Center for By-Products Utilization CBU Reports/REP-551.pdf · Center for By-Products Utilization...

Center for

By-Products

Utilization

DEMONSTRATION OF MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY FOR CONCRETE AND CLSM

UTILIZING WOOD ASH FROM WISCONSIN

By Tarun R. Naik and Rudolph N. Kraus

Report No. CBU-2004-07 REP-551

March 2004

Final Report submitted to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI

for Project # 01-06.

Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics

College of Engineering and Applied Science

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN - MILWAUKEE

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FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT

Project Title: DEMONSTRATION OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY FOR

CONCRETE AND CLSM UTILIZING WOOD ASH FROM

WISCONSIN

Principal Investigator: Tarun R. Naik

UWM Center for By-Products Utilization

University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee

Other Project Personnel: Rudolph N. Kraus, Yoon-moon Chun, and Rafat Siddique

UWM Center for By-Products Utilization

University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Wisconsin industry generates approximately one million dry tons (or approx. 1.8 million

cubic yards) of wood ash per year. Disposal of wood ash in landfills costs Wisconsin

industry significant direct cost plus unknown future liabilities due to environmental concerns

related to such materials in landfills. This project establishes the initial manufacturing

technology for use of wood ash generated by the Wisconsin forest products industry in

concrete (structural-grade concrete) and flowable slurry (Controlled Low Strength Materials,

CLSM) through an initial laboratory evaluation followed by prototype manufacturing and

full-scale manufacturing. A technology transfer seminar, which also included a

demonstration of the placement of concrete and CLSM mixtures containing wood ash, was

conducted to transfer the knowledge developed about the use of wood ash in construction

material to the engineering community; including industrial and government agencies, as

well as the concrete construction industry. The project work was started with the laboratory

manufacturing of CLSM and concrete mixtures at the facilities of the UWM Center for By-

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Products Utilization, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee. Four different concrete mixtures

(ML1-A, ML2-A, ML4-A, and ML4-B) were also manufactured in the laboratory. Mixture

ML1-A did not contain wood ash, whereas other mixtures contained between 36 and 87

lb/yd3 of wood ash. All four mixtures had a Class C fly ash content between 50 and 165

lb/yd3 to simulate the usual types of concrete manufactured by ready-mixed concrete plants

in Wisconsin. Additionally, based upon past R&D work conducted at the UWM Center for

By-Products Utilization, this range of Class C fly ash was used to take advantage of available

alkalies in wood ash to activate the Class C coal ash for enhanced performance. Three

different CLSM mixtures (SL-1, SL-2, and SL-3) were first proportioned in the laboratory.

The CLSM mixtures manufactured in the laboratory contained wood ash and cement from

2130 to 995 lb/yd3 and 81 to 116 lb/yd

3, respectively. Tests were performed for density,

bleed water, settlement, and compressive strength.

Beneficial use criteria for by-product materials is established in the WI-DNR Administrative

Code Chapter NR 538. When the results of the leachate and elemental analysis are

combined, the wood ash meets Category 4 requirements. However, only one parameter

limited the beneficial use options for the wood ash to NR 538 Category 4 applications. The

detection limit of thallium slightly exceeded the limit specified for Category 2 & 3. Since

the concentration of elemental thallium present in the sample meets NR 538 Category 1

requirements, most likely, if a more detailed analysis were performed for this element, the

material most likely would meet Category 2 limits.

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Based on the results of lab manufacturing of concrete and CLSM mixtures, prototype

manufacturing was conduced at a ready-mixed concrete plant (Midway Concrete Co.) in

Rothschild, WI. Four series of concrete mixtures (R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4) were

manufactured. The were tested for fresh concrete properties and test specimens were made

for compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and

freezing and thawing resistance. Tests for strength properties were performed at the ages of

7, 14, 28, and 91 days. The concrete mixtures attained 28-day compressive strengths

between 4315 and 5065 psi. An increase in strength was observed as the test age increased.

Similar results were also observed for splitting tensile strength and flexural strength.

Three series of CLSM mixtures (SL-1, SL-2, and SL-3) were manufactured. Tests were

performed for bleed water, density, settlement, and compressive strength for CLSM

mixtures. Compressive strength was evaluated at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days.

Test results at the 28-day age show that CLSM achieved compressive strengths between 90

and 190 psi.

Full-scale manufacturing of concrete and CLSM mixtures was also conducted at the ready-

mixed plant (Midway Concrete Co.) in Rothschild, WI. Three series of CLSM mixtures (S-

1, S-2, and S-3) were manufactured. For each series, between five and seven batches of

CLSM were manufactured. The volume of each batch of CLSM was approximately nine

cubic yards. Tests were performed for density, settlement, and bleed water. Test specimens

were cast for compressive strength and water permeability. The compressive strength of the

CLSM mixtures ranged from 40 to 120 psi at the age of 28 days, 100 to 205 psi at 91days,

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135 to 830 psi at 182 days, and 150 to 2090 psi at 365 days. Water permeability tests were

performed at 63, 90, and 227 days. Permeability values were between 6.8 x 10-5

and 3.3 x

10-5

cm/sec at 63 days; between 2.1 x 10-5

and 3.9 x 10-5

cm/sec at 90 days; and between 11

x 10-5

and 28 x 10-5

cm/sec at 227 days of testing.

Four series of concrete mixtures (C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4) were manufactured. Each series

consisted of three to four batches of ready-mixed concrete approximately nine cubic yards

each. Tests were performed for fresh concrete properties. Test specimens were prepared for

compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and

freezing and thawing resistance. Compressive strengths between 3625 and 5410 psi were

achieved at the age of 28 days. There was a continuous increase in the compressive strength

at the later ages of 91, 182, and 365 days. Similar results were also observed for splitting

tensile strength and flexural strength. Tests were also performed for drying shrinkage and

freezing and thawing resistance. The concrete mixtures were tested for pulse velocity,

relative dynamic modulus, and percent length change up to 300 freezing and thawing cycles.

Test results after 300 cycles of freezing and thawing indicated that inclusion of wood ash in

the concrete mixtures did not affect freezing and thawing resistance of the concrete mixtures.

