Castillon a#2 Soil Composition 2014-2015

8/12/2019 Castillon a#2 Soil Composition 2014-2015

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINESAyala Blvd. Ermita, Manila

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 410-4C

SOIL MECHANICS, (Lec)

Assignment No.2

SOIL COMPOSITION

Castillon, Benelle Jose P. Castillon

12-205-161

July 08, 2014

Engr. Jesus Ray M. MansayonInstructor


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Mineralogy

is a subset ofgeology specializing in the scientific study

ofchemistry,crystal structure,and physical (includingoptical)properties of

minerals.Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes ofmineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical

distribution, as well as their utilization.

HISTORY

Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from

ancientBabylonia,the ancientGreco-Roman world, ancient and

medievalChina,andSanskrit texts fromancient India and the ancient

Islamic World.[1]

Books on the subject included theNaturalis

Historia ofPliny the Elder,which not only described many different

minerals but also explained many of their properties, and Kitab al Jawahir

(Book of Precious Stones) by Muslim scientistAl Biruni.TheGerman

Renaissance specialistGeorgius Agricola wrote works such asDe re

metallica(On Metals, 1556) andDe Natura Fossilium(On the Nature of

Rocks, 1546) which begin the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic

scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-

Renaissance Europe.[1]

The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the

principles ofcrystallography (the origins of geometric crystallography, itself,can be traced back to the mineralogy practiced in the eighteenth and

nineteenth centuries) and to themicroscopic study of rock sections with

the invention of themicroscope in the 17th century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyloniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Romanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Birunihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Agricolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Natura_Fossiliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Natura_Fossiliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Natura_Fossiliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Natura_Fossiliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Agricolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Birunihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#cite_note-Needham-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Romanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyloniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology


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MODERN MINERALOGY

Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned withtaxonomy of the rock-

forming minerals; to this end, theInternational Mineralogical Association is an

organization whose members represent mineralogists in individual countries. Its

activities include managing the naming of minerals (via the Commission of New

Minerals and Mineral Names), location of known minerals, etc. As of 2004 there

are over4,000 species of mineral recognized by the IMA. Of these, perhaps 150

can be called "common," another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to

"extremely rare."

More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such asneutron

diffraction)and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled

extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the

science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields

ofinorganic chemistry andsolid-state physics.It, however, retains a focus on the

crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as

theperovskites,clay minerals andframework silicates). In particular, the field has

made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the

atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominentexamples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic

properties of minerals, which has led to new insight intoseismological behaviour

of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of theEarth's mantle.

To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena

and macroscopic properties, themineral sciences(as they are now commonly

known) display perhaps more of an overlap withmaterials science than any other

discipline.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Mineralogical_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_(complete)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovskitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectosilicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_mantlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_mantlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectosilicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovskitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_(complete)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Mineralogical_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)


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PHYSICAL MINERALOGY

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE- Inmineralogy andcrystallography,crystal

structure is a unique arrangement ofatoms ormolecules in

acrystallineliquid orsolid.A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, aset of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice exhibiting long-

range order and symmetry. Patterns are located upon the points of

alattice,which is an array of points repeating periodically in three

dimensions. The points can be thought of as forming identical tiny boxes,

called unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice. The lengths of the edges of

a unit cell and the angles between them are called thelattice

parameters.Thesymmetry properties of the crystal are embodied in

itsspace group.A crystal's structure and symmetry play a role in

determining many of its physical properties, such ascleavage,electronic

band structure,andoptical transparency.

CRYSTAL HABIT- The crystal habit of a mineral describes its visible

external shape. It can apply to an individual crystal or an assembly of

crystals. Inmineralogy,shape and size give rise to descriptive terms applied

to the typical appearance, or habit ofcrystals.Each crystal can be described

by how well it is formed, ranging fromeuhedral (perfect to near-perfect), tosubhedral (moderately formed), and anhedral (poorly formed to no

discernable habit seen).The many terms used by mineralogists to describe

crystal habits are useful in communicating what specimens of a

particularmineraloften look like. Recognizing numerous habits helps a

mineralogist to identify a large number of minerals. Some habits are

distinctive of certain minerals, although most minerals exhibit many

differing habits (the development of a particular habit is determined by the

details of the conditions during the mineral formation/crystal growth).

