Episode 12b.Episode 12b.Phases, relative clauses, Phases, relative clauses,

and LF (ch. 10)and LF (ch. 10)

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Islands and phases,Islands and phases,summary from last time…summary from last time…

Sentences are “chunked” into Sentences are “chunked” into phasesphases as they as they are built up. Phases are are built up. Phases are CPCP and and DPDP..

A feature outside of a phase cannot match a A feature outside of a phase cannot match a feature further inside the phase than its feature further inside the phase than its specifier.specifier.

This leads to This leads to island phenomenaisland phenomena, configurations , configurations in which a in which a whwh-word would be “trapped”:-word would be “trapped”: CNP islands:CNP islands: A A whwh-word cannot get to the specifier -word cannot get to the specifier of DP and so is not visible from outside.of DP and so is not visible from outside.

WhWh-islands:-islands: A A whwh-word cannot get to the specifier of -word cannot get to the specifier of an embedded question (that already has a an embedded question (that already has a whwh-word, or -word, or OpOp, in its specifier)., in its specifier).

Adjunct islands:Adjunct islands: Even the specifier is not visible Even the specifier is not visible if the phase did not get a if the phase did not get a -role.-role.

““Island effects” are a Island effects” are a property of property of movementmovement..

Consider the following:Consider the following: Jack believes Jack believes [[DPDP the claim [the claim [CPCP that the list does not include that the list does not include

Ethan ]Ethan ]]]?? *Who does Jack believe *Who does Jack believe [[DPDP the claim [the claim [CPCP that the list does not that the list does not

include _ ]include _ ]]]?? Who believesWho believes [[DPDP the claim [the claim [CPCP that the list does not include that the list does not include

who ]who ]]]??

Dr. Hibbert laughed Dr. Hibbert laughed [[CPCP when when Homer lost a fingerHomer lost a finger ]].. *What did Dr. Hibbert laugh *What did Dr. Hibbert laugh [[CPCP when when Homer lost _Homer lost _ ]]?? Who laughedWho laughed [[CPCP when when Homer lost whatHomer lost what ]]??

So long as the So long as the whwh-phrase doesn’t -phrase doesn’t movemove,, it it seems that there’s no problem with simply seems that there’s no problem with simply having a having a whwh-phrase inside an island.-phrase inside an island.

““Island effects” are a Island effects” are a property of property of movementmovement

Japanese: a Japanese: a whwh-in-situ language.-in-situ language.

Taroo-ga Taroo-ga [[DPDP Hanako-ni Hanako-ni nani-onani-o ageta hito-ni ageta hito-ni ]] aimasita ka? aimasita ka?T-nom H-dat T-nom H-dat what-accwhat-acc gave man-dat met.pol Q gave man-dat met.pol Q‘*What did Taro meet [ the man that gave _ to Hanako ]?’‘*What did Taro meet [ the man that gave _ to Hanako ]?’

Taroo-ga Taroo-ga [[CPCP Hanako-ga Hanako-ga nani-onani-o yomu maeni yomu maeni ]] dekakemasita ka? dekakemasita ka?T-nom H-nom T-nom H-nom what-accwhat-acc read before left.pol read before left.pol Q Q‘*What did Taro leave [ before Hanako read _ ]?’‘*What did Taro leave [ before Hanako read _ ]?’

WhWh-words don’t move. Islands don’t matter.-words don’t move. Islands don’t matter.

Why phases?Why phases? One of the main motivations behind phases One of the main motivations behind phases (conceptually—empirically, there is plenty of (conceptually—empirically, there is plenty of evidence) is that is makes computation easier.evidence) is that is makes computation easier. That is, again, the system is lazy. It works in That is, again, the system is lazy. It works in chunks, it never has to look too far to find a chunks, it never has to look too far to find a feature for checking.feature for checking.

What happens when a phase is “committed”?What happens when a phase is “committed”? The standard idea is that the The standard idea is that the phonological phonological interpretationinterpretation and and semantic interpretationsemantic interpretation of that of that chunk becomes fixed, and can’t be altered later. chunk becomes fixed, and can’t be altered later. Terminology: Terminology: “Spell-out”“Spell-out”

Terminology:Terminology: The requirement that movement not The requirement that movement not go “too far” (not escape a committed phase) was go “too far” (not escape a committed phase) was known in the old days as known in the old days as SubjacencySubjacency—you may —you may still encounter this term when talking to still encounter this term when talking to linguists at parties (or reading older papers).linguists at parties (or reading older papers).

Relative clausesRelative clauses

Another place where we see Another place where we see whwh--movement, besides in explicit movement, besides in explicit questions (either in the main questions (either in the main clause or embedded) is in clause or embedded) is in relative relative clausesclauses.. The book which I readThe book which I read The woman who(m) I metThe woman who(m) I met

These consist of a These consist of a head nounhead noun ((bookbook, , womanwoman) and then what appears to be ) and then what appears to be a a whwh-question that further -question that further specifies the referent of the head specifies the referent of the head noun.noun.

