CAP Scanner Course (1995)

7/30/2019 CAP Scanner Course (1995)

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lnl:loA 0r t010Course 02130A

Gvrl Aun PLrnor.

SCANNER COURSELcvel II

Tcdttticia Rafu8

Extension Course InstituteAir University


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Level II is valued at 6 hours (2 points).

PREPARED BY

EXTENSION COURSE ITISTITUTE. GUNTER AIR FORCE STATION. ALABAMATHIS PUBLICATION HAS BEEN REVIEWED AND APPROVED BY COI\4PETENT PERSONNELOF THE PREPARING COMMAND IN rcCORDANCE WTH CURRENT DIRECTIVESON DOCTRINE, POLICY, ESSENTIAL|ry, PFTOPRIETY, ANO QUALITY. ,


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Prolace\Z OU have been selected for, or have selected for yourself, an extremely demand-I ingjob. The survivors of an air crash will depend on you, the scaznr, to maintainyour concntration, to ovrcome fatigue and boredom, and not to give up as long asany chance of locating thern remains. No doubt you will want to bring to your job ofscanning the same dedication you would expect of some other scanner should you orone of your family become an air crash victim.

The imporrance of your job is obvious. The success of an air search will depend onthe effeciency with which you, the scanner, do your pan. After all, s@ in locating asearch objective can mean the saving of human lives.

Civil Air Patrol and other agencies have develo@ procedures to make scanningvery effective. These procedures are outlines in this coune, and it is essential that youunderstand them before flying on an actual search mission. As you read the followingpags you will leam how to pre,pare yourself to do a professional job of scanning.

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Contents

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REASONS FOR SCANNERSThe Scanner as a Team Member.Aircraft used in Scarch and Rescue.Safety Around and in The Airplane.Events Before Takeoff.. ......... 13Good Scanning Techniques. ...... 15Sighting Characteristics. . . .......26hobability of Detection. .........30Communication of Sighting to Pilot.. .......33Debriefing. ............ 35

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NorE: ln lhis volume, the subject matter is developed by a series of harning objectives.Eech_of these carries a 3-digit numbr and is in boldlface t-ype, Each sets a leariing-goal toryou' The texl thar-follows the objectives gives you the information you need to reachih"at goal.The e_xercises following the information give you a check on your achievement. when-youcomplete them-, see if your answers match those in the back ofthis volume. Ifyour respons! toan exercise is incorrect, review the objectiye and its texl.

CAP Scanner1. REASONS FOR SCANNERS

Most of Civil Air Patrol's search and rescue (SAR) operations are based on the use of aircraft. Theaircraft are flown over specified areas in which the search objective probably will be found. Duringthese flights many hours of scanning will take place.fi)l' Define scanning; state the scanner's primary responsibility; and state two reasons for havingscanners aboard SAR aircraft.

Scanning is a method of looking for downed aircraft (or other objects) which makes it tnssible tosearch all of the assigned area in a systematic way. Persons trained to scan systematically becomequalified smnners. Scanners are the people in the search aircraft whose primary responsibility is tomaintain CONSTANT eye contad with the ground while over the search area. This responsibilitymakes each scanner a key member of the search aircrew.The aircraft pilot and any other crew members required to fly the aircraft (or to navigate) are verybusy with their normal tasks. They will, however, be able to scan pan-time. But pan-time scanning is

not enough; just a fraction of a second in non-scanning time could keep the aircrew from spotting thesearch objective. This could mean the difference in life and death to an injured survivor of an aircraftcrash. One reason for trained scanners, therefore, is to provide full-time scanning service for the searchaircrew.If you are new to search and rescue actiyities, you will soon hear pilots and other mission personnelusing some unfamiliar abbreviations and terms. Among many others, you will hear "ELT signal" and"DF steer"' The ELT is an abbreviation for an Emergency Locator Transmitter; this transmitter, orradio, is aboard most aircraft. Upon the impact of a crash the ELT broadcasts a continuous "beep-like"signal. Search aircraft, such as those used by civil Air patrol (cAp), may be equipped with speciil radioreceiveis which can be used to determine the exact direction of the ELT signal. Thus, this type radioreceiver serves as a direction finder, or DF, and provides an electronic means of steering towirds thecrash site. Remember that the ELT and the DF receiver are but two parts of a much more complexelectronic system for locating the general area of a downed aircraft. The scanner still is on dutv and isessential!While an electronic search system can place the search aircrew close to a crash site, there are twothings it cannot do: It cannot identifr the search objective and it cannot pinpoint the search objective'slocation on a map. only the aircrew can do these tasks, and they must be done. The scanner'i part inactually sighting the search objective from the air so that it can be pinpointed on a map is anothei of the"reasons for scanners." CIhe exact location of the search objective has to be identified on a map so thatother rescue personnel can quickly locate and help survivors.)

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Providing full-time scanning service and sighting the search objective are the reasons for scanners,but let's continue this discussion. First, the more qualified scanners there are the better the searchmission. After all, the scanner'sjob is very demanding, tiring, and sometimes boring. If kept at the jobtoo long, even the very bst scanner will become less effective. When enough scanners are available,each can serve a shorter and more effectiv duty tour. Also, if enough scanners are available, several canbe used aboard the larger aircraft; this increases the probability of sighting the search objective simplybecause more "eyes" are at work.Exercises (fi)1.):

l What is scanning?2. What is the scanner's primcry responsibility?3. what are two rq$ons for having scanners aboard aircraft?2. THE SCAIINER AS A TEAM MEMBERlX)2. Trace the concept of team membership eccording to CAP organizational structure anddescribe the dutis of aircrew team members.

Being a member of the Civil Air Patrol Corporation makes you a member of a very large "corporate"team. Perhaps you recall from your Level I training that Civil Air Panol is composed of many commandechelons which span the nation. Eight georgaphic regions form the upper-echelon teams. Then thereare the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico representing the next lower level ofteams-the CAP wing level. And the CAP wing is subdivided into "teams" which are basicallydesignated as squadrons and flights. Some of the large CAP wings may include the "group" level in theirorganizational stnrcture. The group is senior to the squadron.

While the Civil Air Patrol is a private, nonprofit, benevolent civilian corporation that is made up ofvolunteer members, it is also the auxiliary ofthe United States Air Force. Members ofCAP, therefore,are authorized to wear uniforms which are very similar to the USAF uniforms, and the members mayqualify to hold positions with military titles and insignia of grade. This helps to identify CAP personnelas members of a team.The missions of Civil Air Patrol are to voluntarily use its resources to meet emetgencies, toencourage aerospace education of the general public, and to motivate young men and women to idealsof leadenhip through aerospace education and training. The part of the mission pertaining toemergencies is where scanners belong. Search and rescue is a function of the emergencies portion of theoverall mission, and the specially trained emrgency services teams perform this function.

Qualified scannrs, pilots, observers, communicators, and other specialists are called upon to dotheirjobs when an appropriate emergency occurs. A listing ofpersonnel with such qualifications is keptat the CAP wing headquanen level. When, for example, an aircraft is overdue at its destination and is

Figure l. Organizational chart for a search mission.2

Mtsst0l{ c00RDnAT0R& STAFF

GROUI{D TTAMSlRCREWS


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believed to have crashed, a search and rescue nrissioz will be authorized and a mission heqdquartenestablished The person in charge of this search and rescue mision is designated mission coordinator.From the list of qualified emergency services specialisrs, the mission cooidinator will select (or haveselected) the number of specialiss believed needed to complete the mission. Remember, thesespecialists \vill be coming together at mission headquaners from various squadrons throughout the wing.This group of people will work together as a team, under the direction of the mission coordinator, untilthe mission is completed.Figure I shows the organizational structure for a search mission. Normally, the mission staff will beonly three to five personnel. However, a large-scale mission may require thit the staff be expanded totwenty or thirty personnel.There are two basic typs of teams on a search and rescue mission which do the work of searching.They are the aircrews and the ground teams. your position, or team membership, will be with tlieaircrews. when called upon to fly on a search sortie (asortie is one flight in an aircraft), you, the pilot,and other persons in the airplane will form and work as a team-the aircrew team. Vou .may^hauedifferent t"am members on each sortie that you fly. Recall that thejob of scanner is demanding and thepeople managing the mission try to give scanners frequent rest periods.

Every team must have a leader. The leader of your aircrew team is the pilot. Federal AviationAdministation (FAA) regulations and cAp regulations place on the pilotiotal responsibility foreverything that happens within the airplane and ever)"thing that the airplane does onci ir engine isstaned. This doesn't mean that the pilot tells everyone exactly what to do at all times. As a team m-emberthe pilol cooperates with the other members of the team. Thire will be times (as we shall point out later)when you, the scanner, will tell the pilot what to do. The same is true for other memben ofthe team, theobserver and your fellow scanners. while we are talking about the pilot and observer as olier membersof your aircrew team, lets see what their tasks are while in flight: '

a. Pilot. The pilot's tasks in flight sound very simple: "Fly the mission as briefed and planned." ofcourse, piloting the airplane at the best search altitude and along the intended ground track is not asimple job. Although the pilot is not required to scar?, he or she may do some sJanning.b. observer' The observer has more time than the pilot to help with scanning. The observer is alsoexpected to assist the pilot with navigation and radio iommunications, as needed.Ifyou would like to find more information on the pilot's and observer's duties, look in cAp 50-15,Ernergency Services.As a brief summary and staning from the aircrew team, Civil Air Patrol scanners also are members ofthe. mission team, the CAP flight and squadron teams, the group team (possibly), the wing team, theregion team, and the corporation team. As a member ofthe uSAF auxiliary (cei), the scainer is alsoconsidered part of the United States Air Force team.

