground or high above it. Both of these stinging insects are, therefore, particularly haz-ardous to bare feet and ankles.

General rules for avoidance and removal.• The first rule when a stinging insect approaches is to STAY

STILL. Remember, people who keep bees professionally wear protective clothing and ALWAYS MOVE SLOWLY.

• Never slap or brush off an insect of this kind. It will not sting unless frightened or antagonized.

• Be careful when you shake out clothing that has been left on the ground. Wasps or other stinging insects could be in the folds of the clothing.

• Avoid orchards in bloom, clover fields, and any areas abun-dant with flowers. Don’t wear dark clothing, and don’t wear perfume or hair sprays.

• Caution campers not to throw stones or sticks at insect nests.

SCORPION

TICK

BLACK WIDOW SPIDER

BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER

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The sooner treatment is begun the better; however, there is not total agreement on the treatment regimen. Past treatments have included antibiotics and corticosteriods to treat infection and relieve inflammation, and surgical removal of damaged tissue. In some cases, dapsone has been used to treat these lesions. Whatever the case, persons with bites or suspected bites should be under the care of a physician.

Black widow. There are five spiders in the “widow” group. Two are restricted to southern Florida, and one is found in the western parts of the United States and Canada. The one most often referred to as “the black widow spider” is the spe-cies Latrodectus mactans found in the southern states. The last widow spider is the “northern widow” found across the northern United States and into New England.

The female of the black widow is the one most often seen. It is a characteristic shiny black color with a red hourglass mark on the underside of the abdomen. Occasionally, there are red dots or hash marks on the upper side of the abdomen as well. The body, excluding legs, is 7⁄16 of an inch long and 5⁄16 to 3⁄8 of an inch wide. With a distinct globular shape, the abdomen is larger than the cephlothorax. The first and fourth pairs of legs are long and slender, which adds to the overall perception of size. The male black widow (not reported to have caused any venomous bites) is considerably smaller than the female, and its abdomen is more elongate rather than the globular shape of the female.

This spider is found almost exclusively in outside habitats. It can be found in the crawl spaces of houses, in water meter boxes, under rocks, in stumps or logs, around refuse piles, in brick piles, and in stacks of firewood. If spiders use buildings, they tend to be old abandoned barns, houses, sheds, or the little-used sections of garages or basements. Spider popula-tions, in general, will fluctuate with high and low years; how-ever, with the black widow, high populations in a given area are rare. The controlling factor may be disease, predators, lack of suitable habitat, and/or competition, along with some degree of cannibalism among the spiders.

The bite of this spider, as with the brown recluse, often goes unnoticed. The chelicera are only about 1 millimeter in length, and they may have trouble breaking the skin at some points on the body. The amount of venom injected, the age of the victim, and the time from the last bite until the present bite are some factors that determine the severity of symptoms experienced by the victim. Shortly after the bite (30 to 45 minutes), the skin around the puncture site might become red with a central white or blanched area. A close examination might reveal the two puncture points. The venom is neurotoxin (acts on the nervous system), and as the envenomation process progresses, pain increases and a contraction or cramping might be noted in the thighs, lumbar region, abdomen, or chest area. This muscle cramping or rigidity is particularly severe in the abdominal muscles. Muscle cramps will make walking difficult in some patients, and a slurring of speech is often noted.

Treatment might include the use of an antivenin given intra-muscularly for one or two days, plus pain management using calcium gluconate. If two doses of calcium fail to relieve pain, morphine sulfate may be used. These treatments must be pre-scribed by a physician. Warm baths may help relieve muscle spasms.

• Inspect the camp in the early spring and make periodic inspections all summer until hard frost. (Allergic individuals should not participate in these inspections).

• Use the skills of an exterminator or the local fire depart-ment to remove hornet nests. Beekeepers will often be glad to come to your camp and relocate a bee colony.

• Locate yellow jacket nests during the day and demolish them at night when the insects have returned home.

• At least two applications of gasoline, kerosene, or lye are needed in the hole where yellow jackets have nested. The fumes do the job, so do not light the gas or kerosene. Wear protective clothing and call an exterminator if you are uncertain about how to proceed.

• Wasp nests can be knocked down with a broom handle after spraying the nest with an insecticide.

Protection against shock. Hypersensitive individuals should obtain through a physician a prescription kit for self-admin-istered protection against anaphylactic shock for use when medical treatment cannot be immediately secured. Medical alert tags or bracelets ensure prompt and proper treatment in case consciousness is lost.

SPIDERSBrown recluse. The body of this spider, excluding the legs, is between 3⁄8 and 1⁄2 an inch long and 3⁄16 of an inch wide. The legs are long and slender, making the body appear larger than its actual size. The main identifying mark found on the recluse is the “fiddle-shaped” structure on the front of the cephlothorax. The wider part of the fiddle is near the head, with the bow or handle starting about the middle of the cephlothorax and running toward the abdomen. The fiddle is darker than the surrounding body and stands out against the lighter background.

The body of the spider appears slick or void of hair, but when viewed under magnification, it is covered with small, brown hairs. This covering of hair gives the abdomen a some-what velvety appearance. The recluse and its relatives have six eyes, compared to eight for most other spiders.

With the brown recluse spider, the male and female are capable of biting and injecting a necrotic poison into the victim. Reaction to the bite depends on a number of factors, includ-ing skin thickness at the point of the bite, amount of venom injected, individual sensitivity, and time from the last bite to the present bite.

The bite itself is apparently not painful to most victims, since the victims often report they were not aware of when the bite occurred. The symptoms associated with the bite can vary from person to person, and the following description may not fit every case of brown recluse bite.

The first symptoms occur two to six hours after the bite. These symptoms are an itching and swelling and redness at the puncture site. A small whitish area will encompass the red-dened area. A small pimple-like structure will form soon after, followed by a blister. As the envenomation process progresses, the wound site becomes bluish or purplish due to a restricted blood flow and/or a destruction of red blood cells. At some point in the process, a black scab similar to a burned area may form; this falls off in about two weeks to reveal an ulcerated wound. Healing is slow, and it may take six to eight weeks or longer for the wound to heal.

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Controls for the black widow and brown recluse. Management practices for these spiders vary, depending on the infested site and the numbers of spiders that might exist within or around the site. For example, black widows seldom, if ever, occur within occupied dwellings to the same degree as the recluse. In this case, recluse management practices would be more extensive due to the greater number of spi-ders that might exist in the home. Conversely one spider, black widow or brown recluse, seen around brick or other refuse piles would not necessarily need the same attention.

Outdoor controls. Habitat management in outdoor areas is the primary control practice you should follow. This includes any practice that eliminates sites used for protection, web building, or hunting. It includes the removal of excess bricks, racks of old firewood, sheets of tin or lumber stacked on the ground, dense plant growth, or similar habitat. When clean-ing these areas, wear gloves to protect hands against any accidental contact with the black widow or recluse. Be cau-tious when removing water meter covers or opening outside electrical boxes, since the dark nature of these areas is ideal black widow habitat.

Storage buildings. Various buildings might be used for tem-porary storage and are rarely entered, except to retrieve or store an item. Take care when working around or entering these areas. When items such as tents, out-of-season cloth-ing, sleeping bags, shoes, or tarpaulins are removed, care-fully inspect items before use. To prevent spider problems in these areas, place items for storage in tightly sealed boxes or other containers, elevate items from the floor, remove unwanted items, and periodically clean by sweeping or vacu-uming. After cleaning, you can apply insecticides to cracks and crevices around and in the building.

COCKROACHESCockroaches have been present on the earth for more than

400 million years. Approximately 4,000 to 7,500 species of cockroaches exist, but only a very small fraction of these spe-cies are considered pests (i.e., American, German, Oriental, brown-banded, smokybrown, and Asian). Many species inhabit ant, wasp, and termite colony nests; caves; animal burrows; and even mines.

Because cockroaches contaminate food with their excre-ment and secrete an unpleasant odor that can permeate the indoor environment, these insects are considered by many to be one of the worst household pests. Many individuals develop allergies to these insects. Allergens present in the feces of the German cockroach can become airborne along with nor-mal dust. The allergens can then be inhaled from the air or ingested when in contact with food.

Many of the environmental requirements of cockroaches (i.e., high humidity, warmth, and food sources) can be found in a typical building. Cockroaches evolved as scavengers of decaying plant materials, hence they will readily feed on carbohydrates, but they will also feed on a variety of other foods, including paints, wallpaper pastes, and book bindings. Buildings also provide shelter and a multitude of warm and humid niches for their survival.

Control. Due to the large size and slow development of American cockroaches, large infestations of these insects

are not common within buildings. However, during certain times of the year, these cockroaches may move indoors. For example, in winter these cockroaches may move indoors seeking warmth and food. Cockroaches may enter buildings via sewer connections, under doors, around utility pipes, air ducts, or other openings in the foundation. Exclusion is one way to control this inward movement of cockroaches. Place fine mesh screening over crawl space vents and basement floor drains. Seal exterior doors with weather stripping. Fill gaps in walls and floors where pipes enter using steel wool and/or caulking compounds. Cockroach populations in base-ments can be reduced by decreasing dampness and applying insecticides in cracks and crevices where there is evidence of cockroach activity (presence of egg cases, dead cock-roaches, brown fecal smears).

Cockroach populations around the perimeters of buildings are more difficult to control. First, limit the availability of food and water. Place garbage in trash cans, not plastic bags (plastic bags rip easily). Divert water from gutters at least three feet away from the foundation. Second, reduce hiding places for the cockroaches. Do not stack firewood or debris next to the foun-dation. Make a visual inspection about one to two hours after sunset to locate cracks and crevices in the building from which cockroaches are emerging. Spray these areas with insecticide and seal the cracks and crevices if possible.

FLIESBecause they come in direct contact with food or drink and

normally breed in and feed on excrement and dead animal or vegetable matter, flies are a menace to public health.

Laboratory experiments show that transmission of common diseases by flies is possible. A single fly can carry as many as 6 million germs on its body.

Entomologists and environmentalists say that the only sen-sible approach to the control of flies on a community-wide or camp-wide basis is improved environmental sanitation or good housekeeping.

Supplementary means of fly control are: screening, appli-cation of residual sprays to selected fly resting surfaces; application of larvicides in selected sites; and broadcasting of space sprays over extensive areas, if necessary. The old-fash-ioned, baited, one-way fly trap is also an effective means for combating the fly menace.

Every building in camp, especially the dining hall, should be adequately screened to reduce possible contact between flies and human beings. Garbage should be stored in a metal, cov-ered, fly-tight garbage can and disposed of in a sanitary manner.

Malathion and lindane may be used as effective antifly insecticides. Follow instructions on the containers to make the proper strength solution to apply as a residual-type spray to interior surfaces of all huts and buildings. In addition, the exterior surfaces of outbuildings near fly attractants should be treated.

CHIGGERS

The term “chigger” is a common name used to describe the larval stage of a certain group of mites. These mites are para-sitic on warm-blooded animals during their larval development

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and produce bites that cause intense itching and the forma-tion of small, reddish welts. Chiggers are active from spring to late fall but are most numerous in early summer when weeds, grass, and other vegetative undergrowth are at their heaviest. Chiggers are closely related to ticks and spiders.

Control of chiggers in parks, recreation areas, or camp-grounds is probably impractical. However, the likelihood of encountering chiggers in these areas can be reduced by applying personal insect repellents, wearing loose-fitting cloth-ing, and avoiding sitting or reclining directly on the ground. In addition, taking a hot, soapy bath or shower immediately after returning from likely chigger-infested areas can remove most chiggers before they have had the opportunity to attach and feed.

MOSQUITOESThere are many different types of mosquitoes. The Culex

pipiens mosquito has been identified as the carrier of West Nile virus. This particular mosquito feeds on infected birds and then bites humans. The symptoms often include rapid onset of headache, high fever, disorientation, tremors, and convulsions. In only the most severe and rarest cases is paralysis or death a result.

The most common breeding environment for this type mos-quito is stagnant water found in old tires and metal drums/con-tainers. All camps should be inspected for such conditions and they should be removed. Additionally, screened windows and doors on buildings should be repaired as necessary.

Recommendations. To minimize the risk of mosquito bites, health authorities recommend1. Minimizing outdoor activities between dusk and dawn.2. Wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants whenever

spending time in likely mosquito habitats, such as woods or wetlands.

3. Using an insect repellent containing DEET according the instructions on the label. In no case should DEET be sprayed directly on children’s skin.

Mosquito control. Most mosquito problems cannot be elimi-nated through individual efforts, but instead must be man-aged through an organized effort. Many states have some sort of organized mosquito control at the state, county, or city level. Some residential communities organize to control their mosquito problems. These management measures include permanent and temporary measures. Permanent measures include impounding water and ditching, and draining swampy mosquito breeding areas. Temporary measures include treat-ing breeding areas to kill larvae and aerosol spraying by ground or aerial equipment to kill adult mosquitoes. The most effective way to control mosquitoes is to find and eliminate their breeding sites.1. Destroy or dispose of tin cans, old tires, buckets, unused

plastic swimming pools or other containers that collect and hold water.

2. Clean debris from rain gutters and remove any standing water under or around structures or on flat roofs. Check around faucets and air conditioner units and repair leaks or puddles that remain for several days.

3. Fill or drain puddles, ditches, and swampy areas, and remove, drain, or fill tree holes and stumps with mortar.

4. Eliminate seepage from cisterns, cesspools, and septic tanks.

5. Eliminate standing water around animal watering troughs.

Adult mosquito control. Some adult mosquitoes can fly long distances; therefore, it is often necessary to supplement larval control at your camp with control measures directed against mosquito adults.• Mechanical barriers. Mosquitoes can be kept out of build-

ings by keeping windows, doors, and porches tightly screened (16–18 mesh). Insects that do get into structures can be eliminated with a fly swatter or an aerosol space spray containing synergized pyrethrin.