There was no significant change on the drying shrinkage of concrete specimens made with

or without wood ash.

Significant efforts were made during and after completion of this project to transfer the

technology for the use of wood ash in concrete and CLSM to the engineering community;

including industry, government agencies, concrete construction industries, and others. As a

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part of this project, a technology transfer educational seminar was conducted in Rothschild,

WI. The seminar consisted of a half-day of technical presentations followed by a

construction demonstration of the placement of concrete containing wood ash for materials

handling yard a pavement slab and flowable slurry containing wood ash for the pavement

base course. An additional similar educational seminar is planned for 2004.

Although not directly supported by the funds of this project, additional presentations were

made in Wisconsin and elsewhere on the use of wood ash and the results of this project

furthering the technology transfer efforts. Presentations that included the results of this

project on the use of wood ash as a construction material were made at the following

conferences or meetings: High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete in Structures and Pavements

Seminar, ACI Maharastra Chapter, Mumbai, India, July, 2001; Residual Wood Ash

Conference – Residual-to-Revenue, Richmond, BC, Canada, November 2001; Weyerhaeuser

Co., Seattle, WA, November 2001; UWM-CBU Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash and other

Coal-Combustion Products in Concrete and Construction Materials, March 2002; meeting at

Stora Enso North America, Wisconsin Rapids, WI, March 2002; NCASI Central Lake States

Regional Meeting, Oshkosh, WI, May 2002; ACI Fall 2002 Convention, Phoenix, AZ,

October 2002; CANMET/ACI Lyon, France, and Barcelona, November 2002; Weyerhaeuser

Company Workshop on Alternative Management Methods for Weyerhaeuser Residuals,

Albany, OR, October 2003; Weyerhaeuser Company meeting on Wis-DOT I-39/Highway

51 Corridor Project, Rothschild, WI, January 2004; ACI 2004 Spring Convention,

Washington, D.C., March 2004, and at the UWM-CBU Seminar on Recent Advances in

Cementitious Materials, March 2004.

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Additional technical papers have been presented, published, or submitted for publication

based on the activities of this project. A paper titled “Greener Concrete Using Recycled

Materials” was published by the ACI Concrete International, July 2002, which contained

important information from the Rothschild construction project. A paper titled “Durability

of Concrete Incorporating Wood Fly Ash” was presented and published at the Sixth

CANMET/ACI International Conference on Durability of Concrete, Thessaloniki, Greece,

June 2003. Another paper titled “Properties of Controlled Low-Strength Material made with

Wood Fly Ash” was presented and published at the ASTM Symposium on Innovations in

Controlled Low-Strength Material (Flowable Slurry), Denver, CO, June 2003 (ASTM STP

1459, scheduled for publication in Fall 2004). A paper has been published in ACI Concrete

International magazine in December 2003 titled “A New Source of Pozzolanic Material.” A

paper has also been preliminarily accepted for publication by the ASCE Geotechnical and

Geoenvironmental Engineering Division titled “Permeability of Flowable Slurry Materials

Containing Wood Ash.” A paper has been accepted for publication by ACI Committee 555

for a ACI Special Publication (SP) titled “Properties of Flowable Slurry Containing Wood

Ash.” The effort to disseminate the information and experience obtained during this project

will continue.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ i

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... x

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... xiii

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ....................................................................... 1

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................3

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................3

2.2 Properties of Wood Ash .................................................................................................3

2.3 Beneficial Uses of Wood Ash ........................................................................................6

2.3.1 Land Application ............................................................................................7

2.3.2 Pollution Control .............................................................................................8

2.3.3 Construction Materials ....................................................................................9

3.0 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................11

4.0 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................................................12

5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ..................................................................................17

5.1 Materials ................................................................................................................17

5.1.1 Wood Ash ..................................................................................................17

5.1.2 Fine Aggregate ...........................................................................................17

5.1.3 Coarse Aggregate .......................................................................................18

5.1.4 Class C Fly Ash .........................................................................................18

5.1.5 Cement .......................................................................................................18

5.2 Elemental Analysis ................................................................................................19

5.3 Mineralogical Analysis ..........................................................................................19

5.4 Manufacturing of CLSM and Concrete Mixtures and Testing ..............................20

of specimens

5.4.1 Laboratory Mixtures ...................................................................................20

5.4.1.1 CLSM laboratory mixtures ................................................................20

5.4.1.2 Concrete laboratory mixtures ................................................................22

5.4.2 Prototype Manufacturing ................................................................................23

5.4.2.1 CLSM prototype mixtures ...............................................................23

5.4.2.2 Concrete prototype mixtures ............................................................24

5.4.3 Full-Scale Manufacturing ................................................................................25

5.4.3.1 CLSM full-scale mixtures .......................................................................27

5.4.3.2 Concrete full-scale mixtures ...................................................................28

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Section Page

6.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................30

6.1 Laboratory and Prototype Manufacturing (Selection and ............................................30

Refinement of Mixtures and Testing)

6.1.1 Materials ............................................................................................................30

6.1.2 Elemental Analysis ............................................................................................31

6.1.3 Mineralogical Analysis ......................................................................................31

6.1.4 Wisconsin DNR Chapter NR 538 Standards .....................................................32

6.1.4.1 Leachate Characteristics of Wood Ash ...............................................32

6.1.4.2 Elemental Characteristics of Wood Ash .............................................33

6.1.4.3 DNR NR 538 Specified Use Options ..................................................34

6.1.5 Lab Manufacturing Results .................................................................................35

6.1.5.1 Laboratory CLSM mixture results ......................................................35

Mixture proportions and fresh properties ............................................35

Compressive strength ..........................................................................36

6.1.5.2 Laboratory concrete mixture results ................................................36

Mixture proportions and fresh properties ...........................................36

Compressive strength .........................................................................36

6.1.6 Prototype Manufacturing Results ........................................................................37

6.1.6.1 Prototype CLSM mixture results ..........................................................37

Mixture proportions and fresh properties .............................................37

Compressive strength ...........................................................................37

6.1.6.2 Prototype concrete mixture results.....................................................37

Mixture proportions and fresh properties .............................................37