Exercises (lX)2.):l. Beginning at the cAP corporate level and extending to the sAR aircrew level, show the basicCAP organizational structure as a team structure:

c.d.

e.f.c.h.

a.b_

A2. When you are working as a scanner, who is your team leader?


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B. Cessna 152

D. Champion 7EC-A

F. Heli() Courier.

8, Super Cub

E. Cessna 305, Bird Dog

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Figure 2. Typical high-wing aircraii used on CAP search missions


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G. deHavilland DHC-2, Beaver H. deHavilland DHC'J, otterFigure 2. TyPical high-wing aircraft usd on CAP search mis\ions continued'

3. Aircraft Used in Search and RescueEach CAP search and rescue mission brings together a variety of aircraft. Some of these aircraft may

be old. They may have been built during the 1940s, or before. On the other hand, you will see almostnew airplanes. If a crashed military airplane is the search objective then you probably will see a fewmilitary airplanes and helicopters.

Whether the airplane is old or new and whether it is a CAP or military B?e, its function is to serveyou. Each of the aircraft assigned to the mission is an aircrew's platform in the sky. From this platformyou can do your job as a scanner.Our purpose for this section is to acquaint you with many of the aircraft used on CAP search andrescue missions. These aircraft include CAP and military t)?es. We will also discuss what you canexpect as a scanner's view from high-wing and low-wing aircraft.

fi)3. Name the ten makes,tnodels of CAP aircraft discursed in the text, and give advantages anddisadvantages of each as a SAR aircraft.

CAP Aircraft. The type of terrain in which a particular CAP unit is located will influence the t).peaircraft most often used for SAR purposes. In the mountainous areas, pilots like to fly the morepowerful aircraft. By powerful we mean those aircraft \yhich have enough power reserve in their enginesto get a pilot out of a "tight spot." In mountainous areas unpredictable wind currents and other factorsoften create such tight spots, and a lot of power is needed to overcome the situation.In the southwest and other areas where both population and vegetation are sparse, larger, fasteraircraft may be preferred. Here, several scanners can fly in a single airplane and cover efficiently verylarge areas of ground.If you live in Alaska you know that airplanes with floats are very common.The eastern area of the United States has much of its surface covered by trees and brush. As we willpoitlt qqt in detail later, a search objectiye can be very difficult to sight in such terrain. Therefore,slower, more deliberate scanning techniques are necessary. This requires aircraft capable of low-level,slow flight.Persons in charge of search and rescue missions-mission coordinators-would like to have "ideal"aircraft for every SAR mission. Seldom is this the case, however. It is necessary to use what is available.

H. deHavilland DHC-3. Otter

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A. Piper PA 28-180, Cherokee 180 B. Beech T-34. MentorFigure 3. Typical low-wing aircraft used on CAP sarch missions

Aircraft tlpically available to mission coordinators include the ten makes/models shown in ltgures 2and 3. But you should know more about them than just what they look like:. Cessna 172, Skyhawk. The Cessna 172 is one of the btter airplanes for SAR missions. It cancarry as many as four people. This means that there is room for the pilot, an observer, and two scanners.The 172 can fly relatively fast, but it can also fly slow. These capabilities make this airplane well suitedto SAR work.. Cessna 152. This is a side-by-side, two place craft, so its crew is limited to a pilot and observer, orpilot and scanner. On the positive side, the 152 is economical to operate and it is very good at low-level,

slow flight.. Helio Courier. There are few of these aircraft in the Civil Air Patrol fleet because they are veryexpensive. The Helio Courier is especially good where only small fields are available for takeoffs andlandings. This airplane is powerful and was designed for short takeoff and landing (STOL) operations.

It is also considered to be one of the safest airplanes flying.The Helio Courier's flight characteristics make it a very good observation platform for scanners and

observen. It can fly very slow and it can remain airbome for long periods of time. As a search airplane,it usually carries a pilot, an observer, and two scanners.\ o de Havilland "Beaver" and "Otter." We place these two aircraft together as a single discussionitem because they are similar in appearance. Both are rugged, capable at STOL operations, and they arelarge-especially large for single-engine airplanes. Where yrur search aircrew is concerned, the Beavercan carry four scanners, plus the pilot and observer. The Ottet could carry twelve scanners, but Civil AirPatrol limits the number of persons its corporate aircraft are allowed to carry.

Like the Helio Courier, the STOL capability of the Beaver and Otter makes them good searchaircraft. These aircraft may be used to fly into relatively high, rugged terrain because they have sufficientpower to overcome the effects of strong air cuffents.o Piper PA- 18, Super Cub. The design of this airplane has existed since the 1950s. The basic design

began as the Piper Cub in the 1930s. Although the PA-l8 is a two-place, tandem seating (front-to-back)airplane, it is still a good SAR aircraft. It is particularly useful in low-level, slow flight, and it can landon and takeoff from areas where other SAR aircraft "dare not tread.". champion 7Ec-A. This is another two-place, tandem airplane. Like the cessna 152 and the piperPA-18, the Champion is well suited to low-level, slow flight.


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Figure 5. Major pans of fixed-wing aircraft.provides excellent visibility. Yet, the high expense of operating helicopters usually limis their useprimarily to rescue duties.

The HC- 130 (also known as the Hercules) is a four-engine craft, as you see in figure 4. No doubt youknow that a four-engine airplane is expensive to operate. This airplane is capable of carrying manypersonnel and sophisticated equipment for locating downed aircraft. In addition, Air Force HC- 130aircraft usually carry two highly trained pararescue specialists. These spcialists can parachute into acrash site and give first aid and other assistance to survivors until ground teams or helicopters reach thesite.You may never have the opportunity of flying as a scanner in a military SAR aircraft. yet, as a CApmember, you are authorized to help the military SAR aircrews if they ask for your assistance.Seeing a military SAR aircraft is a distinct possibility. You may be called to assist during a searchmission for a missing military aircraft where other military aircraft will be taking part in the search.Military SAR aircraft also often work alongside CAP aircraft when the search objective is a civilianairplane.Now that you have learned about aircraft that you may see and fly in during a SAR mission, youshould know how to conduct yourself when around or in an airplane-any airplane. You should leamwhat to do and what not to do from the standpoint of safety.

Exercises (1D3.):I . Name the eight CAP high-wing SAR aircrafr.2. Name the two CAP low-wing SAR aircraft.3. Name the thre CAP SAR aircraft which have short takeoff and landing (STOL) capability.4. What is the disadvantage of using two-place aircraft on SAR missions?


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Toil Rolor

Fuseloge ----i-Toil BoomFigure 6. Major parts of rotary-wing aircrafi (hclicopters)

4, SAFETY AROUND AND IN THE AIRPLANEThere may be many aircraft operating from the airport where the mission is headquartered. Airplaneswill be taking off and landing within very short times of each other. The flight line also is a busy area.This is the special area where aircraft are fueled, checked, and tied down (parked) between flights. Theground movement of many fiagile airplanes within rhe relatively small space of a flight line requires"wing walkers." The task of wing walkers is to see that the airplane's wings or other parts do not collidewith another airplane, hangar door, or other objects as the airplane is being moved about within a

congested space.It is easy to see why safety precautions are emphasized at any place where aircrali are located. Thereare certain aspects of aircraft ground operations which can cause serious injury or death to the personwho isn't careful. Aircraft are also costly vehicles to purchase and maintain.

0(X. Name and discuss the function of four major parts of an airplane; compare the major parts of afixed-wing airplane to the major pans of a helicopter.Parts of the Airplane, Many prospective scanners are familiar with airplanes while others are not. Itis for those others that this discussion is intended. Everyone in an aircrew should have a basicknowledge of the names of an airplane's major parts. Refer to figure 5 as you read further.o Fuselage. This the primary part, or body, of all llxed and rotary-wing aircraft. The fuselage onsmall aircraft contains the cockpit in which the search aircrew rides. (NOTE: on large aircraft the area

is divided into a cockpit for the flight c rew on ly and a cabin for passengers and cargo. ) The other majorparts of the airplane are attached to the fuselage.o Wings. The purpose of wings is to provide lift, and lift is that force which enables an airplane tofly. whether the airplane is high wing or low wing, the portion to the left of the fuselage (as seen fromthe cockpit, looking forward) is called the left wing. That portion to the right of the fuselage is the rightwing.