Relative clausesRelative clauses

Relative clauses serve to Relative clauses serve to modifymodify the head noun.the head noun.

Kind of like adjectives, or PP Kind of like adjectives, or PP modifiers.modifiers. The unhappy students.The unhappy students. The students from Vancouver.The students from Vancouver. The students who solved the problem.The students who solved the problem.

So where would you put them?So where would you put them?

Relative Relative clausesclauses

The structure of a The structure of a relative clause:relative clause: A CP [clause-A CP [clause-type:Rel, type:Rel, uuwh*] is wh*] is adjoined to the NP, adjoined to the NP, like an adjective, like an adjective, or a PP modifier.or a PP modifier.

The meaning is The meaning is essentially “the man essentially “the man with the property of with the property of being the answer to being the answer to ‘Who did I meet?’ ”‘Who did I meet?’ ”

We’ll see in a We’ll see in a moment that C [Rel] moment that C [Rel] can be pronounced as can be pronounced as either Ø or as either Ø or as thatthat..

C[uwh*][c-t:Rel]

C

CP

TP

I met ti

man

nPDthe

DP

nP

DPi

who(m)

Differences between Differences between questions and relative questions and relative

clausesclauses The “question” inside a relative The “question” inside a relative clause has a couple of odd clause has a couple of odd properties, not shared with regular properties, not shared with regular main clause or embedded questions.main clause or embedded questions.

*The problem what I solved.*The problem what I solved. The problem which I solved.The problem which I solved. The problem which I will solve.The problem which I will solve. The problem I solved.The problem I solved. The problem that I solved.The problem that I solved.

Which/that/ØWhich/that/Ø

In addition to being able to sayIn addition to being able to say The book which Mary readThe book which Mary read

We can also sayWe can also say The book that Mary readThe book that Mary read

andand The book Mary readThe book Mary read

And they all mean the same thing. So And they all mean the same thing. So we expect that they would all have we expect that they would all have basically the same structure (they all basically the same structure (they all have a question adjoined in the have a question adjoined in the nnP)P)—so —so where is the where is the whwh-word in the last two?-word in the last two?

OpOp

The secret to these last two kinds The secret to these last two kinds of relative clauses is of relative clauses is OpOp, the , the silent silent whwh-word-word..

That is, That is, the book which Mary readthe book which Mary read and and the book Mary readthe book Mary read are really are really exactly the same except that in one exactly the same except that in one case you pronounce the case you pronounce the whwh-word, and -word, and in the other, you don’t.in the other, you don’t. the book [the book [CPCP which whichii Mary read Mary read ttii ] ]

the book [the book [CPCP OpOpii Mary read Mary read ttii ] ]

OpOp

It is also possible to pronounce It is also possible to pronounce thatthat with with OpOp, giving us:, giving us:

the book [the book [CPCP OpOpii that [ that [TPTP Mary read Mary read ttii ]] ]]

Why can’t we pronounce Why can’t we pronounce thatthat with with whichwhich??

*the book [*the book [CPCP which whichii that [ that [TPTP Mary read Mary read ttii ]] ]]

Doubly-Filled COMP Doubly-Filled COMP filterfilter

The The Doubly-Filled COMP filterDoubly-Filled COMP filter is the traditional is the traditional “explanation”:“explanation”:

Doubly-Filled COMP filterDoubly-Filled COMP filter::*[*[CPCP whwh-word if/that/for…]-word if/that/for…]

You can’t pronounce both a You can’t pronounce both a whwh-word and C at the -word and C at the same time. Thus:same time. Thus: the book [the book [CPCP OpOpii [ [TPTP Mary read Mary read ttii ]] ]] the book [the book [CPCP OpOpii that [ that [TPTP Mary read Mary read ttii ]] ]] the book [the book [CPCP whichwhichii [ [TPTP Mary read Mary read ttii ]] ]] *the book [*the book [CPCP whichwhichii that [ that [TPTP Mary read Mary read ttii ]] ]]

OpOp

Skeptical of Skeptical of OpOp? Is there really ? Is there really whwh--movement of movement of OpOp, a silent , a silent whwh-phrase?-phrase?

I read the book [I read the book [CPCP which whichii [ [TPTP Mary said Mary said[[CPCP that [ that [TPTP Bill bought Bill bought ttii ]]]]. ]]]].

*I read the book [*I read the book [CPCP which whichii [ [IPIP Mary wonders Mary wonders[[CPCP who [ who [TPTP bought bought ttii ]]]]. ]]]].

I read the book [I read the book [CPCP OpOpii (that) [ (that) [TPTP Mary said Mary said[[CPCP that [ that [TPTP Bill bought Bill bought ttii ]]]]. ]]]].

*I read the book [*I read the book [CPCP OpOpii (that) [ (that) [TPTP Mary Mary wonderswonders

[[CPCP who [ who [TPTP bought bought ttii ]]]]. ]]]].

OpOp So if we have a silent So if we have a silent whwh-phrase, why can’t -phrase, why can’t we ask questions with it?we ask questions with it? WhereWhereii did Mary buy this book did Mary buy this book ttii ? ?