Crystal habit may mislead the inexperienced as a mineral's internalcrystalsystem can be hidden or disguised.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravais_latticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravais_latticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy


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CRYSTAL TWINNING- Crystal twinning occurs when two separate

crystals share some of the samecrystal lattice points in a symmetrical

manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a variety of

specific configurations. A twin boundary or composition surface separates

the two crystals.Crystallographers classify twinned crystals by a numberoftwin laws.These twin laws are specific to thecrystal system.The type of

twinning can be a diagnostic tool in mineral identification. Twinning can

often be a problem inX-ray crystallography,as a twinned crystal does not

produce a simplediffraction pattern.

CLEAVAGE-inmineralogy,is the tendency of crystalline materials

to split along definitecrystallographic structural planes. These planes of

relative weakness are a result of the regular locations of atoms and ions in

the crystal, which create smooth repeating surfaces that are visible both in

the microscope and to the naked eye.

LUSTRE- is the way light interacts with the surface of acrystal,rock,

ormineral.The word traces its origins back to thelatin lux, meaning "light",

and generally implies radiance, gloss, or brilliance. A range of terms are

used to describe lustre, such as earthy, metallic, greasy, and silky. Similarly,

the term vitreous(derived from the Latin forglass,vitrum) refers to a glassy

lustre. A list of these terms is given below. Lustre varies over a wide

continuum, and so there are no rigid boundaries between the different

types of lustre. (For this reason, different sources can often describe the

same mineral differently. This ambiguity is further complicated by lustre's

ability to vary widely within a particular mineral species.) The terms are

frequently combined to describe intermediate types of lustre (for example,

a"vitreous greasy" lustre). Some minerals exhibit unusual opticalphenomena, such asasterism (the display of a star-shaped luminous area)

orchatoyancy (the display of luminous bands, which appear to move as the

specimen is rotated). A list of such phenomena is given below.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_latticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twin_laws&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterism_(gemmology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatoyancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatoyancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterism_(gemmology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twin_laws&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_lattice


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DIAPHANEITY - In the field ofoptics,transparency (also

called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is thephysical property of allowing light to

pass through the material without being scattered. On a macroscopic scale

(one where the dimensions investigated are much, much larger than the

wavelength of thephotons in question), the photons can be said tofollowSnell's Law.Translucency (also called translucence or translucidity),

is a super-set of transparency, allows light to pass through; but, does not

necessarily (again, on the macroscopic scale) follow Snell's law; the photons

can be scattered at either of the two interfaces where there is a change in

index of refraction, or internally. In other words, a translucent medium

allows the transport of light while a transparent medium not only allows

the transport of light but allows for the image formation. The opposite

property of translucency is opacity. Transparent materials appear clear,

with the overall appearance of one color, or any combination leading up to

a brilliant spectrum of every color. When light encounters a material, it can

interact with it in several different ways. These interactions depend on

thewavelength of the light and the nature of the material. Photons interact

with an object by some combination of reflection, absorption and

transmission. Some materials, such asplate glass and cleanwater,allow

much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted, with little being

reflected; such materials are called optically transparent. Many liquids and

aqueous solutions are highly transparent. Absence of structural defects(voids, cracks, etc.) and molecular structure of most liquids are mostly

responsible for excellent optical transmission. Materials which do not allow

the transmission of light are calledopaque.Many such substances have

achemical composition which includes what are referred to

asabsorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption

ofwhite lightfrequencies.They absorb certain portions of thevisible

spectrum,while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which

are not absorbed are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical

observation. This is what gives rise tocolor.The attenuation of light of all

frequencies and wavelengths is due to the combined mechanisms of

absorption andscattering.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell%27s_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opacity_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_scattering_in_liquids_and_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_scattering_in_liquids_and_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opacity_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell%27s_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics


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STREAK- (also called "powder color") of amineral is thecolor of the

powder produced when it is dragged across an unweathered surface.

Unlike the apparent color of a mineral, which for most minerals can vary

considerably, the trail of finely ground powder generally has a more

consistent characteristic color, and is thus an important diagnostic tool inmineral identification. If no streak seems to be made, the mineral's streak is

said to be white or colorless. Streak is particularly important as a diagnostic

for opaque and colored materials. It is less useful forsilicate minerals,most

of which have a white streak and are too hard to powder easily.The

apparent color can vary widely because of trace impurities or a disturbed

macroscopiccrystal structure. Small amounts of an impurity that strongly

absorbs a particular wavelength can radically change the wavelengths of

light that are reflected by the specimen, and thus change the apparent

color. However, when the specimen is dragged to produce a streak, it is

broken into randomly oriented microscopiccrystals,and small impurities

do not greatly affect the absorption of light.The surface across which the

mineral is dragged is called a "streak plate," and is generally made of

unglazedporcelain tile. In the absence of a streak plate, the unglazed

underside of a porcelain bowl or vase or the back of a glazed tile will work.

