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Desirable Difficulties in Science Learning: Taking What We Learn in
the College Classroom into the Middle School Classroom
CASL PI MeetingCASL PI MeetingWashington DCWashington DC
May 17-18, 2005May 17-18, 2005Marcia C. Linn and Britte H. Cheng, Marcia C. Linn and Britte H. Cheng,
University of California, BerkeleyUniversity of California, BerkeleyLindsey E. Richland, Robert A. Bjork, and Jason Lindsey E. Richland, Robert A. Bjork, and Jason
FinleyFinleyUniversity of California, Los AngelesUniversity of California, Los Angeles
IDDEASIDDEAS
Introducing Desirable Difficulties for Introducing Desirable Difficulties for Educational Applications in Science Educational Applications in Science
(IDDEAS) http://iddeas.psych.ucla.edu(IDDEAS) http://iddeas.psych.ucla.edu Extend results from laboratory studies Extend results from laboratory studies
to complex science materials to complex science materials Test promising findings from Test promising findings from
laboratory studies in science laboratory studies in science classrooms using a Technology-classrooms using a Technology-Enhanced Learning EnvironmentEnhanced Learning Environment
WISE EnvironmentWISE Environment
Web-based Inquiry Web-based Inquiry Science Science Environment (WISE) Environment (WISE) http://wise.berkeley.eduhttp://wise.berkeley.edu
Delivers instruction Delivers instruction in multiple formatsin multiple formats
Frees teacher to Frees teacher to tutor individualstutor individuals
Gathers embedded Gathers embedded assessments of assessments of student progressstudent progress
Desirable DifficultiesDesirable Difficulties Conditions that introduce difficulties Conditions that introduce difficulties
for the learner can enhance long-for the learner can enhance long-term retention and transfer term retention and transfer
Conditions that appear optimal Conditions that appear optimal during instruction can fail to support during instruction can fail to support long-term retention long-term retention
Desirable difficulties (Bjork, 1994, Desirable difficulties (Bjork, 1994, 1999) include:1999) include:– Today: generating rather than reading Today: generating rather than reading
responsesresponses
Role of GenerationRole of Generation When students respond by answering When students respond by answering
questions, explaining material, making questions, explaining material, making predictions or reflecting they engage in predictions or reflecting they engage in generationgeneration
Much of learning consists of listening to Much of learning consists of listening to lectures, reading texts, or watching lectures, reading texts, or watching demonstrationsdemonstrations
Many theories call for active, hands-on, or Many theories call for active, hands-on, or interactive learning consistent with generationinteractive learning consistent with generation
Generation research can clarify the nature of Generation research can clarify the nature of active learning and extend understanding of active learning and extend understanding of desirable difficultiesdesirable difficulties
Web-based Inquiry Learning Web-based Inquiry Learning EnvironmentEnvironment
An Awful Waste of An Awful Waste of SpaceSpace– Enables learners to Enables learners to
explore the variables explore the variables that determine that determine whether or not a whether or not a planet in another planet in another solar system might solar system might be habitablebe habitable
Generation featuresGeneration features– NotesNotes– JournalJournal– Prediction Prediction – Argument Argument
constructionconstruction
Middle School WISE Project
Generic and directed Generic and directed promptspromptsIntegrated ideas
Directed PromptCondition
Generic PromptCondition
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%Generic prompts require more generation than directed prompts; result in more integrated ideas.
(Davis, E. A. (1998). Scaffolding students' reflection for science learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley,Berkeley, CA.)