• Repellents. Persons working or playing in mosquito-infested areas will find repellents very helpful in prevent-ing mosquito bites. Use repellents containing ingredients such as diethyl phthalate, diethyl carbate, DEET, and ethyl hexanediol. For more than 40 years, DEET has been the standard in mosquito repellents. Check the label for these active ingredients. The area of skin to be protected should be covered evenly, because mosquitoes will find and bite untreated spots. It is often helpful to use spray repellents on outer clothing as well as the skin. Repellents are formu-lated and sold as aerosols, creams, solids (sticks), and liq-uids. You should keep repellents away from eyes, nostrils, and lips. Protection generally may be expected up to six hours following application.

• Vegetation management. Adult mosquitoes prefer to rest on weeds and other vegetation. One can reduce the num-ber of areas where adult mosquitoes can find shelter by cutting down weeds adjacent to building foundations. To further reduce adult mosquitoes harboring in vegetation, insecticides may be applied to the lower limbs of shade trees, shrubs, and other vegetation. Products contain-ing allethrin, malathion, or carbaryl have proven effective. Paying particular attention to shaded areas, apply the insecticides as coarse sprays onto vegetation, walls, and other potential mosquito resting areas using a compressed air sprayer. Always read and follow label directions before using any pesticide.

Mosquito-borne diseases. Mosquitoes cause more human suffering than any other organism, with over 1 million people dying from mosquito-borne diseases every year. Mosquito-vectored diseases include malaria, filarial diseases such as dog heartworm, and viruses such as dengue, encephalitis, and yellow fever. In Asia more than 50,000 cases of Japanese encephalitis are reported annually. Yellow fever, dengue, and malaria once were prevalent in the United States, but now they are rare. During 1997 and 1998, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control reported 143 cases of laboratory-diagnosed dengue in the United States, and fewer than 1,200 malaria cases were reported. More recently, West Nile virus was the causative agent in seven deaths among 62 infections in New York City in 1999. This was the first reported case in North America of predominantly African, Middle East, and Southeast Asia flavivirus.

SCORPIONSScorpions are venomous arthropods of the class Arachnida

and are considered relatives of spiders, mites, ticks, and har-

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vestmen. There are approximately 1,300 species of scorpions worldwide, characterized by an elongated body and a seg-mented tail tipped with a venomous stinger.

Range. Scorpions are commonly thought of as desert ani-mals, but in fact, they occur in many other habitats as well, including grasslands and savannahs, deciduous forests, pine forests, rain forests, and caves.

Habitat. Scorpions have even been found under snow-cov-ered rocks at elevations of over 12,000 feet in the Andes Mountains of South America and the Himalayas of Asia. About 90 species occur in the United States, and all but four of these naturally occur west of the Mississippi River.

Behavior. Scorpions are nocturnal, predatory animals that feed on a variety of insects, spiders, centipedes, and other scorpions.

Scorpion venom. The venom of scorpions is used for both prey capture and defense. Scorpion venoms are complex mix-tures of neurotoxins (toxins which affect the victim’s nervous system) and other substances; each species has a unique mixture. Despite their bad reputation, only one species in the United States and about 20 others worldwide have venom potent enough to be considered dangerous to humans.

TICKSTick distribution. In recent years, there has been an increase in awareness and concern about tick-borne disease. Lyme disease is now one of the most prevalent illnesses carried by ticks. Although Rocky Mountain spotted fever had been a concern for several years, it now appears to be local-ized elsewhere. Since first documented in 1975 in Lyme, Connecticut, Lyme disease spread into New York City and along the Hudson River Valley. Like all epidemics, the disease will continue to appear in more locations and is now reported throughout the United States.

Experts attribute the current spread of Lyme disease to the expanding habitats of the tick that carries it. No one knows exactly why the spread has occurred, but two possible theo-ries are migratory birds and the increasing deer population. Individuals living in or visiting affected areas should be aware of the dangers of Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever in particular, and ticks in general.

The following information will help you• Detect their presence.• Recognize disease symptoms.• Seek appropriate treatment.• Prevent exposure to tick bites.

Tick identification. Ticks are any of numerous blood-sucking arachnids. A tick is small—the size of a pinhead or sesame seed is an approximate comparison—and can be difficult to see. A tick can have six or eight legs and can be colored tan, red, brown, or black. After sucking blood from an animal or human, it will grow to the size of a small pea and is then called “engorged” (filled with blood).

Ticks can be found in any outdoor location with vegetation, even a back yard. However, the more likely spots are• Wooded areas and adjacent grasslands.• High grass.• Dense shrubbery.• Salt marshes.

Ticks can also be carried by a pet or other animal that has been in the above areas. Ticks do not fly, jump, or actively pur-sue people as do mosquitoes and other insects. Instead, they attach themselves to people or animals brushing against them in tall grass or shrubbery and only then do they begin to feed by biting the carrier. A tick bite does not cause disease unless the tick is infected.

Lyme disease. Lyme disease is an infection caused by the bite of a deer tick (Ixodes damming), when it has been infected with the disease. It is important to remember that a tick bite does not always result in Lyme disease. However, when the tick which is infected by the spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi) transmits the disease to humans, the person must be medically treated as soon as possible.

Because research indicates it may take an infected tick as long as 48 hours to transmit Lyme disease, a check of the body every two to three hours to remove ticks will help prevent transmission of the disease. A full body check should be done each day.

An additional caution: Recent research now indicates that ticks may not be the only biting insects to carry Lyme disease. The spirochete responsible for this illness has also been isolated in horse flies, deer flies, mosquitoes, and fleas. It is not known whether these biting insects can transmit Lyme disease to humans. Researchers suspect they may not be as efficient carriers as is the tick. Generally, these biting insects are infected with the organism at a much lesser rate than that of the tick.

The medical histories of most Lyme disease patients indi-cate that they were unaware of being bitten by a tick. They did notice an unusual red skin rash at the onset of their disease that expanded for several days or weeks. More than one rash may appear. And, they may not always occur at the site of the tick bite. Rashes may occur anywhere on the body. The red patches may be warm, but are generally not painful and usually do not itch. Some also experienced headaches, fever, swollen glands, and malaise (tiredness), along with sore mus-cles and joints. These signs are important because medical intervention with antibiotics at this point can avoid later serious complications from the disease. Left untreated, the disease can produce complications to the heart, bone joints, and the nervous system. Still later, in the absence of medical treatment or with inadequate treatment, chronic arthritic and neurological problems can occur. Physicians need to take a blood test to confirm the diagnosis.

Antibiotics help in all stages of the disease but the earlier the treatment begins, the easier it is to prevent its long-term and serious effects. Because it is often difficult to diagnose, and often produces variable symptoms, it is important to consult a doctor immediately if in doubt.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Rocky Mountain spotted fever is another acute infectious disease transmitted by ticks. The infecting agent is a microbe transmitted in the eastern portion of the United States by the American dog tick. Like Lyme disease, most cases occur in the spring and summer. The illness begins several days after a tick bite.

The symptoms of this disease are more dramatic than Lyme disease and usually include high fever, headache, chills, and severe fatigue. A spotted rash develops on the hands and feet and spreads over the entire body. Again, remember if you have

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been bitten by a tick and have any symptoms, you should con-sult a physician.

As with Lyme disease, early detection and treatment is the best response to limit the severity of the illness. Rocky Mountain spotted fever responds to antibiotic therapy and is best treated in the early stages of development. Physicians must take blood tests to confirm the diagnosis.

Preventing tick-borne disease. Simply put, the best way to prevent a tick-borne disease is to avoid ticks—something easier said than done. While we generally associate ticks with woodland and grassland, there is the distinct possibility that they also exist in back yards and shrubs. Most cases occur from late spring through summer, with June and July the time of greatest risk—peak summer camp season.

Simple precautions can reduce the risk of a tick bite—dis-eased or not:• Avoid the favored habitats of the tick such as tall grass,

bushes, and woods. Walk in the center of woodland trails to avoid brushing against vegetation bearing ticks.

• Dress for the outdoors by wearing light-colored clothes. Wear long pants tucked into socks or boots. Long sleeves protect bare arms. Do not go barefoot or in sandals. Routinely inspect clothing for ticks.

• Caution! Insect repellent should be used with extreme care. Always follow application directions precisely as they appear on the label. Never overuse these chemicals. Overuse, as well as improperly following the precautions on the label, may lead to over-absorption of chemicals through the skin and cause allergic and toxic reactions.

• Check yourself frequently when outdoors. Campers are at risk because they spend time outside in the natural habitat of ticks. At night, carefully inspect yourself, especially in areas of the groin, waistline, underarms, neck, and scalp. Because research indicates it may take an infected tick as long as 48 hours to transmit Lyme disease, it is essential to check for ticks every two to three hours while outside. A complete check should be done after undressing each day.

Tick removal. If you discover a tick attached to your skin, promptly, gently, and firmly remove it—preferably with fine-tipped tweezers. Do not use bare fingers. Do not squeeze the tick, as this action could propel germs into your body. If twee-zers are not available, use a tissue, paper, leaf or paper towel.• Do not apply mineral oil, Vaseline, or anything else to

remove the tick as this may cause it to inject the spiro-chetes into the wound.

• Be sure to remove the entire tick. Get as close to the mouth as possible and firmly tug on the tick until it releases its grip. Don’t twist. If available, use a magnifying glass to make sure you have removed the entire tick.

• After removing the tick, apply an antiseptic such as rubbing alcohol to the site.

• Save the tick in a jar and label it with the date, where you were bitten on your body, and the location or address where you were bitten for proper identification by your doc-tor, especially if you develop any symptoms.

• Do not handle the tick.• Wash your hands immediately.• Check the site of the bite occasionally to see if any rash

develops. If it does, seek medical advice promptly.

Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever are serious but preventable diseases. Ticks are usually only a nuisance, and most do not carry disease. By being alert to the possibil-ity of tick bites and realizing tick-borne disease can be treated with antibiotics after early detection, you will be able to safely enjoy all warm-weather outdoor activities.

RODENT CONTROLRats, bats, and mice are disease carriers. Controlling these

rodents involves use of poisons and traps. A poison such as compound 42 (warfarin) is effective. Most of these poisons are toxic to humans. Instructions for their use is shown on their containers and should be followed carefully.

Poisonous rodenticides should be colored, clearly marked, and stored far away from foodstuffs.

Follow these plans to rodentproof your camp:• When a new building is being constructed, it should be made

rodentproof. The carpenter will know what steps to take.• All crevices, knotholes and other points of entry should be

closed. All doors should be tight fitting, and the chimney should be covered with wire netting to keep out bats and other rodents.

• Yards, woodpiles, etc., should be cleaned up and kept in order to prevent chipmunks and other rodents from hiding and building their nests.

• Rodent reproduction should not be encouraged by feeding and making pets of these animals.

• Buildings that become rodent infested should not be used for sleeping quarters. The hantavirus may be carried in rodent feces.

BATSCamps are usually in areas that are prime habitat for bats

and other wildlife. The type of construction in camp buildings is often conducive to roosting bats.

The buildings at BSA camps should be regularly inspected for evidence of the presence of bats. Consistent with health department regulations, bat-proofing should be done when-ever needed. This includes sealing openings, screening win-dows/doors, etc.

Bats are one of the wide range of wildlife typically found at camps. Their presence does not necessarily present a danger, but they should be avoided. Many bats are infected with rabies, and some have been known to carry other diseases.

Camp personnel should take necessary steps to remove bats, using prescribed techniques of the health department.

Recommendations. Campers should never try to have contact with bats. Their presence should be reported to adult leadership as soon as possible.

In the unlikely event a camper comes into direct physical contact with a bat—especially if he is bitten—report to the camp health officer immediately.

All bat-related incidents should be reported to the health department.

For questions about handling incidents, or to immediately report those who may require rabies treatment, contact the local health department.

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RABIESWhat is rabies and how do people get it?

Rabies is an infectious viral disease that affects the ner-vous system of humans and other mammals. People get rabies from the bite of an animal with rabies (a rabid animal). Any wild mammal, like a raccoon, skunk, fox, coyote, or bat, can have rabies and transmit it to people. It is also possible, but quite rare, that people may get rabies if infectious mate-rial from a rabid animal, such as saliva, gets directly into their eyes, nose, mouth, or a wound.

Because rabies is a fatal disease, the goal of public health is, first, to prevent human exposure to rabies by education and, second, to prevent the disease by anti-rabies treatment if exposure occurs. Tens of thousands of people are success-fully treated each year after being bitten by an animal that may have rabies. A few people die of rabies each year in the United States, usually because they do not recognize the risk of rabies from the bite of a wild animal and do not seek medi-cal advice.

Why should I learn about bats and rabies?Most of the recent human rabies cases in the United States

have been caused by rabies virus from bats. Awareness of the facts about bats and rabies can help people protect them-selves, their families, and their pets. This information may also help clear up misunderstandings about bats.

When people think about bats, they often imagine things that are not true. Bats are not blind. They are neither rodents nor birds. They will not suck your blood—and most do not have rabies. Bats play key roles in ecosystems around the globe, from rain forests to deserts, especially by eating insects, including agricultural pests. The best protection we can offer these unique mammals is to learn more about their habits and recognize the value of living safely with them.

How can I tell if a bat has rabies?Rabies can be confirmed only in a laboratory. However,

any bat that is active by day, is found in a place where bats are not usually seen (for example, in a room in a house), or is unable to fly, is far more likely than others to be rabid. Such bats are often the most easily approached. Therefore, it is best never to handle any bat.

What should I do if I come in contact with a bat?If you are bitten by a bat—or if infectious material (such

as saliva) from a bat gets into your eyes, nose, mouth, or a wound—wash the affected area thoroughly and get medical advice immediately. Whenever possible, the bat should be captured and sent to a laboratory for rabies testing. People usually know when they have been bitten by a bat. However, because bats have small teeth which may leave marks that are not easily seen, there are situations in which you should seek medical advice even in the absence of an obvious bite wound. For example, if you awaken and find a bat in your tent or see a bat near a mentally impaired person, seek medical advice and have the bat tested. People cannot get rabies just from seeing a bat in a cave or at a distance. In addition, people cannot get rabies from having contact with bat guano (feces), blood, or urine, or from touching a bat on its fur (even though bats should never be handled!).