Main Rolor

tLondin

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You will see ailerons zttache.d to the wings and you may see faps. Ailerons play a major role inmaking the airplane turn in flight. Flaps, however, are devices which increase the wing's lift capabilityand allow the craft to be flown more slowly for landing.. Empennage. Many people do not use this word in reference to major part of the airplane-the tail.On the other hand, empennage sals it all because the tail section of an airplane is made up of severalparts: the vertical stabilizer with the attached rudder, and the horizontal stabilizer with the elevator. The

rudder is movable left or right and when it is moved in flight it causes the airplane to yaw left or right.The elevator is movable up and down. Movement of the elevator in flight causes the airplane to pitch upor down. The empnnage, therefore, provides directional control.. Landing gear. Landing gear support the airplane while it is on the ground. Some airplanes havewhat is known as conventional landing gear. The conventional-gear airplane has a tqil wheel and main

gdr. Today most airplanes are built with tricycle landing gear. The tricycle gear arrangement consists ofa main gear and a nose gear,r Propeller. Perhaps a propller should not be gouped with the major parts of an airPlane. Yet,propellen provide most airplanes the means of moving forward through the air-thrust. You may see athree-bladed propeller on some small aircraft but most are equipped with the two-blade O?e.Parts of the Helicopter. Notice that the legend, or title, of figure 6 classifies helicopters as rotarywing aircraft. This is correct. What is labeled "main rotor" in figure 6 actually is a movable wing. Thehelicopter's wings rotate, and, basically, produce lift in the same manner as fixed-wing aircraft'The helicopter has a fuselage to which the main rotor and landing gear are attached. You will findthat helicopter landing gear vary considerably in appearance and function. Some may have nothingmore than skids for landing gear, or skids with small wheels attached. Other helicopters will havewheeled landing gear which approximate those on fiied-wing aircraft.Extending from the helicopter's fuselage will be some type of tqil b(nm. The purpose of the tail boom

is to provide support for the tail rotor- Within the tail boom is the drive shaft for turning the tail rotor;the drive shaft is powered by the engine.Tail rotors on helicopters have a dual function. They function as a vertical stabilizer when the craft isflying straight. Changing the pitch of the rotor (angle at which the rotor blade strikes the air) "pushes"the tail boom left or righq in this function the tail rotor acts as a rudder. Incidentally, the pitchingmovement (up or down) of the helicopter fuselage is a function of the main rotor.

Exercises (fiX.):l. Not counting the propeller, list the four major parts of an airplane and state the function of each.2. What two major parts of a helicopter have the same nam as two major parts of an airplane?Safety Precautions. Safe activity in the vicinity of aircraft depends on everyone knowing certain

"do's" and "don'ts." Of course, memorizing what one should and should not do is desirable, buteverything that co.r/d happen in a situation will not be contained in a list. (Ihe list would be too long.)So, knowing certain basics is a beginning only; from this point on the person musl think!

In addition to remembering some very important do's and don'ts, and thinking, it is good practice todemonstrate courtesy. The Civil Air Patrol and individual aircraft owners who lend their craft to SARmissions have a lot of money invested. Also, remember that aircraft and the equipment in them arefragile. For these reasons of high investment and the fragility of the craft, owners are very protective oftheir property. Your demonstration of respect for their property will cause them to accept you quickly asone of the team.10


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Eventually (perhaps immediately) you will be called to serve on an aircrew. You may not have metthe other team members, so there will be quick introductions before the next briefing-the sortiebriefing.Sortie briefings are conducted for each aircrew by the persons designated to accomplish the briefingfunction. It is the briefer's responsibility to make certain that your aircrew knows its assigned searcharea. Included with the search area assignment will be the route to take to and from the area. This routeassignment is to keep search aircraft clear of each other as they fly to and from their search areas. The

briefer will point out on a map any obstructions your pilot should be aware of, such as towers and high-voltage power lines. You will get the current metmrological visibility for the area (this is given in statutemiles.) Any repons from residents in the area will be passed on to you. Such reports may be somethinglike "I heard an airplane in trouble," or "A very strange noise woke me last night. It could have been anairplane crashing." The reports could be the result of active imagination or they could be valuable clues.The point is that every piece of information passed on to your aircrew should be anallzed.The Flight Plan. A flight plan is required for each sortie flown by your aircrew. This flight plan isthe pilot's responsibility; it amounts to a before-and-after record of the total flight. You will not haveanlthing to contribute to the flight plan document, other than your name, when it is filed before flight,but your observations may become part of it after the sortie.Your pilot must consider many things as he or she fills out the flight plan. One purpose ofthe plan isto let mission headquarters know where your aircrew is going and when it will retum. This time ofreturn is of utmost imponance. If an airplane isn\ back at the airport within a reasonable time past thepilot's estimated time of return, a search will be staned. Thus, it is possible to have a "search within asearch."To know how long it will take to fly out, search the area, and return re4uires navigational planning.And navigational planning takes time. You may have nothing to do but wait until the flight plan form iscompleted.No doubt your aircrew will hold an informal, within-group briefing. Although the pilot is "bos,"prior agreement on some details of th search is needed. This informal exchange probabty will begin

before you leave the mission headquarters building and will continue to the flight line, where the pilotpreflights the airplane before takeoff..heflighting the Airplane. The act of preflighting an airplane is no more than a safety check andevaluation of the craft's condition for flight. This the pilot's responsibility, and exactly how it is donewill depend on the pilot's individual routine. Normally, the rest of the aircrew stands well clear as thispreflighting process is carried out. If you are asked to help, you probably will call out each item on thechecklist. When the pilot has examined and item called out, he or she will give a signal such as "check"or "O.K." This means the pilot is ready for the next item to be called out.The walk-around inspection is the major portion of preflighting. A quick, visual inspection will bemade to see if any of the aircraft's major parts is defective-fuselage, wing, empennage, and landinggear,Fuel gauges sometimes malfunction, so a visual check of the fuel quantity is accomplished. On highwing aircraft the pilot will have to use a stepladder to get to the fuel filler caps. He removes each cap andpeers into the tank to make certain that it is filled (normal procedure is to fill the tanks upon completionof each sortie.) As the walk-around continues, every movable, attached part will be tested for freedom ofmovement. Also, hinges will be scrutinized closely to see that they are fully in place and not wom thin.The propeller and its attachment to the engine receive careful attention. A large nick or hairlinecrack in a propeller could cause it to fail in flight.

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AREA OF CENTRAL VISION. 10"

/ PERIPHERAL VISION, 160"

Figure E. Normal span of vision, showing central and peripheral areas.There are many other items to check as the pilot continues the walk-around inspection. When it iscompleted you will be instructed to board the airplane. Remember to fasten your ieat bels securely.More preflighting will take place after the crew is in the airplane. Other checkliss are followed tostart the engine' adjust radios and electronic navigation equipment, check flaps setting, etc. There is abefore'takeoff checklist which must be completed upon t*"hing the runwa} It is a short one and isused to see that the engine is working properly, thi controls are free, and that the control surfaces(ailerons, elevator, and rudder) are moving in the right directions. In addition to what is on thechecklist, every pilot will take a last-minute look at certain items before the ac$al takeoff is started.Shortly after takeoff, the flight settles down as the pilot takes up a heading toward the assigned searcharea.

Exercises (l[6.):l. What is the purpose of a mission briefing?2. Who is responsible for filling out and filing the flight plan?3. Why is the stimated dme of arrival back at mission headquarters so important?4. What is the primary purpose of a preflight inspection of the airplane?5. Unless asked to assist, what should the scanner do during preflighr inspection?

6. GOOD SCANNING TECHNIQUESFlight to the assigned search area will be at a predetermined altitude. Possibly this altitude will be toohigh for-the aircrew to do any serious scanning, but it is good pracdce to looi anyway. After all, thesearch objective could be where it was not calculated to b", so ih"re is a chance tt ut ytu, t"u. ,i!iifind it out of the assigned area.Again, your job is to concentrate on scanning for the objective within the search area. Anyone can"look," but scanning is more than just looking. Stanning is tire skill ofseeing by looking in a methodicalway, and there are certain techniques which can help you develop ttris siiti In this section, we will

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FIXATION AREA

FOCUS POINTorFIXATION POINT

FIRST FIXATIONAREA NEARESTAIRPLANEFigure 9. Surfac coverage pattern formed by ftxation area.

Present these techniques. But more than knowing scanning techniques is required. You need practice atusing the techniques so that your ability to scan becomes second nature-the point at which you do thejob well without having to concentrate on how you are doing it.lX)7. Describe central and pcriphersl vision according to prception and field of vision Qateral andverticel ranges, in degrees of arc.)

