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Boundaries

Constructive

Two plates moving apartVolcanoes and Earthquakes

Mid Atlantic Ridge

Destructive

Two plates moving towards each otherVolcanoes and EarthquakesSubduction of the denser plate forms a sea

trenchAndes

Collision

Two plates moving towards each other(continental towards continental plates)Fold mountainsEarthquakes

Himalayas

Conservative

Two plates moving past each otherEarthquakes (movement is not smoothStick-Slip process)

San Andreas Fault


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Types of Volcanoes

Composite

Veryexplosive

Viscous (not runny)magma which clogs at the

top building up pressurecausing a big explosion

Constructed atsubduction zones(destructive plate

boundaries)

Steepsides

MountFuji

Shield

Gently sloping

sides

Can be produced at Hot

Spots

Fluid flowingmagma (flowslong distances onthe earth)

HawaiiMaunaLoa


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Volcanoes

Sakurajima Japan (DevelopedWorld)

Montserrat Caribbean (DevelopingWorld)

Cause

On a destructive plate boundaryComposite volcano = very dangerousand explosive

On a destructive plate boundaryComposite volcano = very dangerous andexplosive

Impacts

Volcanic bombs damagedinfrastructureHeavy volcanic ash coveredeverything

Electricity was temporarily disrupted

Airport closedFarmland destroyedTourist industry suffered (little visitors)Half the population have left the island

Reponses

Short term relief Long term planning Short term relief Long term planning

Clearly signpostedevacuation routesRegularevacuation drills

Tiltmeters todetect the volcanoswellingConcrete shelters

to protect againstvolcano bombs andashAircraft to measurethe amount of gasthe volcano giveson (to predict aneruption)

Warning systems inplace for quickevacuationTemporary aid

(shelter, food)Emergency food forlivestock

MVO (MontserratVolcano Observatory)set up to monitor thevolcano

Building infrastructureand buildings towithstand the effectsPermanent evacuationof the area around thevolcano


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Los Angeles (Developed World) Kashmir (Developing World)

Cause

On a conservative plate boundary6.7 on the Richter Scale

On a collision plate boundary7.6 on the Richter Scale

Impacts

Infrastructure damagedThousands of people left homelessBroken gas mains caught fireIntense heat caused fires to break outLandslides as a result of theearthquake

Many people diedMillions left homelessAmount need to rebuild property $440 millionLandslides because of the earthquake causedmore damage

Reponses

Short term relief Long term planning Short term relief Long term planning

Temporaryhousing andshelterFood and watersuppliesContact withfamily and friends

Buildings made towithstand futureearthquakes

Quick evacuationplansQuicker responsefrom emergency

services

Camps set up tooffer help for thehomelessFood and watersuppliesAid for those in need

Better built housing towithstand earthquakes

Better health care andemergency servicesMore aid for the

homeless

Case Studys:Earthquakes

Cross bracing to stopfloors collapsingDeep foundations

to prevent collapseDouble glazedwindows to stopbreaking

Lightweight thatchedroof

Concrete rings tyingthe wall to thefoundationSimple steel rod

foundation


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Natural Causes of

Climate Change

Volcanic

eruptions

Very large and explosive eruptions change earths climateAsh and gas spread around the stratosphere and stop sunlight

reaching the earths surface cools the earth

Sunspotactivity

Black areas on the suns surface

Spots mean greater activity and more solar energy being senttowards the earth warmer.

Orbitalchanges

Changes in the way the earth orbits the sun from circular toellipse alters the amount of sunlight the earth receives.