RABIES SPECIMENSDogs and cats which bite or scratch a human should be

captured, confined, and observed for ten days. Any illness in the animal should be reported immediately to the local health officials. If the animal dies, the head should be removed and mailed or hand-delivered under refrigeration to a laboratory for examination. The duration which animals other than dogs or cats excrete rabies virus in their saliva is not fully known, therefore wild animals that bite or scratch a human should be killed at once without damage to the brain and the animal examined for rabies infection. Biting dogs and cats may also be sacrificed at once and sent to the laboratory at the discretion of the owner.

Only the head of a suspected animal is needed for a rabies examination, but entire bat carcasses will be acceptable. The severed head or whole bat should be placed in a watertight container as a heavy plastic bag tied with a string or twist or in a jar with a tight-fitting lid. This container should be placed into a larger water tight container and packed with crushed ice or, preferably canned ice. In either case, the HEAD SHOULD NOT BE FROZEN. This should preferably be hand delivered to the laboratory.

HANTAvIRUSHantavirus was first recognized as a unique health hazard in

1993, with 277 cases reported as of December 7, 2000. There are four different strains of hantavirus. Cases of hantavirus have been reported in 31 different states. The virus is most active when the temperature is between 45 and 72 degrees Fahrenheit.

Hantavirus is spread through the urine and feces of infected rodents. It is an airborne virus. A person is infected with the virus by breathing in particles released into the air when infected rodents, or their nests or burrows, are disturbed. This can happen when a person is handling rodents, disturbing rodent nests or burrows, cleaning buildings where rodents have made a home, or working outdoors. The virus will die quickly when exposed to sunlight.

Precautions• Air out any closed sheds or buildings before entering.• Make sure the buildings are properly sealed from rodent

access.• Trap until all mice are gone, using care to disinfect any

trapped rodents.• Clean up droppings only after the area has been disin-

fected.• Always wear a respirator which utilizes HEPA-rated filters.• Dispose of all caught rodents, droppings, and nesting

materials in an appropriate manner.

Symptoms of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome• Fever and muscle aches• Chills• Nausea• Vomiting• Diarrhea• Abdominal pain• Dry, non-productive cough

Hantavirus is deadly! If you suspect you have been infected, consult a physician immediately.

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BEARSBears are intelligent and curious. They can see colors, form,

and movement. Although their vision is good, they generally rely on their acute sense of smell and hearing to locate food and warn them of danger. If a bear stands upright or moves closer, it may be trying to detect smells in the air. This isn’t nec-essarily a sign of aggression.

Black bears typically roam over large areas, with some home ranges covering hundreds of square miles. Black bears eat both plant and animal foods, but the bulk of their diet is usually plant material. Animal foods are usually ants, grubs, and animals that are already dead or partially decayed. Above all, the black bear is an opportunist and will take advantage of almost any readily available food source.

Bears may be active anytime, day or night, most often dur-ing morning and evening twilight. They like to stay concealed in thick cover such as dense oak brush and normally expose themselves to open areas only to get food. When not feeding or looking for food, they rest in day beds next to a log, behind a large tree or a steep slope, in dense brush, or in the depression left by an uprooted tree. In late summer, black bears are trying to fatten up for winter hibernation. During this period they may be actively feeding for up to 20 hours per day.

Coming between a female and her cubs can be dangerous. If a cub is nearby, try to move away from it. Be alert; other cubs may be in the area.

Protecting food and property. The best way to prevent food pilfering by most animals, especially bears, is to keep a clean camp. The less food odor in your campsite the less chance the animals will linger when they make the rounds. Wash dishes immediately and dump the water away from camp. Dispose of garbage immediately in camp dumpsters. Never bury it or throw it in a latrine. Wipe your table and clean up immediately after eating.

Store your food safely. When possible, store food and cool-ers in a car trunk or suspended from a tree at least 12 feet off the ground and six feet out from the tree. Don’t underestimate the ingenuity of a bear!

Most black bears will not enter a tent with people in it, but it is still a good idea to keep food and food odors out of tents and sleeping bags. To be on the safe side, wash food from your face and hands before going to bed and hang clothing beyond reach of bears if it has food or cooking grease on it. To a bear, even toothpaste, camera film, and sunscreen are food. Store it accordingly.

When leaving your campsite, tie tent flaps open so bears can easily check inside.

If a black bear visits. A black bear in your campsite requires caution but not necessarily great alarm. Most are timid enough to be scared away by yelling, waving, and banging pans. Make sure the bear has a clear escape route and then yell and wave. Do not rush toward the bear. Do not throw rocks, use flashbulbs, or approach a bear.

People are often more timid at night, but bears retreat at night as well as by day. If you awaken to discover a bear nearby, do not play dead and do not strike the bear. Talking in a calm tone of voice will let the bear know you are alive and well. If the bear is several feet away, you may be able to slip out of

your sleeping bag and retreat. Back away slowly. Running may provoke a bear.

Fortunately, black bears usually use at least as much restraint with people as they do with each other. Black bears typically behave as the subordinate toward people when escape is possible.

Summary. In much of the United States, black bears play an important role in the ecosystem.

Today, increasing numbers of people routinely live and play in bear country. For many Scouts and leaders, seeing a bear is rare and may be one of many highlights of your camp experi-ence. Learning about wildlife and being aware of their habits will help you fully appreciate these unique animals and the habitat in which they live.

Although black bears are generally shy and avoid human contact, there are some precautions you can take to avoid encounters. You are responsible for doing all you can to pre-vent conflicts with bears.

Campsite procedures.1. Keep the site clean and remove trash to dumpsters fre-

quently.2. Clean tables, fireplaces, grills, and the areas around them;

leave no scraps of food. Clean all cooking and eating utensils.

3. Do not leave food of any kind inside or outside your tent. Do not eat food in your tent.

4. Do not dump fat drippings or food scraps in your fireplace, on the ground, or in the woods.

5. Do not place food to attract raccoons, squirrels, or other wildlife.

6. Store all food properly as instructed.

WOLvESWolves are wild carnivore members of the dog family. The gray wolf, also called the timber wolf, is the best known spe-cies and still inhabits some areas of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the gray wolf is found primarily in Canada, Alaska, and Minnesota. In 1995, wolves were reintroduced in wilderness areas of the northern Rocky Mountains. The gray wolf looks much like a German shepherd, but it has a broader skull and ears. Wolves usually travel in packs. They define their ranges with scent markings and vocalizations such as growls, barks, and their legendary howl. Wolves eat small ani-mals like mice and squirrels and large animals like deer, elk, bison, and moose. Attacks on humans usually occur only in cases of famine or an epidemic among wolf populations.

The Mexican wolf is the rarest and most southernmost sub-species of the gray wolf. There are a few in Mexico, western Texas, southern New Mexico, and central Arizona.

Gray wolves are protected by state, federal, and tribal laws. Report any wolf sightings or sign to a camp ranger or director, or to the nearest game warden or park or forest ranger.

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SNAKE CONTROLIn the United States there are four types of poisonous

snakes—rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths, and coral snakes. The first three are called pit vipers because they have a pit in each side of the head between the eyes and the nostrils. Of the three, the rattlesnake causes the greatest number of fatalities, probably because of its prevalence and the amount of venom that it discharges.

Pit vipers frequently strike a victim’s arms and legs. They inflict one or two puncture wounds. Their venom affects the blood circulatory system. When they bite, they may introduce tetanus germs as well as venom. Pain, swelling, and discolor-ation occur almost immediately.

The coral snake, which is found in the Southeast, chews, rather than bites. A flick of the hand may remove the snake before it poisons. Its venom affects the nervous system. First symptoms are a burning sensation and a mild swelling of the wound.

In addition to symptoms noted, poisonous snakebites usually result in general weakness, shortness of breath, nausea and vomiting, weak and rapid pulse, and possible dimness of vision. Unconsciousness may follow. Symptoms may apear quickly or become apparent in an hour or two, depending upon whether or not the poison was injected into the bloodstream.

Untreated poisonous snakebites are fatal in 10 to 15 percent of all cases. In regions where poisonous snakes are prevalent, it is important for campers to receive adequate instruction in ways to protect themselves from bites. For treatment of poison-ous snakebites, the camp physician should have anti venin on hand and ready for use.

In case of bite from a poisonous snake, there is no time to lose. Give first aid to victim as outlined in the Scout Handbook and in the Basic First Aid books of the American Red Cross.

Give ordinary first aid for wounds for a bite by a nonpoi-sonous snake. Since there is danger of tetanus, the victim should have medical attention. Fainting may result from the emotional upset.

POISONOUS SNAKES

Copperhead (highland moccasin)—Most of these snakes are pinkish or reddish brown. They have dark cross-bands shaped like dumbbells or hourglasses. The head is triangular. They are rarely longer than 3 feet. Can be found in the South to West Texas. The bite rarely kills, but causes serious illness.

Coral Snake—The yellow rings must touch the red rings to be a coral: ‘‘Red on yellow, kill a fellow.’’ About 2 to 3 feet in length, they rarely bite, but can cause sudden death. Like deadly cobra, the coral’s venom can paralyze the nerve centers.

Rattlesnake—Rattlers cause most snakebite deaths. Eastern diamondback: Carolinas into Mississippi. Timber rattler: most of the South, east of the Mississippi. Canebrake: South Carolina into Texas. Texas diamondback: Cen tral Arkansas through most of Oklahoma and Texas. These four snakes are 3 to 8 feet long and weigh up to 15 pounds. Pygmy rattler: widely seen; are 18 to 24 inches.

Cottonmouth (water moccasin)—Usually dingy brown with dark blotches. Some are olive colored. The larger ones are almost black. From 21⁄2 to about 4 feet, they live across the southern states from Virginia’s Dismal Swamp to central Texas. They can bite under water, and can kill.

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CAMPSITE SELECTION4. Plan a series of inspections at stated intervals to provide

continuous supervision of the buildings and equipment.5. Plan safety instructions for boys and leaders and arrange

for proper supervision of major activities. Provide camp leaders with the precamp training necessary to conduct a safe unit camping experience.

6. During the camping period, provide campers with the supervision and training needed to meet safely the adven-ture of camp living.Some campsites, due to terrain or location limitations, auto-

matically limit the program. These areas should be recog-nized and programs developed that are suitable for the terrain involved.

If the camp is located in an area of the country where floods, tornadoes, hurricanes, or other unusual conditions are known to occur, complete plans should be made in advance to determine what to do in case of an emergency during the camping period.

SHELTER HAZARDSConsideration should be given to the hazards inherent in

extended tent ropes and tent pegs. Substitute tent rails where appropriate to lessen this tripping hazard. Check placement of tentage with reference to dead and hazardous overhead limbs that have aptly been described as ‘‘widow makers.’’ Check all structures for safe construction, emergency exits, and adequate clearance under eves of other projecting elements.

The first requirement for a safe camp is to carefully select a campsite—situated well away from such hazards as swamps, cliffs, mine shafts, quarries, and railroads. A check should be made for loose rocks, which are apt to fall after rains; and areas liable to flooding as a result of the fast runoff of melting snows. If flash floods can be anticipated in some campsites, these areas should be avoided.

Camp buildings must be well constructed and sturdy. A plan for continuous maintenance should be devised to keep them in top shape. This does not mean that equipment must be elaborate or costly, as ‘‘roughing it’’ is one of the pleasures of camping.

It should not be necessary to curtail swimming, boating, overnight hiking, mountain climbing, horseback riding, or woodcraft in the well-run camp because these activities con-tain some potentially dangerous elements. ‘‘Safety through skill’’ is the principle to be taught and practiced in all activities. Wise and constant supervision, the second major requirement for a safe camp, is a must.

A good training program in safety practices for staff and campers completes the necessary requirements for safe camping.

Anticipation, inspection, and prevention should become camping bywords. The following steps, conscientiously per-formed, will ensure your camp of a top safety record without curtailing activities:1. At least 30 days before camp begins, the health and safety

committee should arrange for a thorough precamp inspec-tion, using every type of expert help needed to do the job.

2. Remove the major accident hazards on the campsite.3. Work out definite rules and standards to provide for the

maintenance of the campgrounds, buildings, and equip-ment and see that they are observed.

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TRANSPORTATIONAll vehicles in camps must be inspected and maintained

constantly in a safe and efficient condition.Proper maintenance of vehicles is an important safety factor.

Regular attention to tires, brakes, and lights and keeping vehicles in running condition must be scheduled and made a part of the year-round maintenance and safety inspection pro-gram. Visiting inspectors have found these violations in camps:• Overloading of trucks• Improper maintenance, poor brakes, etc.• Riding permitted on sides and tail gates of vehicles

Drivers of all camp vehicles should be qualified, mature adult drivers. Trucks must never be used for transportation of passengers, except in the cabs.

If trucks are used to transport commissary supplies and equipment around camp, their movements should be sched-uled so they will not conflict with the use of roads by groups of moving boys. Speed and safety regulations must be strictly enforced.

If the vehicle to be used is designed to carry more than 15 people (including driver) the driver must have a commercial driver’s license (CDL).

The Defensive Driving Course of the National Safety Council is available in many localities and is recommended for all driv-ers of camp vehicles.

For more information about transportation to and from camps, on expedition tours, and for moving camps, refer to: Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B.

