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TITLE:
The impact of mood on Sport Celebrity credibility evaluation
Authors:
Dr. R.Venkatesakumar Dr.S. Sundar Reader Associate Professor
Department of Management Bharathidasan Institute Studies of Management (BIM)
Pondicherry University BHEL ComplexPondicherry 605014. Tiruchirappalli 620014India. India.
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]: 9894240012 Mobile: 9443318296 Phone: 91-413-2654798 Phone: 91-431-2520796
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The impact of mood on Sport Celebrity credibility evaluation
Abstract
Celebrity endorsement is one of the techniques increasingly adopted by marketers.
The object of this study is to examine whether the mood states of the consumer
manipulated through exposure to information on team performance and individual
performance of the sports endorser (cricketer) impact on the consumer evaluation
of the sports endorser as a celebrity. To investigate and test the hypotheses a
four group post test only randomized experiment was designed. Results
indicate a mood congruent assessment of the celebrity by the participants.
Key-words – Celebrities, product endorsement, performance, mood, celebrity evaluation..
1. Introduction
Celebrity endorsement is one of the powerful tools adopted by companies to cut through the
clutter, successfully compete for the consumer’s attention and consolidate their brands in the
competitive market. Celebrities are a common feature in the contemporary marketplace, often
becoming the face or image of brands they endorse. By pairing a brand with a celebrity
endorser, the marketer is able to leverage unique and positive secondary brand associations from
a celebrity and gain consumer awareness. transfer positive associations tied to the celebrity onto
the brand. build brand image and ultimately enhance the endorsed brand's equity (Keller, 2008).
Celebrity endorsers may serve in the role of spokesperson on behalf of the company, expert in
the product field, or as a model to which the consumer base aspires (Seno and Lukas, 2007).
The fast paced emergence of media channels for sports like ESPN, STAR, TEN, SETMAX, and
NEO on cable TV channels and on the Internet has driven marketers to explore venues to use
celebrity sportspersons to endorse their products. Marketers are spending millions in
endorsement deals each year to associate their products or brands with some of the biggest
names in sport (Byrne et al., 2003; Harris, 2008; Thomaselli, 2008). Researchers opine that the
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popularity of celebrity athletes would benefit brands, creating positive associations, contributing
to brand name recognition and creating meaning for even the most ordinary products (Miciak,
1994; Stevens et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2007). Because of the disparities of the Indian consumer
base in terms of religion, ethnicity, value systems and in income levels, marketers in India have
tended to use celebrity endorsers in their advertisements to cut across these differences to draw
consumer attention and are investing millions of rupees on celebrity advertising (Khatri, 2006).
Cricket is the most popular sport in India and cricketers enjoy huge fan following and media
attention. Cricketers have therefore been a natural choice for marketers and they are now seen
endorsing multiple brands. For instance, one of the strongest celebrity endorsers is cricketer
Sachin Tendulkar who is an icon for Indian youth and endorses many successful brands like
Pepsi, Coca Cola, Boost, Aviva Life Insurance, TVS, Britannia Biscuits, Visa and Airtel. The
use of cricketers as celebrity endorsers in advertising is not free of risk as the performance levels
of the cricketer or the team to which he belongs may impact on the mood of the consumer.
Empirical mood research has addressed the relation between mood and mental constructs such as
perception (Avramova et al., 2010), attitude (Howard and Barry, 1994; Walther and Grigoriadis,
2004; Fedorikhin and Cole, 2004), memory (Lee and Sternthal, 1999; Sar et al., 2010)
information processing (Cote, 2001) and consumer judgments (Forgas and Ciarrochi, 2001) . Our
review of literature has revealed that the effect of mood on celebrity endorser evaluation has not
been examined.
The objective of this study is to examine whether the mood states of the consumer manipulated
through exposure to information on team performance and individual performance of the sports
endorser (cricketer) impact on the consumer evaluation of the sports endorser as a celebrity. In
the consumer behavior literature, mood effects have been identified to emerge on service
encounters, point-of-purchase stimuli and communications (Gardner, 1985). In particular, this
paper is to investigate the impact of mood on sports celebrity endorser credibility evaluation by
consumers.