Compressive strength ...........................................................................38

Splitting tensile strength .......................................................................38

Flexural strength ...................................................................................39

Compressive strength from portions of beams broken

in flexure .............................................................................................39

Resistance to freezing and thawing ......................................................40

Drying Shrinkage .................................................................................40

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Section Page

6.2 Full-Scale Manufacturing/Production Results .......................................................41

6.2.1 Full-scale CLSM mixture results .................................................................41

Mixture proportions and fresh properties ......................................................41

Compressive strength ....................................................................................42

Water permeability ........................................................................................43

6.2.2 Full-scale concrete mixture results .............................................................43

Mixture proportions and fresh properties .....................................................43

Compressive strength ...................................................................................44

Splitting tensile strength ...............................................................................45

Flexural strength ...........................................................................................46

Compressive strength from portions of beams broken in flexure ................46

Resistance to freezing and thawing ..............................................................47

Drying Shrinkage .........................................................................................48

6.3 Technology Transfer and Field Demonstration ...........................................................48

6.4 Long-Term Evaluation and Condition Assessment .....................................................51

7.0 COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF USING WOOD ASH IN FLOWABLE

SLURRY (CLSM) AND CONCRETE .................................................................................53

7.1 Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Containing Wood Ash ............................................54

7.2 Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Containing Wood Ash ........................................55

8.0 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................56

9.0 LIST OF REFERENCES ...................................................................................................59

APPENDIX 1 ..............................................................................................................................126

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No./Title Page

Table 1 - Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures .............. 62

Table 2 - Gradation of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures .............................63

Table 3 - Physical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures ................................................64

Table 4 – Chemical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures .............................................65

Table 5 - Physical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ...........................................66

Table 6 – Chemical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ........................................67

Table 7 - Physical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ..................................68

Table 8 – Chemical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures................................69

Table 9 - Elemental Analysis of Cement and Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ......................70

Table 10 - Mineralogy of Cement and Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ........................73

Table 11 - Mineralogy of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures .....................................................73

Table 12 - Beneficial Use Methods for By-Products Based Upon Characterization

Category, per NR 538 ....................................................................................................................74

Table 13 - Leachate Analysis Data for Wood Ash ........................................................................75

Table 14 - Leachate Standards per DNR NR 538 ..........................................................................76

Table 15 - NR 538 Categories for Wood Ash per Leachate Analysis ...........................................77

Table 16 - NR 538 Elemental Analysis for Wood Ash .................................................................78

Table 17 - Elemental Analysis per DNR NR 538 ..........................................................................79

Table 18 - NR 538 Categories for Rothschild Ash per Elemental Analysis ..................................80

Table 19 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of CLSM Mixtures ...................................81

from Laboratory Manufacturing

Table 20 - Bleed water of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing ...............................82

Table 21- Settlement of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing .................................83

Table 22- Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing .............84

Table 23 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties for Air-Entrained .......................85

Concrete from Laboratory Manufacturing

Table 24 - Compressive Strength of Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from Laboratory .............86

Manufacturing

Table 25 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures from ..........................87

Prototype Manufacturing

Table 26 - Bleed water for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing ...............................88

Table 27 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing ..................................89

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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)


Table 28 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype ........................................90

Manufacturing

Table 29 - Mixture Proportions for Air-Entrained Concrete from Prototype

Manufacturing .................................................................................................................91

Table 30 - Compressive Strength for Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from ..............................92


Table 31 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...............................................93


Table 32- Flexural Strength of Concrete Mixtures for Prototype Manufacturing .........................94

Table 33- Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of ..................................95

Beam Broken in Flexure from Prototype Manufacturing

Table 34 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures ..................................96

from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-1

Table 35 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of CLSM Mixtures ...................................97


Table 36 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of CLSM Mixtures ....................................98


Table 37 - Bleed water from CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing ............................99

Table 38 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing ...............................100

Table 39 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale .....................................101

Manufacturing, Series S-1





Table 42 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2 ...........104

Table 43 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-3 ...........104

Table 44 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained ....................................105

Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1

Table 45 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties of Air-Entrained ......................106

Concrete Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-2



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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)




Table 48 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ..................................................109

Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1

Table 49 - Compressive Strength of Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from .............................110


Table 50 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...................................................111


Table 51 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...................................................112


Table 52 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures ......................................................113

from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Table 53 - Flexural Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...........................................................114

Full-Scale Manufacturing

Table 54 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of Beams

Broken in Flexure from Full-Scale Manufacturing ....................................................115

Table 55 - Average Mixture Proportions of CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash from

Full-Scale Manufacturing. .........................................................................................116

Table 56 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of CLSM Mixtures

Containing Wood Ash.................................................................................................116

Table 57 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash ..............117

Table 58 - Average Mixture Proportions of Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash

from Full-Scale Manufacturing..................................................................................117

Table 59 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of Concrete Mixtures Containing

Wood Ash ...................................................................................................................118

Table 60 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash .........118

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No./Title Page

Fig 1- Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype Manufacturing .......119

Fig 2- Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype

Manufacturing ...................................................................................................................119

Fig 3- Percent Length Change versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype

Manufacturing ...................................................................................................................120

Fig 4- Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing ........................120

Fig 5- Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale Manufacturing ......121

Fig 6- Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale

Manufacturing ......................................................................................................................121

Fig.7- Percent Length Change versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale

Manufacturing ................................................................................................................122

Fig.8 - Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures for Full-Scale Manufacturing ..........................122

Fig.9 – Placement of CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration ........................................................123

Fig.10 – Leveling CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration .............................................................123

Fig.11 – Placement of Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing ................................................124

Fig.12 – Finishing of Concrete Containing Wood Ash for Full-Scale Mixtures .........................124

Fig.13 – Completed Concrete Slab from Full-Scale Manufacturing ...........................................125

Fig.14 – Concrete Containing Wood Ash – Two Year Assessment ............................................125

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1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Wisconsin industries (pulp and paper mills, saw mills, wood products industries such as

doors and windows, and other forest products industries) generate approximately one million

dry tons (or approx. 1.8 million cubic yards) of wood ash per year. NCASI has estimated

that of the total wood ash produced in the U.S., only about 28% is being utilized [1]*.