With the modern equipment so prevalent now in kitchens, the need for basic safety instruction in the use of this equip-ment is essential. Not only must the kitchen staff be familiar with proper methods of use but also they must know emer-gency procedures. Good health and safety practices are a must in all kitchen operations. On camp inspections, the following have been noted:• Cracked and chipped glasses and china in use• Refrigerator doors that can’t be opened from inside• Grease not cleaned from vents above stoves• Incorrect type of fire extinguishers in kitchen

With so many appliances available to help make work lighter in kitchens, it is very important that electrical codes are com-plied with to ensure safety to all personnel using equipment. All appliances must be safety grounded to prevent electrical accidents. Equipment also must be engineered safely to avoid exposing employees to accidents. Electrical circuitry must be checked annually—especially in properties that are unused for any period of time. In addition, check trees, because fallen limbs can make powerlines extremely dangerous in storms or windy weather.

KITCHEN SAFETY

Illnesses and diseases caused by bacteria and viruses (germs) can be very serious and can even cause death if not treated properly. Germs can be spread four ways: fecal-oral contact (e.g., hepatitis A and shigellosis), direct/close contact (as from lice), blood contact (e.g., HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B), and respiratory/airborne contact (e.g., influenza and colds). Germs are so small that you cannot see them, and they are

found almost everywhere. There are many types of germs in each of the two major groups (bacteria and viruses). Bacteria and viruses can cause illness and disease—washing your hands frequently is the best prevention against these illnesses and diseases. Use at least 20 seconds of friction wash with plenty of soap and warm water, and use a disposable paper towel to dry.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HAND WASHING

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FIRE SAFETYCamps often present special fire hazards because they are

isolated and their buildings are frequently rustic and occupied during only part of the year. The fact that they are used most often in the fire season, when drought and heat cause dryness and lightning storms are prevalent, increases the danger.

Make a complete inspection of camp for fire hazards before the opening of camp and take measures to eliminate all possible causes of fire. Arrangements should be made with public officials for protection in case of fire and for any permits required for storage of liquid fuel, operation of incinerators, and open fires. A check to ensure that all electrical wiring and light-ing has been installed according to the National Electric Code is important. Regular inspections of the camp for fire hazards, during the entire camping period, should be part of the camp program.

FIRE PROTECTIONSuitable fire-fighting equipment, regularly inspected and kept

in good condition, should be provided in both the central camp area and on troopsites. If water under pressure is available, adequate lengths of hose for fire fighting should be on hand. Fire extinguishers, adequate to the needs of the camp, should be placed at convenient locations. They should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are filled and in working condition. Water pails, pails of sand; shovels; etc., should be provided to supplement other fire-fighting apparatus.

A check before retiring each night to see if all fires and lights are out is a MUST for every camp. Where local conditions war-rant it, a night patrol should be arranged.

Fire drills held within 24 hours after new arrivals reach camp and at least weekly thereafter are essential during the camping period. Every member of the staff must know the location of the telephone, to whom and how to report a fire and summon help, and the location of fire extinguishers and how to use them.

Only flashlights and electric lanterns should be used in tents. Tents are not flameproof. Absolutely no flames of any kind in tents is a long-standing rule that must be enforced.

To reduce the hazard of a tent fire, the Boy Scouts of America requires that tentage used for sleeping quarters be made of canvas that meets the fire-retardancy specification developed by canvas manufacturers identified as CPAI-84.

No camp would be a camp without an evening campfire in the outdoors, a cookout, or lighted logs in a fireplace on a rainy day. This is the ideal setting for a Scout to learn and practice firemanship under the best supervision and to develop that respect for fire needed to protect him and teach him to protect others.

FOREST-FIRE PROTECTIONEvery camper and camp leader should know how to select

a safe spot for a fire, how to build a fire, how to maintain and put it out safely, and what special precautions are necessary in building fires along the trail.

Because camps are often located in wooded areas, Scouts and leaders should be fully aware of the dangers of forest fire,

know what precautions are necessary to prevent fires, how to notify authorities in case of forest fire, and what to do if the path of fire threatens the camp. The U.S. Forest Service will gladly provide information and cooperate in helping to prevent and control forest fires.

Local fire-fighting groups, located near to the camp, should be familiar with the problems of the camp. Dry runs of fire drills should be scheduled so local people can be entirely familiar with the area and ready to help, if their assistance is required.

Make use of the local, state, or U.S. Forest Service safety campaigns, such as the Smokey the Bear fire-prevention program. Contact these groups for help.

FIREGUARD PLAN PREPARATION

• Enlist the cooperation of the nearest fire department, the U.S. Forest Service, State forest services, or other fire-fighting groups. They will help in developing a fire plan that will involve detection, communication, transportation, equipment, suppression methods, and training.

• Make a survey of the camp with local fire authorities to be sure that the equipment is properly located and all water sources are known and developed. Arrange for their help in case of serious fire and be prepared to render reciprocal assistance within the capability of the Scouts as requested.

• Post emergency numbers for fire, police, ambulance, council service center, Scout executive, hospital, and camp physician.

After camp opens:

• Train camp staff in the camp fireguard plan.

• Orient and train camping units in the organization and use of the fireguard plan as soon as they arrive. Follow fire-guard plan organization outline for personnel and duties.

• Issue copies of the Unit Fireguard Chart, No. 33691A, to every unit. Be sure leaders fill in: names of fire wardens, fire-fighting assignments, and other information.

• Have units post fireguard charts on bulletin boards. Unit fire wardens should use charts to inspect campsite fire-fighting equipment daily in preparation for inspection by the camp fire warden.

• Replace fireguard charts as troops change from week to week and orientation sessions are held.

FIRE WARDENS AND DEPUTIES

As responsible Scouts appointed by their adult leader, the unit fire warden and his deputy are in charge of training, know where fire equipment is located, and are familiar with the unit fireguard chart. They instruct all unit fire wardens and Scouts in the operation of the camp fireguard plan. They con duct annual inspections of fire extinguishers and check to be sure all cooking fires, heating fires, and camp fires are out at night or when no one is attending or monitoring the fire during the day. Unit fire wardens and deputies conduct fire drills at least once a week and follow the direction of the camp fire warden. They

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receive reports related to fire hazards daily from the duty fire warden.

Every boy in the unit should feel responsible for fire preven-tion, but the unit fire patrol for each day must be alert and ready to evacuate and account for everyone in case of fire emergency or drill.

If a small fire breaks out, the person discovering it should take immediate action, whether or not he is on the fire patrol for the day. Time is the most important element in the suppression of a fire. Some examples of fire control techniques are:• Douse fire with water or sand.• Smother fire with a lid.• In the event of a tent fire, simply kick out the end tent

poles.Remember : Campers should not be involved in the fire fighting process except for fires that can be quickly and easily extinguished.

In making daily inspections of the unit campsite, the unit fire warden should follow the fire-prevention suggestions and use the fire-fighting equipment illustrations found throughout the Unit Fireguard Chart. Campsite equipment will vary according to your camp. Results of the daily inspection should be posted on the Unit Fireguard Chart in the space provided.

PATROL FIRE WARDENThe patrol leader is responsible for training his patrol in the

unit fireguard plan and leading the unit in practice evacuation and fire prevention.

He checks daily to be sure all members are preventing fires and are prepared in case a fire breaks out. He makes sure and double-checks that fires are built only on nonburnable soil in areas where they will not spread. He verifies to see that all fires are put COLD OUT and that open flames are not permitted in or near tents. He shows patrol members how to drop tents in case of fire. In the event of a tent fire, you can simply kick out the end tent poles and let professionals fight the fire.

CUB SCOUTING LEvEL OF INvOLvEMENTIn the case of Cub Scouts, they should immediately seek

adult help, sound the alarm by yelling, “Fire!” and stay away from attempting to fight any camp fire. If adult help is not readily avail-able, the Cub Scout should continue to sound the alarm, send a runner for help, and/or dial the camp office or 911.

FIRE IN UNIT CAMPSITE1. Sound the alarm by yelling “Fire!” and then notify the first

adult you see, then report to a camp officer or the camp fire warden.

2. Extinguish a fire only if it can be done quickly and easily.3. When the central alarm is sounded to warn the camp,

quickly mobilize in your unit. Move to your preassigned point immediately and await directions.

4. A runner reports to the camp office for instructions from the camp fire warden.

5. In the event of a tent fire, you can douse it with water or sand, or simply kick out the end tent poles and let profes-sionals fight the fire.

FIRE OUTSIDE UNIT CAMPSITE1. All campers, upon detecting a fire at any point in camp or

vicinity, should report immediately to camp headquarters so the alarm may be sounded and local fire authorities notified.

2. Sound central alarm.3. When the central alarm is sounded to warn camp, mobilize

troops according to plan at points designated and await directions.

4. Troops send runners who report to camp headquarters to receive instructions from the camp fire warden.

5. Members of the central camp staff will man the camp fire-fighting equipment, assigned to them, under direction of camp fire warden.

6. In the event of a tent fire, if you can, simply kick out the end poles, which will collapse the tent, and let professionals fight the fire.

Central camp equipment. Fire extinguishers should be located in all central facilities. Make sure that the right type is located at an accessible point in each of the following buildings: kitchen, pump house, health lodge, supply rooms and commissary, storage place for flammable liquids, dining hall, and other program or workshop buildings. Check each extinguisher before camp opens. Recheck frequently during the season for proper working order.

A hose should be located near the outside of each camp building, if plumbing permits. It should be long enough to reach around the structure. Make sure the hose is marked FOR FIRE ONLY and is hooked up and ready for use at all times. Check frequently to make sure connections are strong, a nozzle is attached, and that proper pressure is maintained in the water line.

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A fire siren or other type alarm with a loud, distinctive sound that will be heard in all areas of camp should be located near the center of camp. It is used only to sound the alarm in case of an uncontrollable fire in a unit site of a central camp building or for a weekly fire drill. Local fire authorities should be notified of dates of fire drills to eliminate false alarms.

Mobile or central fire-fighting equipment, to be manned by members of the central camp staff in case of a serious fire, should be available where possible. This camp equipment—con-sisting of back pumps, fire rakes, mattocks, hoes, shovels, saws, and buckets—may be stored in a central building or on a trailer that is ready to roll at all times. Racks containing this equipment should be located at key spots around camp. If your camp is located in an area under the protection of state or national forest services, oftentimes they place tools in camps.

YEAR-ROUND FIREGUARD PLANWill your camp be there next season? This is a good ques-

tion to ask at the close of each camping season as you pack away equipment and leave. In fairness to next year’s campers, do everything that can be done to ensure the safety of camp equip ment and camp timber.

Fall, with its dry, dead leaves that often bank high around camp buildings, is in many sections of the country the most dangerous fire season of the entire year. Spring is another bad time.

Here is a checklist of things to do at all times to be sure that your camp is fireproof year-round:1. Destroy greasy rags.2. Dispose of all combustible refuse and trash safely.3. Be sure that doors and shutters are strong enough to keep

out trespassers, vandals, or thieves.4. Be sure that the caretaker or camp ranger understands

his responsibility of patrol, inspection, and notification of authorities in case of need.

5. Stow away firewood and loose equipment that might be used by trespassers.

6. Clear away dead grass or trees, ferns, leaves, bushes, straw piles, and trash from buildings.

7. Clean grease traps and dispose of the grease by burning it at a safe place or burying it in mineral earth.

8. Be sure the camp is ready for winter use. Check fuels, wall and floor protection around heaters, and protecting screens for fireplaces. Inspect location of fire pails, fire extinguish-ers, and mobile fire-fighting equipment.

POLICY ON CHEMICAL FUELSThree factors influence the establishment of Scouting's

policy on the use of fuel other than natural wood: (1) the basic purpose of Scouting and its camping program, (2) protection from the hazards of chemical fuels, and (3) the necessity of safely adapting to local conditions and practices.

First, it is essential to Scouting's purpose that a boy learn and practice the skills of primitive living. A boy develops a personal confidence, initiative, and preparation for life as he advances through the Scouting program.

In building a fire, a boy needs to learn the care and use of tools. He must also know about tinder, types of fuel, and how to prepare it. The correct principles of building a fire to cook his food and warm his body, containing fire, and putting it out are essential for his training in campcraft, self-reliance, and preparedness.

Adapting to special circumstances, such as lack of natural wood for fuel or regulations prohibiting open fires for safety or environmental reasons, makes it necessary for Scouts and Scout leaders to learn the skills and safety procedures for using chemical fuel stoves.

Convenience is one of the joys of modern life, but with it goes the necessity of precaution against many hazards.

When any chemical fuel is used for cooking and lighting, it is the fuel which is dangerous—not the stove and lantern.

POLICY AND GUIDELINESFor safety, knowledgeable adults must supervise Scouts

involved in storing chemical fuels, handling chemical fuels in the filling of stoves and lanterns, or lighting chemical fuels.

Battery-operated lanterns and flashlights should be used by Scouts in camping activities, particularly in and around canvas tents. No chemical-fueled lantern or stove is to be used inside a tent.

Kerosene, gasoline, or liquefied petroleum fuel lanterns may, when necessary, be used inside permanent buildings or for outdoor lighting. When used indoors, there should be ade-quate ventilation. Strict adherence to the safety standards and instructions of the manufacturers in fueling and lighting such stoves and lanterns must be carried out under the supervision of a responsible and knowledgeable adult.

Both gasoline and kerosene shall be kept in well-marked approved containers (never in a glass container) and stored in a ventilated locked box at a safe distance (minimum 20 feet) from buildings and tents.

Empty liquid petroleum cylinders for portable stoves and lanterns should be returned home or to base camp. They may explode when heated and, therefore, must never be put in fire-places or with burnable trash.

The use of liquid fuels for starting any type of fire is prohib-ited, including lighting damp wood, charcoal, or ceremonial campfires. Solid-type starters are just as effective, easier to store and carry, and much safer for this purpose.

All types of space heaters that use chemical fuels consume oxygen and must be used only in well-ventilated areas. When used in cabins, camper trucks, and recreational vehicles, there is not only a fire danger, but also danger to life from asphyxi-ation if not well ventilated. Charcoal burners can be lethal indoors by causing carbon monoxide poisoning.