The place [The place [OpOpii Mary bought this book Mary bought this book ttii ] ] WhenWhenii did Mary buy this book did Mary buy this book ttii ? ?

The time [The time [OpOpii Mary bought this book Mary bought this book ttii ] ] WhyWhyii did Mary buy this book did Mary buy this book ttii ? ?

The reason [The reason [OpOpii Mary bought this book Mary bought this book ttii ] ] HowHowii did Mary buy this book did Mary buy this book ttii ? ?

The way [The way [OpOpii Mary bought this book Mary bought this book ttii ] ]

**OpOpii did Mary buy this book did Mary buy this book ttii ? ?

See why?See why?

OpOp

Recoverability condition:Recoverability condition: The content of a The content of a null category must be recoverable.null category must be recoverable. the place [the place [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ]

the day [the day [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ]

the reason [the reason [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ]

the way [the way [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ]

In each case, we can tell what the In each case, we can tell what the whwh--phrase is by looking at the head noun.phrase is by looking at the head noun.

A word about A word about interpretationinterpretation

Let’s think for a moment about Let’s think for a moment about what a what a whwh-question means:-question means:

Who did Pat meet?Who did Pat meet?[[CPCP [ [DPDP who] who]ii T Tkk+C [+C [TPTP Pat meet Pat meet ttkk]]]]

Something like (a ‘logical Something like (a ‘logical form’):form’):Tell me (a person) Tell me (a person) xx

such that such that Pat met xPat met x is true. is true.

Pronouncing & Pronouncing & interpretinginterpreting

There are two things we need to do There are two things we need to do with the lexical items we assemble on with the lexical items we assemble on the workbench:the workbench: Pronounce the sentencePronounce the sentence Interpret the sentenceInterpret the sentence

We’ve mainly been concentrating on We’ve mainly been concentrating on the pronunciation part (getting the the pronunciation part (getting the words into the order we hear them), words into the order we hear them), but the structure is also assumed to but the structure is also assumed to be the basis for interpreting the be the basis for interpreting the sentence as well.sentence as well.

Our model of grammarOur model of grammar Here is the little picture of our model of Here is the little picture of our model of

grammar. The structure we end up with is used both grammar. The structure we end up with is used both to express the logical relations between to express the logical relations between participants and to pronounce the structure.participants and to pronounce the structure. (And of course it has to be that way, since how a (And of course it has to be that way, since how a

sentence sounds is tied to what it means).sentence sounds is tied to what it means).

Lexicon

Workbench

Merge, Adjoin,Copy/Move

pronounce

interpret

A word about A word about interpretationinterpretation

Who did Pat meet?Who did Pat meet?[[CPCP [ [DPDP who] who]ii T Tkk+C [+C [TPTP Pat meet Pat meet ttkk]]]]Tell me (a person) Tell me (a person) xx such that is such that is Pat met xPat met x is true.is true.

If we need to get to a logical structure If we need to get to a logical structure like like Tell me (a person) x such that Pat met Tell me (a person) x such that Pat met x is truex is true, then it may well be that , then it may well be that this is this is what wh-movement is forwhat wh-movement is for. The trace serves . The trace serves as the as the xx variable, the moved variable, the moved whwh-phrase sets -phrase sets the domain.the domain.

Suppose that moving a Suppose that moving a whwh-phrase (leaving a -phrase (leaving a trace) is necessary for interpretation as a trace) is necessary for interpretation as a whwh-question.-question.

WhWh-movement and -movement and interpretationinterpretation

Who bought what?Who bought what? Tell me a (person) Tell me a (person) xx and tell me a and tell me a (thing) (thing) yy such that such that x bought y x bought y is true.is true.

Who gave what to whom?Who gave what to whom? Tell me a (person) Tell me a (person) xx and tell me a and tell me a (thing) (thing) yy and tell me a (person) and tell me a (person) zz

such that such that x gave y to z x gave y to z is true.is true.

How do we interpret those other How do we interpret those other whwh--words?words?

The The whwh-typology-typology English: English: One One whwh-word -word moves to the front.moves to the front.

What did Bill give to whom?What did Bill give to whom? Japanese:Japanese: No No whwh-words-words move to the front. move to the front.

Taroo-ga dare-ni nani-o ageta no?Taroo-ga dare-ni nani-o ageta no?T-nom who-to what-acc gave QT-nom who-to what-acc gave Q‘What did Taroo give to whom?’‘What did Taroo give to whom?’

Bulgarian:Bulgarian: All All whwh-words -words move to the front.move to the front. Kakvo na kogo Ivan dade?Kakvo na kogo Ivan dade?what to whom Ivan gavewhat to whom Ivan gave‘What did Ivan give to whom?’‘What did Ivan give to whom?’

French:French: One One whwh-word or no -word or no whwh-words -words move to move to the front.the front. Qui as-tu vu?Qui as-tu vu? Tu as vu Tu as vu qui?qui?Who have-you seenWho have-you seen You have seen whoYou have seen who‘Who did you see?’‘Who did you see?’ ‘Who did you see?’‘Who did you see?’