Disposal of wood ash in landfills costs Wisconsin industry significant direct cost plus

unknown future liabilities due to environmental concerns related to such materials in

landfills. This project establishes the initial manufacturing technology for the use of wood

ash generated by the Wisconsin forest products industry in concrete and flowable slurry

(Controlled Low Strength Materials, CLSM), through an initial laboratory evaluation

followed by prototype manufacturing and full-scale manufacturing. A technology transfer

seminar was conducted, which demonstrated the placement of concrete and CLSM mixtures

containing wood ash for a materials handling area in Rothschild, WI, at the Weyerhaeuser

Company plant.

CLSM is a very fluid cementitious material that flows like a liquid and supports like a solid,

without compacting. It is self-compacting and self-leveling. It hardens in a defined and

predictable manner. ACI 229R defines CLSM flowable slurry as "cementitious material that

is in a flowable state at placement and has specified compressive strengths of 1200 psi or less

at the age of 28 days." A number of names including flowable fill, unshrinkable fill,

manufactured dirt, controlled density fill, flowable mortar, and other similar names, are

being used to describe this material. CLSM is used primarily for non-structural applications.

* Reference number corresponding to the reference listed in Section 9.0

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Its consistency is similar to that of a pancake batter. CLSM can be placed quickly with

minimum labor. It can harden within a few hours of placement.

For excavatable slurry, compressive strength should be in the range of 50 to 100 psi at the

28-day age. In cases where higher strengths are required, and/or future excavation is not

expected, CLSM mixtures can be proportioned with higher amounts of cementitious

materials. For use as a permanent fill or support material, CLSM mixtures can be

proportioned to attain strengths of up to 1200 psi at the age of 28 days, in accordance with

ACI Committee 229. Developing different strength levels for CLSM with wood ash would

allow for greater flexibility for potential uses of CLSM such as backfill around underground

electric and/or telephone cables, water distribution lines, gas lines, and other similar trench

excavations, backfill for bridge abutment wall, road sub-base, and foundation base materials.

This project outlines a practical solution to disposal challenges associated with wood ash for

the forest products industry in Wisconsin through the development of this technology for

commercial production of concrete and CLSM containing wood ash.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Typical wood burned for fuel at pulp and paper mills and wood products industries may

consist of saw dust, wood chips, bark, saw mill scraps, hard chips rejected from pulping,

excess screenings such as sheaves, and primary residuals with or without mixed secondary

residuals. Physical and chemical properties of wood ash are important in determining their

beneficial uses. These properties are influenced by species of tree, tree growing regions and

conditions, method and manner of combustion including temperature, other fuel used with

wood fuel, and method of wood ash collection [1, 2, 3]. Further quality variation in the

wood ash properties occur when wood is co-fired with other supplementary fuels such as

coal, coke, gas, oil, and the relative quantity of wood verses such other fuels [1]. The

following sections deal with the information collected on properties and options for

constructive uses for wood ash.

2.2 Properties of Wood Ash

Etiegni and Campbell [3] studied the effects of combustion temperature on yield and

chemical properties of wood ash. For this investigation, lodgepole pine saw dust collected

from a sawmill was combusted in an electric furnace at different temperatures for 6 to 9

hours or until the ash weight became constant. The results showed that wood ash yield

crons

(10-3

mm). The concentration of potassium, sodium, zinc, and carbonate decreased while

concentrations of other metal ions remained constant or increased with increasing

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temperature. The pH of the wood ash was found to vary between 9 and 13.5. Etiegni et al.

[2,3] obtained X-ray diffraction data to determine the presence of various compounds in dry

and wet ash which was then dried for 24 hours. The major oxides detected in the wood ash

were lime (CaO), calcite (CaCO3), portlandite (Ca(OH)2) and calcium silicate (Ca2SiO4).

The authors reported that swelling of wood ash occurred due to the possible hydration of

silicates and lime present in the ash.

Campbell [4] presented data on major and trace elements in wood ash. The major elements

were calcium (7-33%), potassium (3-4%), magnesium (1-2%), phosphorus (0.3-1.4%),

manganese (0.3-1.3%), and sodium (0.2-0.5%). The trace elements were zinc, boron,

copper, molybdenum, and others at parts per million levels. Carbon content in wood ash was

found to vary between 4 and 34% by mass.

Mishra et al. [5] investigated elemental and molecular composition of mineral matters in ash

from five types of wood and two types of barks as a function of temperature. The mass loss

occurred in the range of 23 to 48 % when the combustion temperature was increased from

500 to 1300o

C (930 to 2370o

F). This was attributed to decreased elemental mass

concentrations of K, S, B, Na, and Cu resulting from increased temperature.

Steenari and Lindqvist [6] characterized fly ashes derived from co-combustion of wood chips

and fossil fuels, and compared their properties to those obtained from combustion of wood

ash alone. In their work, wood fly ash samples were obtained by co-firing of wood chips

with coal, oil, and peat in utility boilers in Sweden. The fly ashes derived from co-

combustion of wood with coal or peat exhibited lower concentrations of calcium, potassium,

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and chlorine, and higher concentrations of aluminum ion and sulfur relative to pure wood

ash. The pH of leachates obtained from the co-combustion ashes were lower compared to

pure wood ash. The concentrations of trace metals in these ashes were similar to those

observed in pure wood ashes.

Steenari [7] presented possible chemical reactions involved in the hydration of wood ash

concrete. Equation 1 describes the reaction involving CaO and H20.

CaO + H2O = Ca (OH) 2 (1)

This reaction is rapid and exothermic, and leads to the formation of inter-particle bond. The

next reaction occurs due to exposure to moisture and air as given by Equation 2.

Ca (OH) 2+ H2O+ CO2 (gas) = Ca (OH) 2 (aqueous)+ H2CO3 (aqueous) = CaCO3 +2H2O (2)

Due to very low (or none) solubility of CaCO3 compared to CaO and Ca (OH) 2, the above

hydration process produces a more stabilized reaction product. After the carbonation

reaction (Equation 2), the third reaction leads to the formation of an ettringite as described by

Equation 3.