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GUIDELINES FOR SAFELY USING CHEMICAL STOvES AND LANTERNS 1. Use compressed or liquid gas stoves and/or lanterns only

with knowledgeable adult supervision, and in Scouting facilities only where and when permitted.

2. Operate and maintain equipment regularly according to the manufacturer's instructions included with the stove or lantern.

3. Store fuel in approved containers and under adult super-vision. Keep all chemical fuel containers away from hot stoves and campfires, and store below 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

4. Let hot stoves and lanterns cool before changing cylinders of compressed gas or refilling from bottles of liquid gas.

5. Refill liquid gas stoves and lanterns a safe distance from any flames, including other stoves, campfires, and per-sonal smoking substances. A commercial camp stove fuel should be used for safety and performance. Pour through a filter funnel. Recap both the device and the fuel container before igniting.

6. Never fuel a stove or lantern inside a cabin; always do this outdoors. Do not operate a stove or lantern in an unventilated structure. Provide at least two ventilation openings, one high and one low, to provide oxygen and exhaust for lethal gases. Never fuel, ignite, or operate a stove or lantern in a tent.

7. Place the stove on a level, secure surface before operat-ing. On snow, place insulated support under the stove to prevent melting and tipping.

8. With soap solution, periodically check fittings for leakage on compressed gas stoves and on pressurized liquid gas stoves before lighting.

9. When lighting a stove, keep fuel bottles and extra canis-ters well away. Do not hover over the stove when lighting it. Keep your head and body to one side. Open the stove valve sufficiently to permit flow of gas and light carefully, with head, fingers, and hands to the side of the burner. Then adjust down.

10. Do not leave a lighted stove or lantern unattended.11. Do not overload the stove top with extra-heavy pots or

large frying pans. If pots over 2 quarts are necessary,

set up a freestanding grill to hold the pots and place the stove under the grill.

12. Take empty fuel containers home for disposal. Do not place them in or near fires. Empty fuel containers will explode if heated.

BULK STORAGE AND PRACTICESStoring bulk supplies of any chemical fuels (especially vola-

tile fuels) is a camp maintenance function. Storage and issue of such fuel must be controlled by a responsible adult. It must be kept under lock and key in Scout camps. Quantities of gaso-line in long-term camps must be stored in a properly installed underground tank with pump and/or must be in compliance with local safety standards and regulations. Camp officials must be especially alert to prevent violation of these principles by Scout leaders and their units.

Filling tanks for motor vehicles, outboard and inboard motors, and gasoline-powered saws and motors shall always be han-dled by someone qualified by age and training for the responsi-bility. All motors are turned off during filling. Enclosed bilges on boats equipped with inboard motors in enclosed spaces must be ventilated by blower for not less than four minutes (federal law) to remove fumes before engines are started. All hatches and ports should be closed during fueling and the boat reven-tilated when fueling is completed. No smoking or open flames are permitted while filling any fuel tanks.

Liquid petroleum storage tanks at permanent camps should be installed by experienced technicians and changed only by the gas distributors. These installations must conform to local regulations. Fuel containers should be surrounded by a chain-link fence in a cleared area.

(Note: With all of the above stated, there are some occasions when camp tradition and/or Order of the Arrow ceremonies may dictate a modification to the chemical fuels policy, such as the use of torches at campfires or campfire circles. The local council health and safety and/or risk management committee should review and approve the procedures to ensure maximum safety, and if the risk outweighs the protection and safety of all con-cerned, the modification should be denied.)

For additional information and a source of reference, use Unit Fireguard Chart, No. 33691A.

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A natural place to demonstrate and teach the principles and methods of health and safety is an activities area. Here, boys and leaders come for instruction and practice in the skills of camping and Scoutcraft. Each area presents an excellent opportunity for teaching practical and useful health and safety lessons.

The woods tools, ropeyard, and campcraft area are described in detail in Camp Program and Property Manage-ment, No. 20-920B, one of the series of manuals used for instruction at the National Camping School. When properly installed and supervised by mature, qualified instructors, these areas form an important program arm for safety training of boys and leaders.

At the axyard, instruction in the use of axes is given. Boys practice the skills of safe ax handling. This should include instruction in felling, lopping, and chopping. How to use hand axes and larger axes should be taught. Safety in hewing, splitting, and using a bucksaw or bow saw should also be included.

At the ropeyard, the teaching rail for exhibit and practice of basic knots should be securely mounted and all uprights cleaned of splinters and projections. The poles and lash-ing ropes, used in pioneering projects, should be checked periodically to see that they can be safely used for bridges, towers, or trestles.

The campcraft area provides an opportunity for highlighting camp safety and health situations such as the danger of dead, overhinging branches; location of latrine facilities; control of fires for cooking, heating, or campfire use; fire-suppression equipment; dishwater disposal; and daily living in camp.

FIELD SPORTS

Field sports teach safety and provide fun and adventure for boys in the fields of riflery, shotgun shooting, archery, and fishing. These sports also teach skills, discipline, self-reli-ance, sportsmanship, and conservation—all elements of good character and citizenship training. The Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B, gives detailed informa-tion about construction of facilities, qualifications of leadership, and program features of each of the sports.

TEAM SPORTS AND FITNESS

The increased general acceptance of team sports in Scouting and Venturing created a need for additional facilities in camps.

Team Sports Facilities. Baseball diamonds and other play-ing fields may be laid out where terrain permits. Be certain that they are well drained so that puddles will not form in worn-down depressions and that refilling and regrading is done as needed.

Cross-Country Courses. Trails and other open areas suitable for cross-country runs should be available for enthusiastic Scouts and Venturers to use competitively.

Fitness Areas. Special fitness-skill competition areas should be prevented from falling into disrepair and becoming unsafe. Erosion under climbing frames, chinning bars, and overhead ladders should be refilled and graded. These structures should be kept attractive and safe at all times.

Campsite Fitness Facilities. When chinning bars, balance rails, scaling walls, etc., are constructed on campsites, they must be checked regularly for safe anchorages and structures. Such facilities should be functional and appealing to campers.

ARCHERYSomehow an American boy seems to be born with the urge

to use the world’s oldest projectile weapon. Today’s archers and their equipment surpass any others in history. Without tak-ing the thrill and joy out of archery, Scouts and Venturers must be taught that the bow and arrow are dangerous. The Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B, covers in a comprehensive manner the archery program that should be provided in a Scout camp to emphasize archery safety prac-tices.

The range layout and the field archery course in that manual clearly illustrate the type of facilities that should be provided.

Qualified supervision is important in archery. This may be carried out by a competent young adult, 18 to 21 years of age. This person must be a proficient archer, with a knowledge of range supervision and direction. Assistants should meet the same general requirements. Minimum state requirements must be satisfied if these standards do not meet them.

Archery programming should lead from progressive stages on a static range to more exciting field archery course oppor-tunities.

FISHINGFishing is one of the most popular participant sports in

America. Safety training should be combined with the teaching of fishing skills. Safety instruction should include small-boat safety, casting while seated, casting overhand to avoid hooking companion, how to remove a hook from hand or arm, how to remove a hook from a fish, wading safety, and watching out for the safety of others who may be fishing.

All fishing involving casting with hooks requires careful supervision with adequate instruction to prevent accidents. Fishing from boats, docks, and piers exposes Scouts to dan-ger of water accidents and requires the same high standards of safety as any other aquatic activity.

SHOTGUN SHOOTINGThe shotgun shooting program is described in the Camp

Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B. The range should be 100 yards deep with an additional 200 yards shot-fall zone beyond the cleared range that is marked and kept clear. This is a total of 300 yards from the shooting position. The NRA recommends a 90 degree shot-fall zone from the fir-ing zone. The instructor must be at least 21 years old and cur-

ACTIvITIES AREAS

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rently certified by the National Rifle Association as a shotgun instructor.

RIFLE MARKSMANSHIPGuiding regulations for camp marksmanship instruction

program are outlined in the Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B.

There should be a standard 50-foot range with a safe back-stop, properly equipped firing line, ready line, and shooting equipment. The chief instructor must be at least 21 years of age. He must hold a certified rifle instructor’s rating issued by the National Rifle Association or its equivalent as defined in the guiding regulations.

The chief instructor may be assisted by one or more assist-ant instructors who are at least 18 years of age and may hold an NRA Assistant Instructor’s Certificate.

HUNTER SAFETY ACTIvITY TRAILThe Hunter Safety Activity Trail simulates actual hunting

conditions and problems. Designed to be traversed by paired hunters with firearms and blank loads, the do’s and don’ts of safe gun handling can be experienced in a practical way. An observer accompanies the Scouts on the trail to pull the pop-up and moving targets. Later he gives them a critique to emphasize correct methods such as when to shoot or when

not to shoot, observance of game laws, safe gun handling, and safe travel.

Suggested layout, detailed instructions, and examples of pop-up and moving targets are found in the Hunter Safety Course design standard 62 available through the Engineering Service.

HIKING AND CLIMBING

Safe practices must always be followed in such camp pro-gram activities as hiking and climbing and on overnight camp-ing trips. Complete information about the terrain to be covered should be available before hikes are scheduled. This is needed to determine physical hazards that may be encoun tered, to make sure of the time needed to cover the trip, to estimate the amount of skill required on the part of the hikers, and to find out what equipment may be needed. Expert supervision should be provided on all hiking trips, long or short.

Falls that cause cuts, bruises, abrasions, sprains, and occasionally broken bones; improper types of ill-fitting foot-gear, that result in blisters and sore and aching feet; and poisoning from plants and insect bites account for the majority of injuries on hiking trips. Sunburn, heat exhaustion, hypo-thermia, colds, and backaches also occur frequently.

Most hiking injuries or illnesses can be eliminated, if the following precautions are taken:

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• Keep the distance traveled and the activities on such trips well within the limit of energy of boys.

• Schedule short rest periods frequently.• See that equipment and clothing are adequate.

Make sure that campers and leaders are well informed of possible hazards and what to do about them before they start on their trip. For example, if quicksand is in your area, be sure that it is plainly marked for hikers. Scouts should be taught not to panic, because they can ‘‘swim’’ out of quicksand as though it were water.

A hike should never be a test of endurance. The strength of the weakest member of the group should always be con-sidered. Where hikes are difficult, those campers with limited ability should be restricted for their own safety, and trips adequate to their energies and abilities planned instead.

Keeping a record. A record should be kept in camp showing where the hikers are going, the route chosen, the time of departure and approximate time of return, and names of those participating (both campers and leaders). After the hike is planned, it should be completed over the route scheduled for two reasons: (1) Should it become necessary because of storm, injury, or other emergency for hikers to be rescued, those at the base camp must know how to reach them. (2) The extra exertion required in the unscheduled side trip can result in overexertion, critical fatigue, cramps, and other side effects that increase the chances of accident. The day trip should be planned so that the hikers will arrive back at camp before dark. When weather is bad, hike plans should be modified or cancelled.

In the event of severe accident, hike leaders should know the location of emergency telephones, how to report an acci-dent and summon help, and what information will be needed by the rescue party.

Clothing and equipment. Only campers who are prop-erly clothed and equipped for the hike should be included. Footgear should be comfortable and of sturdy construction with a gripping tread or sole. On difficult hikes, footgear should be well broken in, ankle-high with composition soles, and large enough to fit over two pair of lightweight woolen socks. The Scout uniform has been designed for outdoor liv-ing and should be worn for all types of hiking and camping trips. Particular attention should be given to adequate head covering whenever hiking is conducted in strong sunshine. Boys and leaders should choose the type of uniform parts and hiking gear suitable to the climate and terrain.

The backpack should provide room for food and a canteen of fresh water, a first aid kit, a Scout knife, flashlight, and such emergency clothing and equipment as may be needed. Include a raincoat, sweater, jacket, gloves, whistle, strong lightweight rope, and insect repellent. The weight of packs should be care-fully adjusted for boys of small size and less endurance.

Leaders’ equipment should also include additional first aid supplies, a topographic map of the region, flashlight, compass, dry matches in a waterproof case, and a strong pocketknife. On overnight trips, equipment for emergencies should also include a hand ax; fishing lines and fishhooks; wire cutters; and, in places frequented by poisonous snakes, a snakebite kit.

Safety on the trail. A few simple rules on the trail will provide the needed protection from accidents. Before resting on

the trail, make sure that the surroundings are free from poi-sonous plants and snakes. Climb or descend grades and embankments diagonally if they have loose dirt or stones. Avoid standing on the edge of a high ledge or precipice, while viewing the surrounding countryside, for an insecure footing or a case of dizziness at this point is dangerous. Test roots, branches, and stones carefully before relying on their strength while climbing.

In wooded areas, walk far enough apart so that each hiker handles branches himself to avoid snapback. Be on the alert for roots, trailing vines, fallen branches, stones, which might cause a fall.

PROjECT COPEProject COPE provides a Challenging Outdoor Personal

Experience. It comprises group initiative games, low-course and high-course activities. Some of the activities involve a group challenge while others test individual skills and agility. Participants climb, swing, balance, jump, rappel, and think of solutions to a variety of problems.

Safety of participants, leaders, and staff is imperative. It is not sufficient to simply be ‘‘concerned’’ about safety. That con-cern must be augmented by a director and staff members who are knowledgeable, personally skilled in the activities, effective teachers, and constantly vigilant to safety procedures and par-ticipant needs. Qualifications and characteristics of prospective staff need to be carefully screened. A cadre of staff is impor-tant so that continuance of the program does not depend on one or two people.

Plans and standards to conduct a COPE course are pro-vided in Project COPE, No. 34371C. A COPE course director must be 21 years of age and certified by a National Camping School as a Project COPE director.

HORSEMANSHIP PROGRAM GUIDELINESHorsemanship activities in Scouting include merit badge

activities, arena rides and multiday trips (including treks and cavalcades), and Cub Scout familiarization rides.

Each sponsoring council should take care to design age- and activity-appropriate procedures and guidelines for each particular equine activity. It is not possible or appropriate to dictate each aspect of every program.