Yision. The primary tool of tlre scanner is the eyes. Although an eye is a marvelous device, it hassome limitation even if it is in perfect physical condition. There also is the problem of interpretingcorrectly what the eyes convey to the brain.. when a person with normal eyes looks straight ahead at a fixed point, much more than just the pointis seen. The brain actively senses and is aware of eve4rthing from the point outward to foim a circle ofl0 degrees. This is centra, vision, znd it is produced by special cells in the fovea portion of the eye'sretina. whatever is outside the central vision circle also is "picked up" by the eyes ind conveyed to thebrain, but it is not perceived clearly. This larger area is called peripheral vision; it is produced by cells

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less sensitive than those in the fovea. However, objects within the peripheral vision area can berecognized if mental attention is directed to them.Figure 8 shows the normal span of vision for healthy eyes. Notice the vertical range is about 80

degrees above and 80 degrees below the central line of vision. The horizontal or lateral range is slightlygreater. Considering the central line of vision of starting point, each eye can sense about 90 degreeslaterally. This gives a total of about 180 degrees of lateral binocular vision.Also shown in figure 8 is th lo-degree central vision circle, what we will call the lixation qrea.Remember, this is the area in which "concentrated looking" takes place. If the search objective happensto come within this fixation area, you probably will recognize it. We say probably because there areother factors which influence whether the objective will be recognized. These factors will be discussedlater.

Exercises (fi)7.):l. In degrees of arc, what is the diameter of the circle formed by central vision?2. TolAl binocular vision for healthy eyes produces a lateral range of about

-degrees.3. Our vertical range of vision is about

-degrees.4. Where vision enable us to recognize objects immediately,

-vision requiresmental concentration to recognize even large objects.

(X)E. Describe how angular displacement and aircraft molion affect surface coverage,Fixation Area and Surface Coverage. The goal ofscanning techniques is to scan thoroughly the areaoverflown. Reaching this goal on a single overflight is not possible for a number of reasons. First, theeyes' fixation area is a circle and the search area surface (ground) is flat. Coverage of a flat surface withcircles requires much overlapping of the circles. This overlapping is not possible on a search missionbecause of the aircraft's motion. Also, the surface area covered by the eyes' fixation area is less near theairplane and increases with distance from the airplane. The net result is relatively large gaps in coveragnear the airplane and some overlap as distance from the airplane increases. Figure 9 gives a good idea of

how these gaps and overlaps occur. Notice how the surface area covered begins as a relatively smallcircle near the airplane and takes an increasingly larger and more elliptical shape farther out. A cautionabout figure 9: It is not to scale and it assumes the airplane to be stationary.Figure 10, like figure 9, is not to scale but it introduces the effect of aircraft motion on surface

coverate. Observe how the pattem is distorted toward the direction of aircraft travel.Now we introduce another factor which influences effective coverage, angular displacement, Byangular displacement we mean the angle formed from a point almost beneath the airplane (# degrees)outward to the scanning range, or beyond. With this scheme, the horizon would be at 90 degreesdisplacement.Although the fixation area may be a constant lO-degrees diameter circle, the effectiveness of sightingthe objective decreases with an increase in this angular displacement. Said another way, your aatuplability to see detail (resolution of detail) will be excellent at a point near the aircraft. This abilitydecreases as the angular displacement increases. At the scanning range, which may be as much as 45degrees, the resolution of detail area probably will have shrunk to a 4-degree diameter circle.When the effect of angular displacement is considered, the fixation area coverage does not produceas much overlap as we indicated earlier. This fact supports our first statemnt about complete visualcoverage being an impossibility on a single overflight of an area.

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Exercises (fi)E.):l. How does an increase in angular displacement affect the fixation area pattern on the surface?2. At an angular displacement of 45 degrees, we expect the usual lO-degree diameter fixation area(for rsolution of detail) to have shrunk to about

-degrees.3. What is the effect of aircraft motion on the surface coyerage pattern?

fl)9. Distinguish between scsnning rrnge and search yisibility range; and, giyen a yariable, tell howthe variable rffects scanning range.Scanning Range. We are using the term scanning range to describe the distance from an aircraft to animaginary line parallel to the aircraft's ground track (track over the ground.) This line is the maximumrange at which a scanner is considered to have a good chance at sighting the search objective. Scanningrang sometimes may be confused with search visibility range- There is a difference: Search visibilityrange is drat distance at which an object the size of an automobile can be seen and reagnized. Debris, or

DIRECTION OF FLIGHTFiSure 10. General effect of aircraft motion on fixation area.

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bits and pieces, of an aircraft crash may not be as large as an automobile and they may not beimmediately recognizable from the air as parts of an airplane. Therefore, scanning range can be thesame as or shorter than search visibility range.Ifyour pilot states that the search altitude will be 500 feet above gound level (AGL), you can expectyour scanning range to be t/t to t/z mtle. If the search altitude is 1,000 feet AGL, you can expect ascanning range of between t/z and I mile. Even so, there are many variables which affect both theeffective scanning range and your probability of detecting the search objective. We will discuss some of

these variables.r Atmospheric conditions. All aircrews hope for perfect visibility during a SAR mission. Seldomdoes this atnospheric condition exist. Most of the time the atmosphere (especially the loweratmosphere) contains significant amounts of water vapor, dust, pollen, and other panicles. These itemsblock vision according to their density. Of course, the farther we try to see the more particles there areand the more difficult it is to sight the objertive.The urgency of finding a downed aircraft may require flight under marginal conditions of visibility.An example here is flight through very light rain or drizzle. Another example is flight during thesummertime when the air is not moving appreciably: it may become vinually saturated with pollutants.r Position of the sun. Flying "into the sun," soon after it rises in the morning or before it sets in thaftemoon, poses visibiliry problems. No doubt you have had this experience while driving or riding as apassenger in an automobile. Recall how difficult it is to distinguish colors and to detect smaller objects.Research in search and rescue techniques has determined that the best time to fly search sorties isbetween mid-morning and mid-afternoon. This is when the sun is about 30o or more above the horizon.When the sun is below ftis angle, it intensifies visibility problems.As the sun climbs higher in the sky it helps to relieve visibility problems caused by the presence ofparticles in the atmosphere. The sun's rays heat the ground and the atmoshpere. This heat causes thelower atmosphere to expand. As the atmosphere expands the particles it contains are spred farther apart,decreasing their density within a given volume. Therefore, there are fewer particles between the surface

and the scanner's eyes and the effective scanning range is increased slightly.r Clouds and shadows. Shadows produced by clouds can reduce the effective scanning range. Thisis due to the high contast between sunlit area and shadow-our eyes have difficult adjusting to suchcontrasts. The same effect occurs in mountainous area where bright sunlight causes the hills andmountains to cast dark shadows.r Terrain and ground cover. If flat, open, dry areas were the only areas to be searched, the scanner'sjob would be easy. Most aircraft crashes do not happen in such areas; when one does happen, it usuallyis found quickly without an intensive search effort.The more intensive search efforts occur over terrain tlnt is either mountainous or covered with dense

vegetation' or both Mountainous area searches demand frequent variation in the scanning range. Thisyou can visualize fairly easily: at one moment the mountain oi hill places the surface withinlsay i00 feetof the aircraft. Upon flying past the mountain or hilr the surface suddenly may be a half mile away.Forested areas can reduce the effective scanning range dramatically. This is especially true duringspring, summer, and fall when foliage is most pronounced. The situation doesn't change for the better iithe winter where trees are of the evergreen types-pine, spruce, etc. -because the heigit of the trees plustheir.foliage masks the search objective very erectiveiy. Frequently the only wa! for a scanner toacoally spot an objective under such circumstances is to be looiing down almtst virtically. There ariother signs to look for in such areas, but w will discuss them latei_

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o Surface conditions. Here we are thinking to snow, primarily. Even a thin covering of new snowwill change the contour, or shape, of a search objective. Also, the light.reflective quality of snow affectsvisual effectiveness. The net result is a need to bring the scanning range nearer to the aircraft.r Cleanliness of window. This might seem to be a very minor factor to some readers. On the otherhand, it is estimated that the scanner's visibility can be reduced up to 50 percent if the aircraft windowisn't clean. If you discover this to be the case in your aircraft, clean the window yourself. However,aircraft windows are made of plastic and they are easily scratched. Ask the pilot what cleaning materialsand methods are acceptable before cleaning the window.r Condition of the scanner. Your general physical welfare will influence how well you do yourjob.For example, if you have a cold or sinus trouble, you may feel so bad you cannot concenttate onscanning. In effect, this reduces your personal effective scanning range to "zero." Only you candetermine your fitness to fly and do the job expeted of you. If you do not believe that you feel up to thejob at the moment, ask for a non-flying assignment. You will be more highly regarded if you know yourown limits.Our discussion of variables could be extended considerably because most anything which happensduring a sortie could affect the scanning operation. However, the variables of major importance have

been discussed.Exercises ((X)9.):

l.2.

Visibility range is the distance at whichScanning range is the maximum distance at which a scanner is considered to have a good chance3. Very briefly, how do the following variables affect scanning range?a. Position of sun.b. Heat of sun's rays.c. Materials suspended in atmosphere.d. Shadows.Mountains and hills.

Dense vegetation.Snow on ground.Condition of aircraft window.Scanner's physical condition.