Ca3Al2O6 + 3CaSO4 + 32 H2O = Ca6Al2 (SO4) 3(OH) 1226H2O (3)

In the above equation, tricalcium aluminate is used as an example. However, other soluble

components can be substituted for these compounds in the ettringite formation reaction

described by Equation (3). This ettringite is stable at pH levels greater than 10.5 [7]. This

chemical product contributes to the strength development of the hydrated wood ash material

and restricts the release of calcium, aluminum, and sulfate.

Naik [8] determined physical and chemical properties of wood ashes derived from different

mills. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used to determine shape of wood ash

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particles. The SEM micrographs showed wood ashes as a heterogeneous mixture of particles

of varying sizes, which were generally angular in shape. The wood fly ash contained cellular

particles, which were unburned, or partially burned wood or bark particles. The average

moisture content values for the wood ash studied were about 13% for fly ash and 22% for

bottom ash. All wood ash samples were first oven-dried at 990 C (210

o F) and then tested for

gradation in accordance with ASTM C 136 using standard sieve sizes. The average amount

of fly ash passing sieve #200 (75 μm) was 50% (ASTM C 117). The average amount of fly

ash retained on sieve No. 325 (45 m) was about 31% for wood fly ash (ASTM C 430). Test

results for unit weight or bulk density (ASTM C 29) exhibited average density values of 490

kg/m3 (30.6 lb/ft

3) for fly ash and 827 kg/m

3 (51.6 lb/ft

3) for bottom ash. Specific gravity

(ASTM C 188) tests showed an average specific gravity value of 2.48 for wood fly ash.

Specific gravity (ASTM C 128) tests for bottom ash showed an average specific gravity

value of 1.65. The average saturated surface dry (SSD) moisture content (ASTM C 128)

values were 10.3% for fly ash and 7.5% for bottom ash. The average cement activity index

ASTM C 311/C 109 at the age of 28 days for fly ash was about 66% of the control. The

average water requirement (ASTM C 311) for fly ash exhibited a value of 116%. Autoclave

expansion tests for fly ash exhibited a low average expansion value of 0.2 percent.

2.3 Beneficial Uses of Wood Ash

Approximately 70% of the wood ash generated in the U.S.A. is landfilled; an additional 20%

is applied on land as a soil supplement. The remaining 10% has been used for miscellaneous

applications [1-4] including construction materials, metal recovery, and pollution control.

Landfilling is becoming more restrictive due to shrinking landfill space and strict

-7-

environmental regulations. The use of wood ash as a soil supplement is also becoming more

limited due to the presence of heavy metals and high alkalinity, as well as reduced

availability of land for application. Due to these reasons, many attempts are being made to

develop high-volume use technologies for wood ash, especially for use in construction

materials [8,12].

2.3.1 Land application

Based on the properties of wood ash, it can be used as a source of nutrients for plant growth,

and as a liming material and neutralizing agent for acidic soil. Etiegni and Campbell [3]

reported the use of wood ash as an agricultural soil supplement and liming material. For this

investigation, two types of plants (winter wheat and poplar) were grown in a greenhouse on

six different Idaho soils amended with varying amounts of wood ash. The results indicated a

substantial increase in the wheat biomass and in the diameter and height of the poplar at ash

concentrations of up to 2% (16 tons/acre). Based on the results obtained, the authors

indicated that wood ash could be used as a low-grade fertilizer containing potassium and as a

liming agent.

Meyers and Kopecky [9] evaluated the effects of land spreading of wood ash on the yield

and elemental composition of forage crops and soil nutrient levels using both greenhouse and

field investigations. The use of wood ash resulted in a higher yield compared to that

obtained with lime and fertilizer control treatments. No adverse effects were noted at wood

ash application rates of up to 20 tons/acre.

-8-

Nguyen and Pascal [10] measured tree growth responses using two sources of wood ash as a

forest soil amendment. Four different application rates (0, 2, 4, and 8% by mass) were used

in their investigation. The tree growth responses were measured using greenhouse and

small-scale environment approaches. The addition of wood ash affected all the measured

growth responses (height, diameter, and total leaf area) within the tested range. However,

2% (i.e., 16 tons/acre) application rate was found to be optimum.

Bramryd and Frashman [11] reported a decrease in acidity and aluminum concentration

when wood ash was applied to the soil having 35-year old pine trees in Sweden. Except Cu,

no significant increase in heavy metal concentrations was found due to the addition of wood

ash. However, the concentration of extractable Mn increased.

Naylor and Schmidt [14] evaluated wood as a fertilizer and liming material. In their study,

wood ash was mixed with two acidic soils at rates of 0, 0.4, 1.8 and 2.4 tons/acre to assess

changes in extractable nutrients and soil pH. Generally, concentrations of extractable P, K,

and Ca increased with increasing ash application rate. The same trend was also noticed for

soil pH. The neutralizing capability of the ash was found to be half of that achieved by using

agricultural limestone.

2.3.2 Pollution Control

Wood ash has been used as a replacement of lime or cement kiln dust in the solidification of

hazardous wastes [1]. It has also been used for odor as well as pH control of hazardous and

-9-

non-hazardous wastes. Wood ash has also been added to compost as a color and odor

control. Wood ash was found to capture several water borne contaminants [1].

2.3.3 Construction Materials

Very limited work has been conducted to find applications of wood ash as a construction

material, particularly in cement-based materials. Due to high carbon content in wood ash, its

use may be limited to low- and medium-strength concrete materials. In Europe, wood ash

has been used as a feedstock in the manufacture of portland cement [2].

Based on the measured physical, chemical, and morphological properties, Naik [8] reported

that wood ash has a substantial potential for use as a pozzolanic mineral admixture and an

activator in cement-based materials. He further indicated that wood ash has significant

potential for use in numerous other materials including Controlled Low Strength Materials

(CLSM), low- and medium-strength concrete, masonry products, roller-compacted concrete

pavements (RCCP), materials for road base, and blended cements.