The earths axis also moves and wobbles about affecting howmuch sunlight is received


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Case Study: UK affected byClimate ChangeWhats likelyto happen to

the UK

Likely to be warmerSea levels riseMore extreme weather

Impacts

Green=Benefit

Purple=Cost

Social Impacts Economic Impacts Environmental Impacts

Fewer deaths fromillnesss like the fluRising temperaturescould mean morepeople on beachesMore illnesses such assunstroke and cancerInfrastructure meltsaway

Tourism increase booststhe economyHeating bills will fall in thewinterIncreasing cost of helpingclimate refugeesScotlands skiing resortscould disappear

New species of plants andanimals will be introducedSome plants and animalscould face extinctionMajor erosion with rising sealevels

Responses

We can:o Switch to green energy (wind, tidal, solar etc.)o Recycle moreo Use public transport more

Kyoto Protocol:o International agreement to cut CO2 emissions

Stern Review:o

We should spend 2% of our GDP on reducing pollution to stop globalwarming decreasing out GDP by 20%


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Case Study: Bangladesh affected byClimate ChangeWhats likelyto happen to

Bangladesh

Sea levels riseBangladesh is a low lying country so much of it would beflooded

Impacts

Social Impacts Economic Impacts Environmental Impacts

Destruction of schools= less educatedchildren in the futureExtreme weathermeans families aredriven out of theirhomesPeople are notprepared for theeffects of floods as

they are getting worse

Farmers are likely to loosetheir crops reducing theamount of income forBangladesh as well as theamount of money earnt bythe farmers

Water ruined by salt levelsincreasing in the water alsodestroying rice paddiesLand flooded especiallycostal areasIncreased cyclone activity

Responses

UK gave Bangladesh 75 millionMoney spent on:

o Protecting schools building them on raised stilts so flood waterpasses safely below the buildings

Introducing crops which are more tolerant to salt


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Factors affecting the

location of Biomes

Latitude Hotter at the equator, suns rays hit at 90,concentrating the rays

Colder at the poles, suns rays hit at greater angles, lessconcentrated rays*Lack of heat and light limits vegetation growth*

Precipitation More rainfall near coasts, water is evaporated and thenfalls as rain on landLow pressure where air is rising = rainfall e.g. at theequatorHigh pressure where the air is sinking = no rain e.g. atthe poles

Altitude As height increases temperature decreases and rainfallincreases

The Sea Keeps places near the coast cooler in summer and

warmer in winter [CONTINENTALITY]

Prevailing Winds Winds across land = dryWinds across water = wetWinds from the poles = coldWinds from the equator = warm


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How humans are threatening theBiosphereOver harvesting/fishing/hunting

e.g. Krill can lead to the extinction of some speciesDeforestation

More CO2 released contributing to Global WarmingIncreased soil erosion, soil runs into rivers increasing theamount of sediment in them, ruining habitats for some fish

Changing land use

From forests to farm landTourism and Recreation

Scuba Diving, Safaris damaged the environment anddisturb surrounding wildlife

Introducing alien species

More competition for land, food, shelter, mates etc.Pollution

Of air, water from industry, burning fossil fuels etc.Mining

Disrupts natural habitats and produces pollution in the

process


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Case Study: Human Threats to theAmazon- Deforestation


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Case Studys: Global Management toProtect Biomes

RAMSARNational Parks e.g. Lake

DistrictCITES

To conserve and protectwetland areas (deltas,marshs, swamps,lagoons)Supports 20, 000 waterbirds

Supports native fishMonitors and regulatesanimal populations andhuman actions in theseareasBritain has the highest

number of sites, 168In some places it hasbeen successful asexploitation has reduced

Protects land by lawProhibits the exploitationof resourcesLand used for:

o Human recreationo Animal and

environmentprotection

o Restriction ofdevelopment

o Attracts tourists(some parks have topay to enter) =

improves theeconomy whilegetting people tobecome moreaware of thebiodiversity

Convention onInternational Trade inEndangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora(CITES)150 nations work

together to ensure wedont exploit endangeredspecies for tradingpurposesHelps stop ivory tradeand the trade of crocodile

skins

Environmental Stewardship - supports environmentally beneficial management

practices e.g. encouraging farmers to keep their hedgerows for habitats for animals,encouraging in field trees as they are important habitats for animals


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Case Study: Water Shortagesin the Sahel

Background Causes Impacts2/3 of people livein rural areasPeople depend onagriculture andnatural resourcesfor incomeLots of air andwater pollutionDecline in soil andsoil fertility

