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Can Positive Emotion Induction Reduce Negative Reactions among
Adolescents Cyberbullying Victims?
YeoJu Chung, Associate Professor, Korea National University of Education
Kyunghee Du, JaMyoung Yi, & A-ra Lee
Contents
Introduction
Literature Review
Research Hypothesis
Method & Procedure
Results
Discussion & Conclusion
Introduction & Literature Review
Purpose
Cyberbullying is increasing and one of counseling issues
Victims of cyber bullying– depressive, anxious, sensitive, cautious, and re-act to aggression, feelings of being ostracized and of loneliness, or sometimes suicide
the importance of positive affect has been stressed in counseling area
Functions of enhancing positive affects have been focused also by some emotion researchers (e.g. Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998).
how to solve cyberbullying problem –inducing positive affects will reduce negative psychological effects from cyberbullying
Literature Review - Bullying
What is Bullying? (Olweus, 1993, 1999a) Aggressive behavior or intentional
harmdoing Repeated and over time action An imbalance of power in an
interpersonal relationship Someone intentionally inflicts, or
attempts to inflict, and show aggressive behaviors
Verbal vs. Nonverbal• Verbal actions: threatening, taunting, teasing,
and calling names• Nonverbal actions: hitting, pushing, kicking,
pinching, and restraining
Literature Review – Cyber Bullying
What is Cyber Bullying? Bullying that involves the use of e-mail,
instant messaging, text digital imaging messages and digital images sent via cellular phones, Web pages, Web logs(blogs), chat rooms or discussion groups, and other information communication technologies (Health Resources and Services Administration, 2006; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006; Shariff & Gouin, 2005; Willard, 2006)
Literature Review – Cyber Bullying
Flaming: online fights using elec-tronic messages with angry and vulgar language
Harassment: re-peatedly sending nasty, mean, and
insulting mes-sages
Denigration: send-ing or posting gos-sip about a person to damage reputa-tion or friendships
Impersonation: pretending to be someone else and sending or posting
material
What is Cyber Bullying? Nancy Willard, 2006 Kowalski, Limber, and Agatston, 2008
Literature Review – Cyber Bullying
Cyber Bullying Passes Current National Children’s Home (NCH, 2002) Study: 7% via
Internet chat rooms, and 4% through e-mail Keith and Martin (2004): 57% of students said that someone
had said hurtful or angry things to them online Ybarra and Mitchell (2004a): 19% of young regular Internet
users aged 10-17 were involved in online harassment British study (Smith, Mahdavi, Carvalho, & Tippett, 2006):
22% of the students aged 11-16 reported that they had been bullied in the cyber space at least once in the two months
Williams and Guerra (2006): 21% of the students had ever been cyber bullied
Afrab’s (2006) study: 53% of the respondents said that they had been bullied online
Chung and Kim (2013): 42.9% of total students(n=1112) have experienced cyberbullying before
Literature Review – Cyber Bullying
Cyber bullying - More Harmful
• No punishment or social disapproval due to anonymity
• Can carry their actions much more than they nor-mally would (Williams, Harkins, and Latane,1981)
Lose Power of In-hibition
• targets also cannot see the faces of the perpetra-tor
• miscommunication between bullies and victims (Kowalski, Limber, and Agatston, 2008)
Can’t See Emo-tional Reaction
•A single act may be forwarded to hundreds or thousands of children over a period of time• Feel repeatedly bullied
Can’t predictRepetition
Literature Review – Cyber Bullying
Victims of Cyber bullying
• Depressed mood, loneliness, anxiety, frustration, invisibility, and helplessness (Geller, Goodstein, Silver, and Sternberg,
1974; Leary, 1990)• Feeling bad, having less control, and losing a sense of be-
longing (Williams, Cheung, and Choi, 2000)• Feeling a loss of self-esteem and angry (Rigby, 2008)
Literature Review – Focus on affect problems
of victims in bullying
Affect problems of victims self-evaluation and emotional coping
skills (Andreou, 2001) lack of emotional ability to prevent and
resolve conflicts (Mahady-Wilton, 1997) symptoms and suicidal thoughts (Roland,
2002) depressed and stressful due to negative
self-concept (Marsh, Parada, Craven and Finger, 2004)
fea
rful
an
xie
ty
co
nfu
se
d
irritate
d
hu
rted
sh
ock
ed
an
gry
ind
iffe
ren
t
de
pre
sse
d
se
nsitiv
e
wa
nt to
die
sh
am
efu
l
bo
ring
lon
ely
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
7.2
15.7
27.5
64
14.5 15.9
50.7
32.1
7.2
17.2
3.1
12.2 13.3
1.7
Chung and Kim (2013)
What kind of feeling did you have when you are bullied in the cyber space?
