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CARBON STEEL
Carbon steel, also called plain-carbon steel is steel where the main
alloying constituent is carbon. The American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) defines carbon steel as: "Steel is considered to be carbon steel
when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium,
cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium
or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired
alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not
exceed 0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for
any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages
noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper0.60.
The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not
stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels.
As the carbon content rises, steel has the ability to become harderand stronger
through heat treating, but this also makes it less ductile. Regardless of the
heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon
steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
Eighty-five percent of all steel used in the United States is carbon steel.
TYPES OF CARBON STEEL
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Carbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content
Mild and low carbon steel
Mild steel is the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low
while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many
applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15% carbon
and mild steel contains 0.160.29% carbon, therefore it is neither brittle
norductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap
and malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.
It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as
structural steel. The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3
(0.284 lb/in3
) and the Young's modulus is 210,000 MPa (30,000,000 psi).
Low carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two
yield points. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the
second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low
carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower
yield point then the surface may develop Lder bands.
HIGHER CARBON STEELS
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon
content in the range of 0.301.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various
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otherelements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting
steel. Trace amounts ofsulfurin particular make the steel red-short. Low
alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and
melts around 1,4261,538 C (2,5992,800 F). Manganese is often added
to improve the hardenability of low carbon steels. These additions turn the
material into a low alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of
carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL
Approximately 0.300.59% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and
has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive
components.
HIGH CARBON STEEL
Approximately 0.60.99% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs and
high-strength wires.
Ultra-high carbon steel
Approximately 1.02.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great
hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives,
axles orpunches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content are
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made using powder metallurgy. Note that steel with a carbon content
above 2.0% is considered cast iron.
HEAT TREATMENT
Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for
certain types of heat treatments.
MAIN ARTICLE: HEAT TREATMENT
The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties
of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance.
Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are slightly altered. As
with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's modulus is
unaffected. Steel has a higher solid solubility for carbon in the austenite
phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process
annealing, start by heating to an austenitic phase. The rate at which the
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steel is cooled through the eutectoid reaction affects the rate at which
carbon diffuses out of austenite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will
give a finerpearlite (until the martensite critical temperature is reached)
and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid
(less than 0.77 wt% C) steel results in a pearlitic structure with -ferrite at
the grain boundaries. If it is hypereutectoid (more than 0.77 wt% C) steel
then the structure is full pearlite with small grains ofcementite scattered
throughout. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever
rule. Here is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:
Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately
700 C for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but
the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled
process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite within
primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the
eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and
allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel.
The image to the right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs.[10]
Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 C above Ac3 or Ac1
for 1 hour; this assures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although
cementite might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the
eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 38 C
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(100 F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is
turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic
structure, which means the "bands" ofpearlite are thick. Fully-annealed
steel is soft and ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary
for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more
ductile.[11]
Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon
steel with less than 0.3 wt% C. The steel is usually heated up to 550
650 C for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 C. The
image rightward shows the area where process annealing occurs.
Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated
above the upper critical temperature and this temperature is maintained for
a time and then the temperature is brought down below lower critical
temperature and is again maintained. Then finally it is cooled at room
temperature. This method rids any temperature gradient.
Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 C above Ac3 or Acm
for 1 hour; this assures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The
steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 C (68
F) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-
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uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed
steel; it has a relatively high strength and ductility.
Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing
temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to
the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the
carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content
increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that
possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered
cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered
tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is
extremely hard butbrittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These
internal stresses cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is
approximately three to four (with more carbon) fold harder than
normalized steel.[13]
Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering
procedure, hence the term "marquenching". It is a form of isothermal heat
treatment applied after an initial quench of typically in a molten salt bath at
a temperature right above the "martensite start temperature". At this
temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some
bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time
to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control
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the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the
ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this
solution until the inner and outer temperatures equalize. Then the steel is
cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not
only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also
increases the impact resistance.[14]
Quench and tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered,
because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature
and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to
a temperature below the eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated
temperature allows very small amounts of spheroidite to form, which
restores ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are
carefully chosen for each composition.[15]
Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except
the steel is held in the molten salt bath through the bainite transformation
temperatures, and then moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a
greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion. The
disadvantage of austempering is it can only be used on a few steels, and it
requires a special salt bath.[16]
CASE HARDENING
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Main article: Case hardening
Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a
hard, wear resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile
interior. Carbon steels are not very hardenable; therefore wide pieces
cannot be thru-hardened. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they
can through-harden and do not require case hardening. This property of
carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear
characteristics but leaves the core tough.
PROPERTIES OF CARBON STEEL
Steel is an alloy formed between the union of iron and smaller amounts of
carbon. Carbon seems to the most appropriate material for iron to bond with.
Carbon works as a strengthening instrument in steel; it further solidifies the
structures inherent in iron. By tinkering with the different amounts of carbon
present in the alloy, many variables can be adjusted such as density, hardness
and malleability. Increasing the level of carbon present will make the steel more
structurally delicate, but also harder at the same time.
Steel is more or less classified by its inherent carbon content. High-carbon steel
is traditionally used for fashioning cutting tools and dies because one of its
distinguishing features is great hardness. Steel with a lower to medium level of
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carbon will typically be reserved for metal sheeting for use in construction, due
to its increased hardness and malleability.
There are additional types of steel alloys which prominently feature carbon.
Alloy steels, are composed of iron, carbon and any additional element(s) that
grants the alloy specific qualities. They are:
Aluminum steel visually very striking and downy with a high tensile
strength.
Chromium steel Strong, dense and highly malleable; this alloy finds use
in automobile and airplane construction.
Nickel steel One of the most commonly used alloys; possesses no
magnetic properties and possesses the tensile strength of high-carbon
steel but lacking its frailty.
Nickel-chromium Used in constructing armor, a very shock resistant
alloy.
Stainless steel An English born alloy, it is extremely strong and
resistant to most scuffing, deterioration and oxidation.
There are additional alloys with even more interesting properties and uses out
there in circulation. It might be interesting to note that at least 85% of all the
steel used in the United States is in fact Carbon Steel; in other words, its
everywhere.
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THE METALLURGY OF CARBON STEEL
The best way to understand the metallurgy of carbon steel is to study
the Iron Carbon Diagram. The diagram shown below is based on the
transformation that occurs as a result of slow heating. Slow cooling
will reduce the transformation temperatures; for example: the A1 point
would be reduced from 723C to 690 C. However the fast heating and
cooling rates encountered in welding will have a significant influence
on these temperatures, making the accurate prediction of weld
metallurgy using this diagram difficult.
Austenite This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high
temperature. It has a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure
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which can contain up to 2% carbon in solution.
Ferrite This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C)
which can hold very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room
temperature. It can exist as either: alpha or delta ferrite.
Carbon A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into
clusters of iron atoms. It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to
harden by heat treatment. It also causes major problems for welding
, particularly if it exceeds 0.25% as it creates a hard microstructure
that is susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Carbon forms compounds
with other elements called carbides. Iron Carbide, Chrome Carbide
etc.
Cementite Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard
intermetallic compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the
remainder iron, its chemical symbol is Fe3C. Cementite is very
hard, but when mixed with soft ferrite layers its average hardness
is reduced considerably. Slow cooling gives course perlite; soft
easy to machine but poor toughness. Faster cooling gives very
fine layers of ferrite and cementite; harder and tougher
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Pearlite A mixture of alternate
strips of ferrite and cementite in a
single grain. The distance between
the plates and their thickness is
dependant on the cooling rate of the
material; fast cooling creates thin
plates that are close together and
slow cooling creates a much coarser
structure possessing less toughness.