Physical Human Hunger, thirst andmalnutritionDesertificationNomads follow thewater suppliesBig businesses usegood land = notenough land leftfor local farmersSemi-arid landsare already fragileand cant cope withwater stress

Rainfall fallen by30%

The wet season isshort (1-2 monthsa year)Heavy rainfallleads to increasedsurface run off =

flooding

Rapidly growingpopulations =

higher demand forwater than supply

Surrounding countriesare:

Nigeria Ethiopia Sudan

Developing Countries


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Case Study: River Rhine WaterPollution

Sources of pollution in rivers (reducing

water quality):Sewage

Fertilisers being washed intorivers

d l


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Case Study: Large Scale WaterManagement Chinas 3 Gorges DamWas built to reduce its dependence on coal seeing HEP (Hydro ElectricPower) as a clean alternative to support its rapid industrialisation

Advantages DisadvantagesHuge quantities of power createdreducing dependence on coalProvides water to more areas of ChinaPrevents seasonal floodingProvides people with jobs = increases

income = increasing standard of livingWater security for the growingpopulations of citiesTourism and recreation (sailing etc) onthe dam increases Chinas economy

Pollution increase from flooding ofabandoned factories and minesImportant archaeological and heritagesites will be lostMany people will have to move and

100, 000 of hectares of land will befloodedYangtze tributaries will deteriorateeffecting the salt levels in the river

How Human use of Stores and Flows can reduce WaterSupplyThames Valley, South England [OVERABSTRACTION]Water taken for domestic, industrial and agricultural useMore demand for the groundwater supplies = falling water tableTributaries dry upOver land stores either dried up or reduced significantly


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Case Study: Small Scale WaterManagementIntermediate Technology schemes which are sustainable and meet theneeds of local people, they can me maintained and run by the localcommunities without the help of others

Intermediate Technology Located Example Description

Water Pump

Tanzania

Draws water up from the ground15 families per pumpCommunities take responsibility ofthe hand pump and are responsiblefor its upkeep

Rainwater storage tanks(pumpkin tanks)

India

Allows water harvesting from roofguttersUsed for farmingLocal materials used so once brokenthey are easy to repairLooked after by locals

Tubewells

Bangladesh

Hand dug small wells, drilled usinghand powered methodsUsed when the water table is lowThey can be built quickly andcheaplyPeople are no longer continually illPeople dont have to walk longdistancesPeople are stating out move out of

poverty

h i i f


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Changes in a river from Source toMouthGradient

Decreases

WidthIncreases

DepthIncreases

VelocityIncreases

DischargeIncreases

RiverValley

Steep Sides Start of a flood plain, sides quite steep Wide flat flood plain, gentle sidesUpperCourse

MiddleCourse

LowerCourse

i


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River Processes

Process of Erosion Processes of Transportation

Attrition Banging together of rocksand stones

Solution Chemicals carried along inthe water (cant see them)

Solution Rocks such as limestone

dissolved in acid rainwater

SuspensionFine particles carried by the

rivers current

Abrasion Rocks bash against the riverbed and banks

Traction Large stones dragged alongthe river bed

HydraulicErosion

Water gets stuck in smallcracks in the river bed andbanks eventually crackingthe rock

Salutation Smaller stones are pickedup and dropped = like askipping motion

Fl d H d h


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Flood HydrographShort Lag Time (water quicklyreaches river):

Urbanisation Deforestation Impermeable rock Steep Landscapes

Long Lag Time (water slowlyreaches river):

Afforestation Permeable rock

Rising limb:as water reaches theriver the dischargeincreases

*Lots of surface runof increases this*

Falling limb:when rainwater isstill reaching the

river but in smallerand smallerquantities

*After periods ofrainfall, left over

water infiltrates/runsoff into the river*

The amount of waterin the river thatcomes from thestorm

Ri L df


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River LandformsInterlocking

Spur

River does not have enough energy toerode protruding land so winds around it

Waterfall

Erosion (abrasion, hydraulic action) of softer rock

underneath, undercuts hard rock above = plungepoolLess resistant is eroded leaving an overhangingledge which collapses