Sometimes a streak is more easily or accurately described by comparing it

with the "streak" made by another streak plate.Because the trail left behind

results from the mineral being crushed into powder, a streak can only bemade of minerals softer than the streak plate, around 7 on theMohs scale

of mineral hardness.In case of harder minerals, the color of the powder

can be determined by filing or crushing with a hammer a small sample,

which is then usually rubbed on a streak plate. Most minerals that are

harder have an unhelpful white streak.Some minerals leave a streak similar

to their natural color, such ascinnabar andlazurite.Other minerals leave

surprising colors, such asfluorite,which always has a white streak,

although it can appear in purple, blue, yellow, or green crystals.Hematite,

which is black in appearance, leaves a red streak which accounts for its

name, which comes from the Greek word "haima," meaning

"blood."Galena,which can be similar in appearance to hematite, is easily

distinguished by its gray streak.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnabarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazuritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazuritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnabarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral


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HARDNESS- The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the

scratch resistance of variousminerals through the ability of a harder

material to scratch a softer material. It was created in 1812 by the

Germangeologist andmineralogistFriedrich Mohs and is one of several

definitions ofhardness inmaterials science.The method of comparing

hardness by seeing which minerals can scratch others, however, is of great

antiquity, having been mentioned byTheophrastus in his treatise On

Stones, c. 300 BC, followed byPliny the Elder in hisNaturalis Historia,c. 77

AD.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY- is the ratio of thedensity of a substance

compared to the density (mass of the same unit volume) of a reference

substance.Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume

of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference

substance. The reference substance is nearly alwayswater for liquids or air

for gases. Temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample

and the reference. Pressure is nearly always 1atm equal to 101.325 kPa.

Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to

industry. In British brewing practice the specific gravity as specified above is

multiplied by 1000.

CHEMICAL MINERALOGY

Focuses on the chemical composition of minerals in order to identify,

classify, and categorize them, as well as a means to find beneficial uses

from them. There are a few minerals which are classified as whole

elements, includingsulfur,copper,silver,andgold,yet the vast majority ofminerals are chemical compounds, some more complex than others. In

terms of major chemical divisions of minerals, most are placed within

theisomorphous groups, which are based onanalogous chemical

composition and similar crystal forms. A good example of isomorphism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Mohshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(molecule)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(molecule)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalis_Historiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Mohshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral


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are families of anions (and their compounds) with the formula [SiO2+n]2n-

.

Important members are the cyclic and single chain silicates {[SiO3]2-

}nand

the sheet-forming silicates {[SiO2.5]-}n. Silicate compounds, including the

minerals, consist of silicate anions whose charge is balanced by

variouscations.Myriad silicate anions can exist, and each can formcompounds with many different cations. Hence this class of compounds is

very large. Both minerals and synthetic materials fit in this class.

SOIL FRAMEWORKSAND COMPOSITION OF GRANULAR SOIL

The structure of silicates

Since Si invariably occurs in tetrahedral coordination the fundamental unitof the silicate structure is the Si-O tetrahedra. The different types of silicate

structure arise from the ways in which these tetrahedra are arranged: they

may exist as seperate unlinked entitites, as linked finite arrays, as infinite 1-

dimensional chains, as infinite 2-dimensional sheets or as infinite 3-

dimensional frameworks. These possibilities give rise to the six primary

structural types of silicates, each with a characteristic Si : O ratio (more

strictly this should be the ratio of tetrahedral cations to oxygen, the reasons

for which are discusssed later):

Orthosilicates (or neosilicates): independent Si-O tetrahedra, Si : 0 = 1 : 4,for example theolivinegroup.