The The whwh-typology-typology Yet in all of these languages, the Yet in all of these languages, the meaningmeaning of of What did Bill give to whom?What did Bill give to whom? is the same…is the same…

Tell me a (thing) Tell me a (thing) xx and tell me a and tell me a (person) (person) yy

such that Bill gave such that Bill gave xx to to yy.. So, if the ‘tell me an So, if the ‘tell me an xx…such that……such that…xx…’ …’ meaning arises from meaning arises from whwh-movement (and, -movement (and, in fact, we can see the in fact, we can see the whwh-movement in -movement in Bulgarian), it stands to reason that Bulgarian), it stands to reason that even in English and Japanese there is even in English and Japanese there is whwh-movement for each -movement for each whwh-word—we just -word—we just can’t always can’t always hearhear it. it.

¿Qué?¿Qué? WhWh-movement…-movement…that you can’t hear…that you can’t hear…

The next topic (quantifiers) The next topic (quantifiers) will give us pretty good will give us pretty good evidence that there is such a evidence that there is such a thing as “movement you can’t thing as “movement you can’t hear.” Adopting it hear.” Adopting it here here allows for a uniform view of allows for a uniform view of meaning and structure across meaning and structure across languages, even in the face languages, even in the face of the (superficial) of the (superficial) differences in differences in whwh-movement -movement behavior. So, let’s behavior. So, let’s provisionally accept it and provisionally accept it and see where it leads.see where it leads.

Phases againPhases again Remember that what’s supposed to be true of Remember that what’s supposed to be true of phases is when they are “committed,” we phases is when they are “committed,” we have locked in the pronunciation and have locked in the pronunciation and interpretation.interpretation.

But what if we lock in the pronunciation But what if we lock in the pronunciation first, move a little bit more, and then first, move a little bit more, and then lock in the interpretation?lock in the interpretation? [[CPCP what whatii TTkk+C [+C [TPTP Pat t Pat tkk give t give tii to whom ] to whom ]]?]?

Lock in pronunciationLock in pronunciation [[CPCP whom whommm what whatii TTkk+C [+C [TPTP Pat t Pat tkk give give ttii to to ttmm ] ]]?]?

Lock in interpretationLock in interpretation

This will sound like: This will sound like: What did Pat give to What did Pat give to whomwhom??

Phases againPhases again Why would we lock in pronunciation first?Why would we lock in pronunciation first?

[[CPCP what whatii TTkk+C [+C [TPTP Pat t Pat tkk give t give tii to whom ] to whom ]]?]? Lock in pronunciationLock in pronunciation

[[CPCP whom whommm what whatii TTkk+C [+C [TPTP Pat t Pat tkk give give ttii to to ttmm ] ]]?]? Lock in interpretationLock in interpretation

We said before: We said before: Strong featuresStrong features (generally) (generally) require movement because the strong feature require movement because the strong feature must be local to the feature that checks it.must be local to the feature that checks it. Viewed in light of different “timing” for locking in Viewed in light of different “timing” for locking in pronunciation and interpretation, we could now say pronunciation and interpretation, we could now say that strong features need to be checked that strong features need to be checked before before locking in pronunciationlocking in pronunciation. But since the system is . But since the system is lazy, it will wait until after that to check any lazy, it will wait until after that to check any remaining (weak) features.remaining (weak) features.

Benefits and problemsBenefits and problems If we imagine that there can be this type of If we imagine that there can be this type of “covert movement” we gain a strong benefit:“covert movement” we gain a strong benefit: All languages have basically the same structure for All languages have basically the same structure for the purposes of the purposes of interpretationinterpretation. Even if they seem . Even if they seem to differ in terms of what visibly moves.to differ in terms of what visibly moves.

But it raises a number of issues as well:But it raises a number of issues as well: We must assume that once you covertly move We must assume that once you covertly move something, you’ve left the phonological features something, you’ve left the phonological features behind—any further movement will also have to be behind—any further movement will also have to be covert.covert.

We must assume that all We must assume that all whwh-words accumulate in -words accumulate in SpecCP (some covertly) but without losing the SpecCP (some covertly) but without losing the explanation of explanation of whwh-island violations (there is only -island violations (there is only one SpecCP).one SpecCP).

Covert movement seems not to obey islands: Strong Covert movement seems not to obey islands: Strong features can’t see inside committed phases, but features can’t see inside committed phases, but othersothers seem to be able to. Non-strong features seem to be able to. Non-strong features won’t affect the pronunciation, though—it’s ok when won’t affect the pronunciation, though—it’s ok when the pronunciation is locked.the pronunciation is locked.

LF movementLF movement When syntacticians talk about this kind When syntacticians talk about this kind of “covert movement” at parties, they of “covert movement” at parties, they sometimes speak of it as sometimes speak of it as LF movementLF movement..

That is, movement that happens in order That is, movement that happens in order to construct the to construct the logical formlogical form of the of the sentence but doesn’t affect the sentence but doesn’t affect the pronunciation.pronunciation.