Ignored Angry and
cursed them by oneself
Re-venged in the same way
Cursed them to friends
Cried Cy-berbul
lied other people
Wrote a script
express-ing my
bad feel-ing
Pre-tended to be good
contrast to bad
feelings
Talk with
parents
Talk with teachers
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70 65
28.4
45.9
38.7
2.1
31.7
7.3
29.9
3.90.9
Chung and Kim (2013)
Reactions after being cyberbullied– only cyberbullied middle school students
Positive affects recharge the depleted self
• Positive emotions are able to restore the self’s capacity for self-regulation (Tice et al., 2004) • happy mood led to longer persistence and positive mood make people recover their energy that help
to regulate themselves further
Positive affects help self-regulation
• A primary function of self-regulation in adults is to maintain positive emotional mood and reduce the continued deterioration of negative mood states (Morris, 1989)
Positive affects undo effects of negative affects
• positive affects serve to broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, which in turn has the effect of building that individual's physical, intellectual, and social resources (Carver,
2003; Cosmides & Tooby, 2000; Fredrickson, 2005)
Literature Review – Functions of Positive Affect
compared to Negative Affect
Positive affects broaden functions of attention and cognition
• Fredrickson and Joiner (2002) assessed the prediction that positive affects broaden the scopes of attention and cognition, and, by consequence, initiate
upward spirals toward increasing emotional well-being
Positive affects enhance thought, feeling, and behavior and make us attain the goal
• Positively valenced moods and emotions lead people to think, feel, and act in ways that promote both resource building and involvement with approach goals
(Elliot & Thrash, 2002; Lyubomirsky, 2001)
Positive affects make people remember positive factors
• Niedenthal and Setterlund (1994) also suggested that happiness and sadness have emotion-congruent effects upon selective perception
• Mayer and his colleagues (1992) also tested mood-congruent effect in their ex-periment
Literature Review – Functions of Positive Affect
compared to Negative Affect
Positive affects impact on perception and judgement
• Parkinson and his colleagues (1996) assumed that the world seems a more pleasant and welcoming place when one is in a happy mood
• Fearful individuals have been shown to have heightened estimates that risky, dangerous events will be part of their future (Lerner & Keltner, 2001)
Positive affects increase ego resilience
• Cohn and his colleagues (2009) suggested that positive affects lead to higher levels of ego resilience in the future
Positive affects enhance coping ability
• Fredrickson (2001) said that the frequent experience of positive emotion broad-ens thinking and actions and result in enduring personal resources
• In Aspinwall (1998)’s study, he tested that positive mood may play a beneficial, multifaceted, and flexible role in self-regulatory processes
Literature Review – Functions of Positive Affect
compared to Negative Affect
Positive affects decline externalizing problems• Secure attachment and positive maternal control correlated positively with ef-
fective regulatory strategy use (Gillom et al., 2002) • Frequent positive emotions during school were associated with higher levels of
student engagement and negative emotions with lower levels of engagement (Amy et al., 2008)
Positive affects decline psychopathology
• low levels of positive affectivity are associated with a number of clinical syn-droms, including social phobia, agoraphobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, eating disdorder, and the substance disorders (Gillom et al.,
2002)
Positive affects increase helping behavior
• good moods increased offers of help that involved reading and evaluating statements that participants believed would improve their mood (Isen & Sim-
mond, 1978)
Positive affects increase satisfaction of life
• Positive affectivity is a significant predictor of job satisfaction (Olekalns & Erwin, 1998; Agho, Price, Mueller (1992)
Literature Review – Functions of Positive Affect
compared to Negative Affect
Literature Review How to enhance positive affect
– mood induction
imagination Velten’s MIPs film/story
music feedback social in-teraction
gift facial ex-pression
combined MIPs
• the effect sizeFilm/Story + instructions - the most significantcombined (e.g. Velten + music, or Velten + feedback) - very significant
(Westermann and his collegues’ meta analysis,1996)
Research Hypothesis
Research Hypothesis
Experiment 1. Cyberbullying manipulation will make people have negative feelings and biases. Participants in the cyberbullying manipulation condition will get larger
points in negative moods and get fewer points in positive moods of self report adjective selection than participants in control group.
Participants in the cyberbullying manipulation condition will show higher negative biases when they interpret facial expression than participants in control group.
Experiment 2. Positive affect enhancement will make people have positive feelings, not biased, and memorize more positive factors. Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will get larger
points in positive moods and get fewer points in negative moods of self report adjective selection than participants in control group.