Sorosilicates: two linked Si-O tetrahedra sharing one oxygen, Si : 0 = 2 : 7

Cyclosilicates : closed rings of linked Si-O tetrahedra sharing two oxygens,

Si : 0 = 1 : 3, for example beryl.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cationhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/olivine.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/olivine.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/olivine.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/olivine.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation


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Inosilicates: continuous chains of Si-O tetrahedra, sharing two oxygens

(single chains, Si : 0 = 1 : 3, for example thepyroxenegroup) or alternately

sharing two and three oxygens (double chains, Si : 0 = 4 : 11, for example

theamphibolegroup)

Phyllosilicates:Continuous sheets of Si-O tetrahedra sharing three oxygens,

Si : O = 2 : 5, for example the micagroup.

Tektosilicates:Continuous framework of Si-O tetrahedra sharing all four

oxygens, Si : O = 1 : 2, for example thefeldspargroup.

The requirement for charge balance or electronic neutrality in these

different structural types is maintained by the dispersal of other cations in

6-fold (octahedral), 8-fold (cubic) or 12-fold (icosahedral or close packed)

coordintaion between the individual tetrahedra or arrays of tetrahedra in

the silicate structure. For example, in single chained inosilicates (Si : O = 1 :

3) there is a net excess of two negative charges per tetrahedra. (SiO3)n2n-
http://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/pyroxene.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/pyroxene.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/pyroxene.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/amphibole.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/amphibole.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/amphibole.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/amphibole.htmlhttp://jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/msandifo/Teaching/Minerals/pyroxene.html


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where nis the number of tetrahedra in the chain, and2n-

represents the

charge excess of the chain forming elements. Theoretically the charge

excess could be alleviated in a number of different ways, for example by

adding one bivalent cation or two univalent cations per 3 oxygens.

However, the location of these cations, which must reside in spaces(termed sites) between the individual chains of Si-O tetrahedra, must be

such that they simultaneously satisfy the requirement for electronic

neutrality of all oxygens in the structure. Fortunately, this constraint

severely limits the range of compositions and structures found in the

inosilicates (as indeed it does with all other silicates).

If we look at the detail of the single chain structure we find that in each

tetrahdron there are two linking O atoms that are each bonded to two Si

atoms and two peripheral O atoms each with bonds to only one Si atom.

Since each Si atom shares its 4+ charge with the surrounding four oxygens

of the tetrahedron, the requirement for the electronic neutrality for each of

the two linking O atoms is completely satisfied. In contrast, each of the

peripheral O atoms have a net excess of one negative charge. In order to

satisfy this each of these oxygens can be bonded with 3 neighbouring

bivalent cations in octahedral coordination (as shown above) or with four

bivalent cations in 8-fold coordination. In thepyroxenegroup bothpossibilities occur, each placing profound constraints on the way in which

the adjacent chains are located with respect to each other.

In double chain inosilicates (Si : 0 = 4 : 11) the chain forming elements give

rise to the basic formula: (Si4O11)n6n-


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where the net excess of charges per 11 oxygens is equivalent to 6 negative

charges. The sheet forming elements in phyllosilicates (Si : 0 = 2 : 5) give

rise to the basic formula: Si2O5)n2n-

COMPOSITION OF GRANULAR SOILS

GRANULAR SOIL- are described as the type of soils where cohesion

between particles of the soil is absent or minimal. Working and compacting

on granular soils such assands and gravels is a really hard job to perform.

Due to their composition, water can enter or leave the voids with relative

ease. If voids in the sand are completely filled with water or are completely

dry there are no forces holding the sand particles.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF CLAY MINERALS

CLAY MINERAL

Clay minerals arehydrousaluminiumphyllosilicates,sometimes with

variable amounts ofiron,magnesium,alkali metals,alkaline earths,and

othercations.Clays form flat hexagonal sheets similar to themicas.

Clayminerals are commonweathering products (including weathering

offeldspar)and low temperaturehydrothermal alteration products. Clayminerals are very common in fine grainedsedimentary rocks such

asshale,mudstone,andsiltstone and in fine grained

metamorphicslate andphyllite.Clay minerals are usually (but not

necessarily) ultrafine-grained (normally considered to be less than 2

micrometres in size on standard particle size classifications) and so may

require special analytical techniques for their identification/study. These

includex-ray diffraction,electron diffractionmethods, various spectroscopic

methods such asMssbauer spectroscopy,infrared spectroscopy,and SEM-

EDS orautomated mineralogy solutions. These methods can be augmented

bypolarized light microscopy,a traditional technique establishing

fundamental occurrences or petrologic relationships. Clay minerals can be

classified as 1:1 or 2:1, this originates from the fact that they are

fundamentally built of tetrahedral silicate sheets and octahedral hydroxide

sheets, as described in the structure section below. A 1:1 clay would consist
http://geology.about.com/od/sediment_soil/a/aboutsand.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_minerals#Phyllosilicateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatheringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldsparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siltstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrographic_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrographic_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_mineralogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siltstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldsparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatheringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_minerals#Phyllosilicateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydratehttp://geology.about.com/od/sediment_soil/a/aboutsand.htm