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2. Theoretical background and Research Hypotheses
Mood effects
The term ‘mood’ has been defined in several ways by researchers. Moods are defined as mild,
pervasive, and generalized affective states (Isen, 1984) that are subjectively perceived by
individuals. Gardner (1985) views that moods are more transient than other feeling states such
as personality dispositions and enduring global attitudes, and they are less intense and attention-
getting than emotions. Mood is most often defined as a uni-dimensional, bipolar phenomenon
that ranges from positive to negative. For example, Clark and Isen (1982) define "feeling states"
(i.e., moods) as "thinking positive (or negative) thoughts." Another popular view is that mood
can be described as two independent bipolar dimensions. Researchers have generally attempted
to study mood effects by using a mood manipulation to induce a "positive" or "negative"
affective state in experimental subjects. One school of researchers have thus taken a ‘backdrop’
view of mood – that is, it is seldom consciously experience by people and it is a formless
‘backdrop’ against which events are experienced (Luomala and Laaksonen, 2000) . Moods
operate at the automatic level, biasing the use of memory, perceptions, judgments and
evaluations. These automatic processes have been studied by Bower (1981) as the congruence
effects of moods.
Mood Congruence
Mood congruency refers to a match in valence between a person's mood and his or her thoughts.
In general, mood states often have been found to influence evaluations, judgments, and behaviors
in mood congruent directions, such that people in positive moods are likely to have positive
cognitive changes in their evaluations, expectations, and actions (Berkowitz, 1987) while
negative moods influence subjects' evaluations in a negative way (Isen and Shalker, 1982). The
mood-congruent judgment effect occurs when mood-congruent thoughts, such as those of causes,
attributes, or outcomes, seem more applicable or likely than comparable non-mood-congruent
thoughts. For example, a person in a positive mood will look forward to a sunny day for a picnic
than a person in a negative mood, because sunny weather is congruent with the positive mood.
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Marketers adopt this in practice when they refrain from airing their commercials on new news
channels because they feel that the sad feelings induced by bad news may affect the evaluation of
their (fun) product. This avoidance of bad feelings in the context of advertising is founded on the
mood-congruency hypothesis (Bower, 1981). Mood congruency in this context means that
consumers will be biased in the direction of the prevailing mood, that is, sad consumers will
judge the product more unfavorably than happy consumers will. Although, in the field of mood
research a variety of moods are recognized, such as anxious and angry moods, the present study
concentrates on positive and negative moods. It is to be noted that shifts in mood states occur
routinely, easily and swiftly, and moods can easily and simply be created (Park and Banaji,
2000).
Researchers are now paying considerable attention to the effects of subjective mood states on
various aspects of consumer behavior as they would like to assess it influence and impact on
consumers. From previous research, through a wide variety of mood manipulation experiments
it is evident that consumers with positive moods have better recall of a message stimulus
(Gardner 1985), have better recall of a brand name (Lee and Sternthal 1999), evaluate message
arguments more favourably (Batra and Stayman, 1990), are easier to influence (Gierl and
Bambauer, 2005) and react positively to a salesperson who has conveyed positive feelings, and
are willing to pay more for the products endorsed by this person (Puccinelli, 2006). It is evident
that the persuasive impact of marketing messages is greater if the consumer targeted is in a
happy and positive mood. It implies that positive mood states are related to greater advertising
effectiveness. Empirical research based on the mood congruency model also supports the idea
that negative or positive moods created by one event can color unrelated consumer judgments (
Fedorikhin and Cole, 2004). Based on the preceding discussions, consumers' moods are
expected to bias their evaluations of sports celebrity endorsers in a mood-congruent direction.
However, this issue has not been empirically investigated.
Marketers face the challenge of getting the consumer’s attention due to the plethora of
competitive advertising and the fact that they do not know whether the consumer has recognized
the need for his product. In such situations, marketers have resorted to celebrity endorsements as
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an attention getting device. Sports celebrities are widely used in product advertising to drive
sales, by improving consumers’ product recall and positively influencing their brand choice
behavior (Bush et al., 2004; Carlson and Donavan, 2008). Sports celebrity endorsers provide a
human context which consumers can choose to identify with, thereby making it easier for them
to project the desired image (Allenschaefer and Keillor, 1997). It is imperative that such
celebrity endorsers should be credibility evaluated by consumers.
Celebrity credibility evaluation
Sport Celebrity credibility evaluations can be influenced by context. In this experimental
research study we concentrate on the influence that the mental state of the consumer has on the
evaluation of the sports celebrity. More precisely, we concentrate on the mental state that a
person is in, prior to exposure to the medium content (antecedent state). Mood is considered as
an antecedent state because a mood can be present before the consumer is exposed to the
celebrity endorser presented in the advertisement (Burke and Edell 1989).
The use of sports celebrities like cricketers in advertisements as an attention getting device is not
without potential risks. For instance, previous research has shown that negative information of
the endorser’s image due to his unethical/negative behaviors can tarnish the image of the brand
endorsed by him (Till and Shrimp, 1998, White et al., 2008). We explore in this research another
disadvantage of using the cricketing celebrity, that is, his or his team’s continued poor
performance and whether this will lead to poor evaluation of the celebrity’s credibility as the
consumer in a negative mood is likely to evaluate him in a mood congruent direction negatively.