We will not really seriously deal with LF We will not really seriously deal with LF movement in this class. We will not draw it movement in this class. We will not draw it in our trees. But it’s worth having heard in our trees. But it’s worth having heard about it.about it.

Wh-phrases binding Wh-phrases binding pronounspronouns

There is an interesting property of the There is an interesting property of the kind of operator-variable formation that kind of operator-variable formation that we can see in we can see in whwh-movement.-movement. Who likes his roommate?Who likes his roommate? Pick the Pick the xx such that such that xx likes likes xx’s roommate.’s roommate. WhoWhoii [ [TPTP ttii likes his likes hisii roommate] roommate]

Notice that it is possible to have a Notice that it is possible to have a pronoun bound by a pronoun bound by a whwh-word.-word. And it And it isis binding, like the binding we spoke binding, like the binding we spoke of wrt Binding Theory. It’s assignment of of wrt Binding Theory. It’s assignment of reference, both to the trace and to reference, both to the trace and to hishis, , matching the reference of matching the reference of whowho..

Weak CrossoverWeak Crossover

But now consider this:But now consider this: Who does his roommate like?Who does his roommate like? Can this mean the same thing as Can this mean the same thing as Whose roommate likes himWhose roommate likes him??

*Who*Whoii does his does hisii roommate like roommate like ttii ? ? How is this different fromHow is this different from

WhoWhoii ttii likes his likes hisii roommate? roommate? [Whose roommate][Whose roommate]ii ttii likes him likes himii ? ?

WCOWCO

*Who*Whoii does his does hisii roommate like roommate like ttii ? ? WhoWhoii ttii likes his likes hisii roommate? roommate?

The difference lies in the fact that the The difference lies in the fact that the whwh-phrase had to -phrase had to cross overcross over the the coindexed pronoun on its way to SpecCP. coindexed pronoun on its way to SpecCP. This appears to be impossible, and we This appears to be impossible, and we can state this as follows:can state this as follows:

Weak Crossover (WCO):Weak Crossover (WCO): A coindexed A coindexed pronoun cannot intervene between an pronoun cannot intervene between an operator and its variable.operator and its variable.

WCOWCO

We can also see this effect with We can also see this effect with whwh--in-situ:in-situ:

Who introduced her advisor to whom?Who introduced her advisor to whom? Who introduced whom to her advisor?Who introduced whom to her advisor?

Which girl told his parents to visit which Which girl told his parents to visit which boy?boy?

Which girl told whose parents to visit him?Which girl told whose parents to visit him?

QuantifiersQuantifiers

We interpret We interpret Bill saw everyoneBill saw everyone as as For every person For every person xx, Bill saw , Bill saw xx..

This is the meaning. This is the This is the meaning. This is the logical formlogical form of the sentence of the sentence Bill Bill saw everyonesaw everyone. In the notation of . In the notation of formal logic, this is written asformal logic, this is written asx. Bill saw xx. Bill saw x‘For all ‘For all xx ( (xx a person), Bill saw a person), Bill saw xx.’.’

QuantifiersQuantifiers

Every boy hates his roommate.Every boy hates his roommate. Notice that each boy hates a Notice that each boy hates a different roommate, the roommates different roommate, the roommates are specific to each boy.are specific to each boy.

For every boy For every boy xx, , xx hates hates xx’s ’s roommate.roommate.

This means that This means that every boyevery boy doesn’t doesn’t just mean the group of boys; just mean the group of boys; rather it goes through the set of rather it goes through the set of boys and says something about boys and says something about each of them individually.each of them individually.

QuantifiersQuantifiers

These phrases which don’t refer to These phrases which don’t refer to specific people/things in the world specific people/things in the world but rather seem to do things to sets but rather seem to do things to sets of people/things are of people/things are quantifiersquantifiers. . Examples include:Examples include: most studentsmost students twelve angry mentwelve angry men fewer than half of the membersfewer than half of the members some custodiansome custodian nobody in their right mindnobody in their right mind

QPQP What is the category of a What is the category of a

quantifier like quantifier like most studentsmost students?? Well, it goes basically in all Well, it goes basically in all

the same places a DP goes. Like the same places a DP goes. Like which studentwhich student or or whatwhat or or whowho..

So, like what we said for So, like what we said for whwh--phrases, phrases, quantifier phrases are quantifier phrases are really DPs with an extra really DPs with an extra propertyproperty (they’re (they’re quantificational). Sometimes quantificational). Sometimes people write QP, but they mean people write QP, but they mean ‘a quantificational DP’.‘a quantificational DP’.

studentNP

DP

Devery

RestrictionsRestrictions To reiterate, quantifiers are used to say To reiterate, quantifiers are used to say

something about something about individuals in a setindividuals in a set.. Most students like syntax.Most students like syntax. The set (sometimes, The set (sometimes, restrictionrestriction) is the set ) is the set

of students.of students. This says that, if you check This says that, if you check allall of the of the

students individually to see if students individually to see if eacheach likes likes syntax, you’ll find that most (more than syntax, you’ll find that most (more than half) of the students you checked do.half) of the students you checked do.

