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Summary report adapted from
O’Regan, Maura (2009)
Career pursuit: towards an understanding of
undergraduate students’ orientation to career
University of Reading PhD Thesis
This report is for internal use and circulation within the University of Reading
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1. Introduction
This report is based on a longitudinal, interpretive study conducted at the University of
Reading which explores undergraduate students’ transition into higher education and
subsequent orientation towards their career and prospective future employment. The
literature on career theory focuses on transition points from school to work (Hodkinson &
Sparkes, 1997; Roberts, 1997) but not on the transition into university, which involves
developing a new undergraduate student identity (Christie, 2009). Research into the careers
of young people has explored the career decision-making process (Germeijs & Verschueren,
2006; Hodkinson, Sparkes & Hodkinson, 1996, Hodkinson, & Sparkes, 1997) whereas this
study takes a holistic view of career development which encapsulates lifelong
developmental (Super, 1980; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) and learning processes
(Krumboltz, 1994; Law, 1996; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992). The Leitch Review (2006)
presented a vision of a highly skilled work force which would drive innovation, leadership
and management enabling businesses to compete in a global economy. Therefore, the focus
on generic and transferable skills prevalent in the past gave way to a more managed
employability agenda with employability described
…as a set of achievements, understandings and personal attributes that
make individuals more likely to gain employment and be successful in
their chosen occupations. (Knight & Yorke, 2004, p.9)
Universities reacted to this employability agenda by introducing credit-bearing careers
education/career management skills modules as either optional or compulsory elements to
the higher education curriculum (Foskett & Johnston, 2006). Inherent in this strategic focus
on graduate employment and employability is the expectation that all young people in
transition to university will know what they want to do post graduation and are willing to
engage in thinking and planning for that eventuality. There is also an assumption that all
undergraduates share the same interpretation of what a career is. However, research shows
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that the term ‘career’ is complex, means different things to different people, has surplus
meanings (Hall, 2002) and is ‚forged in what persons do and what they avoid doing, the
decisions made or not made‛ (Herr, 1990, p.4). The study which is summarised here focuses
on how undergraduates pursue their education, conceptualise their career and what role
they expect the university to play in that situation.
2. The research study
This research study was conducted with thirty undergraduate students at the University of
Reading between October 2006 and June 2007. The information was gathered through semi-
structured interviews and loosely guide-lined diary entries which were submitted
electronically each term during their second year at university. Of the fifteen female and
fifteen male students, sixteen were taking economics modules and fourteen taking history
modules although enrolment covered a range of degree courses. There were ten female
history students and four male history students. The reverse was the case with economics
students where there were five female students and eleven male students. This was
representative of the total cohort of history and economics students that academic year. All
history students were enrolled in the history department, whereas the economics students
represented a wider enrolment including business, politics, geography and statistics. Twenty
six students identified themselves as white British, one as white and Asian, one as white
other, one as British-Filipino and one preferred not to say. Two of the students chose not to
answer the socio-economic classification question. How the remainder of the students
identified their socio-economic background on the survey form is presented in Table 1
below.
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Table 1 Male and female undergraduate self reported socio-economic background
Socio-economic classification Female Male Total
Higher managerial and professional occupation 4 6 10
Lower managerial and professional qualification 6 3 9
Intermediate occupations 3 4 7
Small employers and own account work 0 1 1
Lower supervisory and technical occupation 1 0 1
None of the students declared any disability at the time of enrolment onto the study. One
was diagnosed with dyslexia and another with Asperger’s syndrome during their
participation in the project.
The first interview focused on establishing a rapport while exploring the undergraduates’
reasons for coming to university, why they had chosen their subject and whether they had
any career preferences at that time. Students were also encouraged to disclose anything they
felt was relevant to their career planning. The interview protocols for the spring and
summer terms were based on previous interview responses and diary entries and as such
were unique to each student. In addition to this, the interview in the spring term focused on
the students’ progress, their experience and expectation of university and their thoughts on
the tutorial system and the career management skills module. They were also encouraged to
discuss how things might have changed since the previous interview. The final interview
was designed to consolidate previous information and build a picture of where students
were currently in their studies and pursuit of career. They were also asked how they
thought participating in the project had influenced or affected them. The participating
students were invited to attend a group session during the spring term (2008) where
findings were presented and they had the opportunity to give feedback.