Requirements must also be met if the horseback riding pro-gram is provided by or at an off-site facility. The council must enter a contractual agreement as outlined in the resident camp standards. If a horsemanship riding program is conducted, each of the following guidelines is recommended.

Instructor Qualifications1. Equine instructor certification and equivalent experience in

group riding activity should be given significant consider-ation in selection.a. The horsemanship director/head wrangler is at least

21 years of age and has experience and background in instructing horsemanship skills to groups.

b. The horsemanship director/head wrangler has personal horsemanship ability which corresponds to the program

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and possesses adequate training and experience in stable management and equine care.

c. The assistant horsemanship director/assistant head wrangler is at least 18 and sets an example for Scouts with regard to dress, conduct, and horsemanship.

d. Assistant wranglers are at least 16 and set an example for Scouts with regard to dress, conduct, and horse-manship

e. Wranglers are trained in instructional methods and teaching techniques and are able to lead Scouts in horsemanship activities.

2. A paid professional with year-round responsibility for horses and horse programs shall make recommendations in hiring the horsemanship director/head wrangler. The head wrangler and professional or professional-technical council employee should have input and make effective recommendations concerning staff selection and equine program issues.

Riding Areas1. Riding areas are safe and convenient for riders to handle

horses before, during, and after riding.2. Concise rules are clearly posted in the stable area.3. Riding areas are free of hazards including but not limited to

water troughs, wire, or other similar obstructions.4. The horse corral and horsemanship activity area have

adequate fresh water available and are located away from the central camp facilities and/or campsites.

5. Proper facilities and fenced areas are available for the care, feeding, and stabling of horses.

6. The area provides adequate shelter and storage facilities for equipment.

7. Fencing is kept in good repair.8. The area is maintained free of accumulated manure.9. If trail rides are provided:

a. Wranglers receive trail orientation.b. Trails are inspected and maintained regularly.c. Trail rides are conducted in single file at a walk with suf-

ficient space between horses to guard against kicking.d. Minimum impact procedures are applied in all situations.

Wranglers are properly trained for minimum impact trail riding and camping procedures.

e. Bridges, if any, have sufficient support and strength for horses.

f. Necessary permits are obtained if public land is used; if private property is used, the owner’s permission is obtained in writing.

Safety Procedures and Equipment1. Riders are under the direct supervision and control of a

wrangler at all times, whether mounted or dismounted.2. Wranglers have a comprehensive knowledge of individual

horses in the program and are able to judge their suitability for various riders.

3. Riders are assigned to horses with consideration for the rider’s age, riding experience, and ability.

4. Trail riding groups may not exceed 12 riders per wrangler with a minimum of two wranglers on every trail ride.

5. Before being allowed to ride on a trail, all riders are instructed in principles of horse control.

6. All horses are ridden by staff prior to use by Scouts. Horses are properly classed for the activity. Records on each horse

are kept and contain a photograph of the animal, the name of the animal, a brief description of the animal’s general and behavioral characteristics, and the class of rider (beginner, intermediate, and advanced) suitable for the horse. The head wrangler has authority to select and reject horses based on behavior, personality, and soundness.

7. Accidents and significant incidents will be logged and reported in accordance with resident camp standards.

8. Consideration is given to effective emergency communica-tions strategies, with direct communications whenever pos-sible.

9. Equipment:a. The quality and condition of equipment used in the

horsemanship program is appropriate for its intended use, sized correctly to the rider, fitted correctly to the horse, and properly maintained.

b. Riders should wear safe and suitable attire for the activity. 1) Long pants and shirt should be required for trail

rides. 2) Stirrup covers are highly recommended. If stirrup

covers are not used, shoes or boots shall be worn which provide protection from the foot becoming wedged into the stirrup, e.g., riding boots are pre-ferred and lug-soled hiking boots discouraged.

3) Riders are required to wear protective headgear that meets or exceeds Safety Equipment Institute (SEI) or the former National Pony Club certification.

c. The rider’s clothing, equipment, and tack are inspected immediately before riding.

Humane Treatment and Health Care of Horses1. Camps and facilities shall provide for the healthful, humane

treatment of animals in accordance with industry stan-dards.

2. Specific instructions for the ongoing care, feeding, and maintenance of horses are in writing. Adequate arrange-ments for veterinary care and shoeing of horses exist.

3. Horses are properly fed and watered.4. Salt and other supplemental minerals are regularly pro-

vided as needed.5. Each horse has suitable tack, properly adjusted and prop-

erly fitted.6. Injuries and ailments are treated immediately by qualified

staff or a veterinarian as needed.7. Sick or injured horses are not used.

Coordination of Horsemanship Program Within the Camp Facility’s Overall Program1. The camp director is familiar with the limitations and poten-

tial problems of a riding program. The camp director places foremost consideration on safety of the riders and the gen-eral welfare of the animals.

2. Camping program goals include safe practices in rid-ing and handling horses, and overall staff awareness of responsibility to the animals and the environment.

3. The camp has a comprehensive written policy regarding the use of the horses and the riding area, including use by camp staff.

Emergency First Aid 1. A person trained in standard first aid, American Red Cross,

or any equivalent level training course by any recognized agency is present during all horsemanship activities.

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2. Basic first aid kits are kept at the riding area and taken by wranglers on each trail ride.

3. A complete first aid kit for humans is taken on all rides. A first aid and tack repair kit for horses are taken on all rides off the camp property.

Choosing the Right Contractor for the Council’s Horse Riding Program

Here are some questions to ask when interviewing a poten-tial contractor/outfitter for the council’s horse riding program. (Prototypical answers are provided in parentheses.)

Qualifications and Training 1. Are the instructors certified by the Horsemanship Safety

Association or the Camp Horsemanship Association? (Ideally, they are certified.) What is their experience or train-ing? What are the qualifications of the riding instructors?

2. If the instructors are not certified, who trains them? What are their qualifications?

3. What is each instructor’s experience as a riding instruc-tor? (The head instructor should have several years of experience in taking youth on horse rides and in caring for horses.)

4. Are riding instructors trained in CPR by any recognized community agency and American Red Cross standard first aid or National Safety Council Level II first aid or the equivalent?

5. Have the instructors conducted rides for youth who have never ridden a horse?

Supervision and Safety 6. What measures are taken by the contractor to ensure

safety on horse rides? (It is hoped the contractor will name supervision, matching horse to the rider’s ability, following the rules, and maintaining discipline.)

7. How many riders will one instructor supervise? (Ideally, no more than 10.)

8. What rules have been established for the conduct of rides? Will the rules be posted and will they be clearly explained to participants prior to riding?

9. What is the maximum pace that instructors allow for horse rides—a walk, trot, cantor, or gallop? (Beware of anything more than a trot.)

Risk Management 10. Where does the contractor obtain the horses provided?

Are the horses ridden often and evaluated by the contrac-tor to determine their suitability for the intended program?

11. Are riders assigned to certain horses? How are those assignments made? (The contractor should have assessed the gentleness of each horse, and the instruc-tors should match horses to participants according to their ability.)

12. What does the contractor do to prevent accidents result-ing from a foot entrapment? (They should provide cowboy boots or place foot covers over the front of the stirrups to prevent the foot from slipping through.)

13. How often does the contractor have instructors check the tightness of the cinch? (Ideally, before the ride, when the riders mount, and during the ride.)

14. What accidents and injuries have occurred on rides using the contractor’s horses and instructors? Does the con-tractor keep records of incidents, accidents, or injuries?

What has the contractor done to prevent a recurrence of these accidents?

Equipment

15. What equipment does the contractor provide for horse rides? How is that equipment repaired and maintained? Is there a schedule for inspecting and repairing tack?

16. Does the contractor provide helmets for riders? (Must meet resident camp standards, see 9 under Safety Procedures and Equipment.)

17. Does the contractor have extra tack (halters, bridles, reins, saddles, cinches, etc.) to replace items that are damaged or worn? (Ideally, he does.)

18. What are participants instructed to do during inclement weather such as a thunderstorm? Does the contractor provide slickers?

Insurance

19. Does the contractor have liability insurance in the amount of $1 million naming the council as an additional insured? Has the contractor presented you with a copy of the insurance policy?

20. Has the contractor signed a hold harmless agreement that agrees to exempt the council from liability for injuries, accidents, or fatalities?

21. Have written instructions been given to the contractor for the procedures to be followed should an accident occur? (Use procedures as outlined in the pink folder No. 19-147, Report of Fatal or Serious Injury or Illness.)

USE OF CANNONS BY LOCAL COUNCILS

Any time a cannon or other large-bore artillery device is used for council or district events, the following guidelines must be met. These guidelines do not address shotgun or muzzle loader use. See the Guide to Safe Scouting for those. Units are not authorized, under any circumstances, to use a cannon or any other large-bore artillery device.

All of the following requirements must be met:

• All recommendations/specifications of the manufacturer for using the cannon or other device must be followed.

• The type of powder used must be appropriate for the cannon or other device and the load cannot exceed the manufacturer’s recommendations or commonly accepted recommendations by firearms authorities.

• Powder must be stored according to the regulations of the Department of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (www.atf.gov).

• The cannon or other device cannot be loaded with any type of projectile.

• The cannon or other device must be certified safe annually by a qualified gunsmith with cannon or large-bore artillery device expertise.

• The standards of the American Artillery Association must be followed (www.cwartillery.com/marty/marty.html).

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MAINTENANCEPhysical facilities including structures, utilities, grounds, and

service equipment in a Scout camp must be properly main-tained. Many elements of safety must be considered when-ever council employees, volunteer workers, or boys engage in maintenance and operational activities related to physical properties. Even construction that is done under contract involves safety.

The problem is to try to get everyone to be safety conscious. Sometimes, skilled safety people from industry can be brought into camp to help. Most camps have well-equipped workshops, where projects and repairs are carried out and tools and power equipment are stored and used. Basic shop safety must be taught and practiced. This training should be for regular council employees and also those who occasionally use tools and equipment in camp. Safety supervisors in local industries can serve as resource people and trainers. The following are some unsafe conditions found in Scout camps which should be cor-rected:

• Protruding nails in floors and doors

• Low headroom on doors

• Rotted boards in platforms, steps, and bridges

• Dead limbs on trees in camp areas

• Broken glass in windows

• Rotted posts on gateways

• Careless storage of oily rags

• No vents in pits that house motors

• Unsharpened edged tools

• Splintered handrails

• Loose handles on tools

• Inadequate or poorly maintained fire extinguishers

• Broken furniture

• Overhead storage in buildings not designated for this pur-pose

• Unscreened fireplaces

• Only one exit in large buildings

• Building design that permits boys to climb to roof

• Doors opening inward

• Unsafe ladders

• Poor visibility at entrance to camp from highway

• Pole gates not secured when open

• Inadequate insulation around stoves, heaters, and furnaces

• Excessive poison ivy along narrow trails

FLAMMABLES AND EXPLOSIvES

All liquid fuels present a potential fire hazard. They should be labeled and kept in locked storage, under control of one adult staff member. The storage area should be seperate from other structures, clearly marked, and have locked doors. A responsible adult controls the distribution of all liquid fuels. The storage area is protected by a foam type of extinguisher.

Explosives, including ammunition used at the rifle range, must be kept in a safe place. It must be locked up under the supervision of a responsible adult.

Following are definite violations of these principles dis-covered on camp inspections:

• Combustible liquids stored exposed and unlocked

• Candles or other flames in tents

• Vehicles and combustibles stored in buildings with other goods

PLUMBINGAll plumbing work should be done according to required san-

itation and plumbing codes under the supervision of licensed plumbers. Relief valves on water heaters and boilers must be properly installed and periodically inspected by a qualified person.

A few plumbing mistakes that have been found in camps include:

• No temperature control valve on showers

• Water tap located above stoves

• No safety relief valve on hot-water tanks

• Safety valve relief not piped to drainage

• Water lines exposed and unsupported over gulleys

• Lack of valves for isolating lines in case of breaks

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTModern camps involve the use of many electrical devices

and machines. All electrical equipment, portable or fixed, should have the underwriters laboratory UL seal of approval. All wiring in a camp should conform to the National Electrical Code and any local codes or ordinances. Licensed electri-cians must be used to ensure safe installation of all electrical devices. All power lines should be checked frequently to safeguard against installation defects and danger from trees, particularly along lines located in wooded camp areas. Aviod ‘‘juryrigs,’’ ‘‘octopus socket,’’ and other improvised connections. Permanent wiring should be installed where needed. Improper wiring can be costly as well as involve a serious fire risk. Some hazards noted during camp visits have included:

• Washing machines and other electrical equipment in shower or dressing rooms

• Power lines secured to trees

• Low-hanging wires

• Ungrounded electrical equipment

PROGRAM EQUIPMENTProgram equipment should be carefully maintained while in

active use during the camping season. It should then be care-fully stored in the off season to prevent its premature deterio-ration and loss. Safety is an important factor where material condition and strength may mean accident and injury. Ropes, used in pioneering projects, should be coiled and hung where

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they can be air-dried to prevent mildew and rot. Equipment must be inventoried, condition noted, and repair or replace-ment planned at end of season to ensure readiness for next year.

Some hazards that have been encountered in program areas of camps include:

• Water too shallow for safe diving• Metal boats and canoes not equipped with styrofoam flota-

tion materials as recommended• Weakened ropes on monkey bridges

• Slippery planking on piers• Protruding steps in pools• Slippery walks around pools• Inadequate fencing around pools• Too steep a slope in beginner’s areas of pools• Diving board higher than one meter• Entrance to pool at deep end• Rifle ranges not fenced or flagged

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UNIT CAMPSITE FACILITIESSLEEPING QUARTERS

Tentage or housing for sleeping quarters should allow each camper not less than 30 square feet of floor space and free circulation of fresh air. Each camper must have his own sleep-ing area (cot, pad, or bed). Guidelines from the youth pro-tection section of National Standards for Resident Camp Accreditation, No. 19-108E, should be followed. Sleeping arrangements should provide at least 6 feet between the heads of campers.