For each x in students, does x like syntax? For each x in students, does x like syntax? Did we answer “yes” for most of the ones we Did we answer “yes” for most of the ones we checked?checked?

QuantifiersQuantifiers To write the logical form (meaning) of a To write the logical form (meaning) of a sentence with one of these, you put the sentence with one of these, you put the quantifier first, and replace where it quantifier first, and replace where it came from with a variable:came from with a variable:

Most students eat at Taco Bell.Most students eat at Taco Bell.For most students For most students xx, , xx eats at Taco Bell eats at Taco Bell

No administrators eat at Taco Bell.No administrators eat at Taco Bell.For no administrator For no administrator xx, , xx eats at Taco eats at Taco BellBell

Mary likes every flavor of ice cream.Mary likes every flavor of ice cream.For every flavor of ice cream For every flavor of ice cream xx, Mary , Mary likes likes xx

BindingBinding A quantifier is said to A quantifier is said to bindbind its variable. its variable.

That is, the reference of the variable is That is, the reference of the variable is assigned by the quantifier.assigned by the quantifier.

Bill read every book.Bill read every book.For every book For every book xx, Bill read , Bill read xx

Is this true? Well, let’s go through the Is this true? Well, let’s go through the books. books. Moby DickMoby Dick. Did Bill read . Did Bill read Moby DickMoby Dick? ? Yes. Ok, Yes. Ok, War and PeaceWar and Peace. Did Bill read . Did Bill read War War and Peaceand Peace? Yes. Ok, …? Yes. Ok, …

ScopeScope

A student read every book.A student read every book. When is this true?When is this true?

Mary, it turns out, has read all of Mary, it turns out, has read all of the books.the books.

Nobody has read everything, but Mary Nobody has read everything, but Mary read half of the books and Bill read read half of the books and Bill read the other half. Every book was read the other half. Every book was read by a student.by a student.

There are two meanings here, the There are two meanings here, the sentence is ambiguous between two sentence is ambiguous between two logical forms.logical forms.

ScopeScope

A student read every bookA student read every bookThere is a student There is a student xx such that such that

for every book for every book yy, , xx read read yyororFor every book For every book yy, there is a , there is a student student xx

such that such that xx read read yy It matters which quantifier It matters which quantifier comes first in the logical form.comes first in the logical form.

ScopeScope This is perfectly logical. A quantifier takes a This is perfectly logical. A quantifier takes a

set of individuals and checks to see if set of individuals and checks to see if something is true of the individual members of something is true of the individual members of the set.the set.

A student read every book.A student read every book. (Namely, Mary)(Namely, Mary) In the set of students, we find that it is true In the set of students, we find that it is true that for at least one student that for at least one student xx: : xx read every read every bookbook..

In the set of students, we find that it is true In the set of students, we find that it is true that for at least one student that for at least one student xx:: In the set of In the set of books, we find that it is true that for each book books, we find that it is true that for each book yy, , xx read read yy..

There is a student There is a student xx such that for every book such that for every book yy, , xx read read yy..

x x students students : : y y booksbooks: : xx read read yy..

ScopeScope A student read every book.A student read every book. (They were (They were all covered, though not necessarily by all covered, though not necessarily by one student)one student) In the set of books, we find that it is In the set of books, we find that it is true that for each book true that for each book xx: : a student read a student read xx..

In the set of books, we find that it is In the set of books, we find that it is true that for each book true that for each book xx:: In the set of In the set of students, we find that it is true that for students, we find that it is true that for at least one student at least one student yy, , yy read read xx..

For every book For every book xx, there is a student , there is a student yy such that such that yy read read xx..

x x booksbooks: : y y studentsstudents: : yy read read xx..

LFLF We think about this kind of ambiguity We think about this kind of ambiguity in much the same way we think aboutin much the same way we think aboutMary heard a dog bark in the house.Mary heard a dog bark in the house. (either Mary was in the house or the dog (either Mary was in the house or the dog was)was)

This (above) is a This (above) is a syntacticsyntactic ambiguity, ambiguity, depending on where the PP depending on where the PP in the housein the house is attached.is attached.

If there are two different If there are two different interpretations, there are two interpretations, there are two different different structuresstructures. Two different . Two different LFs.LFs.

QRQR Sue read every book.Sue read every book.For every book For every book xx, Sue read , Sue read xx..

Covert movement again: the quantifier Covert movement again: the quantifier movesmoves to a position above the to a position above the sentence, so there is then a direct sentence, so there is then a direct mapping between the structure and the mapping between the structure and the logical form. But only after the logical form. But only after the pronunciation has been fixed.pronunciation has been fixed.

[every book][every book]ii [ [IPIP Sue read Sue read ttii ]. ].

QRQR

Sue read every book.Sue read every book.For every book For every book xx, Sue read , Sue read xx..

[every book][every book]ii [ [IPIP Sue read Sue read ttii ]. ].