Scanning Patterns. As a brief review, a person is able to focus clearly within a relatively small area.This area is described as a l0-degree diameter circle around the point of focus. It is the area of cenlralvision; all else urhich constitutes the total field of ision is peripheral vision.For central vision to be effective, the eye must b forced properly. This focusing process takes placeeach time the eyes, or head and eyes, are moved. Let's introduce a reason for scanners to move theirheads while scanning. Good central vision requires that the eyes be directed straight to the front. Side

looking, in other words, can reduce the effectiveness of central vision. Why? Very simply, the nose getsin the way. Take a moment and focus on an object well to your right, but keep your head straight. Thenclose your right eye. Notice that your central vision was reduced by one-half all long, but you did notrealize it.010. Describe the techniq[es a person should use when frrst learning to scan a line in a professionalmanner.

You can get a very good idea of the extent of central vision by making a fist and holding it at arm'slength, at eye level, and straight ahead. Pick out a focus point which is 25 or more feet away. Move the

e.f.c.h.i.

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aFigure I L The fist held at arm's lenSth approximates the area of central vision.

fist to cover this focus point. Changing your focus from the distant point back to the fist approximatesthe central vision area at the plane of the distant point. (See figure I l.)

Fixation points and line ofscan. When you wish to scan a large area, your eyes must move from onepoint to another, stopping at each point long enough to focus clearly. Each of these points is a frxationpoint. When the fixation points are close enough, the central vision areas will touch or overlap slightly.Consciously moving the fixation poinls along an imaginary straight line produces a band of effective"seeing."Using figure 12 as a guide, try this: Extend your arm at eye level and picture that you are looking

Figure 12. Using the fist to establish fixation points along a line of scan.21


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DIRECTIONOFFLIGHT

._._._::T:i_:.".

Figure 13. The diagonal scanning pattern from riSht-rear window.through the back of your fist. Look "through" your fist and focus your eyes on the center of the areawhich would be covered if you were looking at instead of through your fist. Now move your fist to theright to a position next to and touching the previous area. Again, look "through" your fist and focus onthe center of the fist-sized area on the other side of your fist. If you continue to move your fist along aline, stopping and focusing your eyes on the center of each adjacent fist-sizd area, you will have seeneffectively all of the objects along and near that line. You will have "scanned" the line.

Repeat this process, but this time establish starting and stopping points for the line of scan. Pick outan object on the left as the staning point and an object on the riSht as the stopping Point. Start with theobject on the left. Extend your arm and look through your fist at that object. As practiced before,continue moving your fist to the next position along an imaginary line between the objects. Rememberto stop briefly and focus your eyes. When your eyes reach the object on the right, you will have scannedthe distance between the objecs.

Follow the same procedure but scan between th two objecF v,ithoul usingyour fist as a guide. Moveyour head and eyes to each fixation point as before. Pause just long enough to focus clearly (about I /3second). When you reach the object on the right you will have sunnel the line or area btween the twoobjecs and you will have scanned the line in a professional manner.


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Figure 14. Appro)dmate surface coverage of a diagonal scanning pattern.

You should practice this scanning techniques whenwer possible. This is the exact and most effectivebasic method of visual search that you will use when you are looking out the window of an airplane,attempting to locate the search objective. Remember, the line of scan (or scan line) is a straight linebetween the staning and stopping poins.Exercises (010.):

l. How can you approximate the area of central vision?2. What is a fixation p,oint?3. What is the usual duration of a fixation for SAR purposes?4. How is a line scanned in a professional manner?trield ofscan and scanning patterns. The area which you will search with your eyes in lines of scan iscalled the field of scan. The upper limit of this field is the line which forms the scanning range. Thelower limit is the lower edge ofthe aircraft window, while the aft Oack) limit is usually established bythe venical edge of the aircraft window. The forward (front) limit for a field of scan will vary. It mightbe e,stablished by a part of the airplane (such as a wing strut). Or, when two scanners are working fromthe same side of the airplane, it might be limited by an agreed-to point dividing the field of scan.

011. Given the scat position for a four or six.place aircraft, describe and defend the scrnningpattern which should be used.To cover the field of scan adequately requires that a set pattern of scan lines be used. Research intoscanning techniques has sho\trn that there are two basic patterns which provide the best coverage. Theseare called the diagonal pattern and, the vertical pttern.Figure l3 illustrates the way the diagonal pattern is used when sitting in the right rear seat of a smallairplane. This line is followed from left to right as in reading. The first fixation point is slightly forwardof the aircraft's position. Subsequent fixation points generally follow the line as indicated in figure 13,'\

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SCANNING RANGE'\'-..':.-'''''"'"t"'a''-.;-;-'--i;;-=-*

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FiSure t 5. The diagonal scanning pattern from left'rear windowThe next scan line should be paratlel to the first, and so on. Each succeeding scan line is started asquickly as possible after completing the previous one. Remember, the duration of each fixation Pointalong a scan line is about 18 second. How long it takes to complete one scan line depends on thedistance at which the scanning range has been established. Also, the time required to begin a new scanline has a significant influence on how well the area nearest the airplane is scanned. In other words,more time between starting scan lines means more space between hxation points near the airplane.Figure 14 gives you an idea of the surface coverage obtained with a diagonal scanning pattern.

In figure 15 the diagonal scanning pattern for the lefi rear window is shown. Here, the direction ofscan lines still is from left to right, but each line starts at the scanning range and proceeds toward thefront of the airplane. Each scan line on this side terminates at the window's lower edge.

The second and somewhat less effective scanning pattern is illustrated in figure 16. This pattern isvertical and is basically the same as the example which was shown in figure 9. You should use thisvenical pattern only from a rear-seat position, and the first fixation point should be as near tounderneath the airplane as you can see. Subsequent fixation points for this first scan line should progresoutward to the scanning range and back. Figure l7 reveals the saMooth shape this vertical patternmakes on the surface. Observe how much surface area near the airplane is not covered.24


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?._.T1Tr9jr95. go_ogtlttl7. o4Itt8. oJt++tni i'l10. o1

1\Figure 16. The vertical scanning pa(ern.

If there are two scanners on the same side ofthe airplanes, it is good practice to combine the diagonaland vertical patterns. As agreed between scanners, one would use the diagonal pattern and the other thevertical pattern, However, the scanner using the vertical paftem would not scan to the scanning range.Some distance short ofthe scanning range would be selected as the vertical-pattern limit. This techniqueprovides good coverage of the surface area near the search aircraft.

When flying in the right front seat of an airplane you will use the diagonal pattern. This is truebecause it is the only pattern which has a natural flow to it from this particular position. Because of the

Figure 17. Approximate surface coverage of a verlical scanning pa!!ern.25

"T\


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aircraft's structure, you probably will want to begin your scan line near the line of flight over thesurface. This will be somewhat ahead of the airplane (not much). The angle of the scan line and itslengh will be determined by whatever structural part obstructs your vision. For example, you could usethe window post on some aircraft as either a starting point or stopping point, depending on yourjudgment. If you are in the right front seat of a low-wing model, the wing will be the stopping point.

Scanners, especially those with considerable experience, may use a system or pattem that is differentfrom the diagonal and vertical patterns discussed above. Many sedrch objectives were found and manylives were save.d long before there was an effort to anallze the scanning process and developrecommendations for its improvement. On the other hand, it is possible that Civil Air Patrol'soutstanding search and rescue record would have been better had the scanners of times past used a setpattern and used it consistently.Exercises (011.):

l. when scanning from the right-rear seat of a four-place airplane, you (a) should or (b) should notuse a vertical pattern. Why?2. In a four-place airplane and from the rear seats, what is the difference between the left side andright side diagonal scanning patterns?3. When there.are two scanners on the same side of a six-place airplane and both are behind thepilot and copilot seats, what is (a) the recommended arrangement of visual search patterns and(b) why?

7. SIGHTING CHARACTERISTICSIf you have not had much experience at "looking down" while flying, there are some surprises in

store for you. Objects appear quite different when they are seen from above and at a greater distancethan usuai. Euen if you are very familiar with the territory as seen from the surface, scaning it from theair will reveal features and objects you had no idea were there.

Experience is th best teacher, and you will soon be able to evahute whal you see from the air. Tohelp with your development of this ability, we will present some visual clues, what you might expect inairiraft wieckage pattems, signals which survivors might be expected to use, and some false clues whichare common to selected areas.

