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In this unit you will find out the answersto these questions:

What is Islam and what are its five pillars?

What territories did the Muslim caliphs ruleover during the Middle Ages?

What were the characteristics of Islamicpolitical organisation, economy, society, cultureand art?

What was al-Andalus?

What were the characteristics of al-Andaluspolitics, economy, society, culture and art?

Before you start, check you understand

the meaning of the words in blue.

Unit summary

K E Y W O R D S

Islam: submission to God (Allah);Muslim religion, preached byMuhammed

pillars of Islam: five obligations thatevery Muslim must satisfy: professthe faith, pray five times a daytowards Mecca, fast during themonth of Ramadan, give alms(help people in need), go on apilgrimage to Mecca at least oncein a lifetime

caliph: highest Islamic religious and

political authorityal-Andalus: territory Muslims

governed in the Iberian Peninsula

Islam and al-Andalus

Origin andexpansionof Islam Koran: the holy book of Islam

Muhammed is the prophet of Islam; the pillars of Islam are: profess the faith, pray fivetimes a day, fast during Ramadan, give alms, pilgrimage to Mecca

Islamiccultureand art

Mathematics, medicine, literature, etc.

Especially architecture: palaces and mosques

Islamicpolitics,economyand society

Territorial expansion; main authorities: caliph, viziers, royaltreasurers, emirs, judges

Craftwork and trade were particularly importantEconomy

Aristocracy, other free people, slaves

Muslim cities: alcazaba, medina and arrabales

Al-Andalus

Dependent emirate, independent emirate, Crdoba caliphate,taifa kingdoms, North African dynasties, Nasrid kingdom

Major development of agriculture, craftwork and tradeEconomy

Al-Andalus was an important cultural centreCulture

Caliphal, taifa, Almohad and Nasrid kingdomArchitecture

Muslims and non-Muslims (Christians and Jews)

Cities similar to other Muslim citiesSociety

Politic

Society

Art

Culture

Politicaldevelopment


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Origin and expansion of Islam

Islam originated on the Arabian Peninsula, a land which is mostlya huge desert. At that time, the interior was inhabited by tribes ofpolytheistic Arab nomads. The main cities of Yathrib (Medina) andMecca were in the western part and they were a crossroads for themerchant caravans coming from the Far East.

Muhammed, the Islamic prophet, was born in Mecca around theyear 570. According to legend, the archangel Gabriel appeared beforehim and told him to preach the religion of Allah (God), that is to sayIslam. Muhammeds teachings were written down in the Koran, theMuslims sacred book, which contains Allahs words to Muhammed.It has 114 chapters calledsuras, written in Arabic.

The Koran contains the five obligations of all Muslim believers,which are called the pillars of Islam. They are as follows:

Profess the faith: believe that there is only one God (Allah) andthat Muhammed is his prophet.

Pray five times a day, facing towards Mecca.Fast during the month ofRamadan.

Give alms: help people in need.

Go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in a lifetime and visitthe Kaaba sanctuary.

Muhammed began to spread his doctrine in Mecca and soon hadsome followers. When they began to increase in number, the authoritiesconsidered him to be a threat and he was the victim of numerous attacks.

For this reason, Muhammed and his followers fled from Mecca andsettled in the city of Medina (Hegira). From there, Muhammedorganised an army and conquered Mecca in 630. The expansion ofIslam continued across the rest of the Arabian Peninsula. Muhammedsucceeded in unifying the Arabic tribes and he became their politicaland religious leader.

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UNIT 560

K E Y W O R D S

polytheistic: believing in morethan one god

Arab: someone from the ArabianPeninsula

nomad: person who does not livein one place but moves around

merchant: person who buys andsells goods

prophet: person with the ability topredict the future and transmitmessages from God to humans

Muslim: person who professes theIslamic religion

fast: not eat or drink

Ramadan: ninth month of theMuslim calendar. DuringRamadan, Muslims cannot eator drink after the Sun rises untilit sets

pilgrimage: travel to a holy place

flee (fled): escape from a place

Hegira: escape of Muhammedfrom Mecca to Medina in theyear 622, which marks thebeginning of the Muslimcalendar

Muhammed and his followers


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A c t i v i t i e s

In your exercise book, complete the questions with these words: What, Where, Who, When, How many.

a) do Muslims believe in? d) must they face when they pray?

b) must they help? e) must they fast?

c) times a day must they pray? f) must they go on a pilgrimage to at least once in their lives?