Tentage should be the size that can be erected and taken down by boys. Two-boy tents are required to meet the fire retardancy CPAI specifications 84. ‘‘NO FLAMES IN TENTS’’ should be stenciled on the entrance to the tent.

If a troop cooks on its site, food preparation and serving should be done outside of sleeping quarters.

WATER AND COOKINGDrinking water should be available at each troop site. If

running water is not available, covered water containers and sanitary drinking cups should be provided. Cloth water bags, which keep the fluid cool by evaporation, are thoroughly practical and can be supplied at low cost. Have drinking-water containers thoroughly cleansed each day.

Provide bubblers or sanitary drinking cups. Do not rely on the boys to carry their own cups.

If troops or patrols cook on their own sites, cooking ar range -ments should be kept simple but adequate for the need. Cooking may be done over open wood fires, charcoal grills, or approved chemical stoves. Food is stored in rodentproof and insect-free food boxes elevated above the ground. The lid of the food box opens to form a worktable. Water is usually carried from a faucet and stored in covered containers to prevent con-tamination. Food is served to the group seated around a table under a dining fly or other suitable shelter.

Where possible, foods requiring refrigeration should be kept in the central camp refrigerator until ready to be served. Otherwise, the unit refrigeration facility must be made as adequate as those installed in the central kitchen to ensure the foods stay in refrigerated temperatures at least 45° F or below.

FOOD PREPARATIONObviously, the same precautions regarding general cleanli-

ness must prevail on the unit campsite as are enforced in central facilities. Adequate and frequent hand washing must be the order of the day for the cooking crew. It may be more difficult to attain but is vital to healthful camping. Serving good meals well prepared on each unit campsite is essential to both health and high morale.

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CENTRAL FOOD SERvICESElements related to preparation, serving, and distribution of

food in a Scout camp are vitally important. The entire operation must be carried out under sanitary regulations, otherwise dis-ease and possible epidemic conditions may result. Only the best conditions should be tolerated, in relation to securing, pre-paring, and serving food and in the disposal of waste.

KITCHEN CLEANLINESSGerms like dirt! You’re more likely to find them in a dirty

kitchen than in a clean one. Germs in a kitchen mean that there’s more chances of their getting into the food being prepared there. When your kitchen is dirty, you are taking unfair chances with the health of your campers.

The floors of the kitchen and other food-preparation and storage areas should be made of a material that is smooth and easy to keep clean and repair. Dirt, sawdust, and crushed gravel are not acceptable materials for kitchen floors of food-preparation areas.

Floor drains should be provided to carry off waste water from sinks, dishwashers, and other equipment. The waste water should be discharged into an approved septic tank or other acceptable sewage-disposal system.

Hand-washing facilities, for the exclusive use of the cooks and their helpers, should be provided in a place convenient to the kitchen and other food-preparation areas.

If any food utensils are badly dented, cracked, or chipped or have loose or broken handles, they should be discarded. They are difficult to clean and may be a source of food contamination.

Poisonous compounds and materials, needed for rodent and insect control and other purposes, should never be kept in the kitchen or in any other food-preparation or food-storage area. All poisonous materials should be in suitable containers and labeled so the contents can be easily identified. (Refer to safety precautions in the use of poisonous material dis cussed under ‘‘Pest Control.’’)

Food may be prepared in a sanitary way, perishable foods may be kept in a refrigerator, and dishes and cutlery may be clean, but someone may be going to a lot of trouble for nothing if there is dirty grease on the stove, dust on the shelves in the storeroom, sticky blood on the meat block, and, above all, if there are flies around.

In other words, food may be only as clean as the kitchen in which it is prepared.

The kitchen inspection is important. It should be recognized that cooks are traditionally temperamental. A good inspector will be careful to praise when praise is due and use judgement in making criticisms directly to the cooks.

It is particularly important that kitchen pots, pans, knives, forks, and spoons, used in cooking, be carefully checked. Particles of food and grease, allowed to remain on these utensils, will rapidly spoil in the heat of the kitchen and a whole meal supply may become contaminated.

The refrigerator should be spotless and the temperature not higher than 45° F.

Stoves, tables, shelves, and the floor of the kitchen and food-storage rooms must be kept clean. Doors and windows

should be properly screened. Dishcloths, dish mops, and pot cleaners will need constant attention.

The garbage pail for waste food and for other kitchen trash should be washed and aired daily, if plastic bag liners are not used.

The cooks should have good health habits and be scrupu-lously clean. ‘‘From the cook’s hand to someone’s mouth, that’s the way food goes.’’ Clean aprons or uniforms should be pro-vided and changed as often as necessary.

Campers will be kept healthy with:

• Clean food, cooked and stored correctly.

• Clean dishes, glasses, and cutlery.

• Clean kitchen and kitchen equipment.

• Clean and healthy dishwashers, cooks, and kitchen helpers.

Everyone who helps store, serve, or prepare food or takes care of the kitchen or kitchen equipment must be clean and healthy. Sickness will be kept off the menu only by cleanliness and carefulness.

FOOD PREPARATION

All food should be protected from germs from the time it is brought into camp to the time it is served. It must be cleaned, stored, cooked, handled, and served in the cleanest and safest way.

Germs like certain kinds of food best—milk, eggs, and meat are some of them. Germs need moisture and warmth to grow. High temperatures usually kill them. Low temperatures keep them from multiplying.

Some states and local laws require that food-service staff personnel must have food handlers’ certificates. This must be done where appropriate.

Fruits, vegetables, and other food products packed in sacks or boxes should not be left standing on the floor. Put them high and dry where rats, dirt, insects, and water can’t get at them. Make sure there is no leakage from overhead pipes into stored foods.

Keep food containers covered. Seal boxes, put the lids on cans, and close sacks and bags completely.

Always remember to clean and thoroughly wash all fruits and vegetables, whether they are to be eaten raw in salads or cooked. Fruits and vegetables have been handled by many people. They are stored and transported under conditions that are not always clean or sanitary and may be contaminated with fertilizers and sprayed with insecticides.

For specific information, relating to the control of insects and rodents in the food-storage, preparation, and serving areas of the camp, refer to the sections on ‘‘Pest Control.’’

The safest way to serve certain foods is to bake or cook them at high temperatures, then there will be no germs.

To make custard-filled pies and pastries safely, cook the cus-tard or cream filling for at least 10 minutes at a temper ature of 190° F and pour into a pastry shell.

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Rebake the filled pastries for 20 minutes at an oven temperature of 300° F, then cool to 45° F within 1 hour after heating.

Ground meat has more surface exposed to air, and germs can get at it easier. Leftovers are potentially hazardous—dis-courage use.

When plates are brought back to the kitchen, scrape them into the garbage pail. Never use food over again or serve it after it has been left on someone’s plate.

Cooked foods held for serving should be kept at a temperature of at least 150° F to prevent the growth of any surviving organ-isms or of any contamination introduced during handl ing. The interdependence of hot storage, cold storage, and thorough cooking in food-borne disease control is quite evident. This achievement depends on well-trained, conscientious kitchen personnel and effective supervision. Alert your kitchen staff to the importance of constant awareness of this procedure.

There can be serious health consequences associated with undercooked red meat, poultry, and fish. Be certain that these products are cooked until they are well done (no redness). The temperature of cooked meat should be measured with a food thermometer. The proper temperatures are fish, 145° F; ham-burger/beef and pork, 155° F; chicken and turkey (whole), 185° F; chicken and turkey (parts), 165° F. Previously cooked and refrigerated food should be reheated to 165° F.

Cooked food held for serving at a later time should be kept at a temperature of at least 140° F to prevent the growth of any surviving organisms or of any contamination introduced during food handling.

Foods that are not kept above 140° F for four hours should be thrown out. Cooked foods that are to be saved for future use should be cooled to 45° F within four hours. This requires ice baths or shallow pans in the refrigerator or freezer. When in doubt, throw it out.

It is also very important to keep meat products (cooked and uncooked) stored separately to avoid contamination of other food products such as fresh vegetables or fruit.

DISPOSABLE DISHESCamps that find it impractical to comply with the recommen-

dations for cleaning and disinfecting treatment of multi serv ice utensils should use disposable cups, plates, spoons, etc. If this type of utensil is properly stored and handled, it will provide a clean, safe, and sanitary method of serving food and bever-ages. A reserve supply of single-service utensils should be kept at all camps in case of equipment breakdown.

FOOD CATERINGWhere large reservation-type camps are using food service

and preparation facilities, often under contract with food-cater-ing concerns, every standard for safe sanitary food handling must be observed. This includes adequate facilities for receiv-ing and storing foodstuffs, adequate refrigeration for fresh and frozen provisions, sanitarily maintained food-preparation areas, and speedy delivery facilities for perishable prepared foods. In food-catering the chain from unprocessed foods to the consumption of prepared foods is stretched and additional possibility of contamination exists. Hot foods must be kept hot; refrigerated products must be maintained cold or frozen, as needed. Therefore, properly insulated, easily cleaned trans-

porters must be used. Make certain that total cleanliness exists in this chain to ensure the health of boys and leaders.

REFRIGERATION

Camp refrigerators must provide the temperatures needed to prevent food spoilage and be safe for use by kitchen personnel. Since electric refrigerators are most commonly used in Scout camps, maintaining power is important. Perhaps emergency power should be considered where the camp’s location is subject to interruptions of the commer-cial power sources. As a safety precaution, all walk-in type boxes must have safety latches to prevent an employee from being locked inside and unable to open the heavy insulated doors. See Camp Program and Property Management, No. 20-920B, for further details.

Refrigeration units are clean and sanitary and all food is cov-ered. A temperature of not more than 45 degrees Fahrenheit or 7 degrees Celsius must be maintained for refrigerators. A temperature of not more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit or –7 degrees Celsius must be maintained for freezers. Keep It Cold (temperature chart), No. 34230A, is posted and filled in daily at each refrigerator and freezer. This does not include family cab-ins if any are used at camp.

A nonmercuric thermometer is used in each refrigeration unit. Walk-in refrigerators and/or freezers have an opening device on both sides of the door. Patrol/crew cooking sites have proper nonperishable food storage but not refrigeration. Perishable foods are not kept at patrol/crew cooking sites.

Lower temperature. The storage temperature for many per-ishable foods should be well below the 7° C (45° F) maximum standard for all refrigeration. Foods such as custards and cream fillings, stuffings, soups, ham and potato salad, and other potentially hazardous foods require a temperature of 7° C (45° F) or below for safe storage.

Arrangement. Do not overcrowd the refrigerator. Arrange the food so that the cold air can reach it on all sides. All perishable foods should be placed in the refrigerator as soon as received. Storage of food in shallow pans allows cooling to the center more rapidly. Care must be taken to arrange the food so that drippings do not fall on the food stored below. Pan bottoms should not rest on stored food.

Milk and beverages. Milk and milk products should be kept refrigerated until served. Only pasteurized products should be used. They should always be served in the individual, original containers as received from the milk plant or served from an approved bulk milk dispenser. Never submerge milk or bever-age containers in water to cool. Above all, do not use milk left in a glass by a camper. Dump it in a waste container or sewer.

HOT WATER

Under most circumstances, an adequate supply of hot water for dishwashing purposes can be maintained if a few simple principles are followed.

Maintain proper relationship between size of tank and heating unit. It is recommended that for a camp of 100 the tank capacity be 150 gallons and the heater capable of producing 60,000 Btu. For a camp of 200, the recommended tank capac-

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ity is 225 gallons and 90,000 Btu. The figures given here are for hand dishwashing. Double them for machine dishwashing.

The hot-water supply requirements for sterilizing dishes will depend on the system in use. A sterilizing sink for immersion of dishes can be filled from the regular hot-water supply and then brought up to sterilizing temperature (180° F) by a heater under the sink. This heater should be large enough to keep the water at the desired temperature. It may be a gas or electric unit.

If the dishwashing machine has a final rinse-spray, it will be necessary to provide a source of 180° F water to feed this. The most economical method is to take hot water from the general storage tank and boost it to the required temperature.

Reduce heat loss. If storage tanks are properly insulated, there will be reduced heat loss from the water and kitchens will be less overheated. Asbestos cement in a coating 2 inches thick may be worked on to a reinforcing support of 1-inch mesh chicken wire, wrapped around the tank. Hot-water delivery lines to the dishwashing sink should also be insulated. The hot-water heating plant should be located as close to the dishwashing sink as is practical. This will help reduce heat loss.

Under the best conditions, it is necessary to supply addi tional heat to a disinfecting sink, in order to maintain the temperature of 180° F required for proper disinfecting. Such sinks should be made of heavy metal and insulated with magnesium blocks, wired in place. Use gas and electric heating elements to elimi-nate the hazards of kerosene heaters.

DISHWASHINGProper facilities for effective washing and disinfection of

eating utensils and food-preparation and cooking equipment must be provided in the camp kitchen. Unless these uten-sils and items of equipment are thoroughly cleaned after they are used, food particles, surface films, or deposits will accumulate. These will support the growth of many types of germs, including those that can cause food-borne disease. An effective dishwashing procedure, competently supervised, is essential for health protection. Post and use daily Keep It Hot (Dish Disinfection Temperature Chart), No. 34231A.

In most states and local areas, health departments have established standards for dishwashing operations that should be met in a camp. The following washing and sanitizing meth-ods for dishwashing have been found successful and easy to put into operation:

Dishwashing by hand. Scrape dishes thoroughly. Food particles, particularly grease, should be removed from dishes and cutlery until they are ‘‘sight-clean’’ before they are placed in the wash water. Rubber dish scrapers or paper napkins do an effective job. Scraping reduces the overloading of grease traps, septic tanks, or cesspools. It also decreases the clogging of soil with grease, which will eventually make it impervious.

Option I: Wash with a good detergent in clean water at a temper ature of about 45° C (112° F). The wash water should not be so hot that it will be uncomfortable to the hands, but it needs to be hot enough to remove grease and food.