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will show lower negative biases when they interpret facial expression than participants in control group
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will memorize more positive meaning words than participants in control group.
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will memorize more words than participants in control group.
Research Hypothesis
Experiment 3. Positive affect enhancement will weaken negative feelings, biases in interpretation and memory, and negative movements from cyberbullying? Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will get larger
points in positive moods and get fewer points in negative moods of self report adjective selection than participants in control group even after they are cyberbullied.
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will show lower negative biases when they interpret facial expression than participants in control group even after they are cyberbullied.
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will memorize more positive meaning words than participants in control group even after they are cyberbullied.
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will memorize more words than participants in control group even after they are cyberbullied.
Participants in the positive affect enhancement condition will show lower negative face and hands movement.
Method & Procedure
Research Method - Participants
Participants
Experiment group
Controlgroup
Total
Experiment 1
Sex
Males 9 8 17
Females 8 7 15
Cyberbullied experience
Yes 4 3 7
No 13 12 25
Total 17 15 32
Experiment 2
Sex
Males 10 10 20
Females 7 7 14
Total 17 17 34
Experiment 3
Sex
Males 17 18 35
Females 15 14 29
Cyberbullying experience
Yes 5 7 12
No 27 25 52
Total 32 32 64
Research Method - Measures
Experiment
Mood In-duction
Self Report
Interpret facial Ex-pressions
Emotional words memory
Video Taping
① Mood Induction (Velten + feedback)
The Velten Mood Induction Procedure (Velten, 1967, 1968)
• Used extensively by researchers to induce elated and depressed moods in the laboratory.
• The task consists of subjects being asked to read and "try to feel the mood suggested" by 60 self-referent elated or depressed statements, or 60 neutral statements.
• Selected both 30 positive sentences and 30 neutral sentences
• Tested effect of these sentences in experiment 2• Used 30 sentences right after feedback in
experiment 3
Research Method - Measures
② Self report - emotions
Instrument for Measuring Emotions (Kang, Hahn, & Chon, 2000)
• developed by Kang et al. (2000)• based on self-discrepancy theory• consisting of 20 items rated on 7-point scale • dejection-related emotion (depression), agitation-related
emotion (anxiety), and positive feeling• GFI of the 3 subscales is .995
Research Method - Measures
감정 형용사 전혀 느끼지 않는다 중간정도 매우 많이 느낀다
1 무기력하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 불만스럽다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 슬프다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 실망스럽다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 우울하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 의기소침하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 긴장되다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 걱정스럽다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
9 불안하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 두렵다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
11 안절부절하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
12 초조하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
13 기쁘다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
14 활기차다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
15 만족스럽다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
16 희망적이다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
17 안도감 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
18 안심되다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
19 안정감 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
20 편안하다 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
depression
anxiety
Positive feeling
② Interpret facial expressions
Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE) and Neutral Faces (JACNeuF) (Matsumoto, & Ekman, 1988) (appendix G)
• developed by Matsumoto and Ekman (1988)• anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and
surprise• evidence for cross-cultural differences in levels of
recognition (Matsumoto, 1992)• selecting the intended emotion term were conducted and
resulted in significant findings at the 70% , 75%, and 80% agreement levels
Research Method - Measures
Contempt
Neutral
③ Emotional words memory
Emotional words memory test (Vasa, Carlino, London, & Min, 2006)
• developed by Vasa et al. (2006)• threat, positive, and neutral. Childrens valence ratings • Cronbach’s alpha coefficients .91, .89, and .92 for threat,
positive, and neutral words, respectively• Selected 10 positive words, 10 negative words, and 10
neutral words – randomly arranged• recall positive and negative emotional words, and non-
emotional words by Nagae, & Moscovitch (2002)
Research Method - Measures
챔피언 벽 죽음 똑똑한 생일 선물
고막 쟁반 벽돌 블록 납치 거리
살인 연휴 친구 긴급 암 발목
방학 파티 총 나무 도둑 숟가락
울타리 폭탄 부자 전쟁 실패 활기찬
④ Video Taping
• Recorded students’ face and hands movement with camcoder
• 3 experts made coding• Coding sheet followed concepts of the new Facial Action
Coding System (FACS) by Paul Ekman, Wallace V. Friesen, and Joseph C. Hager (2002)
• positive movement and negative movement.• eyes (eg. a smile with eyes vs. a sneer with eyes), lips (eg.