Match the questions in activity 1 to the answers below. Ask and answer the questions in pairs.

a) the existence of one God, Allah, and his prophet Muhammed d) towards Mecca

b) during the month of Ramadan e) to Mecca

c) five times a day f) the poor

Listen and answer the questions.

a) In which city is the Kaaba sanctuary?

b) What do scientists think the Black Stone is?

c) Where do people begin their visit to the sanctuary?

d) Who do Muslims believe built the Kaaba?

e) Who does this person represent for Christians and Jews?

Look at this illustration of the Kaaba sanctuary. In your

exercise book, complete the description below using these

words: stone, men, turbans, palm, beards, Mecca.

Read and listen to the text. Answer the questions in your exercise book.

In the home, Muslim children learn the basic teachings of Islam. In weekend schools, they may learn about the sharia

or Islamic law.

The sharia includes teachings regarding which foods are permissible and which are not. Pork products, animals with claws(e.g. cats) and alcohol are considered unclean or dangerous, and therefore are strictly forbidden. Permissible meat such as beef,

lamb or chicken should be killed and blessed in Gods name according to certain rules. Muhammad declared anything that

intoxicates including beer and wine to be prohibited.

Islam also prohibits gambling and games of chance. They are considered to be tricks of the devil to distract people from

serving God.

J. PORTERFIELDIslamic Customs and Culture

Rosen Publishing (Adapted)

a) What is sharia?

a type of school a set of rules

b) Muslims can eat:

chicken pork.

c) Muslims can drink:

juice and milk wine and beer.

d) Playing games for money (gambling) is considered:

the work of the devil a way to serve God.

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Islam and al-Andalus 6

The illustration shows a group of Muslim at the Kaaba

in . They are wearing long robes of different colours

and on their heads. Some of them have long black

. In the background, we can see a Muslim who is

touching the Black . On each side of the stone there is

a tree.Kaaba sanctuary


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Islamic politics, economics and society

2.1. Political organisation

Muhammeds successors (caliphs) continued to conquer territories.The caliphate went through various stages: the orthodox caliphate(632661), the Umayyad caliphate (661750) and the Abbasid caliphate

(7501258).From the 10th century, a period of decline began, which ended with

the division of the caliphate into independent states. Finally, in 1258,Baghdad was conquered by the Mongolians.

The main authorities in Islamic society were the following:

The caliph was the highest religious and political authority.

The vizier (hayid) was the prime minister. He headed the centraladministration and the Treasury.

Royal treasurers (diwans) collected taxes, which were needed tomaintain the administration and the army.

Emirs (walis) were the governors of the provinces and the caliphsrepresentatives.

Judges (qadis) were responsible for applying the laws; these werebased on the rules laid down in the Koran.

2.2. Economy

Agriculture: Muslims usedwaterwheels and irrigationchannels to transport water to the cultivated areas.

Craftwork: it was important in the cities, especially for thetanningof hides and the making oftapestries, fine fabrics,

jewellery, ivory objects, perfume and weapons.

Trade: in the cities, there were markets (souks). For commercialexchange, they used coins (dinar, dirham). The Muslimsdeveloped external trading both over land and by sea (gold,ivory, silk, precious stones, spices, etc.).

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UNIT 562

K E Y W O R D S

Mongolians: nomadic tribe fromcentral Asia. During the 12thand 13th centuries, they formeda large empire covering part ofEurope and Asia

Treasury: all the income, taxes andother assets controlled by the

State

waterwheel: machine used tomove water. The Arab versionhad two wheels. The horizontalwheel was turned by an animal,using a lever. That wheel turnedan attached vertical wheel,which had several vessels tocollect water from the well

irrigation channel: small channelfor carrying water to crops

tanning: preparation of animalhides for their subsequent use

for making different objects

tapestry: large piece of wovenfabric, of wool or silk, whichshowed a picture and wasusually used to cover walls

dinar: Muslim gold coin

dirham: Muslim silver coin

Reconstruction of an Arab waterwheel


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2.3. Society

Society was organised into the following social groups.

Aristocracy: this was composed of people linked to the caliphand emirs. Most members of the aristocracy were of Arabic origin.

Free people: this group included government officials, traders,small rural landowners and artisans. They were Muslims,

Christians and Jews.Slaves: they worked in agriculture, as domestic servants, etc.

