Week 4b. Tree geometryWeek 4b. Tree geometryand c-commandand c-command

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

TreesTrees

An abstract tree An abstract tree structure…structure…

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees The “joints” of the tree The “joints” of the tree

are are nodesnodes. The nodes . The nodes here are labeled (with here are labeled (with node labelsnode labels).).

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees The “joints” of the tree The “joints” of the tree

are are nodesnodes. The nodes . The nodes here are labeled (with here are labeled (with node labelsnode labels).).

Nodes are connected by Nodes are connected by branchesbranches..

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees The “joints” of the tree The “joints” of the tree

are are nodesnodes. The nodes . The nodes here are labeled (with here are labeled (with node labelsnode labels).).

Nodes are connected by Nodes are connected by branchesbranches..

The node at the top of the The node at the top of the tree (with no branches tree (with no branches above it) is called the above it) is called the root root nodenode. A is the root node.. A is the root node.

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees Nodes with no branches Nodes with no branches

beneath them are called beneath them are called terminal nodesterminal nodes..

B, D, E are terminal B, D, E are terminal nodes.nodes.

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees Nodes with no branches Nodes with no branches

beneath them are called beneath them are called terminal nodesterminal nodes..

B, D, E are terminal nodes.B, D, E are terminal nodes.

Nodes with branches Nodes with branches beneath them are called beneath them are called nonterminal nodesnonterminal nodes..

A, C are nonterminal nodes.A, C are nonterminal nodes.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X dominatesdominates

nodes below it on the nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled which would be pulled along if you grabbed the along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off node X and pulled it off of the page.of the page.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X dominatesdominates

nodes below it on the nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled which would be pulled along if you grabbed the along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off node X and pulled it off of the page.of the page.

C dominates D and E.C dominates D and E.

A

B C

D E

C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations Remind you of anything?Remind you of anything?

To briefly reconnect with To briefly reconnect with actual language data, it actual language data, it seems as if you do seems as if you do something to C (like pull something to C (like pull it off the page), it affects it off the page), it affects D and E as a unit.D and E as a unit.

A

B C

D E

C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A set of terminal nodes is A set of terminal nodes is

a a constituentconstituent if they are if they are all dominated by the all dominated by the same node and no other same node and no other terminal nodes are terminal nodes are dominated by that node.dominated by that node.

““D E” is a constituent.D E” is a constituent. ““B D” is not.B D” is not.

A

B C

D E

C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X immediately immediately

dominatesdominates a node Y if X a node Y if X dominates Y and is dominates Y and is connected by only one connected by only one branch.branch.

A immediately dominatesA immediately dominatesB and C.B and C.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X immediately immediately

dominatesdominates a node Y if X a node Y if X dominates Y and is dominates Y and is connected by only one connected by only one branch.branch.

A immediately dominatesA immediately dominatesB and C.B and C.

A is also sometimes called A is also sometimes called the the mother mother of B and C. of B and C.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node which shares the A node which shares the

same mother as a node X same mother as a node X is sometimes called the is sometimes called the sistersister of X.of X.

B is the sister of C.B is the sister of C. C is the sister of B.C is the sister of B. D is the sister of E.D is the sister of E.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X c-commandsc-commands

its sisters and the nodes its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters.dominated by its sisters.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X c-commandsc-commands

its sisters and the nodes its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters.dominated by its sisters.

BB c-commands c-commands CC, , DD, and , and EE..

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X c-commandsc-commands

its sisters and the nodes its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters.dominated by its sisters.

B c-commands C, D, and B c-commands C, D, and E.E.

DD c-commands c-commands EE..

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations A node X A node X c-commandsc-commands

its sisters and the nodes its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters.dominated by its sisters.

B c-commands C, D, and B c-commands C, D, and E.E.

D c-commands E.D c-commands E. CC c-commands c-commands BB..

A

B C

D E

X-bar configurationsX-bar configurations The The complementcomplement is is

the sister of the the sister of the head.head.

The The specifierspecifier is the is the sister of Xsister of X that is a that is a daughter of XP.daughter of XP.

XP

YP X

X ZP

PrecedencePrecedence The tree also encodes the The tree also encodes the linear linear

order order of the terminal nodes.of the terminal nodes.

PrecedencePrecedence The tree also encodes the The tree also encodes the linear linear

order order of the terminal nodes.of the terminal nodes. TheThe is pronounced before is pronounced before studentsstudents..

NP

D Nthe students

PrecedencePrecedence The tree also encodes the The tree also encodes the linear linear

order order of the terminal nodes.of the terminal nodes. TheThe is pronounced before is pronounced before studentsstudents.. SawSaw is pronounced before is pronounced before thethe and and

studentsstudents..

NP

D Nthe students

Vsaw

VP

PrecedencePrecedence That is, V is pronounced before NP, That is, V is pronounced before NP,

meaning V is pronounced before all meaning V is pronounced before all of the terminal nodes dominated by of the terminal nodes dominated by NP.NP.