Laboratories and Laboratories and classroomsclassrooms
Classroom learningClassroom learning– Students work in pairsStudents work in pairs– Students interact with Students interact with
the teacherthe teacher– Students motivated Students motivated
by personally relevant by personally relevant taskstasks
The booming, The booming, buzzing classroom buzzing classroom offers many offers many distractionsdistractions
Watch the videoWatch the video
Undergraduate & Classroom Undergraduate & Classroom StudiesStudies
Extend chain of evidence for generation Extend chain of evidence for generation from studies of phrases to concepts from studies of phrases to concepts
Compare Compare readread to to generategenerate with science with science conceptsconcepts
Compare Compare single conceptsingle concept generation to generation to concept integrationconcept integration about habitability about habitability
Laboratory studies:Laboratory studies: 1 hour of 1 hour of instruction on concepts, 48 hour instruction on concepts, 48 hour retention intervalretention interval
Classroom studies:Classroom studies: 5 class periods, 5 class periods, one week delayed posttestone week delayed posttest
Undergraduate Laboratory Undergraduate Laboratory Studies: Experimental Studies: Experimental
ConditionsConditions Experiment 1:Experiment 1: Sentence Sentence Completion Completion – Read: Read: JovianJovian-type planets -type planets
are mostly made up of gases.are mostly made up of gases. – Generate: Generate: ____-type planets ____-type planets
are mostly made up of gases.are mostly made up of gases. Experiment 2: Experiment 2: Sentence Sentence
level generation, more level generation, more educationally importanteducationally important– Single: [Mass] Describe in Single: [Mass] Describe in
a sentence how the size a sentence how the size of one planet's mass can of one planet's mass can affect another planet. affect another planet.
– Concept Integration: Concept Integration: [Mass + Distance][Mass + Distance]
Undergraduate Laboratory Undergraduate Laboratory Study: Read vs. GenerateStudy: Read vs. Generate
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Instruction Memory Posttest
% Correct
Read Condition
Generate Condition
Undergraduate Laboratory Undergraduate Laboratory Study: Single vs. IntegratedStudy: Single vs. Integrated
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Instruction Transfer to NewSingle Concept
Questions
Transfer to NewConcept Integration
Questions
Mean Performance
Single Concept Generation
Concept Integration Generation
Undergraduate Laboratory Undergraduate Laboratory Study Illustrative ResponsesStudy Illustrative Responses
Single idea Generation
Single concept generation
Concept integration generation
Prompt: The range of distances from the sun where the temperature allows water to be liquid are called the _____ _____.Student: “habitable zone”
Prompt: Scientists often use a single measurement to talk about a planet's distance from its sun, but why is this practice misleading? Use a distance listed in the table you saw to explain.Student: “The distance for Mars would be misleading because Mars travels in an elliptical orbit and is different distances from the sun at different times.”
Prompt: Using Jupiter's distance from the sun as an example, explain how the measure of an object's weight can shift when it is in different locations, even if that object is a planet.Student: “An object's weight can shift when its in different locations because it's weight depends upon the strongest pull of gravity. People weigh more on Jupiter than they do on Earth because Jupiter's gravitational pull is stronger. If the object is a planet, then changing the distance it is from the sun will change it's weight because it will either feel a strong gravitational pull (if close to the sun) or a weak gravitational pull (if further away from the sun).”
Undergraduate Laboratory Undergraduate Laboratory Studies ImplicationsStudies Implications
Chain of evidence–can generalize Chain of evidence–can generalize paradigm from typical recall studies paradigm from typical recall studies to investigations using typical to investigations using typical science conceptsscience concepts
Counterintuitive “desirable difficulty” Counterintuitive “desirable difficulty” can be used successfully to enhance can be used successfully to enhance instructioninstruction
Opportunities–how does generation Opportunities–how does generation work in typical middle school work in typical middle school classroom settings?classroom settings?
Middle School Classroom Middle School Classroom Study Read vs. GenerateStudy Read vs. Generate
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Number Correct
Study 1
No Generation
Generation
Posttest Performance
Generation led to greater Generation led to greater recall of materialrecall of material
((FF (1,115) = 18.769 , (1,115) = 18.769 , pp =.000) =.000)
Middle School Classroom Middle School Classroom StudyStudy
Single vs. Integrated Single vs. Integrated Posttest Performance
0
5
10
15
20
25
Number Correct
Study 2
No Integration(No DesirableDifficulty)Integration(DesirableDifficulty)
Integrated generation led to Integrated generation led to more sophisticated more sophisticated understanding understanding ((FF (1,172) = 3.946 , (1,172) = 3.946 , pp = <.05) = <.05)
Middle School Classroom StudyMiddle School Classroom StudyIllustrative ResponsesIllustrative Responses
Single idea Generation
Single concept generation
Concept integration generation
Prompt: The range of distances from the sun where the temperature allows water to be liquid are called the _____ _____.Student: “habitable zone”
Prompt: Are planets always the same distance from their sun?Student: “Because planets' orbits are elliptical, scientists calculate the average number of AUs to describe how far a planet it from its sun.”