Islamic society was mainly urban. The cities were made up ofdifferent areas.

The alcazaba (citadel) was a walled area on high ground. Insidethe alcazaba was the alcazar (walis palace).

The medina was the central part of the city, surrounded by walls.Inside the medina was the main mosque. Next to it were the soukand the public baths.

The arrabales were neighbourhoods outside the city walls andhad their own mosques, souks and public baths.

Islamic culture and art

3.1. Culture

The Muslims translated into Arabic the writings of ancient Greekphilosophers and scientists, such as Aristotle. In this way, theytransmitted this knowledge to the medieval world.

There were significant advances in geography, philosophy,astronomy, mathematics, botanical science, medicine and literature.

The Muslims introduced the compass and the manufacture ofgunpowder and paper to Europe.

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K E Y W O R D S

mosque: building where Muslimsmeet to pray

botanical science: scientific studyof trees, plants and flowers

compass: instrument used to finddirections, consisting of a boxwith a magnetic needle thatalways points to the north

Muslim aristocracy


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3.2. Art and architecture

Architecture

Architecture was the most important form of artistic expression inthe Islamic world. These were the main features:

Basic materials (wood, brick) were covered with other materials(tiles, plaster, etc.) to give the impression of greater richness.

There were different kinds of arch: horseshoe and semicirculararches, etc.

Buildings were usually covered with vaults (caliphal ribbed vault,muqarna vault, etc.) and domes.

There was a lot of decoration: geometric patterns, calligraphicmotifs, floral and plant designs.

The main buildings were:

palaces surrounded by gardens with fountains

mosques where Muslims met to pray.

Sculpture and painting

Sculpture and painting were not common because Islamic traditiondid not encourage the representation of the human form, in order toavoid idolatry.

UNIT 564

K E Y W O R D S

tile: flat piece of pottery used tocover walls and floors

caliphal ribbed vault: vaultcomposed of intersecting ribsthat dont pass through thecentre

muqarna vault: vault decorated inthe form of stalactites

calligraphic motif: text from theKoran, poems, etc., written inArabic

Courtyard: entrance area with afountain in the centre for washing(ablutions). This is a ritual that allMuslim must perform before praying.

Minaret: tower situated at one end ofthe courtyard, from where the muezzincalled people to prayer.

Prayer room or haram: room normallycovered with a flat wooden roof supportedby columns.

Mihrab: small room situated in theqibla where the Koran was kept.

Qibla: wall facing Meccatowards which allprayers were directed.

Reconstruction of a mosque


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A c t i v i t i e s

Match the words in the left column to the definitions on the right in your exercise book.

Draw a diagram of Islamic society in your exercise book, using these words: aristocracy, Arabs, free people,

government officials, artisans, slaves, small rural landowners.

a) Listen and say what the speaker is describing: a mosque, a souk or a palace.

b) Listen again and say which of these things the speaker mentions: combs, earrings, knives, gold, silver, glass,

rhinoceros horns, elephant tusks, sandals, silk dresses, bird, monkey.Then translate the words into Spanish.

What technical innovations did the Muslims introduce into Europe? Explain in your exercise book.

Find the mistakes in these sentences about Islamic architecture and correct them with a partner.

Listen and check.

a) Islamic architecture is characterised by the use of rich materials like stone.

b) In Islamic architecture, arches and vaults were never used.

c) The main Islamic buildings were churches and palaces.

d) In the interiors of buildings, there was usually very little decoration.

Identify the words relating to a mosque described in each sentence.

a) Its a wall facing Mecca.

b) Its a tower from where people are called to prayer.

c) Its the room where Muslims meet to pray.

d) Its the entrance to the mosque where theres a fountain for ablutions.

e) Its a small room where the Koran is kept.

Look at the images below. Copy and complete the sentences in your exercise book, using these words: centre,

stalactites, cross.

a) A muqarna vault is made of pieces similar to .

b) The caliphal ribbed vault is made of ribs that without passing through the .

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governor of the provinces

highest Islamic religious and political authority

prime minister

caliph

vizier

emir

Muqarna vault Caliphal ribbed vault


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Al-Andalus

4.1. Political development

In 711, an army of Arabs and Berbers defeated the Visigoths in thebattle of Guadalete. After that, the Moors conquered almost all theIberian Peninsular territory and named it al-Andalus.