The selection of celebrity endorsers has been viewed with strategic intent by marketers as the
choice could make or break their brands. Researchers have attempted to assist practitioners
through developing models to help in the selection of endorsers. Four models are popularly cited
for celebrity endorser selection – Source Credibility model (Hovland et al., 1953), Source
Attractiveness model ( Mcguire, 1985), Product Match up hypothesis (Forkan, 1980) and
Meaning transfer model (McCracken, 1989). Ohanian (1990) has after extensive literature
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review, on the basis of the first two models developed a tri-component celebrity endorser scale
measuring the three dimensions of trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness. The assumption
is that the effectiveness of the endorser depends on his ratings across these three dimensions. A
recent meta-analysis has revealed that the traits of celebrities that have been investigated the
most are expertise, credibility, trustworthiness and attractiveness of the celebrity endorser (Amos
et al., 2008).
Indian marketers have chosen to popularly employ cricketers for endorsing their products given
the massive following for the sport in this country. Cricketers and their teams while performing
at their best to gain reputation and popularity are also susceptible to poor performance patches in
the careers. It is likely that such variances in performances of the sports endorser (cricketer) can
lead to the consumer to being in two bipolar mood states – positive and negative. One of the
robust effects of mood is on evaluation. The current research aims to assess the effect of such
antecedent mood states on the assessment of the credibility of the sport celebrity endorser.
Individuals in positive-mood states have been shown to evaluate stimuli more positively than
individuals in neutral or negative mood states. This experiment also tests whether mood states
appear to bias celebrity endorser evaluation in a mood congruent direction.
The above discussion leads us to the following hypotheses which are tested in this study:
H1: There is a significant difference in evaluation of celebrity between consumers in positive
mood and in negative mood states, impacted by the good team performances
H2: There is a significant difference in evaluation of celebrity between consumers in positive
mood and in negative mood states, impacted by the poor team performances
H3: Good individual performances will put consumers in a positive mood and they will evaluate
the celebrity favorably
H4: Poor individual performances will put consumers in a negative mood and they will evaluate
the celebrity unfavorably.
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3. Methodology
Experimental design and participants
To bring out the influence of the celebrity endorser’s individual performances versus the team
performance, on their credibility evaluations, an experimental design was developed. This
process aimed at bringing out how the mood affected the evaluation of the endorser based on his
individual performance as well as team performance.
To investigate and test the hypotheses a four group post test only randomized experiment was
designed. A 2 (team positive performance/ negative performance) X 2 (individual positive
performance/ negative performance) mixed factorial design was used to test the celebrity
evaluation of two leading cricketers. Mood has been manipulated through this 2 x 2 design and
celebrity credibility evaluation is the measured variable. A total of 205 postgraduate
Management students from two Indian universities (30% female, average age 23 years)
volunteered to participate in the experiment. They were randomly assigned to the four between-
subjects conditions.
Materials
In order to generate stimuli for the experiment, we had to identify a celebrity in cricket who is
popular in India. Dubey and Agrawal (2011) have done a celebrity assessment of Bollywood
stars and cricketers in India; Sachin Tendulkar had secured the highest Q score of 65 and was
chosen for the current study on this basis.
The mood manipulation was sought to be achieved through showing visuals and news clippings
in the form of a booklet which contained details and reviews of the cricketers’ individual
performances and the team’s performance and videos in which both the individual and team
performances were good and poor. The data, reviews and videos were collected from leading
newspapers, magazines and television channel websites. These stimuli were pretested on a
sample of 18 men and 12 women students similar to those who participated in the main
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experiment. Advertisement featuring the cricketer was shown for celebrity credibility
evaluation, after the mood manipulation was achieved.
Procedure
Participants were randomly assigned to the four groups. The first set of 45 respondents
(Group I) were given a booklet with the articles to be read and shown videos of Team India’s
good performances. They were then asked to answer Part I of the instrument which contained the
measures for the individual mood related questions. A television commercial was then shown
featuring Sachin Tendulkar and they were asked to given their responses to Part II which
contained the source credibility scale measures for the endorser. The 50 participants in Group II
were given a booklet with articles to read and shown videos of Team India’s poor performances.
They were asked to then answer the questions in Part I. The advertisement featuring Sachin
Tendulkar was shown and their ratings of the endorser were recorded in Part II of the instrument.