Place the dishes and other utensils in a long-handled wire dipping basket. Do not overcrowd the basket with utensils. All bowls, cups, and glasses should be placed in an inclined posi-tion to prevent air from being trapped in the bottom. Thorough rinsing and disinfection cannot be ensured unless the water contacts all surfaces.

Rinse in clean warm water. This rinse is for the purpose of removing detergents or soap. It, too, should be warm so that the temperature of the dishes and cutlery is not lowered.

Immerse the basket of dishes for several seconds in boiling water or for 1⁄2 minute in hot water held at a minimum tempera-ture of 82° C (180° F) to ensure disinfection.

Option 2: The password for approved hand dishwashing is WRS. Wash in water at about 120° F with a good detergent. Don’t be afraid of elbow grease. Rinse thoroughly in clean hot water after washing. This is very important. Sanitize in warm water with no less than 50 parts per million chlorine in solution for one minute. Rule: Sanitize by complete immersion for at least one minute in a lukewarm chlorine bath contain-ing at least 50 ppm chlorine at a temperature not less than 75° F, or at least 12.5 ppm iodine in solution at a temperature not less than 75° F, or other approved chemicals which are equally effective and nontoxic under use conditions. Measure carefully to avoid waste. Dishes cannot be sanitized unless they are properly cleaned. Under these circumstances most of the pathogenic germs are destroyed. Remove the basket from the disinfecting water and allow the utensils to drain dry. Do not use a dish towel. Plastic dishes must be given a final 82° C (180° F) rinse in water chemically treated to reduce the surface tension.

Dishwashing by machine. Dishwashing machines are intended to wash utensils and then kill the germs that may be left on their surfaces. The utensils are washed by the scrubbing action of hot detergent water, which is pumped over them with great force. They are then rinsed and disin-fected by a spray of clean hot water.

To get good results from a dishwashing machine, several things must be done.

Scrape the utensils thoroughly and flush them with warm water, if possible.

Sort the dishes and other utensils and place them in a suitable rack. Do not overcrowd the rack with dishes. If they are piled on top of each other, the wash and disinfectant water cannot reach all surfaces. Plates, saucers, etc., should be leaned back so that the spray will hit all sides. Utensils of different sizes should not be mixed. Cups and glasses should be placed bottom up so that they will drain. They should never be placed on top of a rack of plates or saucers.

The wash water should be kept at a temperature of about 60° C (140° F). Every machine should have two ther mom eters installed on it to show the wash-water temperature and that of the disinfectant water. Check these thermometers regularly, during dishwashing, to be sure the water remains at the rec-ommended washing and disinfectant temperature. Use the correct amount of a good washing powder. Replenish it from time to time, during operations, to make up for what has been used. If the washing time of the machine is not automatically controlled, washing should continue for at least 40 seconds to 1 minute.

Disinfect the utensils at a minimum temperature of 82° C (180° F). Depending upon the type of machine used, 15–30 seconds will be required for rinsing the utensils. Do not rush the racks through the machine, as they will not be properly rinsed. As in dishwashing by hand, be sure plastic dishes are given a final 82° C (180° F) rinse in water chemically treated to reduce the surface tension.

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FOR CLEANUP SCOUTS

1. Boil full pot of water. Use some for washing and rest for rinsing.

2. Mix part of boiling water with liquid soap and cold water for washing.

3. Add sterilizing agent to the remain-ing hot water for rinse water.

4. While other Scouts wash their uten-sils, cleanup Scouts clean cooking pots.

FOR OTHER SCOUTS

1. Each Scout wipes off his own eat-ing utensils.

5. He air-dries utensils on a plastic sheet. Store in flyproof container.

2. He washes them in a pot of wash water.

WASH

3. He removes cleanser (soap or detergent) by immersing in warm rinse water.

RINSE

4. He sterilizes utensils by dunking them in a pot of boiling water.

Note: Rinsing and sanitizing are two steps—not one!

SANITIZE

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Allow the dishes and cutlery to air-dry in the racks. If the utensils are rinsed at the prescribed water temperatures, they will dry in about 1 minute. Don’t use a towel on them. A towel that is not clean will contaminate the utensils and undo the good work that has already been done.

Store the utensils in a clean, dry, dustproof, and fly-tight compartment or cabinet. Handle them carefully to guard against contaminating the parts that persons will touch with their mouths or with which food will come in contact.

Drain the wash-water compartment, open, and clean the dishwashing machine thoroughly after each use. This includes the scrap trays, wash and spray arms, curtains, and all inside surfaces of the machine. The machine may be left open between operations to air and dry out.

Disinfection. In those few cases where, for some good reason, it may not be possible to have a sufficient quantity of hot water to disinfect dishes, it will be necessary to use a chemical germicide. Some of these chemicals are chlorines, iodines, bromines, and quaternary ammonium compounds. It is important to check with the local or state health officials before these chemical germicides are used. The health officials will be able to describe the correct methods and strength of the chemical to use, the length of time the utensils must be in contact with the chemical, and the tests to run in order to know if the strength of the solution is acceptable. Generally, the recommended procedures to be observed in the use of chemical germicides are as follows: When these chemicals are used, everything is done in the same way as was described for the hot-water method. The only difference is that the water containing the chemical in the disinfection section of the dishwashing vat is not kept hot but lukewarm, about 24° C (75° F). Also, it may be necessary to add addi-tional chemicals occasionally to keep the solution at the proper strength.

The recommendation strength and length of time for the utensils to be in contact with the various chemical solutions are as follows:

Strength of SolutionParts per Million (ppm) Length of Contact TimeChlorine 50.0 ppm 1 minute at 24° C (75° F)Iodine 12.5 ppm 1 minute at 24° C (75° F)Bromine 25.0 ppm 2 minutes at 24° C (75° F)

In some places quaternary ammonium compounds are acceptable. However, their effectiveness varies with the charac-teristics of the water added. This means that the effec tiveness of each quaternary has to be tested in the water in which it is to be used.

Tests of this kind should be considered acceptable only if made by state or local health departments, which have the facilities for making them. On the basis of such tests, the health department then states whether or not the quaternary can be used and gives the concentration to be used and the length of time for exposure.

GARBAGE DISPOSALThe satisfactory disposal of camp garbage is an ever-pres-

ent problem, difficult to handle.You must ask your state or local health authorities to help

you analyze your camp garbage-disposal problem and make recommendations for a satisfactory method of solving it. This

is most important, since many states have specific laws govern-ing garbage and waste disposal.

In many Scout camps the problem of garbage disposal can be troublesome, if they lack the equipment and person-nel to incinerate garbage or use sanitary landfill. The camp’s location also may make it difficult to have the garbage hauled away. A compost pit may prove to be a most satisfactory and economical disposal method.

The idea of a compost pit for disposal of kitchen wastes is not new; but it is one that has not been used widely, mainly because its operation has not been understood. It is simply a digestion pit into which garbage is placed to decompose by organic action. It is not necessary to add any chemical to hasten the action, as the decomposition is self-starting and self-maintaining. Approximately 1 year is required for complete decomposition. If the pit is big enough, a cleaning once a year is all that is required.

One of the big advantages of this system is that the end prod-uct makes excellent fertilizer. Most farmers will be glad to get it. If not, it can be used to good advantage around the camp.

The operation of the pit is simple. Only garbage should be dumped into the pit. Paper, other burnable trash, glass, cans, etc., should be handled as recommended by your state and local authorities.

The pit should be built substantially so that it will last. About 2 cubic feet of space is required per person. This means about 300 cubic feet for a camp of 150 persons if the pit is used only 2 months during the summer. Triple this figure for year-round operation.

The pit can be built of poured concrete or blocks, and should be watertight. The cover must be a tight fit and in most cases should have about 1 foot of earth on top of it for odor and fly control. A chute for dumping garbage and access for cleaning should be provided.

Temporary storage. It is important that garbage be placed in clean cans with tight lids on an unscreened concrete platform outside of the kitchen area, unless laws of the state require that the platform be screened. The reason for not screening it is to prevent this device from becoming a fly trap. If the con-crete platform is scrubbed regularly, cans are cleaned, and lids are kept tight, flies will not be attracted. It is easier to keep an unscreened area in good condition than one that is screened. The platform also serves as a washing area for cans.

The use of plastic bag liners greatly reduces the frequency and problem of cleaning dirty garbage cans. The use of liners is highly recommended.

Sufficient numbers of approved garbage and waste contain-ers must be supplied to eliminate overloading of the cans, dumping, spilling, or other improper disposal of waste. It is important that properly designed and covered metal or other nonabsorbent garbage containers—rather than boxes, crates, or other temporary materials—be used.

Garbage-can washing. A washing platform for cans should have a curb, a drain, and a hot-water supply.

A vacuum breaker should be installed on the discharge side of the control valves of the garbage-can cleaner. The breaker should be installed at a point at least 4 inches above the high-est part of the bottom of the garbage can when it is placed in an inverted position on the cleaner.

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Liquid waste. Properly dispose of liquid wastes from dish-washing, showers, hand-washing facilities, and similar activi-ties so they will not become a nuisance or public health menace. If these wastes are not taken care of, they may become conducive to fly and mosquito breeding and other unsanitary conditions.

Usually, liquid wastes can be drained into seepage pits; but, in some cases, the soil conditions are such that seepage pits may create a serious nuisance rather than provide a method of disposal.

A seepage pit is a hole in the ground, preferably covered, through which liquid may seep or leach into the surrounding soil. Seepage pits should never be used where there is a like-lihood of contaminating underground waters. The pit excavation should terminate at least 4 feet above the ground water table. It is important that the capacity of a seepage pit be computed on the basis of percolation tests of the area.

In view of the problems connected with the design, location, and construction of liquid-waste disposal facilities, guidance and assistance should be obtained from the state or local health department. These health authorities can provide the latest available information on the type of facilities that are per-mitted or suitable for liquid-waste disposal.

DINING HALL

Floors in the dining area should be constructed of tight-fit-ting, smooth wood or other comparable material which is easy to keep clean.

The dining tables should be clean and attractive. Wooden tables in camp present a problem since food particles become lodged between the cracks in the boards.

When these tables are washed, the water settles in the cracks and a dirty mess results. The tables should be built with one-piece tops—made of Masonite, formica, linoleum, or ply-wood with a water-repellant finish.

Board tables are satisfactory if the tops are three boards wide. The center board should be loose and the table con-structed in such a way that the board can be lifted out and the edges washed clean.

The floor must be cleaned daily, preferably after each meal. Windows and doors should be screened.

Food can be carefully stored, adequately and safely pre-pared, but, if it is served under unsanitary conditions in the dining hall, all previous efforts are nullified. The chain of safe, sanitary food serving must be unbroken from its source to the ultimate consumer—a hungry boy or leader in a camp dining hall or on a unit site. Good housekeeping is a must!

All refuse should be properly stored and disposed of by approved methods. When on the trail, compact into a closed container and carry out for proper disposal. This must be placed in adequately covered garbage cans while awaiting hauling. When emptied, tin cans should be washed out and also hauled away where appropriate. In some cases, it has been found sat-isfactory to burn them out well to dispose of the ‘‘tinning,’’ and then to flatten them where they will soon disintegrate into rust under moist soil conditions. Glass jars must be cleaned out and hauled away as directed. Breakage must be guarded against in the case of glass containers, since broken glass never deterio-rates and remains a constant hazard.

Liquid wastes, resulting from cooking and food preparation, should be disposed of through either an improvised grease trap for short-term campsites or through the use of liquid-waste disposal sumps on more permanently occupied sites. The Engineering Service has plans for such units which serve where soil percolation tests indicate they must be effective. In some cases, however, liquid wastes from troop-site cooking must be disposed of through a sewage-disposal system which extends to all troop sites.

Paper napkins should be used. This not only allows for fast and efficient cleanup, but it also provides the opportunity to teach Scouts how to handle them. Many boys come to camp without this knowledge and we should use this opportunity to improve their table manners.

TOILET FACILITIES

Toilet facilities must comply with local health codes. In some places flush toilets are required, hence, water supplies and septic tanks must be counted in capital outlay. However, in most locations, sanitary, fly-tight latrines with associated pits and leaching pits are acceptable. Some local codes specify vault-type latrines that are pumped out periodically and must be placed adjacent to road facilities. In every instance, hand-washing facilities must be a part of the latrine structure or nearby.

Latrines. Latrines should be provided for each troop site in the proportion of one seat for every 12 to 15 campers. State laws sometimes govern this. Washstands and latrines may be combined in one structure.

It is important that latrines be located conveniently to campers’ tents. Latrine buildings should include urinals in addition to seats. If a pit-type latrine is used, the urinals should drain into a separate pit. The latrines should be adequately ventilated at the top and bottom.

All pit-type latrines should be checked thoroughly to be sure that the vaults are dark and flyproof.

Latrine seats and floors should be thoroughly scrubbed daily with soap and water.

Nightlights in all latrine buildings are essential to the health and comfort of campers, since darkness and noise may frighten some boys and adults as well.

Toilets for staff and visitors. Generally, staff quarters are a part of the central area of a Scout camp. Based upon the size of staff, toilet, lavatory, and shower facilities should be provided and conveniently located to meet this need. Some camps combine central shower and staff toilet and washroom facilities. Structures have been designed to fulfill this need. Sketches are available from the Engineering Service, Boy Scouts of America. Toilet facilities should be located conven iently to the kitchen for the use of cooks and other kitchen personnel.

Provisions must be made for toilet facilities for visitors to the camp adjacent to the parking lot or picnic area. Their locations should be marked for easy identification by visitors arriving at the camp. Separate facilities or time schedules should be avail-able for each sex.

Nightlights in latrine buildings should be provided to help locate these facilities.

Boy ScoutS of AmericA1325 West Walnut Hill LaneP.o. Box 152079irving, texas 75015-2079www.scouting.org 2007 Printing

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