Prompt: On Jupiter, would your weight, your mass, or both your weight and your mass be more than it is on Earth? Why?Student: “If I were ever on Jupiter, my weight would change because Jupiter is such a large planet. Since it is a large planet it has a gigantic mass, it has a strong gravity pull. Weight is determined by amount of gravity pull on you, so you would weigh more on Jupiter because there has a greater gravity pull. Although, if I were on Jupiter, my mass would stay the same because mass is the amount of matter in an object and that doesn't change if you go to another planet.”
Laboratory and Classroom Laboratory and Classroom FindingsFindings
Generation instructions generally Generation instructions generally improve learningimprove learning– During learning, generation results in During learning, generation results in
more errorsmore errors– On posttest, generation yields better On posttest, generation yields better
understandingunderstanding Generation across topics intensifies Generation across topics intensifies
effectseffects– Single concept generation easier during Single concept generation easier during
learning but less effective that integrated learning but less effective that integrated concept generation on posttestconcept generation on posttest
Current Middle School Study–What Current Middle School Study–What forms of generation improve forms of generation improve
learning?learning?
Broad ComplexBroad Simple
Narrow ComplexNarrow SimpleNarrow
Broad
Scope of Scope of Ideas/Number Ideas/Number
of possible of possible connectionsconnections
Simple Complex
Complexity of Context/Problem Complexity of Context/Problem DifficultyDifficultyFour groups, either within
or across classrooms
Prompts Illustrating Simple, Prompts Illustrating Simple, Complex, Narrow, & Broad Complex, Narrow, & Broad
Generation Generation SIMPLE
(Identify Planets in Habitable Zone)
COMPLEX(Distinguish Planets in Habitable Zone from
Other Planets)
NARROW(Focus on the
Habitable Zone)
In the animation below of the inner four planets of our solar system, at which points is Mars in the Habitable Zone? Explain your answer.
In the animation below of the inner four planets of our solar system, which planets are in the habitable zone? Explain why you think the planets you chose are habitable and others are not.
BROAD (Connect to
factors beyond the habitable zone:
atmosphere, water, temp, etc)
Based on what you see here, What is the main reason Mars is not habitable while Earth is?
Based on what you know of the inner four planets of our solar system (represented below), what kinds of planets should scientists search for if they are looking for life in the universe?
0: Response is irrelevant0: Response is irrelevant 1: Response is incorrect1: Response is incorrect
2: Response is correct but connections not directly relevant 2: Response is correct but connections not directly relevant (non-target connections; not a broad response)(non-target connections; not a broad response)
3: Response links correct and incorrect ideas 3: Response links correct and incorrect ideas
4: Simplified or partial answer with no explanation/example4: Simplified or partial answer with no explanation/example 5: Correct with one step reasoning, partial answer with 5: Correct with one step reasoning, partial answer with
explanation, or full answer with no explanationexplanation, or full answer with no explanation 6: Ideal; includes using correct terminology, multi-step 6: Ideal; includes using correct terminology, multi-step
reasoning; full answer with explanation/sreasoning; full answer with explanation/s
7: Ideal response with elaborated explanation7: Ideal response with elaborated explanation 8: Ideal response with additional connections8: Ideal response with additional connections 9: Ideal response with elaborations and additional 9: Ideal response with elaborations and additional
connectionsconnections
Scoring Rubric: Emphasis on Scoring Rubric: Emphasis on making connectionsmaking connections
Normative Connections
Multiple Connections
Valid, Non NormativeConnections
Invalid, Non Normative
IdealIdeal Responses for Each Responses for Each Condition Condition SIMPLE
(Identify Planets in Habitable Zone)COMPLEX
(Generalization to other planets)
NARROW
(Focus on the
Habitable Zone)
In the animation of the inner four planets of our solar system, at which points is Mars in the Habitable Zone? Explain your answer.
Mars is habitable when it is in the Mars is habitable when it is in the northern most point of its orbit, northern most point of its orbit, because the distance from Mars because the distance from Mars to the sun gets larger as it orbits to the sun gets larger as it orbits away from the northern most away from the northern most point making it too cold for life to point making it too cold for life to survive.survive.
In the animation below of the inner four planets of our solar system, which planets are in the habitable zone? Explain why these planets are habitable and others are not.