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3. Findings
The findings revealed that the undergraduate students were adjusting to the transition to
university in different ways, partly because they were at various stages of their personal,
social, academic and career development. The students’ transitional journey towards ‘self’
discovery, independence and identity confirmed they were ‘in the making’ (Giddens, 1991).
Some had settled into university life relatively easily and considered they were making
progress personally, socially and academically, while others took longer to adjust to this
new institutional environment. Some students were more career-focused and perceived
themselves to be ready to act to pursue their chosen career. Others were less certain about
what they wanted to do, and varied in how much this concerned them. Not all students
were concerned about their future employment or employability. Not only were the
students at different stages of their career development, but they were also more or less
enthusiastic about pursuing their career ideas.
After reviewing their interviews and diary entries it became apparent that the students in
the study showed four different orientations towards their interest in and motivation to
pursue a career and engage with thinking about their futures.
Those orientated towards learning represent a group of students who
prioritised studying and were enjoying university life (3 students)
Those orientated towards introspection represent a group of students who were
anxious and sometimes quite stressed (3 students)
Those orientated towards hesitation represent a group of students who were
easy-going and inclined to procrastinate (10 students)
Those orientated towards instrumentalism represent a group of students who
pursued every opportunity and were focused on the future (14 students)
These four groups had come to university with differing expectations and priorities. What
they hoped to gain is presented in Table 2.
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Table 2 What students value about the university experience
Orientation Student priorities Total
Learning (3)
The education
A degree
Help with finding a job
Personal development
The social experience
3
2
2
2
1
Introspection (3)
The education
The social experience
3
2
Hesitation (10)
Personal development
The education
A degree
Gaining work after
graduation
Social experience
8
5
5
4
3
Instrumentalism (14) A degree
Gaining work after
graduation
Personal development
The social experience
The education
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9
9
6
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Those orientated to learning, introspection, and hesitation were more likely to value the
educational and personal opportunities offered by attending university.
I think it was the learning. Now, it’s becoming more important to get the
degree. No the learning is still important. It’s *the degree+ not more
important that the learning but it has become more apparent. (Billy,
interview spring 2007)
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Before I came a lot of people said ‘oh it would suit you’. I used to talk a lot
to my teachers at school and college and I just wanted to carry on
learning. I don’t think I really knew back then. I knew I wanted to do
English and History but I didn’t necessarily know what was going to
happen next. Because you don’t necessarily know - because you haven’t
done anything. (Kate, interview spring 2007)
I hoped to gain a lot of independence which I think I have and I’ve made
so many more friends, just mixing with people I probably wouldn’t if I
had just stayed at home. I definitely wanted a good degree as well.
Something that would help me get a job afterwards. It was mainly about
the independence but it has changed more to academic now… (Josie,
interview spring 2007)
Those orientated to instrumentalism believed their degree to be a stepping stone to better
graduate jobs and the educational process and intellectual development were less
important. They acknowledged that they wanted to develop personally, become more
independent, but their focus was clearly on the future and they were driven to achieve their
career aspirations.
Well, I want to get the best degree I can so I can get paid the most. The
point of coming to university is to make more money when you are older.
I wouldn’t be going to university if I could make the exact same money
not going to university…It’s how I was raised. (Ray, interview spring 2007)
For the instrumental group the university experience was more about longer term goals
than the immediate academic experience which differed considerably from the three other
groups expectations. The key to interpreting the stories the students told lay in the
importance they placed on current experiences, the future and its possibilities and how
relevant their ‘career’ was for them at that particular time. The orientations to the future
and career are presented in diagram form in Figure 1 below. This visual representation
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shows a ‘focus’ axis which extends from the present into the future and a ‘relevance’ axis
indicating how much significance students placed on pursuing their careers.
Figure 1 Undergraduates orientation towards their future and their prospective career
The findings from this study suggest that it is those students most clearly focussed on career
and their future employment (the instrumentalists) who fit more easily within the
university employability framework.