Naik [12] investigated the use of wood ash as a major ingredient in the manufacture of

CLSM meeting ACI 229 requirements. All CLSM mixtures consisted of wood fly ash,

water, and cement. A total of 31 CLSM mixtures were proportioned using three sources of

wood fly ash to obtain a range of compressive strengths from 50 psi to 150 psi at the age of

28 days. Each CLSM mixture was tested for its fresh/rheological and hardened properties.

Fresh CLSM properties included unit weight, amount of bleedwater, settlement, and setting

and hardening characteristics. Hardened CLSM properties included compressive strength,

-10-

density, and permeability. Several CLSM mixtures containing high volumes of wood fly ash

were found to be appropriate for backfill of excavations, and/or for making low- to medium-

strength concrete [8, 12].

Mukherji et al. [13] performed experiments to explore the use of wood ash in the ceramic

industry. They reported that wood ash derived from the “Neem” (Margosa) tree could be

used as a substitute for CaCO3 in the manufacture of glaze. A series of color stains was also

manufactured using the "Neem" wood ash and other ingredients. These stains were calcined

at 12500 C (2280

0 F). The glazes and colors developed using this wood ash were tested and

evaluated for the desired properties for the ceramics[13]. The authors concluded that the

glazes and colors developed in their investigation are suitable for use in both green and

baked ware.

-11-

3.0 OBJECTIVES

Wood ash is generated by saw mills, pulp mills, and the wood products industry, by burning

a combination of wood products, such as bark, twigs, knots, chips, saw dust, scrap woods,

and the like with other fuels such as coal, coke, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity

and/or steam required for their manufacturing processes. The aim of this project was to

develop manufacturing and performance requirements for structural-grade concrete and

CLSM (flowable slurry) containing wood ash from Wisconsin industry for construction

applications.

In order to demonstrate the use of wood ash in concrete and CLSM, the project was planned

over a two-year period. The project activities included refinement of laboratory mixture

proportions through prototype-scale manufacturing at the facilities of a ready-mixed concrete

producer, establishing final mixtures for full-scale manufacture of CLSM and concrete, and a

construction demonstration.

Implementation of the technology developed from this project should increase utilization of

wood ash materials, reducing the pressure on Wisconsin landfills; and develop a market for

products containing wood ash, which do not exist currently. This benefits industry, the

environment, and the citizens of Wisconsin.

-12-

4.0 RESEARCH DESIGN

This project consisted of the following eight tasks: Task 1: Selection of Materials and

Mixtures; Task 2: Mixture Proportions Refinement; Task 3: Prototype Manufacturing; Task

4: Evaluation of Mixtures; Task 5: Full-scale Manufacturing; Task 6: Technology Transfer

and Construction Demonstration Plan; Task 7: Wood Ash Concrete and CLSM

Demonstration; Task 8: Reports. A summary of the work performed for these tasks is given

below. Details of the results of each task are described in later sections of this report.

Task 1: Selection of Materials and Mixtures

Materials used for this project included sand, coarse aggregate, ASTM Type I cement,

ASTM C 618 Type C fly ash, and wood ash. Wood ash from the Weyerhaeuser Company

in Rothschild,WI, was chosen. All components of the concrete and CLSM (wood ash,

cement, and aggregate) were tested for their chemical and physical properties using ASTM

or other applicable test methods. These properties were used in determining mixture

proportions of both CLSM and concrete developed in this project.

Task 2: Mixture Proportions Refinement

Based on previous work conducted and reported by UWM-CBU using different ash materials

[17], wood ash from the Weyerhaeuser Company, Rothschild, WI, was selected. Three

series of CLSM mixture proportions, and four series of concrete mixture proportions were

developed in the laboratory. Cement content in CLSM mixtures varied from 81 to 116 lb/yd3

and wood ash content varied between 995 and 2130 lb/yd3. For concrete mixtures, wood ash

content varied between 36 and 87 lb/yd3 and Class C fly ash content between 50 and 165

-13-

lb/yd3. CLSM mixtures were tested for unit weight, temperature, air content, settlement,

bleed water, and compressive strength. Concrete mixtures were tested for fresh concrete

properties and compressive strength.

Task 3: Prototype Manufacturing

Based on the mixture proportions developed at UWM-CBU, prototype-scale manufacturing

was carried out at a ready-mixed concrete plant (Midway Concrete Co.) near Rothschild,

WI. Each batch of CLSM or concrete was between one and two cubic yards. Three CLSM

and four concrete mixtures were manufactured for the prototype series. Wood ash was not

stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. It was transported directly from the

Weyerhaeuser Company plant and either placed into a hopper used to batch the CLSM

materials for the mixtures, or manually weighed for concrete mixtures.

Task 4: Evaluation of Mixtures

CLSM prototype mixtures containing wood ash were tested for various properties. The

CLSM was monitored for its rheological and hardened CLSM characteristics of bleed water,

settlement, compressive strength, and permeability.

Concrete prototype mixtures containing wood ash were tested for rheological, physical, and

mechanical properties. Fresh concrete properties such as air content, workability, unit

weight, and temperature were measured. Test specimens were made for evaluating

compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and

freezing and thawing resistance.

-14-

Test results from the laboratory and prototype manufacturing were evaluated for physical

and chemical properties. Based on the evaluation, CLSM and concrete mixtures were

selected for full-scale manufacturing and construction demonstration.

Task 5: Full-Scale Manufacturing

Full-scale manufacturing was carried out at the Midway Concrete Co., a ready-mixed

concrete plant near Rothschild, WI. Similar to the prototype manufacturing, wood ash was

not stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. Three series of CLSM mixture

proportions were made. For each series, between five and seven batches of CLSM were

manufactured. The volume of each batch of CLSM was approximately nine cubic yards.

The CLSM was monitored for its rheological and hardened CLSM characteristics such as

bleed water, settlement, compressive strength, and water permeability.

Four series of concrete mixtures were also made (one reference concrete mixture without

wood ash and three concrete mixtures containing wood ash). Each series consisted of three

to four batches of approximately nine cubic yards of concrete. Fresh concrete properties

such as air content, workability, unit weight, and temperature were measured. Test

specimens were made for evaluating compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural

strength, shrinkage, and freezing-thawing resistance.