Meanders

Fast current on outside of the river laterallyerodesEroded material gets dumped on the insideof the river where the current is slowest

Neck gets narrower as the meander loopincreases

OxbowLakes

Made from meandersMeander neck eventually joins cutting offthe meander which was made previouslyLeaves and oxbow lake behind

Floodplain

Formed by lateral erosionWhen the river floods water spread out ofthe river valley depositing some of its loadin the process

Levees

A natural embankment of sediment fromwhen the river floodsBanks build up to help to contain water in

the river valley

1

2

3

4

LowerCourse

UpperCourse

MiddleCourse

C St d Fl di i Sh ffi ld


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Case Study: Flooding in SheffieldCauses Impacts

Prolonged rainfall (90mm 15th

June/100mm 25th June)Soil was saturated = several days ofprolonged rainfall = increasedsurface run offConfluence on several rivers (2x theamount of water in the river channel)Physical landscape = steep = quicksurface run off

Urbanisation = more impermeablesurfaces = less infiltrationBlocked drains and flood defences =reached their capacity and couldnttake any more water

EnvironmentalHuman

Hillsborough

Football stadium flooded43% houses on an estate

floodedHealth risks from raw sewage inflood waterPeople moved into caravans

City Centre

Transport links cancelled, 900people spent the night in offices20 people airlifted to safety

Lower DonValley

Industrys badly affected15 million damage to ClarksonOsborn Tool CompanyMeadowhill shopping centredamaged and closed for weeks

UlleyReservoir

Area

Rainfall damaged dam, fears itmight collapseSome people re-housed fornearly a yearM1 closed for two days in fearthe dam might burst700 people evacuatedEmergency shelter in primary

C St d H d d S ft


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Case Studys: Hard and SoftEngineeringHard Engineering (use of solid

structures)Soft Engineering (use of ecological

principles)

Channelisation

Flood relief channelsDamsEmbankments

Afforestation

Flood warning systemsLand use zoning

SheffieldRiver

Rivelin &RiverLoxley

Flood relief channels Can take excess water

ensure river does not

flood its banksFlood storage reservoirs Large quantities of

water used forrecreation as well

Canalisation Lined with concrete =

speed up river flow

Darlington

RiverSkerne

River restored to natural meanderingstateWetland habitats along river banks toreduce flooding impacts

Meander banks enforced to reducelateral erosion

All 3 have negativeaspects:

High costs

Ruinshabitats Look

horrible

Th V l d Th t t


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The Value and Threats toCoral Reefs

Tourism:Caribbean gets halftheir income from

touristsEducation &Research:

Shorelineprotection:From tsunamisand wave erosion

OtherSources:

MedicineDecorativeobjects

Fishing:25%

commercial fish comefrom coralreefs

Tourism

Boat anchors damage reefsRecreational fishingSewage pollutionSnorkelling etc.

Fishing

People fishing to supply their families withfoodTrawler nets collect young fish disrupting

food chainSelective fishing disrupts the food chain

GlobalWarming

Rising temperatures stresss the coralBleaches the coralHurricanes produce huge waves damagingthe coral reefs

PopulationGrowth

Most coral reefs located around developingcountries which grown 3% in size everyyearPeople migrate to costal areas for jobs intourism and fishing

Mining

Most of the time coral is the only building

material available, the mining for theproducts ruins reefs

Threa

ts

Value

s

F d W b Di ti d Th Eff t


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Food Web Disruption and The Effectof Climate Change on Eco Systems

Siltationdeposition of silt inrivers and oceans

Coral reefs become buriedin silt restricting sunlight =plants cantphotosynthesiseDisrupts food chain = plantsstarting point for all animals

Eutrophicationecosystems becomemore fertile resultantly

loosing oxygen

Species suffocateRun off fertilisers andsewage = growth of algae

Food Web

Disruption

Overfishing

taking to many fish

The Effect of ClimateChange

Melting ofglaciers

Increased amount of fresh water reaching rivers =oceans become less salty and more dense changingthe oceans currents and distribution of heatAlters ocean food webs