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3.1 Orientated towards learning
Students orientated towards ‘learning’ were interested in studying. They were generally
happy and enjoyed their university experience, particularly studying for their degree and
developing intellectually. They preferred to postpone their career planning because they
were concentrating on their education and obtaining a degree. They had handled the
transition from school to university well and most likely made good friends. They were
reasonably resilient and could adapt well to changing circumstances. Their career insight
and identity were developing, but they were more motivated by being students than
pursuing any career planning activities at that time. They valued their education and set a
high priority on what they were gaining from university rather than spending time
considering life after graduation which meant thinking about a ‘career’.
All three student ‘learners’ had thought about their priorities and for them they had come to
university to study a subject they enjoyed in more depth and were content to postpone
acting on their career. They did not give their career much consideration although they
were aware that they would move on and had to make plans eventually. However, their
career was not a major priority. The ‘learners’ were more focused on university, while
…career – I guess it’s that word that means full-time work and staying in
the same job for a long time rather than switching jobs. Staying in one.
That’s why I want to take my time in thinking what I want to do. (Billy
interview summer 2007)
The learners did not have much to say about their careers and conceptualised their ‘career’
in subjective terms. They were interested in work that was rewarding, interesting and had
variety which gave them the opportunity to be successful and work with others. They had
clearly established a student identity and were less focused on putting serious thought into
their career identity. The male students were more concerned with promotion and
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progression. Billy found being asked about career ‘very irritating’ (interview 2/5/07). This is
perhaps reflected in how little he had to say about his career thoughts.
3.2 Orientated towards introspection
Students orientated towards ‘introspection’ reflected on their current experiences and,
although aware of the future, their priority was appraising and coping with the day to day
personal, social and academic life of a student. They considered and reconsidered what they
needed to do but remained focused on the present. They worried quite a lot about not
getting around to doing anything about their career planning but found it difficult to make
decisions or think that far ahead.
Their transition from school to university and living away from home had not been smooth
and some were finding it difficult to make friends and integrate. They tended to lack
confidence and self-esteem in new situations. Their resilience was low and they found it
difficult to adapt to changing situations and needed support and reassurance. They were not
ready to consider work and career planning until their confidence, self-esteem and insight
have stabilised.
I wasn’t ready to be on my own and be approached as an adult. I learnt it
the hard way…The ‘mass’ nature of our universities are suffocating to a
person like me, at least. The joy of learning is fragile, easily lost and put
aside and needs to be cared for and encouraged in the right environment.
(Kate, diary May 2007)
I basically dropped all ideas of a career until I had settled into University
to see how life changed. (Paul, diary October 2006)
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Similarly to those orientated towards learning, the three introspective students chose a
more subjective way of conceptualising their career and were focused on having a career
where they could make a difference, had variety, which provided financial security and was
enjoyable, challenging and yielded some job satisfaction. They did not conceptualise career
in terms of success, achievement or progression and had not really thought very much
about the type of career they wanted because their main priority was to get through their
transition to university and cope with their situation at that time. They were as yet
unfocused on ‘career.’ Alice ‘found 9-5 quite tiring so I’d maybe do part time work to start with’
(interview 25/10/06). Kate saw career:
…as very restrictive. If I go into that I can’t do anything else and that’s
that. It’s meant to be the pinnacle. You are meant to be working towards
your career and your life. Once you’ve had your career, you’ve had your
career and then you retire. And to me I just don’t like it. There’s so much I
don’t like. (interview summer 2007
Kate thought that the compulsory careers management skills module she took as part of her
course ‘just represents everything you don’t know’. Interesting here is how little the students
orientated towards introspection and indeed learning had written or spoken about their
understanding of career. Alice, for example, wanted job satisfaction, something challenging
and enjoyable and where she could make a difference. Kate wanted financial security and
also to make a difference. Paul was looking for variety. Alice, Kate and Paul showed signs of
a diffused career identity and remain on the journey towards a self-constructed career
identity.