-15-

Task 6: Technology Transfer and Construction Demonstration

A technology transfer seminar was conducted in Rothschild, WI, on September 27, 2001.

The title of the seminar was “Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood

Ash in Concrete and Flowable Slurry.” A total of 26 people attended the seminar. The

Speakers for this seminar were Tarun R. Naik of UWM-CBU, Bruce W. Ramme of We

Energies, and Michael Miller of the Wisconsin DNR. They presented information on the use

of flowable slurry and concrete incorporating wood ash and fly ash, as well as on

environmental issues and regulations. The technology transfer seminar consisted of a half-

day of technical presentations followed by a demonstration of the use and placement of wood

ash in flowable slurry and in concrete. A section of a pavement in a log-handling yard

located in the Weyerhaeuser Rothschild mill was used for the demonstration. Additional

technology transfer activities have also been undertaken. Results of the project have been

presented at various venues as well as at other UWM-CBU sponsored workshops.

Additional details are presented in Section 6.3, “Technology Transfer and Field

Demonstration,” on presentations that were made in Wisconsin and elsewhere and also

technical publications on the use of wood ash to further the technology transfer activities.

Task 7: Wood Ash Concrete and CLSM Demonstration

A demonstration of three sections of CLSM used as a base course for a concrete structural

slab and a demonstration of four sections of air-entrained concrete were conducted. The base

course and structural slab were used for a section of the log yard at the facilities of the

Weyerhaeuser Company, Rothschild, WI. Mixtures from the full-scale CLSM and concrete

-16-

manufacturing were used for the demonstration. The area used for the construction of the

three series of CLSM pavement base was 800 to 1200 ft2. The thickness of the CLSM base

varied between 9 and 24 inches depending on the depth of the soil excavated. Each concrete

mixture was used to cast a section of the pavement area of about 800 to 1200 ft2. The

thickness of the concrete slab was specified at eight inches. A minimum concrete

compressive strength was specified as 4000 psi at the age of 28 days. CLSM and air-

entrained concrete containing wood ash was manufactured at the facilities of Midway

Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. For the construction demonstration, wood ash was not

stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. Ash was transported directly from the

Weyerhaeuser Company plant and either dumped into a hopper used to batch the CLSM

materials for the mixtures, or manually weighed for concrete mixtures.

-17-

5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

5.1 Materials

Materials used in this project consisted of cement, fine and coarse aggregates (concrete sand

and crushed stone), one source of wood ash, and one source of Class C fly ash. Materials

were characterized for their chemical and physical properties in accordance with the

applicable ASTM standards, or other test methods.

5.1.1 Wood ash

Wood ash from one source was used during this project. Properties of the wood ash were

determined in accordance with ASTM C 618 requirements for chemical and physical

properties. Chemical properties included oxides, basic chemical elements, and mineralogy.

Physical property tests included fineness (ASTM C 430), strength activity index with cement

(ASTM C 109), water requirement (ASTM C 109), autoclave expansion (ASTM C 151), and

specific gravity (ASTM C 188).

5.1.2 Fine aggregate

One source of concrete sand was used in this investigation for all CLSM mixtures and

concrete mixtures. Physical properties of the sand were determined in accordance with

ASTM C 33 requirements: unit weight (ASTM C 29), specific gravity and absorption

(ASTM C 128), fineness (ASTM C 136), material finer than #200 sieve (ASTM C 117), and

organic impurities (ASTM C 40).

-18-

5.1.3 Coarse aggregate

One source of coarse aggregate was used in this investigation for the concrete mixtures. The

maximum size of the coarse aggregate was 3/4". Physical properties of the coarse aggregate

were also determined in accordance with ASTM C 33 requirements: unit weight (ASTM C

29), specific gravity and absorption (ASTM C 128), fineness (ASTM C 136), and material

finer than #200 sieve (ASTM C 117).

5.1.4 Class C fly ash

One source of Class C fly ash meeting the specifications of ASTM C 618 was used for the

concrete mixtures. Fly ash was characterized for chemical properties (ASTM C 618)

including oxides, basic chemical elements and mineralogy; and physical properties: fineness

(ASTM C 430), strength activity index with cement (ASTM C 109), water requirement

(ASTM C 109), autoclave expansion (ASTM C 151), and specific gravity (ASTM C 188).

5.1.5 Cement

Type I portand cement was used. Its physical and chemical properties were determined in

accordance with applicable ASTM test methods. Cement was tested per ASTM C 150

requirements for air content (ASTM C 185), fineness (ASTM C 204), autoclave expansion

(ASTM C 151), compressive strength (ASTM C 109), time of setting (ASTM C 191), and

specific gravity (ASTM C 188).

-19-

5.2 Elemental Analysis

Wood ash, Class C fly ash, and cement were analyzed using Instrumental Neutron Activation

Analysis. The neutron activation analysis method exposes the sample to neurons, which

results in an activation of elements. This activation consists of radiation of various elements.

For the ash and cement used in this project, gamma-ray emissions were detected. Many

different elements may be detected simultaneously based on the gamma-ray energies and

half-lives.

5.3 Mineralogical Analysis

Two grams of each sample were ground in a power driven mortar and pestle unit for 55

minutes with ethyl alcohol. The alcohol was then evaporated for mineralogical analysis of

the sample. The diffraction mount used was a specially made back loading holder in which

the sample was poured against a matte surface disk and secured in place with a second

smaller disk mounted into the holder through an "O" ring seal. The matte surface disk was

then removed. The samples were weighed while loading so that each mount contained the

same amount of the sample powder. The sample was mounted on a diffractometer (a Nicolet

I2 automated unit). The parameters used for producing the scan (diffraction pattern) were

optimized for quantitative analysis of the minerals. The file, which was produced during the

scan, was graphically converted on a computer screen and plotted. The plot was searched for

crystalline phases present using an automated Hanawalt search, by looking through a list of

expected phases for the sample using first and second strongest lines and by using computer

overlays of the plot using standard phases from the JCPDS file to test each phase. The

-20-

overlay plot was generated from the unknown test sample and a standard sample. The

presence or absence of the phase was verified using the standard.