There were several different periods in the history of al-Andalus.

Dependent emirate: al-Andalus was governed by an emir whowas under the authority of the caliph of Damascus.

Independent emirate: Abd-al-Rahman I proclaimed himselfemir. Politically the emirate was independent of Baghdad,although it continued to recognise the religious authority of thecaliph.

Crdoba caliphate: the emir Abd-al-Rahman III proclaimedhimself caliph in 929 and so al-Andalus became independent ofBaghdad both from a political and a religious point of view.

Taifa kingdoms: at the beginning of the 11th century, al-Andaluswas divided into small kingdoms called taifa kingdoms.

North African dynasties and Nasrid kingdom: from 1086,

al-Andalus was occupied by the Almoravids and the Almohads.They were defeated by the Christians. Only the Nasrid kingdomof Granada was in Islamic hands until the year 1492.

4.2. Economy

Agriculture was the main activity. They introduced newirrigated crops (rice, oranges, lemons and sugar cane).

Craftwork was centred on textiles, gold- and silver-smithing,glasswork, paper, weapons, leatherwork and inlay.

There was significant development in trade.

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UNIT 566

K E Y W O R D S

Berber: tribe originating fromNorth Africa

Moor: historical English term todescribe the North West AfricanMuslims who conquered theIberian Peninsula in the 8thcentury

irrigated crop: crop that receiveswater via artificial wateringsystems

leatherwork: craft dedicated tomaking articles from leather

inlay: small pieces of wood,mother-of-pearl and othermaterials set into wood tocreate a decorative design

The court of Abd al-Rahman


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4.3. Society

Muslims

Arabs: they were the most important social group.

Berbers: they lived mainly from livestock farming.

Mulades: most of them were peasants.

Non-Muslims

Christians: those who didnt convert to Islam were calledMozarabs. They lived mainly in cities where they carried out

various trades.

Jews: they lived mainly through trade, craftwork and finance.

4.4. Life in the cities

There were many cities in al-Andalus. They were similar to otherIslamic cities. The streets werewindingand irregular. There were

different areas: the alcazaba, the medina and the arrabales. TheMozarabs lived in their own neighbourhoods and so did the Jews.

Houses were very close together. They were made of adobe andstone. The entrance led into a courtyard. Around the courtyard, werethe main room where the family received visitors, the bedrooms and thekitchen. There wasnt much furniture: tables, low seating and largechests. For light, they used candles and oil lamps.


K E Y W O R D S

mulad: Christian who convertedto Islam

winding: with many curves, notstraight

oil lamp: clay or metal containerwith a wick, which can be lit toprovide light

Al-Andalus city


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4.5. Culture

Al-Andalus was one of the great cultural centres of the medievalworld.

There were distinguished philosophers, such as the JewishMaimonides and the Muslim Averroes. In literature, Ibn Hazm wasa significant writer. His main work was theRing of the Dove, a treatise

on love.Scholars in al-Andalus wrote important works about botany, such as

theBook of Plants. They also translated ancient scientific texts intoArabic.

4.6. Architecture

Islamic architecture was the main form of artistic expression. Therewere several different periods ofMoorish architecture.

UNIT 568

K E Y W O R D S

Moorish: historical English termto describe the Islamic art andarchitecture of North Africaand al-Andalus

polylobed arch: arch made of smallsemicircles

mixtilinear arch: arch made ofalternating curves and straightlines

stilted semicircular arch:semicircular arch that is slightlylengthened at the bottom

Caliphal architecture

It had the following features.

Semicircular, horseshoe and polylobed arches were

the most common.

The caliphal ribbed vault was a common feature.

The most distinctive buildings are the Great Mosque

at Crdoba, the palace-city of Medina Azahara

outside Crdoba and the Bib-al Mardum mosque in

Toledo.

Taifa architecture


The use of basic materials (brick) covered with very

ornate decoration.

The most common arches were the polylobed and

mixtilinear arches.

The most representative building is the Aljafera

Palace in Zaragoza.

Almohad architecture


It tended to be more austere. The typical decoration

consisted of panels composed of diamond shapes.

The most significant buildings are the minaret of the

Great Mosque of Sevilla, known as the Giralda, and

the Torre del Oro, the ancient watchtower attached

to the city walls of Sevilla.

Nasrid architecture


The use of basic materials (brick, plaster, wood),

which were covered with ornate decoration.The most commonly used arches were the pointed

horseshoe arch and the stilted semicircular arch.