As with As with whwh-movement, the -movement, the tracetrace is is the variable at logical form—the variable at logical form—moving quantifiers is a way to moving quantifiers is a way to establish a quantifier-variable establish a quantifier-variable structure.structure.

QRQR

Sue read every book.Sue read every book.For every book For every book xx, Sue read , Sue read xx..

[every book][every book]ii [ [IPIP Sue read Sue read ttii ]. ].

This movement is called This movement is called Quantifier RaisingQuantifier Raising ( (QRQR), and ), and it happens to it happens to everyevery quantifier quantifier before LF.before LF.

Quantifiers and bindingQuantifiers and binding

Every girl aced her exams.Every girl aced her exams. [Every girl][Every girl]ii [ [ ttii aced her aced herii exams] exams] For every girl For every girl xx, , xx aced aced xx’s exams’s exams

Not only the trace of QR, but also Not only the trace of QR, but also pronouns, can be bound by the pronouns, can be bound by the quantifier, their referent quantifier, their referent determined by the quantifier.determined by the quantifier.

Quantifiers and bindingQuantifiers and binding

[Every girl][Every girl]ii [ [ ttii aced her aced herii exams] exams] Binding (assigning reference) is subject to Binding (assigning reference) is subject to c-command. A quantifier can only assign c-command. A quantifier can only assign reference to a variable (its trace and reference to a variable (its trace and possibly other pronouns) which it c-commands.possibly other pronouns) which it c-commands.

Her brother said that every girl aced Her brother said that every girl aced her examsher exams..

The things which a quantifier c-commands The things which a quantifier c-commands are said to be in itsare said to be in its scope. scope.

Quantifiers can only bind variables in Quantifiers can only bind variables in their scope.their scope.

WCOWCO

Now, let’s look at weak crossover Now, let’s look at weak crossover again.again.

Every girl likes her roommate.Every girl likes her roommate. For every girl For every girl xx, , xx likes likes xx’s ’s roommate.roommate.

Her roommate likes every girl.Her roommate likes every girl. For every girl For every girl xx, , xx’s roommate likes ’s roommate likes xx..

Why can’t the second sentence have Why can’t the second sentence have this meaning?this meaning?

WCOWCO

[Every girl][Every girl]ii [ [IPIP ttii likes her likes herii roommate]. roommate]. For every girl For every girl xx, , xx likes likes xx’s roommate.’s roommate.

[Every girl][Every girl]ii [ [IPIP her herii roommate likes roommate likes ttii ]. ]. For every girl For every girl xx, , xx’s roommate likes ’s roommate likes xx..

Answer: WCO again.Answer: WCO again. But WCO is about moving a But WCO is about moving a quantifier over a variable—so if WCO rules quantifier over a variable—so if WCO rules out this meaning, there must have been out this meaning, there must have been movement. movement. There must have been QRThere must have been QR. A . A movement we couldn’t see.movement we couldn’t see.

ACDACD Here’s another reason to believe in QR, Here’s another reason to believe in QR, antecedent contained deletionantecedent contained deletion. This one’s . This one’s kind of complicated, so hang on tight.kind of complicated, so hang on tight.

First, we need to talk about First, we need to talk about VP ellipsisVP ellipsis..

Mary bought a record, and Bill did too.Mary bought a record, and Bill did too. [[IPIP Mary -ed [ Mary -ed [vvPP buy a record]] and buy a record]] and[[IPIP Bill -ed [ Bill -ed [vvPP buy a record]] too. buy a record]] too.

VP ellipsisVP ellipsis

Mary bought a record and Bill Mary bought a record and Bill bought a tapebought a tape. ≠ . ≠ Mary bought a Mary bought a record and Bill did too.record and Bill did too.

VP ellipsis is allowed VP ellipsis is allowed when a when a preceding VP is identicalpreceding VP is identical..

To To interpretinterpret this, you need to this, you need to use the content of the preceding use the content of the preceding VP.VP.

Mary bought a record and Bill Mary bought a record and Bill did (buy a record) too.did (buy a record) too.

VP ellipsisVP ellipsis We will consider the process of VP ellipsis We will consider the process of VP ellipsis to be one of to be one of deletion under identitydeletion under identity..

Underlyingly:Underlyingly:-ed [-ed [vvPP Mary sleep] and -ed [ Mary sleep] and -ed [vvPP Bill sleep] Bill sleep] too.too.

Before deletion:Before deletion:Mary -ed [Mary -ed [vvPP tt sleep] and Bill -ed [ sleep] and Bill -ed [vvPP tt sleep] toosleep] too

Pronunciation:Pronunciation:Mary -ed [Mary -ed [vvPP tt sleep] and Bill -ed [ sleep] and Bill -ed [vvPP tt sleep] toosleep] tooMary slept and Bill did tooMary slept and Bill did too

VP ellipsisVP ellipsis

So, as long as two VPs in So, as long as two VPs in sequence look identicalsequence look identical (where (where traces of movement look traces of movement look identical to one another—they identical to one another—they sound the same), sound the same), we are allowed we are allowed to pronounce the second one to pronounce the second one very quietlyvery quietly..