The planet that is 1/2 of an AU and The planet that is 1/2 of an AU and the next one that is about 1 AU. We the next one that is about 1 AU. We chose these because they are the chose these because they are the best distance away from the sun. The best distance away from the sun. The other planets are either too close or other planets are either too close or to far from the sun to be in the to far from the sun to be in the habitable zone. habitable zone.
BROAD (Connect to
factors beyond the Habitable
zone: atmosphere,
water, temp, etc)
Based on the animation of the inner four planets, what is the main reason Mars is not habitable while Earth is?
Mars is too far away from the Sun Mars is too far away from the Sun during certain points of its orbit during certain points of its orbit so it is only habitable at certain so it is only habitable at certain points in time. {Earth, however is points in time. {Earth, however is in the habitable zone all year in the habitable zone all year long.}long.}
Based on what you know of the inner four planets, what kinds of planets should scientists search for to find life in the universe?
They should look for a planet within They should look for a planet within the habitable zone and with a climate the habitable zone and with a climate that won't either turn all the water that won't either turn all the water into gas because of so much heat or into gas because of so much heat or turn it all into ice because it's so cold.turn it all into ice because it's so cold.
Middle School Classroom Middle School Classroom StudyStudy
Embedded Notes Embedded Notes Performance on Note about Mass
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean Score
SimpleNarrow
SimpleBroad
ComplexNarrow
ComplexBroad
Preliminary analyses, more Preliminary analyses, more responses still need scoringresponses still need scoring
During learning, simple During learning, simple generation is easiergeneration is easier
Will simple generation be Will simple generation be sufficient for learning?sufficient for learning?
Middle School Classroom Middle School Classroom StudyStudy
Embedded Notes Embedded Notes Performance on Note about Mutual Gravitation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean Score
SimpleNarrow
SimpleBroad
ComplexNarrow
ComplexBroad
Preliminary analyses, more Preliminary analyses, more responses still need scoringresponses still need scoring
During learning, simple During learning, simple generation is easiergeneration is easier
Will simple generation be Will simple generation be sufficient for learning?sufficient for learning?
Middle School Classroom Middle School Classroom StudyStudy
Embedded Notes Embedded Notes Performance on Note about Atmosphere
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Mean Score
SimpleNarrow
SimpleBroad
ComplexNarrow
ComplexBroad
Preliminary analyses, more Preliminary analyses, more responses still need scoringresponses still need scoring
During learning, simple During learning, simple generation is easiergeneration is easier
Will simple generation be Will simple generation be sufficient for learning?sufficient for learning?
Generation and science Generation and science learninglearning
Active, interactive, hands-on, & Active, interactive, hands-on, & autonomous learning all emphasize autonomous learning all emphasize generationgeneration
Related studies consistent with Related studies consistent with generationgeneration– Chi, Slotta–Generation and self-explanationChi, Slotta–Generation and self-explanation– Kintsch, McNamara, Songer–Organized vs. Kintsch, McNamara, Songer–Organized vs.
complex textcomplex text– Davis–Autonomous learning: Generic and Davis–Autonomous learning: Generic and
Directed promptsDirected prompts
ConclusionsConclusions
Research on generation in Research on generation in undergraduate laboratory studies undergraduate laboratory studies generalizes to complex science generalizes to complex science concepts-chain of evidenceconcepts-chain of evidence
Laboratory findings can generalize to Laboratory findings can generalize to buzzing, booming classroom context buzzing, booming classroom context – Classroom research can respect teacher Classroom research can respect teacher
goals, contribute to student learninggoals, contribute to student learning Research on generation helps clarify Research on generation helps clarify
calls for active, hands-on learning calls for active, hands-on learning opportunitiesopportunities
Make Thinking Visible –Make Thinking Visible – Chemical Reactions Chemical Reactions
QuickTime™ and aAnimation decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Jennie Chiu
http://wise.berkeley.edu
http://TELSCenter.org
ImplicationsImplications
For designers, design principlesFor designers, design principles– Encourage generation across topics to Encourage generation across topics to
promote lifelong learningpromote lifelong learning– Select focus on generation based on goalsSelect focus on generation based on goals
For learnersFor learners– Test your ideas in multiple contextsTest your ideas in multiple contexts
For classroom teachersFor classroom teachers– Reward generation, use cumulative testsReward generation, use cumulative tests
For researchersFor researchers– Conduct research in complex settingsConduct research in complex settings