3.3 Orientated towards hesitation
Those orientated towards ‘hesitation’ knew what they had to do to realise their career
ambitions but often postponed doing it. However, they took responsibility for their
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procrastination. They could have been more active in pursuing their career but were often
distracted by what was happening around them. They were generally easy-going and had
made a smooth transition to university and had integrated well. Hesitators may have had a
perceived but not fully formed career identity.
I have a feeling – I don’t know – I’m not saying oh yeah office work is
going to be great. I’m thinking that the chances are I’ll end up there,
taking into account enjoyment and money. After all I’ll need to pay off my
debts and things and have a feeling doing that sort of job is probably the
most efficient way of doing that. (James, interview spring 2007)
They were simply postponing acting to realise their aspirations. Their insight appeared to be
limited as goal-setting and taking action were often delayed. They were most likely resilient
when pushed but could be inconsistent. They appeared to have reasonable levels of
confidence and self-esteem and were flexible and adaptable but could lack perseverance and
persistence unless or until they made a conscious decision ‘to go for it’.
I won’t do anything until there is a definite deadline I have to reach. And I
won’t take action until the deadline is closing in. (James, interview 2007)
Doris wanted a career with the ‘possibility for advancement’ and ‘extra training’ (interview
29/5/07). Emily wanted ‘one’ career, to work her way up from wherever she started and ‘after
twenty years be the best at it. What’s the point if you can’t achieve anything?’ (interview 17/5/07).
They were focussed on both the subjective and objective aspects of career. Enjoyment, lots
of variety, job satisfaction, opportunities for progression and the social aspects of work were
all very important.
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Although hesitators’ conceptualisation of career focused on possibilities, they were inclined
to stand back and defer acting on their career options despite being able to articulate their
interest in progression, promotion and job satisfaction. They were aware of postponing
making career decisions and although cognisant of the future they were mainly concerned
with living in the present. They could however, on occasion set goals and make decisions
that could facilitate their pursuit of their chosen career. However, their priority during this
transitional period was their personal development in terms of confidence building and new
found independence.
3.4 Orientated towards instrumentalism
Those orientated towards ‘instrumentalism’ consciously made career related choices and acted
on them to realise their career aspirations. They were motivated and resilient in their
current situation. Their conceptualisation of career was more detailed and thought through
than the other three groups. They were looking for financial security, opportunities for
success and achievement, through further training, promotion and progression. They were
actively involved in the process of moving on and pursuing opportunities and appeared very
driven. They took all the opportunities offered and were able to pursue alternative ones if
necessary. They could be persistent and adaptable. From an early age they had sought
opportunities to ensure their future. They had planned, prepared, consulted and negotiated
their next steps. These were the students who took time to complete internship application
forms, seek ‘useful’ volunteering opportunities and work experience. Instrumentalists share
similarities with ‘careerists’ (Tomlinson, 2007) or ‘players’ (Brown & Hesketh, 2004). Once
one transition was made, they are looking for the next one. Their transition to university
may have seemed effortless, since their primary focus now is on the next transition. Aaron
said of career, ‘this is who I am. It does define you’ (interview 31/5/07). This goes some way to
explaining why career instrumentalists are driven to pursue opportunities which will
facilitate the realisation of their career aspirations. For Bruce, another student orientated
towards instrumentalism, ‘a career involves me working hard, getting to a place where I’m
comfortable and doing the best that I can possibly do’ (interview 4/6/07). Their time at university is
experienced from a career perspective as your career
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…will become a major part of your life. So for a lot of people it is a
dominating part of their life, isn’t it? So a career is sort of a life focus.
(Johnny, interview, summer 2007)
Ray also saw career as ‘like a life style’ (diary June 2007). Phoebe had ‘set her ambitions quite high’
(interview 8/5/07) and to fulfil them she went to the careers service for advice, attended all
the recruitment days on and off campus and networked effectively. She also skipped
lectures to spend time in the library reading the Financial Times. She did this because the
careers service had recommended that if she wanted to secure a graduate internship she
needed to be up-to-date with market trends. For her ‘progression is quite important because you
start at the bottom of say a ladder and you build up your qualifications and your salary goes up’
(interview 8/5/07).