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of one tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet, and examples would be

kaolinite and serpentine. A 2:1 clay consists of an octahedral sheet

sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets, and examples are talc,

vermiculite and montmorillonite.

HISTORY

Knowledge of the nature of clay became better understood in the

1930s with advancements in x-ray diffraction technology necessary to

analyze the molecular nature of clay particles. Standardization in

terminology arose during this period as well with special attention given to

similar words that resulted in confusion such as sheet and plane.

STRUCTURE OF CLAY MINERALS

Like all phyllosilicates, clay minerals are characterised by two-

dimensional sheetsof corner sharing SiO4tetrahedra and/or

AlO4octahedra. The sheet units have the chemical composition (Al,Si)3O4.

Each silica tetrahedron shares 3 of its vertex oxygen atoms with other

tetrahedra forming a hexagonal array in two-dimensions. The fourth vertex

is not shared with another tetrahedron and all of the tetrahedra "point" in

the same direction; i.e. all of the unshared vertices are on the same side of

the sheet. In clays, the tetrahedral sheets are always bonded to octahedral

sheets formed from small cations, such as aluminium or magnesium, and

coordinated by six oxygen atoms. The unshared vertex from the tetrahedral

sheet also forms part of one side of the octahedral sheet, but an additional

oxygen atom is located above the gap in the tetrahedral sheet at the center

of the six tetrahedral. This oxygen atom is bonded to a hydrogen atom

forming an OH group in the clay structure. Clays can be categorized

depending on the way that tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are packagedinto layers. If there is only one tetrahedral and one octahedral group in

each layer the clay is known as a 1:1 clay. The alternative, known as a 2:1

clay, has two tetrahedral sheets with the unshared vertex of each sheet

pointing towards each other and forming each side of the octahedral sheet.

Bonding between the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets requires that the


15/23

tetrahedral sheet becomes corrugated or twisted; causing ditrigonal

distortion to the hexagonal array, and the octahedral sheet is flattened.

This minimizes the overall bond-valence distortions of the crystallite.

Depending on the composition of the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets,

the layer will have no charge, or will have a net negative charge. If thelayers are charged this charge is balanced by interlayer cations such as

Na+or K

+. In each case the interlayer can also contain water. The crystal

structure is formed from a stack of layers interspaced with the interlayers.

TYPES OF BONDS

Clay Minerals:1. The Crystalline minerals whose surface activity is high are called clay

minerals.

2. The behavior of the fine grained soils depends to a large extent on

the nature and characteristics of the minerals present.

3. Clay Mineralogy is the science dealing with the structure of the clay

minerals on microscopic, molecular and atomic scale. It also includes

the study of the mineralogical composition and electrical propertiesof the clay particles.

Primary Valence Bonds:

Primary Valence bonds hold together the atoms of molecule. These

are of two types


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Ionic Bond:

In an atom the electrons carrying a negative charge revolve about the

nucleus. Some elements have an excess or a deficiency of the electrons in

the outer shell one atom joins another atom by adding some of the

electrons to its outer shell or by losing some of electrons from its outershell.

C ovalent Bond:

This type of bond develops between two atoms by sharing of

electrons in their outer shell.

Two atoms, each lacking one electron, may combine by sharing of

pair of electrons.

Primary valence bonds are very strong. These bonds do not break innormal soil engineering applications. Therefore, primary valance bonds

are not much relevance in soil engineering.

Hydrogen Bond:

The hydrogen bond has only one electron. The number of electrons

required to fill the first shell is The atom can be considered either as a

cation (with one excess electron) or an anion (with one electron

deficiency). The bond between the hydrogen cation (H+ ) and anions of two

atoms of another element is called Hydrogen Bond.

Hydrogen bond is considerably weaker than primary valence bond.

However, it is fairly strong and cannot be broken during normal soil

engineering problems.