The name for this structure is
derived from its mother of pearl
appearance under a microscope. A
fully pearlitic structure occurs at
0.8% Carbon. Further increases in
carbon will create cementite at the
grain boundaries, which will start to
weaken the steel.
Cooling of a steel below 0.8% carbon When a steel solidifies
it forms austenite. When the temperature falls below the A3
point, grains of ferrite start to form. As more grains of ferrite
start to form the remaining austenite becomes richer in carbon.
At about 723C the remaining austenite, which now contains
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0.8% carbon, changes to pearlite. The resulting structure is a
mixture consisting of white grains of ferrite mixed with darker
grains of pearlite. Heating is basically the same thing in reverse.
Martensite If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C
structure rapidly changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the
carbon to form pearlite. This results in a distorted structure that has
the appearance of fine needles. There is no partial transformation
associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesnt. However,
only the parts of a section that cool fast enough will form
martensite; in a thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and
if the shape is complex it may only form in small pockets. The
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hardness of martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is
normally very high, unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.
Tempering The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation
can be released by heating the steel below the A1 transformation
temperature. This release of carbon from nucleated areas allows the
structure to deform plastically and relive some of its internal
stresses. This reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also
tends to reduce tensile strength. The degree of tempering is
dependant on temperature and time; temperature having the greatest
influence.
Annealing This term is often used to define a heat treatment
process that produces some softening of the structure. True
annealing involves heating the steel to austenite and holding for
some time to create a stable structure. The steel is then cooled very
slowly to room temperature. This produces a very soft structure, but
also creates very large grains, which are seldom desirable because15
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of poor toughness.
Normalising Returns the structure back to normal. The steel is
heated until it just starts to form austenite; it is then cooled in air.
This moderately rapid transformation creates relatively fine grains
with uniform pearlite.
Welding If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted
against the carbon equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of
transformation and heat treatments will be observed.
Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration, in
reality it will be heavily distorted because of the rapid heating and cooling
rates involved in the welding process.
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a)
b)
c)
d)
Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1,
therefore microstructure not significantly affected.
Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature
available to exceed the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains
transform to Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed grains
will be normalised.
Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation.
On cooling all grains will be normalised
Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to
grow. On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and
a course pearlite will form inside the grains. A course grain
structure is more readily hardened than a finer one, therefore if
the cooling rate between 800C to 500C is rapid, a hard
microstructure will be formed. This is why a brittle fracture is
most likely to propagate in this region.
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Welds The metallurgy of a weld is very
different from the parent material. Welding
filler metals are designed to create strong and
tough welds, they contain fine oxide particles
that permit the nucleation of fine grains.
When a weld solidifies, its grains grow from
the course HAZ grain structure, further
refinement takes place within these course
grains creating the typical acicular ferrite
formation shown opposite.
Recommended Reading
Metals and How To Weld Them :- Lincoln Arc Foundation
A very cheap hard backed book covering all the basic essentials
of welding metallurgy.
Welding Metallurgy Training Modules:- (Devised by The
Welding Institute of Canada) Published in the UK by Abington
Publishing. Not cheap but the information is clearly represented
in a very readable format.
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References
Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel, archived from the original on
2010-03-11, http://www.webcitation.org/5o9SDyEAb, retrieved 2010-03-
11.
^ Knowles, Peter Reginald (1987), Design of structural steelwork(2nd ed.),
Taylor & Francis, p. 1, ISBN9780903384599,
http://books.google.com/books?id=U6wX-3C8ygcC&pg=PA1.
^Engineering fundamentals page on low-carbon steel
^ Elert, Glenn,Density of Steel,
http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/KarenSutherland.shtml, retrieved
2009-04-23 .
^ Modulus of Elasticity, Strength Properties of Metals - Iron and Steel,
http://www.engineersedge.com/manufacturing_spec/properties_of_metals_
strength.htm, retrieved 2009-04-23 .
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Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006), Foundations of Materials Science
and Engineering(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN0-07-295358-6.
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Categories: Steels | Metallurgical processes
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