012. List and discrss the ten typical visual clues to search objectives'Typical Visual Clues. Anything which appears to be out of the ordinary should be considered a clue

to thejocation of the search objective. In addition to this piece of advice, the following are specific cluesfor which scanners should be looking:l.Ligltcoloredorshinyobjeas.Vinuallyallaircrafthavewhiteorotherlightcolonaspanof.theirpuint sJh".es. Some airirafi have polished aluminum surfaces.. These paint colors and aluminum

surfaces aid the scanner greatly bec;use they provide contrast with the usual surface features. Also,bright sunlight will "flash" from aluminum surfaces.Aircraft windshields and windows, like aluminum, have a reflective quality about them. If the angleof the sun isjust right, you will pick up a momentary flash with either your central or peripheral vision.A flash from any angle deserves further investigation2. Smoke and fire. Sometimes aircraft catch fire when they crash. If conditions are right, the burningairplane may cause forest or grass fires. Survivon of a crash may build a fire to warm dremselves or to


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a signal search aircraft. Campers, hunters, fisherman, and "moonshiners" build fires for their purposes,too; but no matter what the origin or purpose of smoke and fire, each case should be investigated.3. Blackened Areas Fire causes blackened areas, of course. You may have to check many such areas,but finding the search objective will make the effort worthwhile.4. Broken tree branches- If an airplane goes down in a heavily wooded area, it will break tree

branches and perhaps trees. The extend of this breakage will depend on the angle at which the trees werestruck. The primary clue for the scanner, however, will be oolor. As you no doubt realize, the interior ofa tree trunk or branch and the undersides of many types of leaves are light in color. This contrastbetwen the light color and the darker foliage serves as a good clue.5. L,ltcal discoloration of foliage. Here we are talking about dead or dying leaves and needles ofevergreen trees. A crash that is several days old may have discolored a small area in the forest canopy.This discoloration could be the result of either a small fire or broken tree branches.6. Fresh bare earth An aircraft striking the ground at an angle will disturb or "plow" the earth to

some degree. An overflight within a day or so of the event should provide a clue for scanners. Because ofits moisture content, fresh bare earth has a different color and texture than the surrounding, undisturbedearth.7. Break in cultivakd rteld wtterns. Crop farmlands always display a pattem of some type, especiallyduring the growing season. Any disruption of such a pattern should be investigated. A crop such as corncould mask the presence of small aircraft wreckage. Yet the pattern made by the crashing airplane willstand out as a break in uniformity.8. Water qnd snow. Water and snow are not visual clues, but they often contain such clues. Forexample, when an aircraft goes down in water its fuel and probably some oil will rise to the water's

surface making an "oil slick" discoloration. Other material in the aircraft may also discolor the water orfloat as debris. If the aircraft hasn't been under the water very long, air bubles will disturb the surface.Snow readily shows clues. Any discoloration caused by fire, fuel or debris will be very evident. On

the other hand, do not expect easy-to-see clues ifsnow has fallen since the aircraft was reported missing.9. Tracks and signak. Any line of apparent human tracks through snow, grass, or sand should beregarded as possibly those of survivors. Such tracks may belong to hunters, but it pays to follow themuntil the individual is found or you are satisfied with their termination-at a road, for example. If youdo find the originator of such tracks and the person is a survivor, no doubt he will try to signal. Morethan likely this signal will be a frantic waving of the arms.IO. Bitds and animals. Scavenger birds (such as vultures and crows), wolves, and bears may gather ator near a crash site. Vultures (or buzzards) sense the critical condition of an injured person and gathernearby to await the person's death. If you see these birds or animals in a group, search the areathoroughly.Fatse Clues. In addition to the false clues of camp fires and other purposely set fires, there are othrsofwhich you should be aware: Oil slicks may have been caused by spillage from shipa. All aircraft partsmay not have been removed from other crash sites. Some of the aircraft parts may have been marked(with a yellow "X"), but you may not b6 able to see the mark until near the site because the paint hasfaded or worn off with age.In certain parts of the country, you will encounter many false clues where you would not ordinarilyexpect to see them. These false clues are discarded refrigerators, stoves, vehicls and pieces of othermetal, such as tin roofing. What makes thes false clues unique is that they are in areas far from other


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signs of civilization. Remember, however, that all clues must be investigated thoroughly. Do not get intothe habit of deciding too early ihat a clue is false.Exercises (012.):List ten visual clues presented in the text (not necessarily in the order of presentation):l.13.4.5.

6.7.

013, Given the description of an aircraft wreckage pattern, plovide th name of the pattern.Aircraft Wreckage Patterns, Missing aircraft usually have crashed. Occasionally, however, a pilot

manages to land or crash-land the airplane and it is intact or almost intact. In these rare instancs, youwill see an airplane that looks like an airplane.Most crashes end up looking like hastily discarded trash. Some fragments may be recognized as phrtsof an airplane, but they will be scattered in a pattem according to the angle and force of impact. CivilAir Patrol has assigned descriptive titles to these various patterns:l. Hole-in-the-ground. As the title implies the airplane has gone into the ground nose.first and(usually) at high speed. The result is a deep hole with dirt and debris scattered around the hole in a fairlysmall, circular area. A modified hole-in-the-ground type impact also occurs when an airplane flies intothe side of a mountain. Here, however, most of the din and debris falls or slides down the mountainside.The steepness of the mountain affects the amount of pattern distonion.If this type entry occurs is wooded terrain, the wreckage will be difficult to see. This is becaus verylittle disturbance of foliage takes place.2. Corkscrew, or Aager. This pattern occurs when the airplane is in an uncontrollable spin. It impacts

the surface while following a flight path that would look like a corkscrew if it were traced.At the site of impact there is extensive wreckage, but it remains in a small area. Also, it may still looklike an airplane if the impact is in open gound. There .l ill be considerable damage to branches andtrees in a forest, but the area of such damage will be small.3. Creaning or Srnear. This pattern is formed when an airplane strikes the ground at high speed, butin a more or less landing attitude. In fact, a high-speed, attempted landing may result in this typepattern.Aircraft wreckage distribution is long and narrow, with the heaviest pars farthest from the point offirst impact. Near the point of impact will be found the battered but recognizable tail and possibly the

wings. Speed and the flatness of open terrain may cause this crash pattem to be modihed by skipping-somewhat like a flat stone that is thrown across water. In wooded areas, damage to the trees isconsiderable. Confirming the wreckage may be diflicult because it will be scattered among the trees.4. The Four Mnds. Midair collision, midair explosion, and flight into tornadic winds cause thispattem. Aircraft parts are scattered over a wide area. But the parts are small and interior (reflective)surfaces are exposed. These numerous and reflective small parts actually make the scannem'job easier.Small parts over a large area are easier to see, generally speaking.5. Hedge-Triruning. This describs the ricochet effect of an aircraft striking the crest of a hill or ridge

8.9.10.

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and continuing on to impact at some distance beyond. If trees are present, their tops will be trimmed. Ifno trees are present, the ground at the crest of the hill will be slightly scarred.It is at this first impact point where aircraft components may be seen. These componens may be thecraft's landing gear, external fuel tanks, control surfaces, or other items easily dislodged by light impact.

Exercises (013,):The following are descriptions of aircraft wreckage patterns. Supply the name of the pattern described.l. Extensive wreckage in small area. If it is in open terrain, the wreckage may still look like anairplane.2. Wreckage distribution is long and narrow. Heaviest parts are farthest from first point of impact.3. Relatively small pieces scattered over very wide area.4. Din and aircraft debris located within small circle.

Survivors and Signals. If there are survivors and if they are capable of doing so, they will attempt tosignal you. The type signal the survivors use will depend on how much they know about th process andwhat q?e signaling devices are available to them.014, ldentify al least three signaling tchniques which survivors might use; and discuss themsterials and mthods survivors could use to construct messages.

The following are signaling techniques which survivors might use:l. A fire. Most paple carry some means of starting a fire. And a fire probably will be the survivor'sfirst attempt at signaling. The smoke and/or flame of a fire are easy to see from the air, as we pointed outearlier.2. A group on three fires. Three fires forming a triangle is an international distress signal.3. Red snoke, white snoke, or orange *noke. Colored smoke is discharged by some types of signaling

devices, such as flares. Other flares are rocket types; some send up a small parachute to which amegnesium flare is attached.4. Signal mirron. If the sun is shining, this type signal may be used. This special signal mirrorincludes instructions to the survivor on how to aim the signal at the search aircraft.5. Panek on the grcund. This type signal can be formed with white panels or with colored panelsespecially designed for the purpose. Of course, survivors may be able to arrange aircraft parts as a signal.6. Messoges. There are a number of methods and materials which survivors can use to construct

messages. In snow, sand, and gassy areas, survivors may use their feet to stamp out simple messages,such as HELP or SOS. More than likely such mssages will be formed with rocks, tree branches,driftwood, or any other similar materials. Such materials may also be used to construct standardground-to-air signals. These signals are familiar to military and professional civilian pilots, includingCAP pilots. Ground-to-air signals are illustrated in CAP Manual 5O-15, Energency Servicet and youare encouraged to learn to identi$ those signals which survivors might use.7. Niglxtime signak. For various reasons, nighttime searches are very infrequent. If you are requestedto scan for, a nightime sortie, your job will be easy. Flight will be at 3,000 feet AGL, or higher, and willnot need to use the scannings patterns discussed earlier.Light signals of some type will be the only clue to the search objective's location. A fire or perhaps a

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flashlight will be the survivor's means of signaling. On the other hand, a light signal ned not be verybrighq one survivor used the flint spark of his cigarette lighter as a signal. His signal was seen and he wasrescued.Exercises (014.):

l. What is the means and method of preparing an international distres signal-a signal which iseasily seen day or night?2. If the sun is shining, survivors might use a special signaling device. What is the name of thisdevice?3. Without using materials, how could survivors construct messages in sand or snow?4. What typs of materials could survivors use to construct messages?

t. PROBABILITY OF DETECTIONBefor a search mission gets airborne, each aircrew has a good idea of how much effon will berequired to locate the search objective if it is in the assigned search area. This effort, expressed as a

percentage, is theprobability ofdetection, or POD, As a scanner, you may be required to establish a PODfor your aircrew's next sortie.This section prepares you to establish a POD. Establishing a POD is a relatively simple task, but youwill be better prepared to do thejob if you first understand some terms and conditions which affect thePOD.