Secondary Valence Bonds:

Secondary valence bonds are intermolecular bonds which develop

between atoms in one molecule to atoms in another molecule. A molecule

is electrically neutral. i.e., it has no charge. However the construction of themolecule may be such that centres of the negative and positive charges do

not exactly coincide. The molecule may behave like a bar magnet, with two

electrical dipoles. Consequently, an electrical moment is developed inside

the molecule; a molecule with such a structure is called a dipole. In nature,

two dipolar molecules orient themselves in such a way that net attraction


17/23

occurs. The attractive forces so developed are known as Vander Waal

Forces. (After Vander Waal who postulated the existence of a common

attractive forces between molecules of all matters in 1873)

COMMON CLAY MINERALS WITH TWO SHEETS PER LAYER

THE BASIC STRUCTURE

KAOLINITE

This is the most common mineral of the kaolin group. The building

blocks of gibbsite and silica sheets are arranged as shown in Fig. 2.4 to give

the structure of the kaolinite layer. The structure is composed of a single

tetrahedral sheet and a single alumina octahedral sheet combined in units

so that the tips of the silica tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the

octahedral sheet form a common layer. All the tips of the silica

tetrahedrons point in the same direction and towards the center of the unit

made of the silica and octahedral sheets. This gives rise to strong ionic

bonds between the silica and gibbsite sheets. The thickness of the layer is

about 7 A (one angstrom = 10~8 cm) thick. The kaolinite mineral is formed

by stacking the layers one above the other with the base of the silica sheet

bonding to hydroxyls of the gibbsite sheet by hydrogen bonding. Since

hydrogen bonds are comparatively strong, the kaolinite crystals consist of

many sheet stackings that are difficult to dislodge. The mineral is therefore,

stable, and water cannot enter between the sheets to expand the unit cells.

The lateral dimensions of kaolinite particles range from 1000 to 20,000 A

and the thickness varies from 100 to 1000 A. In the kaolinite mineral there

is a very small amount of isomorphous substitution.


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DICRITE AND NACRITE

Generally differ only in the stacking arrangements which for, for

engineering purpose, are irrelevant.

HALLOYSITE

Halloysite minerals are made up of successive layers with the same

structural composition as those composing kaolinite. In this case, however,

the successive units are randomly packed and may be separated by a single

molecular layer of water. The dehydration of the interlayers by the removal

of the water molecules leads to changes in the properties of the mineral.

An important structural feature of halloysite is that the particles appear to

take tubular forms as opposed to the platy shape of kaolinite.

G. COMMON CLAY MINERALS WITH THREE SHEETS PER LAYER

MICA

The prototype of the three-layer minerals are the primary minerals of

the mica group

MONTMORILLONITE

Montmorillonite is the most common mineral of the montmorillonite

group. The structural arrangement of this mineral is composed of two silica

tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina octahedral sheet. All the tips of

the tetrahedra point in the same direction and toward the center of the

unit. The silica and gibbsite sheets are combined in such a way that the tips

of the tetrahedrons of each sheet and one of the hydroxyl layers of the

octahedral sheet form a common layer. The atoms common to both thesilica and gibbsite layer become oxygen instead of hydroxyls. The thickness

of the silica-gibbsite-silica unit is about 10 A (Fig. 2.5). In stacking these

combined units one above the other, oxygen layers of each unit are

adjacent to oxygen of the neighboring units with a consequence that there

is a very weak bond and an excellent cleavage between them. Water can


19/23

enter between the sheets, causing them to expand significantly and thus

the structure can break into 10 A thick structural units. Soils containing a

considerable amount of montmorillonite minerals will exhibit high swelling

and shrinkage characteristics. The lateral dimensions of montmorillonite

particles range from 1000 to 5000 A with thickness varying from 10 to 50 A.Bentonite clay belongs to the montmorillonite group. In montmorillonite,

there is isomorphous substitution of magnesium and iron for aluminum.

ILLITE

The basic structural unit of illite is similar to that of montmorillonite

except that some of the silicons are always replaced by aluminum atoms

and the resultant charge deficiency is balanced by potassium ions. The

potassium ions occur between unit layers. The bonds with thenonexchangeable K+ ions are weaker than the hydrogen bonds, but

stronger than the water bond of montmorillonite. Illite, therefore, does not

swell as much in the presence of water as does montmorillonite. The lateral

dimensions of illite clay particles are about the same as those of

montmorillonite, 1000 to 5000 A, but the thickness of illite particles is

greater than that of montmorillonite particles, 50 to 500 A.