a smile with lips vs. a sneer with lips), head (eg. nodding vs. moving slantwise), and hands (eg. agreeing with hands vs. hiding a mouth or a face with hands)
Research Method - Measures
Research Procedure
Experiment 1• Cyberbullying Manipulation
Experiment 3• Cyberbullying Manipulation
• Positive Mood Induction
Research Procedure - experiment 3
Results
EXPERIMENT 3 RESULT
pre cy-berbul
ling
mood induc-tion
pre cy-berbul
ling
mood induc-tion
pre cy-berbul
ling
mood induc-tion
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
5.9
15.8
5.0 7.0
12.4
3.7
25.5
6.9
27.2
7.5
17.1
13.1
8.7
12.7 10.1
23.1
5.2 8.1
experiment group control group
Research Results
FIGURE 16Experiment 3_Feeling adjective selection
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
depres-sion
anxiety positive feeling
Mean Square df F
depression 501.735 2 9.659***
anxiety 338.094 2 5.367**
positive feeling 3125.906 2 33.712***
Research Results
TABLE 15Experiment 3_Repeated measures MANOVA of feeling adjective selection
***p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
Using Wilks’ lambda, multivariate significance for the group classification main effect was established, F(6,57)= 11.320, p<.001
pre cyber-bulling
mood induc-
tion
pre cyber-bulling
mood induc-
tion
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
2.25
1.19 1.00
1.78
2.69 2.63
1.97
0.81 0.91
2.13
2.84 2.88
experiment group control group
Research Results
FIGURE 17Experiment 3_ Photo facial expression assumption
positive negative
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
Research Results
FIGURE 18Experiment 3_ Negative assumption frequency
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
no. of participants
no. of negativeassumptions0 1 2 3 4 5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
109
5
3
1
4
1
7 7
3
8
6experimentcontrol
Research Results
FIGURE 19Emotional words memory test
Mean Square
df F
no. of positive words
20.250 1 9.049**
no. of negative
words3.516 1 2.364
no. of total words
11.391 1 2.108
TABLE 19MANOVA
**p<.01, *p<.05
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
no. of posi-tive words
no. of nega-tive words
no. of total words
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
3.44
1.91
7.22
2.31 2.38
6.38
experiment group control group
Wilks’ Lambda was .836 [F(3,60) = 3.922, p<.05]
Research Results
FIGURE 20% of memorized words
TABLE 20MANOVA
*p<.05
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
pos_% neg_%0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
47.94
27.16
36.36 36.41
experiment group control group
Mean Square
df F
% of positive words
20.250 1 9.049*
% of negative words
3.516 1 2.364*
Wilks’ Lambda was .901 [F(2,61) = 3.361, p<.05]
pre cy-berbul
ling
mood induc-tion
pre cy-berbul
ling
mood induc-tion
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
1.69
0.22
2.28 1.97
3.03
0.38
1.78
0.06
0.50
1.63
2.38
0.66
experiment group control group
Research Results
FIGURE 21Experiment 3_ facial and hands expression
positive negative
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
Research Results
TABLE 22Experiment 3_Repeated measures ANOVA of facial and hands expression
***p<.001
Experiment 3 – Cyberbullying, Mood induction
Mean Square df F
positive expressions 33.167 2 9.515***
negative expressions 7.292 2 2.298
Using Wilks’ lambda, multivariate significance for the group classification main effect was established, F(4,59)= 6.236, p<.001
Discussion
The negative effects of cyberbullying were revealed from experiment 1 and 3 self report feeling adjectives selection, emotional words
memory and recording faces and hands movement cyberbullying make students socially anxious, loneliness,
frustration, sadness, and helplessness (Geller, Goodstein, Silver, & Sternberg, 1974; Kowalski, Limber, & Agaston, 2008; Leary, 1990; Rigby, 2008; Williams, Cheung, & Choi, 2000)
facial expression photo interpretation - numbers of negatively biased interpretation of both groups were not significantly different.
Discussion The positive effects of positive mood induction were
revealed from experiment 2 and 3 self report feeling adjectives selection, emotional words
memory and recording faces and hands movement positive affect generation makes students recover quickly from
their stressful events (e.g. Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000; Kirschenbaum, Tomarken, and Humphery, 1985)
facial expression photo interpretation - numbers of negatively biased interpretation of both groups were not significantly different.
• frequency data shows a little difference
Limitation & Further Research
tested only middle school students, and conducted the experiment in 30 minutes. other students (e.g. elementary school students) for general conclusion experiment time was a little short Facial photo - not only frequency test but also intensity test (for a
review, see Matsumoto, & Ekman, 1988, 1989).
need to think about how to induce positive affect in counseling situation. cognitively self-referent statement and feedback methods more sophisticated methods for our clients
real cyberbullying situation should be conducted. driven by experimental situation in real situation, there might be more extra variables which I cannot
control we need to test the effect of positive affect to really cyberbullied
students.