015. Defrne the terms plesented,Terms Defined. The following terms are associated with determining the probability of detection.a, Meteorological visibility. This is the maximum range at which large objects, such as a mountain,can be seen.b. Smrchv$bility. Search visibility is the distance at which an object the size of an automobile on theground can be seen and recognized from an aircraft in flight. Search visibility always is less thanmeteorological visibility.c. Scanning range. This is the lateral distance from a scanner's search aircraft to an imaginary line on

the ground parallel to the search aircraft's ground track. Within the area formed by the ground track andscanning range, the scanner is expected to have a good chance at spotting the search objective.d. Ground trqck. This an imaginary line on the ground which is made by an aircraft's flight path overthe gound.e. Search track. The search track is an imaginary swath across dre surface, or ground. Its dimensionsare formed by rhe scanning range and the lenglh of the aircraft's fround track.f. Track spacing. This is the distance between adjacent ground tracks. The ideal here is for eachsearch track to either touch or slightly overlap the previous one. It is the pilot's task to navigate so thatthe aircraft's ground track develops proper track spacing.g. Possibility area. This area is drawn on a map with its focus at the last known position (LKP) of themissing aircraft. Many factors are considered before establishing a possibility area, but it is the largestgeographic area in which the aircraft might be found.h. Probobility arca. This is the geographic area within which a missing aircraft is most likely to be

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OPEN, FLAT TERRAINSEARCHALTITUDE(AGL)300 Ft.

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2miTrackSpacing

1.0152.0

10% 15% 25% 30%510 15 t55510 l02555l- uo*r--lF----i---------------I 5 mi I 10i6 205 3@! 30t II '" I r 10 1s r. IL. 5 s to ,oI| .o l. ' 'o 'olr,ofi-lI u-' ,*ro*..*lI ;: l: :;;: I| ,.0 lu . 'o 'oll- 'oo. Ft-lI u., 1,.****lLo I r ro 15 "olI ;:: l:': ;: ;l

[_-5dF,-lLu -' | ,o .uru u* u* ll;': l': :::;l| .o l. 'o,u 'ulf;0.,-lI .., lr*.u*u*u*lLo Iro 20 30 .ul| ;; l': ;;: ::ll-Td;-lI .., | ,o ooo, uu* *, ILo 1,, 20 30 ". II r. l,o 15 20 ,. I| .o lu 'o 'u ,olSingle-sarch probability of detection

l- *"r' Il-----i---------------lI s mi I 35% 6046 75% 75% II '" lro 35 50 *lL, 1,. 2s 3s *l| ,o I'o . * ,l|-,d;-lLu., I oo u* ro .* |I ro l"o 3s so .. 1L. ]ru 25 40 nol| ,o ]'0,o * *ll-,o00;-lLu .' I o* ** .or, ,u* II 'o lr, 1,o ss *lL. Iru 30 ro *l| ,; 1,.,.." *l

Figure 18.

found. It is a refindment of the possibility area and it is determind from clues-distress signals, reponsfrom individuals, ELTs, radar pilots, etc.Exerciscs (015.):

l. What is the difference between search iibility Md meteorclagical isibility?2. The imaginary line on the ground "made" by an aircraft's flight path over the ground is called the3. Which is larger, the probcbility aru or the pssibility area?Using P|OD Cha s. The actual task of determining the probability of detection (POD) isaccomplished through the use of two specially des@ed charts. One of thes charts is for a single searchof an assigned area, while the other chart is for multiple searches of the same area.

016. Given spproprist data and using ligures lE and 19, establish single-scarch and cumulativePtODs.

To rse the chart shown in figure 18 you must have certain information, or data. You must know whattype terrain is in the search area, whether it is flat or hilly, and whether it is open or tre-covered. Thenyou must know the search visibility, the planned sezrch altitude, and the fack spacing. We emphasize"planned" because search altitude and track spacing may be changed once you are in the search area.

31


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1520 253040 45 50 6050 55 60 65 7060 65 65 70 75 8070 70 75 80 80 85 9080 80 80 85 85 90 90 9585 85 90 90 90 95 95 95 95+

Previous orCumulativePOD5-1096

11-2lyh21-3W31-40%41-509651-60%61-70%71-ae/o

80+5-10q6 11-2@/o 21-3@/o 31-40q6 41-50% 51-60% 61-70p/o 71-806 80+

POD THIS SEARCHFigure 19. Cumulative probability of detection chart.

As an example POD problem, let's suppose that you have been assigned to a search area which hasmoderate tree cover and low hills. It is summertime, the trees are in full foliage. Mission supervisonhave determined that the search altitude should be 700 feet above ground level (AGL). They also havedetermined that the track spacing should be one-half mile and that the search visibility is three miles.

The center column in figure I 8 is the one to use because the uppermost block sals "moderate treecover and/or hilly." Going down the column you find the search altitude block of "700 ft." Directlyundemeath it is ".5 mi" for fack spacing. Now, back at the top of the column you see a large "SearchVisibility" block which contains miles designations. Follow straight down the "3 mi" designation untilyou are directly across from the 700 ft., .5 mi. point located earlier. At this intersection you see that theprobability of detecting the airplane is 507o on an initial search of the area.Your aircrew completes the first search of the area but you do not find the missing airplane. Mission

supewisors decide that a second search is justified. What is the POD for this next flight?Search visibility hasn't changed; search altitude and track spacing will be the same as before.Therefore, the POD for this second search will be identical to that of the first search. A second search

over the same area improves the chances of spotting the objective, but the dznulative POD chaft mr,slbeused to find out how much improvement will be realized.

Figure l9 shows the cumulative POD chart. To use it, locate your previous POD within the left-hand"Previous or Cumulative POD" column. In this instance, it would be the *41-5Q7o" range. Next, findthe POD for this search within the row at the boftom of the chan. This POD also is in the ^41-50%"range. Reading across from the column and up from the bottom row, find the POD for this search. It is7O, for 7O% .

Let's try a third flight over the same area and see what our cumulative POD will be. The searchsituation hasn't changed so our POD for this search still will be 50% . The previous cumulative POD was7Q% (locate 61-7O% in the left column) and this search will have a 50% POD (locate the 4l -50% in thebottom row). Our cumulative POD for this third flight is 80% (at the intersection of 6l-70% and4l -50% ). Notice that each search of the area adds less and less to the cumulative POD; our third searchof the area added only l0% to the cumulative POD.

In practice the scanner or observer will use the single search POD chan for each sonie. Thecumulative POD is the mission coordinator's concern, and it will be accomplished by the mission32


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12

Figure 20. The clock po6itions.coordinator or his designee. (Ihe mission coordinator has to know the cumulative POD so that aiudgment can be made as to the need for additional sorties into an area.) However, familiarity with thecumulative POD chart is recommended for the aircrew so that they will undentand why an area issearched again and again. For example, the ground cover and terrain in an area may be such that onesearch produces only a 15% POD. In this type terrain it would take nine searches of the same area toobtain an 85% cumutative POD!Exercises (016.):

I . The search area is open, flat terrain. Search visibility is more than four mils. Search altitude willbe 1,000 feet with one mile track spacing. what is the POD for tlis first search of the assignedarea? (Use figure 18.)2. The POD for the last search of an area was 65%. The POD for this search, over the same area, is457a. What is the cumulative POD? (Use figure 19.)

9. COMMUNICATION OF SIGHTING TO PILOTLet's imagine that you are in the air over the assigned search area. You are performing your jobefficiently. Suddenly, your peripheral vision detects a flash of light. It came from the right, toward therear of the airplane.-You direct your head and eyes to the general area. There it is again; it miSht becoming from a survivor's signal mirror. How do you tell the pilot? First, you luse the clock Psition toestablish the clue's direction with regard to the airplane's direction of flight. Then, while keeping your

eyes glued to the area of the possible search objective, you call out small directional changs. Thesedirectional changes are needed to get close to the clue without turning past it.017, Using the standard clock position, state th location of objects in relation to the aircraft.

The Clock Positions. Figure 20 shows the standard clock positions. This system is used to described33


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the relative positions of everything outside the airplane. The system considers the clock positions to beon a horizontal plane which is centered within the cockpit. Any object above or below this plane iseither "high" or "low."Imagine younelf in the right rear seat of the airplane shown in figure 20. Straight ahead is the twelveo'clock position; straight to the rear is six o'clock. In a real-life situation you probably would be able to

see as far ahead as the one o'clock position and as far to the right rear as five o'clock. (One caution:never divide the clock positions into minutes. There is no such thing as a four-fifteen position, forexample.)