NP

D Nthe students

Vsaw

VP

PrecedencePrecedence Even if the tree is drawn sloppily, Even if the tree is drawn sloppily,

nothing changes—(everything nothing changes—(everything dominated by) V is pronounced dominated by) V is pronounced before (everything dominated by) before (everything dominated by) NP. This is still “saw the students”.NP. This is still “saw the students”.

NP

D Nthe students

Vsaw

VP

No line crossingNo line crossing

One of the One of the implications of this implications of this is that you cannot is that you cannot draw a well-formed draw a well-formed tree with lines that tree with lines that cross.cross. TheThe can’t be can’t be

pronounced before V pronounced before V because because The The is part is part of DP and V has to be of DP and V has to be pronounced before pronounced before all of DP.all of DP.

NP

studentsVthe

D

DP

VP

meet

Tree relationsTree relations John walked

to the store. What does DP2 dominate? PP? IP? What does the c-command? walk? What are the daughters of IP? PP?

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items Certain words in English seem to only be Certain words in English seem to only be

available in “negative” contexts. available in “negative” contexts. Pat didPat didn’tn’t invite invite anyoneanyone to the party. to the party. Pat does Pat does notnot know know anythinganything about syntax. about syntax. Pat hasPat hasn’tn’t everever been to London. been to London. Pat hasPat hasn’tn’t seen seen Forrest GumpForrest Gump yetyet.. *Pat invited *Pat invited anyoneanyone to the party. to the party. *Pat knows *Pat knows anythinganything about syntax. about syntax. *Pat has *Pat has everever been to London. been to London. *Pat has seen *Pat has seen Forrest GumpForrest Gump yetyet..

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items These are called These are called negative polarity itemsnegative polarity items.. They include They include everever, , yetyet, , anyoneanyone, ,

anythinganything, , any Nany N, as well as some , as well as some idiomatic ones like idiomatic ones like lift a fingerlift a finger and and a red a red centcent.. Pat didn’t lift a finger to help.Pat didn’t lift a finger to help. Pat didn’t have a red cent.Pat didn’t have a red cent. *Pat lifted a finger to help.*Pat lifted a finger to help. *Pat had a red cent.*Pat had a red cent.

AnyAny Just to introduce a complication right away, Just to introduce a complication right away,

there there isis a positive-polarity version of a positive-polarity version of anyany that that has a different meaning, known as the “free has a different meaning, known as the “free choice choice anyany” meaning. This meaning is ” meaning. This meaning is distinguishable (intuitively) from the NPI distinguishable (intuitively) from the NPI anyany meaning, and we are concentrating only on meaning, and we are concentrating only on the NPI the NPI anyany meaning—for now, we will just meaning—for now, we will just consider consider anyany to be ambiguous, like to be ambiguous, like bankbank.. John read anything the professor gave him.John read anything the professor gave him. Anyone who can understand syntax is a genius.Anyone who can understand syntax is a genius. Pick any card.Pick any card.

LicensingLicensing NPI’s are only allowed to appear if NPI’s are only allowed to appear if

there’s a negative in the sentence.there’s a negative in the sentence. We say that negation gives them We say that negation gives them

“license to appear”: NPI’s are “license to appear”: NPI’s are licensedlicensed by negation by negation in a sentence. in a sentence.

Just like you need a driver’s license to Just like you need a driver’s license to drive a car (legally), you need negation drive a car (legally), you need negation to use a NPI (grammatically).to use a NPI (grammatically).

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items But it isn’t quite as simple as that. But it isn’t quite as simple as that.

Consider:Consider: I didI didn’tn’t see see anyoneanyone.. *I saw *I saw anyoneanyone.. **AnyoneAnyone did didn’tn’t see me. see me. **AnyoneAnyone saw me. saw me.

It seems that simply having negation It seems that simply having negation in the sentence isn’t in the sentence isn’t by itselfby itself enough enough to license the use of an NPI.to license the use of an NPI.

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items As a first pass, we might say that As a first pass, we might say that

negation has to negation has to precedeprecede the NPI. the NPI. I didI didn’tn’t see see anyoneanyone.. **AnyoneAnyone did didn’tn’t see me. see me.

But that’s not quite it either.But that’s not quite it either. *[That John did*[That John didn’tn’t stay] surprised stay] surprised anyoneanyone.. [That John did[That John didn’tn’t stay] did stay] didn’tn’t surprise surprise

anyoneanyone..

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items *[That John didn’t stay] surprised anyone.*[That John didn’t stay] surprised anyone. [That John didn’t stay] didn’t surprise anyone.[That John didn’t stay] didn’t surprise anyone.

IP

V DP

IP

DP

VPIJohn

CP

Cthat

stay(di)-d(n’t)

surpriseI

VPI

anyone

(di)-d(n’t)

I

Structural ambiguityStructural ambiguity John said that Bill slipped in the kitchen.John said that Bill slipped in the kitchen.