Coral ReefIslands

Maldives:Island could be submerged completely

Mega Deltas

Nile:Risk of storm surgesContaminated fresh water

Environmental Refugees

Bangladesh:People staring to move away as homes aresubmerged by rising sea levels

Ports

Many countries economys will be affectedTrading would be more difficult and come placeswould not be able to operate

DevelopedCountries

North America:Increased costal erosion and floodingWater sanitation systems (in Mumbai) put understrain

DevelopingCountries

Africa:Increased costal erosion threatens places e.g. EgyptPeople living in Shanty towns at risk of disease

LEDC C St d St L i (S f i )


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LEDC Case Study: St Lucia (Soufriere)Marine Eco System Management

WhyManagementwas needed

Rising populations = increased rubbish, pollution and siltation ( from cuttingdown of trees)

More tourists = more snorkelling, diving etc. (tourism provides more than halfSt Lucias income)20% people have no jobs, using mangroves as a source of income

Conflicts

Governments and Fisherman (laws put in place by the government mightnot be beneficial for the fishermen)Dive Business's and Government(laws put in place by the governmentmight not help the diving businesss make a living)

ManagementStrategy

1992 Soufriere Marine Management Area (SMMA)Was developed through the consultation of local people (Town council, hotelowners, dive businesses, fishermen and mariner managers)

Outcomes

Successes ProblemsLocal people trained and educatedto manage the scheme = more jobsNumbers, sizes and diversity of fishstock have increasedMany stakeholders involved =

ensures all interests are met

Getting all the stakeholders to agree(fishermen did not like the marineestablishment)Rangers monitoring the area need to beequipped = high costs, the area does not

have the money for it

MEDC Case St d The Firth of Cl de


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MEDC Case Study: The Firth of Clyde(Scotland) Marine Eco SystemManagementThreats facingthe Ecosystem

Tourism: UKs second largest yachting centre, used for snorkelling andkayaking (people turn to tourism as a source of income)

Fishing: important source of local income, over fishing of cod = drastic declinein numbersMilitary Testing: deeply eroded sea floors perfect for testing nuclearsubmarines (accident would ruin the ecosystem)

Conflicts

For Against

Fishing for fun is decreasing as fish

stocks are decreasingAmateurFisherWildlife will be restored Teacher

People will loose their jobs,

consequently their source of incomeScallop FishermanAttracts more tourists making the areabusy Pensioner

Management

Strategies

No Take Zone: zones where taking fish is not allowed (replenishes fish stocks)Livelihood of Local People: sustain the livelihood of people who aredependant on fishing and tourism

What does thefuture hold

Costal and Marine Parks (CMP): costal and marine activities managed insustainable ways = long term economic benefit whilst being sustainable. Closermonitoring of commercial activities (sea bed drilling, fishing)Scottish Marine Bill: new laws managing future conflicts in Scottish Waters.Using renewable energy sources. Protecting eco systems from pollution

Gl b l M S i f h


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Global Management Strategies of theOceans

Law of theSea

(UNCLOS)

1994To prevent nations taking unfairshares of the oceans wealth

Tackles:

Fisheries, navigation, scientificresearch, pollution

Placed 40% of the ocean under adjacentcostal states within 12 miles fromcoastlinesReduced pollution by addressing (helped

marine ecosystems recover from theimpacts of pollution):ShipMiningOcean dumping

MarineProtected

Areas

2002 World Summit of SustainableDevelopment

10% oceans are protected by itAims to conserve biodiversity in outoceans

Protects our oceans by:Limiting development

Regulating fishing gear usedCatch limits and catch bansIt ensures (do not take place and fishpopulations stay at a sustainable level):Over fishingHarmful fishing techniquesBlast fishing

Four Stages ofSuccessfulParticipatoryPlanning

Participatory Planning:all stakeholders are

involved in the scheme

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