If you occupy the left-rear seat of the airplane, your clock positions probably will be seven o'clockthrough eleven o'clock. In either the right-rear or left-rear seat, the further designation "low" is not usedfor objects on the ground. They are low, but this is understood.The clock positions are especially helpful in designating the location of other aircraft within your

area of the airspace. Your pilot needs to see all other airplanes in the area so that he can keep clear ofthem. If you do see another airplane notify the pilot immediately. This time the high and lowdesignations are appropriate, if the other airplane is considerably high or low than your altitude. Forexample, an airplane that is directly ahead but above your altitude should be called out as, "aircrafttwelve o'clock high."Directing the Pllor, Going back to the imaginary situation decribed in the introduction to thissection, let's say that the flash of light came from the right rear, somewhere near the four o'clockposition. You call out "possible at four o'clock." The pilot starts an immediate, medium-bank turn tothe right. The pilot knows the four o'clock position but his concept and your concept of this positionmay not be exactly the same. It looks as if the pilot might swing past luar four o'clock. Now what? Don'tlet it happen! Say something like "straight and level," or "stop turn," or "wings level." The pilot will getthe idea.Getting close to the area of your clue will require small adjustments to direction. Again, tell the pilotwhat to do. Pilots are accustomed to turning according to numbers of degrees, as shown by the aircraftcompass, so you might want to say "five degrees right," or "ten degrees right." The pilot will turn thenumber of degrees you speci$, level off and hold the heading.If you see what seems to be the search objective, again give the clock position plus other helpfulinformation, such as "near clump of trees." The pilot will bank the airplane and descend to a loweraltitude. At this lower altitude identification may be possible. If the clue turns out to be the searchobjective, mission headquaners will be notihed by radio. Your search aircrew will try to remain in thearea to direct ground teams to the site. If the clue is not the search objective, your pilot will retum to thesearch track.When your aircrew team locates a search objective, your scanning duties change. You no longer scanthe ground, but you are expected to keep a sharp lookout for other aircraft. The pilot and observer willbe very busy flying the airplane at low level and communication with other mission units. Theperoccupation of the pilot and observer, plus the tendency of other aircraft to congregate at a crash site,leaves to scanners a responsibility for keeping clear of other aircraft.The scanner's job of looking and seeking is not over until the airplane is back at missionheadquarters. This is tru whether or not the mission objective is located.

Exercise (017.):I . While in the left-rear seat of an airplane, any object to your direct left is at the

-o'clockposition.2. Directly to the front of an airplane is the

-o'clock position.


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3.4. Directly to the rear of a airplane is the

-o'clock position.While in the right-rear seat of an airplane, any object lo your direct right is at theo'clock position.

10. THE DEBRTEFINGProviding information to the debriefer at the conslusion of each sortie is the scanner's last offical

task.First, what is debriefing and what role does it play in the tolal SAR mision? During the missionbriefing everything known about the search situation is passed on to the air search teams and the groundsearch teams. In the debriefing, the reverse is true. Each search team (air to ground) tells how it did itsjob and what it saw. This g,pe of information is given in detail and is according to spcific questionsasked by the debriefer.018. Discuss the scanner's contributions to debriIings.

Form llX. The CAP Form 104 Mission Flight Plan/Briefing, is not the scanner's responsibility. Thepilot or the observer makes entries on this form, and the reverse side of the form is very imPortant to thedebriefer.The debriefer uses what is shown on the reverse side of the Form 104 as a starting Point for thedebriehng. For example, more information on search area weather conditions may be needed, and youshould be ready to volunteer your observations. Perhaps you noticed an increase in cloud shadows.

Perhaps visibility seemed to deteriorate because of haze which developed after your team arrived in thesearch area. Any number of weather factors could have changed while your flight was on its sortie. Tomake the best contribution to the debriefing requires that you remember these changes and be preparedto tell the debriefer about them. However, remembering weather conditions is only one item amongmany that you will need to remember.

Specific Questions, We cannot predict exactly what your debriefer will ask because each debrieferhas his or her own method of doing the job. We do know that debriefers are expected to gatherinformation about specific events and conditions encountered during the sortie. We will phrasequestions of this nature as the debriefing officer might ask them:. Did you notice anything which might be hazardous? The debriefer wants you to think back toeverything that happened during the sortie. For example, see if you can remember anyhing on the flightline which seemed to be an unsafe practice. If you saw flocks of birds anywhere during the flight, say soand try to remember where they were. Birds pose a special haz ard to aircraft and the larger the bird themore trouble it can make. This is particularly true of geese, ducks, and egrets.

Although you may not have discovered anlthing which seemed hazardous, do not hesitate tovolunteer other information. No one is going to laugh at what you may think is "silly" because allinformation is important. Every small bit of information becomes a part of the large search picture, andyour observations, ideas, and opinions help toward completing the picture. So, to any question that thedebriefer might ask, answer with specifics but volunteer other information that comes to mind.. Did you make any changes to the planned search procedure? The debriefer's primary interest in

search procedure changes is search coverage. If, for example, your crew diverted frequently to examineclues, there is a good possibility that search coverage was not adequate and another sortie is jusdfied. Ifyou became excessively tired and rested your eyes frequently, tell the debriefer. Everyone understandsthe degree of fatigue a scanner can experience. But let's face it, when eye-rest periods have been frequentgood scanning coverage has not ben accomplished. This could be a justification for another sortie.

o What B?es of clues did you investigate? The debriefer may believe that you investigated each clue,35


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but he needs to know whether this is true. Perhapc a ctue seemed o insignificant your aircrew dccided' not to waste time. Describe the clues which were investigated.and founO to Ue fatse. Pinpoint these onhe debriefer's map, ifyou can. This information beromJ part of the brifing for other aircrervs becauseit can kep thern from wasting time at investigating the same false clues.When the debriefer is satisfied that all pertinent information has been noted, you will be disrnissed.Now what should you do? Obviousty, you will need rest. If you are scheduled for another sonic, ftnd

someplace to rest. Close your eyes, Try to slep, if there is time to do so.The mission will be closed when the search objective is located. At this time mision personnel retumto their homes. If the search objective has not bcen found but the mission coordinato; detennins rhatfurther searches would be unwarranted, the mission will be suspended, When a mission is suspended itmeans that it may be reopened if additional clues are received. Even so, all mission personneiretum totheir homes and wait for the next mission alert.As a qualified cAP scanner you may be called to mission duty at any time. This may not beconvenient to your personal plans, but it has its reward. Your chance to help another human being stayalive is the greatest reward anyone can experience.

Exerciscs (018.):How can a scanner help the debrieferl. evaluate wather conditions in the search area?2. identify locations of false clues?3. determine whether or not search coverage $as adequare?4. toward improving flight safety?

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Answers lor Exerclgeo

Reference: b. Do not touch.c. Keep clear.001 -1. A systematic method of looking for 005-2. When told to do so bythe pilot.downed aircraft, or other objecs. 005 . 3. Black, non-skid material and/or a clearly001 - 2. To maintain constant eye contact with the identifiable step.ground. 005 - 4. a. Do not touch.001 -3., To provide full-time scanning service for b. Fasten or buckle the seat belt.the sarch aircrew; to sight the search 005 -5. a. Try to extinguish the fireobjective. b. Get away.005 - 6. a. Help other aircrew members.002- 1. a. The "corporation" team. b. Getout and away from the airplane.b. The region team.c. The wing team. 006 - l. To provide all available information tod. The squadron team. mision personnel.e. The flight team. 006 - 2. The pilot.f. The SAR mission team. 006 - 3. To avoid an unnecessary "search within ag. Thegroundteam. search."h. Th aircrew team. 006 - 4. Safety.OO2-2. The pilot. 006 - 5. Srand clear.003 - l. a. Cessna 172, Skyhawk; 007 - l. Ten degres.b. Cesna 152; 007 -2. 180.c. Helio Courier; 007 - 3. 160.d. deHavilland Beaver; 007 - 4. Central; peripheral.e. deHavilland Otter;f. Piper PA- 18, Super Cub; 008 - 1. It becomes larger and more elliptical.g. Champion 7EC-A; 008 - 2. Four.h. Cessna 305, Bird Dog. 008 - 3. It distorts the pattern.003 - 2. a. Piper PA 28- 180, Cherokee; 009 - I . An object the size of an automobile canb. Beech T-34, Mentor. be seen and recognized.033 - 3. a. Helio Courier. 009 - 2. Sighting the search objective.b. deHavilland Beaver. 009-3. a. F$ing "into" the sun reduces thec. deHavilland Otter. ability to distinguish colors and see003 . 4. There is room for only one scanner. small objects.

b. Heat from the sun expands the lower004 - t . a. The wings-provide lift. atmospher

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CAP Scanner Course (1995)

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