This sentence has two possible This sentence has two possible meanings; either John meanings; either John saidsaid it in the it in the kitchen, or Bill kitchen, or Bill slipped slipped in the kitchen in the kitchen (according to John).(according to John).

John said that Bill will leave yesterday.John said that Bill will leave yesterday. John said that Bill will leave tomorrow.John said that Bill will leave tomorrow.

StructuralStructuralambiguityambiguityIDP

VP

V CP

I

John

-ed

say

Cthat

in thekitchen

IP

IDP

VP

V PP

I

Bill

-ed

slip

IP

IDP

VP

V CP

I

John

-ed

say

Cthat

in thekitchen

IP

IDP

VP

PP

I

Bill

-ed slip

IP

V

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items

John said that Bill didn’t slipJohn said that Bill didn’t slipin any room in the house.in any room in the house.

Suddenly, it has only one meaning. Suddenly, it has only one meaning. Why?Why? John said: In no room did Bill slip.John said: In no room did Bill slip. *John said in any room: Bill didn’t slip.*John said in any room: Bill didn’t slip.

NPIsNPIsIDP

VP

V CP

I

John

-ed

say

Cthat

in anyroom…

IP

IDP

VP

V PP

I

Bill

-dn’t

slip

IP

IDP

VP

V CP

I

John

-ed

say

Cthat

in anyroom…

IP

IDP

VP

PP

I

Bill

-dn’t slip

IP

V

*

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items How about:How about:

John didn’t say that Bill slipped in any John didn’t say that Bill slipped in any room in the house.room in the house.

What do we predict?What do we predict?

NPIsNPIsIDP

VP

V CP

I

John

-dn’t

say

Cthat

in anyroom…

IP

IDP

VP

V PP

I

Bill

-ed

slip

IP

IDP

VP

V CP

I

John

-dn’t

say

Cthat

in anyroom…

IP

IDP

VP

PP

I

Bill

-ed slip

IP

V

Negative Polarity ItemsNegative Polarity Items John didn’t say that Mary slipped in any John didn’t say that Mary slipped in any

room in the house.room in the house. ……He said that when he was out in the He said that when he was out in the

yard…yard… ……He said that she slipped on the sidewalk…He said that she slipped on the sidewalk…

Both meanings are good, because both Both meanings are good, because both possible structural positions for the NPI possible structural positions for the NPI are c-commanded (thus licensed) by the are c-commanded (thus licensed) by the negation.negation.

AnaphorsAnaphors Recall from the first week the Recall from the first week the

anaphorsanaphors: : himself, herself, themselves, himself, herself, themselves, myself, yourselfmyself, yourself..

Anaphors Anaphors get their reference from get their reference from somewhere elsesomewhere else, necessarily. Their , necessarily. Their antecedentantecedent.. I I saw myself in the mirror.saw myself in the mirror. JohnJohn cut himself shaving. cut himself shaving. *Himself left.*Himself left.

AnaphorsAnaphors John’s pictures of himself disturb me. *John’s pictures of me disturb himself. *John’s mother drew pictures of himself. John’s mother drew pictures of herself. The man near Mary adores himself.

AnaphorsAnaphors Anaphors also need to find their Anaphors also need to find their

antecedent “nearby.”antecedent “nearby.” John saw himself in the mirror.John saw himself in the mirror. *John said that Mary saw himself in the *John said that Mary saw himself in the

mirror.mirror.

Binding TheoryBinding Theory. . Principle APrinciple A. An . An anaphor must be bound within its anaphor must be bound within its binding domain.binding domain.

Principle APrinciple A Principle A. An anaphor must be bound in Principle A. An anaphor must be bound in

its binding domain.its binding domain.

Binding domainBinding domain: The extent of “nearby”.: The extent of “nearby”. BoundBound: getting its reference from a : getting its reference from a c-c-

commandingcommanding antecedent. antecedent.

Mary said that [Mary said that [IPIP JohnJohnii hurt hurt himselfhimselfii ] ]..

Principle APrinciple A The definition of The definition of binding domainbinding domain is is

very complicated (this occupied many very complicated (this occupied many syntacticians in the early ’80s).syntacticians in the early ’80s).

A clause (IP) delimits a binding domain.A clause (IP) delimits a binding domain. But other things do too…But other things do too…

Mary likes Mary likes [[DPDP John’s picture of himself John’s picture of himselfii ]].. *Mary*Maryii likes likes [[DPDP John’s picture of herselfJohn’s picture of herselfii ]].. MaryMaryii wants wants [[DPDP a picture of herselfa picture of herselfii ]]..

Binding domainBinding domain Let’s say this:Let’s say this: The The binding domainbinding domain for an anaphor for an anaphor

is the smallest of:is the smallest of: A CP that dominates it.A CP that dominates it. A DP with a specifier that dominates it.A DP with a specifier that dominates it.

Note! This is Note! This is notnot perfect, but it is a perfect, but it is a pretty close approximation.pretty close approximation.