VERMICULITE

Is a hydrous, silicate mineral that is classified as a phyllosilicate and

that expands greatly when heated. Exfoliation occurs when the mineral is

heated sufficiently, and the effect is routinely produced in commercial

furnaces. Is formed by weathering or hydrothermal alteration of biotite or

phlogopite.

CHLORITE

Is very common, and is often an uninteresting green mineral coatingthe surface of more important minerals. However, there are some crystal

forms and varieties that are attractive on their own right. Chlorite also

forms as inclusions within other minerals, especially Quartz, where it makes

the host mineral green and may even cause phantom growths.


20/23

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOIL COMPOSITION AND ENGINEERING

PROPERTIES OF SOIL

RELATIONSHIP OF GRAINED SOIL AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Coarse-grained soils have good load-bearing capacities and good

drainage qualities, and their strength and volume change characteristics are

not significantly affected by change in moisture conditions under static

loading. They are practically incompressible when dense, but significant

volume changes can occur when they are loose. Vibrations accentuate

volume changes in loose, coarse-grained soils by rearranging the soil fabric

into a dense configuration. Fine-grained soils have poor load-bearing

capacities compared with coarse-grained soils. Fine grained soils are

practically impermeable, change volume and strength with variations inmoisture conditions, and are susceptible to frost. The engineering

properties of coarse-grained soils are controlled mainly by the grain size of

the particles and their structural arrangement. The engineering properties

of fine-grained soils are controlled by mineralogical factors rather than

grain size. Thin layers of fine-grained soils, even within thick deposits of

coarse-grained soils, have been responsible for many geotechnical failures,

and therefore you need to pay special attention to fi ne-grained soils. In

this book, we will deal with soil as a construction and a foundation

material. We will not consider soils containing organic material or theparent material of soils, rock. We will label our soils as engineering soils to

distinguish our consideration of soils from that of geologists, agronomists,

and soil scientists, who have additional interests in soils not related to

construction activities.

THE ESSENTIAL POINTS ARE:

1. Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than coarse-

grained soils and are responsible for the major physical andmechanical differences between coarse-grained and fine grained

soils.

2. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend mainly on

mineralogical factors.


21/23


22/23

7. Two coefficientsthe uniformity coefficient and the coefficient of

curvatureare used to characterize the particle size distribution.

Poorly graded soils have uniformity coefficients, 4 and steep

gradation curves. Well-graded soils have uniformity coefficients .4,

coefficients of curvature between 1 and 3, and flat gradation curves.Gap-graded soils have coefficients of curvature ,1 or .3, and one or

more humps on the gradation curves.

PERMEABILITY

The permeability is a measure of the rate at which fluids passes

through a porous medium.

COMPRESSIBILTYIf the normal stress in the soil is increased, and the pore fluid is free

to drain from it, the particles are forced together.

If the stress increment is removed, and the pore fluid is free to return

to the soil, some expansion takes place as the adsorbed layers return to

their original thickness. However, particles which have been forced into

contact, or which have been rearranged by rotation, do not return to their

original positions. Thus, much of the volume change is irreversible.

The compressibility and swelling properties also depend on the

nature of clay minerals, and the nature and concentration of the cations in

the adsorbed layers.

Where clays contain considerable quantity of montmorillonite, large

volume changes accompany changes of stress, as a result of the changes in

the thickness of the water layers within the crystals.


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REFERENCE

Soil Mechanics and Foundations 3rd Ed., C. R. Scott

Soil Mechanics and Foundations 3rd ed. - M. Budhu (Wiley, 2010) BBS

Geotechnical Engineering Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, V.N.S. Murthy

http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/11/enotes/geotechengg/Unit%203-NH.

http://construction.about.com/od/Earthwork/a/Compacting-Granular-Soils.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#History

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_minerals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streak_(mineralogy)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#History

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_habit
http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/11/enotes/geotechengg/Unit%203-NHhttp://construction.about.com/od/Earthwork/a/Compacting-Granular-Soils.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streak_(mineralogy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_habithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_habithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streak_(mineralogy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogy#Historyhttp://construction.about.com/od/Earthwork/a/Compacting-Granular-Soils.htmhttp://elearning.vtu.ac.in/11/enotes/geotechengg/Unit%203-NH

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Castillon a#2 Soil Composition 2014-2015

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