4. Discussion
The four type orientation to the future and career presented here places career development
at key transition points into context. The findings of the study reveal that while some
undergraduate students took an instrumental approach to conceptualising and pursuing
their education and career, not all were ready or interested in thinking about their career,
graduate employment or their employability. The employability of undergraduates, such a
key focus for university policy makers, is in line with the experiences and expectations of
the instrumental students but not for the other three groups for varying reasons. Those
orientated to learning wanted to do just that, study and develop academically. Going to
university is in itself an emotional process which evokes a range of responses including
positive feelings; hope, enthusiasm, and pride as well as ‚fear, resentment and guilt‛
(Christie, 2009, p.135). Those orientated to introspection were struggling to settle in and get
on with the social and academic side of university and so were too anxious to engage with
planning for their futures and their careers. The students inclined to procrastination
postponed planning and taking action to realise their career aspirations. The undergraduates
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therefore responded to their compulsory career management skills module in different
ways. Their responses were linked to how their sense of identity was forming and how far
along they were in their thinking about their next transition point from university into the
labour market. Holland and Holland (1977) suggest that career indecision is based on a lack
of confidence in making decisions, a lack of urgency about the need to make a decision and
a lack of a clear sense of personal ‘identity’.
The link between self and action is strong. According to Fugate, Kinichi, and Ashforth (2004,
p.19) ‚who I am‛ includes goals, hopes, fears, personality traits, values, beliefs, norms,
interaction styles and time horizons. In their sociological theory of career decision making,
Hodkinson and Sparkes (1997) propose that career decisions are pragmatically rational and
‚can only be understood in terms of the life histories of those who make them, wherein
identity has evolved through interaction with significant others and with the culture in
which the subject has lived and is living‛ (p.33). We need to be mindful that career decisions
are amongst the most important decisions people make and are significant for the
individual and the society as a whole (Gati & Asher, 2001). However, we also need to be
mindful that people have different expectations about their lives, their futures and their
careers and that not all undergraduates will follow a prescribed path to graduate
employment.
This study has practical implications for universities and the higher education curriculum.
As long as student success is viewed in terms of the quantity and quality of graduate
employment opportunities universities will drive this particular agenda. In this way
university policy makers would appear to suggest that students orientated towards
instrumentalism are in some way more desirable than the other three groups. The
university system provides for these instrumental students who will engage with the future
focused agenda in their pursuit of gains within the graduate labour market. They will be
quite strategic and focussed on their ultimate goal and so adhere to all the supports put in
place for the undergraduate population to obtain graduate work. This is not the case for
those orientated to learning, introspection and hesitation. In effect the university is
preaching to the converted. What it needs to do now is consider how to accommodate the
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learners, the hesitators and the introspectives within the higher education framework.
These findings therefore, have implications for higher education policy makers, careers
services and individual departments/schools in how best to manage and implement this
provision for all students regardless of their orientation to their career and their futures.
There are a number of questions to consider here:
Is encouraging all undergraduate students to consider their transition into
employment before some have adjusted to the personal, social and academic aspects
of university life feasible or desirable?
Is the intrinsic desire to learn and develop academically undervalued as universities’
push for improved graduate employment destination statistics?
Are we not reinforcing a sense of uncertainty amongst students who are unsure
about what they want to do through university managed career education
programmes?
Does the employability agenda under the guise of supporting students into
meaningful work fail to allow for the fact that students develop at different rates and
with different expectations?
The findings of this study suggest that how students adjust to their university life, prioritise
their learning and cope with this transition will have repercussions for how they react to
being encouraged to plan and prepare for the future. Some of the students felt that they
were being forced to think about what they wanted to do, when they did not know what
that was. While most felt that a university education and a degree would result in better
employment opportunities in the future, many did not want to have to consider ‘that’
future while they were developing personally, socially and academically at university,
particularly during their first two years. They had come to university for ‘the experience’
not to project into another experience in two or three years’ time. The findings also suggest
that some students were less than enthusiastic about their employability and careers
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education with its focus on skills and managing careers. Resources might be better used to
increase employment-based training and experience (Cranmer, 2006). The struggle those
orientated towards introspection in this study had to adjust to university, echoes the need
for support that Cranmer (2006) suggests graduates require in the transitional stage into
employment.