Like an extreme case ofLike an extreme case ofMary bought a record andMary bought a record and

Bill Bill bought a record bought a record too.too.

VP ellipsisVP ellipsis Note that Note that identityidentity is actually fairly is actually fairly abstract.abstract.

John slept and Mary will too.John slept and Mary will too. John slept and Mary will John slept and Mary will sleepsleep too. too.

Before deletion:Before deletion:John -ed [John -ed [vvPP tt sleep] and Mary will [ sleep] and Mary will [vvPP tt sleep] toosleep] too The inflectional features of The inflectional features of v v don’t matter don’t matter for identity; the verb doesn’t for identity; the verb doesn’t inherentlyinherently have a tense suffix.have a tense suffix.

ACDACD Now, consider a DP with a relative Now, consider a DP with a relative clause:clause:

the record [the record [OpOpii that Mary bought that Mary bought ttii ]. ].

Bill likes [the record that Mary Bill likes [the record that Mary bought].bought].

Bill likes the record that Mary bought Bill likes the record that Mary bought and Sue does too.and Sue does too.

Bill likes the record that Mary bought Bill likes the record that Mary bought and Sue does (like the record that Mary and Sue does (like the record that Mary bought) too.bought) too.

ACDACD

Bill likes every book Mary does.Bill likes every book Mary does. Bill [Bill [vvPP likes every book likes every book OpOpii Mary [ Mary [vvPP likes likes ttii ]]. ]].

vvP:P: likes [every book likes [every book OpOp Mary likes Mary likes t t ]] vvP:P: likes likes tt Those aren’t the same. VP ellipsis Those aren’t the same. VP ellipsis shouldn’t shouldn’t work, but yet it does.work, but yet it does.

The deleted VP is The deleted VP is contained contained in the antecedent in the antecedent VPVP ( (antecedent-contained deletionantecedent-contained deletion))

QR and ACDQR and ACD But now let’s consider what QR would do.But now let’s consider what QR would do. Every book that Mary likesEvery book that Mary likes is a quantifier. is a quantifier. Quantifiers have to move up past the subject Quantifiers have to move up past the subject by LF.by LF.

Bill likes every book Mary does.Bill likes every book Mary does. Pronunciation (before covert movement):Pronunciation (before covert movement):Bill [Bill [vvPP likes [every book likes [every book OpOpjj Mary [ Mary [vvPP likes likes ttjj ]]].]]].

LF:LF:[every book [every book OpOpjj Mary [ Mary [vvPP likes likes ttjj ]] ]]ii Bill [ Bill [vvPP likes likes ttii ]. ].

But now the VPs But now the VPs areare identical. identical. So if we believe in QR, we can explain ACD So if we believe in QR, we can explain ACD sentences in a natural way.sentences in a natural way.

Where do quantifiers Where do quantifiers go?go?

Every student left.Every student left. [Every student][Every student]ii [ [IPIP ttii left ] left ] We need a variable in subject We need a variable in subject position, so QR must be moving position, so QR must be moving the quantifier out of TP, to the quantifier out of TP, to somewhere higher then TP.somewhere higher then TP.

Believe me that it is also Believe me that it is also moving somewhere moving somewhere lowerlower than CP. than CP.

Adjunction to TPAdjunction to TP

In order to In order to accommodate this, we accommodate this, we need to formulate a need to formulate a new position to which new position to which quantifiers move.quantifiers move.

This position is This position is going to be going to be adjoined adjoined to TPto TP..

vPT

T

TP

subj

TP

QP

Adjunction to TPAdjunction to TP One difference between QR One difference between QR

(adjunction to TP) and movement (adjunction to TP) and movement to SpecTP is in the motivations.to SpecTP is in the motivations.

Moving to SpecTP or moving to Moving to SpecTP or moving to SpecCP is motivated by some need SpecCP is motivated by some need of Tof T (EPP: T needs a DP in its (EPP: T needs a DP in its specifier)specifier) or Cor C ([Q] C needs a ([Q] C needs a [+WH] in its specifier)[+WH] in its specifier)..

Moving a quantifier (QR) is Moving a quantifier (QR) is required because the required because the quantifierquantifier needs to get out of the TP (for needs to get out of the TP (for interpretation). TP interpretation). TP itself itself has has no need for quantifiers.no need for quantifiers.

vPT

T

TP

subj

TP

QP

Adjunction to TPAdjunction to TP So, we could say that moving to So, we could say that moving to Spec is something that happens Spec is something that happens if the moving thing is if the moving thing is pulledpulled (T is pulling up a subject to (T is pulling up a subject to satisfy its own needs, not the satisfy its own needs, not the needs of the moving subject)needs of the moving subject) or or pushedpushed (quantifiers move to (quantifiers move to satisfy their own needs, not satisfy their own needs, not the needs of the T)the needs of the T)..

An XP that is An XP that is pulledpulled up goes up goes into Spec.into Spec.

An XP that is An XP that is pushedpushed up up adjoins.adjoins.

vPT

T

TP

subj

TP

QP