The process was repeated with the next two set of participants (Group III -60 participants &
Group IV - 50 participants), with the following changes: the respondents were given a booklet
with articles to be read and were shown the visuals of the individual performance of Sachin
Tendulkar– good performances were viewed by Group III and poor performances by Group IV.
Then the respondents are requested to fill Part I of the instrument, shown the TV commercial and
asked to rate the celebrity endorser in the advertisement in Part II.
Measures
A three-item Likert scale that measures respondent mood to the stimuli was used. The
respondents were then asked to evaluate the endorsers using the fifteen-item bi-polar adjective
scale developed by Ohanian (1990) to assess source credibility.
4. Results
The participants were asked to register their mood on the three item Likert scale (Part I of the
instrument) after they were shown the videos and given the articles to read. A one-way ANOVA
of the responses was performed and the results are found to be significant (F=50.584, sig.
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=0.000) which indicates that the participants who were shown positive stimuli (team/player)
were in a positive mood and the participants who were shown negative stimuli (team/player)
registered a negative mood. The results of the one-way ANOVA are given in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Anova results for mood manipulation
Average of mood item scale
N MeanStd. Deviation
F Ratio(Sig)
TEAM POSITIVE 45 1.9481 .89317F= 50.584(Sig= 0.000)
TEAM NEGATIVE 50 3.2667 .90851
PLAYER POSITIVE
60 1.8111 .57364
PLAYER NEGATIVE
50 3.2533 .86651
Total 205 2.5480 1.06463
The collected responses were analyzed through a 2 × 2 multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) using team performance (positive and negative) and individual performance
(positive and negative) as the independent variables and respondents evaluation of the source
credibility of the celebrity, which consists of three dimensions – attractiveness, trustworthiness
and expertise, as the dependent variables, was performed. The multivariate results are
summarized in the following table:
Table 2: Multivariate test for Source credibility evaluation
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Effect Value FHypothesis df Error df Sig.
Intercept Pillai's Trace.966
1.910E3a 3.000 199.000 .000
Wilks' Lambda.034
1.910E3a 3.000 199.000 .000
Hotelling's Trace28.789
1.910E3a 3.000 199.000 .000
Roy's Largest Root
28.7891.910E3a 3.000 199.000 .000
Level [Team / Player]
Pillai's Trace .051 3.592a 3.000 199.000 .015
Wilks' Lambda .949 3.592a 3.000 199.000 .015
Hotelling's Trace
.054 3.592a 3.000 199.000 .015
Roy's Largest Root
.054 3.592a 3.000 199.000 .015
State [Positive / Negative]
Pillai's Trace .051 3.910 3.000 199.000 .035
Wilks' Lambda .950 3.930 3.000 199.000 .035
Hotelling's Trace
.052 3.939 3.000 199.000.035
Roy's Largest Root
.037 3.939 3.000 199.000.035
team_pla * pos_neg
Pillai's Trace .002 .140a 3.000 199.000 .936
Wilks' Lambda .998 .140a 3.000 199.000 .936
Hotelling's Trace .002 .140a 3.000 199.000 .936
Roy's Largest Root
.002 .140a 3.000 199.000 .936
a. Exact statistic
b. Design: Intercept + team_pla + pos_neg + team_pla * pos_neg
In particular, test of between subject effects showed significant difference on expertise
dimension of the source credibility. The participants who were shown positive team
performances stimuli and who reported to be in a positive mood showed significantly higher
evaluations of the credibility of the endorser on the expertise dimension [µ= 4.2311, σ=
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0.74828 ] than who showed with negative team performance stimuli [µ= 4.0920, σ= 0.97244],
[F= 6.184, Sig= 0.013].
A similar result was obtained for the respondents who were shown player’s good and poor
performances. It is found that the respondents who showed player’s positive performances,
register significantly higher evaluations of the endorser on the expertise dimension [µ= 3.9567,
σ= 0.81587], and lower evaluations on the expertise dimension when they were in a negative
mood [µ= 3.6680, σ= 0.92081], [F= 4.364, Sig= 0.046]. These results are in support of the all
the hypotheses formulated in the study.
Table-3 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
SourceDependent Variable
Type III Sum of Squares df
Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model
SATTRACT
.475a 3 .158 .266 .850
STRUST 1.401b 3 .467 .685 .562
SEXPERT 8.365c 3 2.788 2.816 .040
Intercept SATTRACT
2229.921 1 2229.9213.741E3
.000
STRUST3089.329 1 3089.329
4.528E3
.000
SEXPERT3223.922 1 3223.922
3.256E3
.000
Level [Team / Player]
SATTRACT
.451 1 .451 .757 .385
STRUST 1.166 1 1.166 1.710 .193
SEXPERT 6.184 1 6.184 6.245 .013
State [Positive / Negative]
SATTRACT
.041 1 .041 .068 .794
STRUST .306 1 .306 .448 .504
SEXPERT 4.320 1 4.320 4.364 .046
Level* State
SATTRACT
.000 1 .000 .000 .983
STRUST .004 1 .004 .005 .943
SEXPERT .284 1 .284 .286 .593
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SourceDependent Variable
Type III Sum of Squares df
Mean Square F Sig.