Then there are quite serious implications for policy-makers who make assumptions about
undergraduates’ priorities. They assume that undergraduates are basically homogenous in
terms of their needs and expectations. It is clear from the results of this study that different
students have different priorities on what a university education is for. Even if nearly all
expect that a degree will be generally helpful in their future career, not all are career
orientated while they are at university. For many their employment is too far in the distance
to be relevant to them and they more clearly associate with a student identity rather than a
graduate/career identity. Higher education careers services may need to promote and
provide a one-to-one guidance service which addresses the issues faced by those orientated
towards introspection, who may be stressed, anxious and in need of support and career
hesitators, who may procrastinate and need help to focus and set goals. The evidence from
this study suggests that career management skills in its current guise (and other career-
related activities) compound the anxieties of a significant proportion of students, who are
not yet in a position for various reasons, to consider their future employment.
Better preparation could facilitate more successful transitions and ensure a sense of ‘well-
being’. It would also help young peoples’ confidence in making career choices, if that is
what they want to do at that particular time. Based on these findings, career preparation
and early guidance could be the key as many students described how ‘random’ their choice
of university was and how they had not given their future beyond university much thought.
More informed preparation before completing university applications could perhaps
facilitate smoother transitions for young people by including advice and guidance rather
than focussing primarily on personal statements on university application forms, as the
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students in this study described. Some students described how they had not considered
other alternatives to university, it might be, therefore that practitioners and educators could
include some discussion of other options; for example gap years, apprenticeships, work-
while training opportunities. A more detailed knowledge of work roles, entry routes and
further qualifications required would also be useful rather than waiting until these were
addressed by careers education/career management skills modules at university.
The notion of employability has ensured that careers provision has been introduced into the
higher education curriculum. However, the students participating in this study showed little
concern for the labour market and only a few, as they approached the end of their second
year, had begun to think about their skills development. The students differed greatly in
what they expected from university; ‘employability’ was a concern for the career
instrumentalists, a minority although sizable group in the study. The careers education or
management skills modules which focus on job studies and CV writing could be best placed
in optional workshops which would build on individual needs and prior experience and
learning. For example, some students like Paul, ‘know how to write a CV…I’ve done it before’
(interview 15/2/07), echoed by Neil, ‘we have careers all through secondary school really…so it’s the
same kind of thing over again and we basically get told the same things’ (interview 20/2/07). Monica
on the other hand despite taking the career management skills module felt she needed to go
to the careers service anyway to get individual help writing her CV.
To develop skills that employers want; such as communication, team working, networking,
planning and organisation necessitates perhaps embedding such skills within the
curriculum (Knight & Yorke, 2004). It can be argued that this approach is more functional
and useful than separate stand alone career management skills modules which can only
provide at best a superficial look at skills development rather than its practical application.
However, skills are not enough; a career identity defined as the structure of meanings in
which the individual links motivation, interests, and competencies with acceptable career
roles is required if the individual is to overcome increasing social and work related
18
insecurity (Meijers, 1998). We need to consider innovative ways to ensure that
undergraduate students develop personally in order that they have the insight, resilience
and career understanding (London, 1993) to cope within this competitive knowledge driven
economy.
5. Conclusion
If key players such as Government and employers expect universities to generate a
population of self starters who are proactive, confident, and display enthusiastic
characteristics or attributes (Harvey, Moon, Greall, & Bower, 1997) they are in effect
targeting those orientated towards instrumentalism. The challenge remains that if fifty
percent of young people are expected to enter higher education, as the Government
suggests, institutions have to provide a curriculum catering not only for career
instrumentalists but for career hesitators and those orientated to learning and introspection.
Clearly then, policy-makers, deliverers of career management skills, whether embedded or
stand alone, and higher education careers services might want to revisit their understanding
of career motivation and their policies in order to create a learning experience that more
closely meets the needs of the broader student population. The evidence from this study
suggests that universities need to exercise caution when pushing a blanket employability
agenda.
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