Columns were very narrow.

They used muqarna vaults.

The most renowned building is the Alhambra Palace

in Granada.

Interior of the Great Mosque of Crdoba

Patio de los Leones at the Alhambra Palace in Granada


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A c t i v i t i e s

In pairs, put these events in order from the first to the most recent:

a) the arrival of Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula

b) the arrival of Almoravids on the Peninsula

c) division of al-Andalus into taifa kingdoms

d) beginning of the Crdoba caliphatee) end of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.

Which of the following crops were introduced by the Muslims into Spain: tomatoes, olives, rice, oranges, vines,

lemons, maize, sugar cane?

In your exercise book, compare your house with the houses in al-Andalus described in section 4.4. Mention the

following features: building materials, courtyard, rooms, furniture, lights.

Example: My house is made of brick but al-Andalus houses were made of adobe and stone.

What type of Moorish architecture do the sentences refer to?

a) The horseshoe arch was one of the most commonly used.

b)They frequently used polylobed and mixtilinear arches.

c) Muqarna vaults were very common.

d) The typical decorative feature was diamond shapes.

Look at the photo of the Great Mosque of Crdoba in section 4.6. and answer the questions in your exercise book.

a) Which part of the mosque do you think the photo corresponds to?

b) What type of arches are the lower arches? What colour are they?

c) What are the columns like?

Look at the two photos below and answer the questions in your exercise book.

a) What kind of arches are the two on the left? And the one on the right?

b) What is the decoration like?

Listen and answer the questions in your exercise book.

a) What does the word Alhambra mean?

b) What was the official colour of the Nasrids?

c) How did they obtain the colouring to dye the materials red?

d) What colours were the decorative features of the Alhambra painted?

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Aljafera Palace of Zaragoza Great Mosque at Crdoba


12/12U 570

Revision activitiesa) Translate these ingredients: lamb,

coriander, ginger, cinnamon, grapes, vinegar,

almonds, sugar, stock.

b) Read and listen to the recipe and write the

steps in the correct order in your exercise book.

Cut the lamb into medium-sized pieces.Add grape juice and vinegar to the stock.

Put coriander, ginger, pepper and cinnamon

into a cotton bag.

Add chopped almonds and sugar to the

sauce.

Put the lamb in the pan, cover it with water,

add salt and let it boil.

Take out the bag of spices when the

ingredients are cooked.

Add two or three onions, cut into small

pieces.

Take turns to define the following terms in any

order to your partner. Your partner guesses the

term.

a) al-Andalus d) vizier

b) Mecca e) Koran

c) caliph f) Hegira

Look at the photo below and answer the

questions in your exercise book.

a) What type of arch can you see in this photo?

b) What is the decoration like?

Are these sentences true or false? Correct the

false ones in your exercise book.

a) The Muslims remained on the Iberian Peninsula

from 711 until 1492.

b) The Berbers were Jews from the north of Africa.

c) Ramadan is a building in Islamic architecture.

d) The mulades were Christians who had

converted to Islam.

e) Muslims believe in various gods.

What are the five pillars of Islam? Who was

Muhammed?

What different social groups were there in

al-Andalus? Explain in your exercise book.

Read the text and answer the questions in your

exercise book.

The men and women of al-Andalus wore wide

trousers and linen or cotton shirts. On their heads, they

wore linen or felt hats. The turban was not commonuntil the Nasrid period.

In summer, they usually wore white clothes, in

autumn and winter, grey-brown colours. In spring, theywore very colourful clothes. The common footwear was

leather boots in winter and sandals in summer.

P. D. CANOAl-ndalus: el Is lam y los pueblos ibricos

Slex (Translated and adapted)

a) What kinds of clothes did the men and women

of al-Andalus wear? What materials were they

made of?

b) What colour clothes did they usually wear?

c) What type of footwear did they use?

d) Are any of these clothes or footwear still worn

today?

Talking points

Imagine you are a Muslim in al-Andalus in the

10th century. Decide where you live, what your

profession is, how you dress, what your daily life islike, etc. Take turns to interview your partner

about his/ her life.

Example:

A: Where do you live?

B: I live in the centre of Crdoba, not far from the

Great Mosque.

A: What do you do?

B: Im a tradesman. I sell spices in the souk.

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Mihrab of the Great Mosque of Crdoba

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