Error SATTRACT
119.820 201 .596
STRUST 137.128 201 .682
SEXPERT 199.029 201 .990
Total SATTRACT
2378.560 205
STRUST 3254.240 205
SEXPERT 3453.880 205
Corrected Total
SATTRACT
120.296 204
STRUST 138.530 204
SEXPERT 207.394 204a. R Squared = .004 (Adjusted R Squared = -.011) b. R Squared = .010 (Adjusted R Squared = -.005) c. R Squared = .040 (Adjusted R Squared = .026)
Lower evaluation of the endorser was observed when the term performance was high, but the
individual performance was low.
Table -4 Descriptive Statistics
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Level State MeanStd. Deviation N
SATTRACT
TEAM Positive 3.2533 .83818 45
Negative 3.2840 .77522 50
Total 3.2695 .80147 95
PLAYER
Positive 3.3500 .70024 60
Negative 3.3760 .78936 50
Total 3.3618 .73870 110
Total Positive 3.3086 .76008 105
Negative 3.3300 .77973 100
Total 3.3190 .76791 205
STRUST TEAM Positive 4.0133 .70890 45
Negative 3.9440 .89992 50
Total 3.9768 .81155 95
PLAYER
Positive 3.8700 .78876 60
Negative 3.7840 .88787 50
Total 3.8309 .83245 110
Total Positive 3.9314 .75541 105
Negative 3.8640 .89302 100
Total 3.8985 .82405 205
SEXPERT TEAM Positive 4.2311 .74828 45
Negative 4.0920 .97244 50
Total 4.1579 .87173 95
PLAYER
Positive 3.9567 .81587 60
Negative 3.6680 .92081 50
Total 3.8255 1.09347 110
Total Positive 4.0743 .91704 105
Negative 3.8800 1.09175 100
Total 3.9795 1.00828 205
However, it should be noted that the attractive dimension of source credibility received lower
evaluations across the groups, who were showed positive or negative stimuli [team or player]
and trust dimension of source credibility has been given higher evaluations by the participants
across the treatment groups.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
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Our research experiment has broadened the theoretical domain used in understanding the process
of celebrity evaluation by considering the issue of evaluation within the context of mood states
of the consumer. Though marketers assume that the associative link between the brand and the
celebrity can transfer positive feelings about the celebrity to the endorsed brand, our research
show that a negative mood state, based on lower individual performance, can significantly lower
the credibility evaluation of the sports celebrity.
Previous research suggests that evaluations of objects or ideas will be consistent with one’s
mood. Consistent with the earlier findings, this experiment also has shown that mood can
influence the evaluation of the endorser in a mood congruent direction. The results of our study
indicate that evaluation of the endorser on the expertise dimension happens more positively
when the participant was in a positive mood and is significantly less when he was in a negative
mood. This study demonstrates the importance of constantly tracking sport celebrity
performances as the team or individual performance (high/low) of sports celebrities is having an
impact on the source credibility evaluation on the expertise dimension alone by consumers in the
market. A possible explanation for this phenomenon may be that performance in the sport is
expressed as expertise, and the mood congruence effect was therefore significant on the expertise
dimension alone.
Importantly, the study demonstrates that when the participant was in a negative mood by
processing low individual performance information, his /her evaluations of the endorser was
significantly lower, despite the team performance being high. This finding provides an important
insight to marketing practitioners. When choosing a sport celebrity endorser marketers might do
well to employ celebrities from individual sports than from team sport like cricket when teams
and individuals go through bad patches.
This study also has its limitations. A stimulus was used to induce a positive or negative mood in
this study. However, such a mood induction method appears to be impractical in the real world.
Future research may consider engaging in longitudinal research and surveying consumers' mood
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immediately after the victorious/ disappointing performances of the Indian team and Sachin
Tendulkar. Doing this may add to external validity of such research.
Further, this present study has examined the effect of mood only on celebrity evaluation. Future
research can extend the study to observe the impact on mood on celebrity evaluation to
advertising effectiveness and to brand preference. Such a study can offer a more complete
picture on how mood works on consumers’ preferences for brands and leads to more fruitful
managerial implications.
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