After the phases were tabulated, the diffraction file was converted to run on the "SQ"

program, which uses the phases assigned, calculates a match between the observed pattern

and a pattern generated from the assigned phases. Various parameters were adjusted to

obtain this match. The scale factors assigned to each phase were converted into weight

percents of each phase. A second pattern was run in which 50% ZnO was added. In the test

samples containing amorphous material, the percentage of ZnO measured by "SQ" was

higher than 50%. The magnitude of this change was used to calculate the amount of

amorphous material in the sample.

5.4 Manufacturing of CLSM and Concrete Mixtures and Testing of Specimens

5.4.1 Laboratory mixtures

5.4.1.1 CLSM laboratory mixtures

Three CLSM mixtures were proportioned and manufactured in the laboratory of the UWM

Center for By-Products Utilization. Laboratory mixture procedures were followed as

outlined in ACI 229R for mixing CLSM in a ready-mixed concrete truck mixer. First, 70 to

80 percent of the water required was added to the mixer. Subsequently, half of the fine

aggregate and/or ash was added to the mixer and mixed for one minute. Then, all of the

cement and half of the remaining ash was added to the mixer and again mixed for one

minute. Then, the rest of the ash was added. Finally, with continued mixing, the remaining

-21-

aggregate and remaining water was added. After all materials were added, the mixture was

mixed for a minimum of three more minutes.

CLSM mixtures had a wood ash content between 995 and 2130 lb/yd3, whereas cement

content varied between 81 and 116 lb/yd3. The first two CLSM mixtures consisted of wood

ash, ASTM Type I cement, and water. The third mixture contained wood ash, ASTM Type I

cement, sand, and water. The sand content in the third mixture was 1570 lb/yd3. CLSM

mixtures had a flow between 12 and 13.5 inches and a unit weight between 108 and 115

lb/ft3.

Fresh CLSM properties such as air content (ASTM D 6023), flow (ASTM D 6103), unit

weight (ASTM D 6023), temperature (ASTM C 1064), and setting (ASTM D 6024) were

measured. Air temperature was also measured and recorded. CLSM test specimens were

prepared from each mixture for compressive strength (ASTM D 4832) and water

permeability (ASTM D 5084). The compressive strength of CLSM was measured at the

ages of 1, 2 and 3 days. Compressive strength at the early ages were evaluated for CLSM

since Weyerhaeuser Co. had specified high early strength of the CLSM to expedite the

construction of the concrete pavement, and not concern for long-term excavatability. The

amount of bleedwater and level of the solids (settlement) of CLSM mixtures was measured

in a 6x12-inch cylinder. All test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM D 4832.

-22-

5.4.1.2 Concrete laboratory mixtures

Air-entrained concrete mixtures were batched in the laboratory of the UWM Center for By-

products Utilization. Four series of mixtures were proportioned. All laboratory concrete

mixtures were mixed in a rotating drum concrete mixer in accordance with ASTM C 192.

Coarse aggregate was added first to the mixer and then mixed for a few revolutions. Fine

aggregate and cement were then added to the mixer. These ingredients were mixed dry for

two minutes. Thereafter, water was added and all ingredients in the mixer were mixed for

three minutes, followed by a 3-minute rest and then mixed for an additional 2-minute. The

air-entraining admixture (AEA) was introduced into the mixture with the water.

The first mixture (Control) was proportioned without wood ash, and the remaining three

mixtures contained wood ash. All four concrete mixtures contained Class C fly ash. Wood

ash and Class C fly ash were used as a partial replacement of cement in the concrete

mixtures. Concrete laboratory mixtures contained 0, 6, 9, and 13 % wood ash by weight of

cementitious materials. The slump of all concrete mixtures was maintained between 3 and 4-

1/2 inches. The fresh concrete density varied between 143 and 146 lb/ft3.

Fresh concrete properties including slump (ASTM C 143), air content (ASTM C 138), unit

weight (ASTM C 138), and concrete temperature (ASTM C 1064) were measured for each

mixture. Ambient air temperature was also measured and recorded. For each concrete

mixture, concrete test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM C 192. Specimens

were cast for compressive strength (ASTM C 39), and were tested at 3, 14, and 28 days.

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Specimens were cured for one day in their molds at 75 ± 5oF, then demolded and placed in a

standard moist-curing room (100% R.H. and 73 ± 3o F) until the time of test.

5.4.2 Prototype manufacturing

Based on the laboratory mixtures (CLSM and concrete) results, CLSM and concrete

mixtures were refined and prototype manufacturing was conducted at a ready-mixed concrete

plant (Midway Concrete Co.) near Rothschild. Three CLSM and four concrete mixtures

were manufactured. Each batch of CLSM and concrete was between one and two cubic

yards. Wood ash was not stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. Wood ash was

transported directly from the Weyerhaeuser Company plant for manufacturing CLSM and

concrete. Wood ash remaining from prototype manufacturing was returned to the

Weyerhaeuser Company.

5.4.2.1 CLSM prototype mixtures

All ingredients were batched and mixed at the Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI.

All CLSM mixtures were manufactured in accordance with the recommendations of ACI

229R. At the ready-mixed plant, cement, fine aggregate, and water were automatically

batched and added into a conventional ready-mixed concrete truck. Ash was weighed

separately via batching equipment for each load, added to the ready-mixed concrete truck,

and mixed. After all materials were introduced, materials were mixed in the truck with the

drum rotating at high speed. The resulting mixture was then discharged into a pan where

fresh CLSM tests were performed and test specimens were cast.

-24-

Three prototype CLSM mixtures were manufactured. Mixtures had a wood ash content

between 797 to 573 lb/yd3, whereas cement content varied between 87 to 134 lb/yd

3. Two

CLSM mixtures consisted of wood ash, ASTM Type I cement, and water. The third mixture

contained wood ash, ASTM Type I cement, sand, and water. The sand content in the third

mixture was 1495 lb/yd3. All CLSM mixtures had a flow between 12 and 13-1/2 inches, and

a unit weight between 101 and 114 lb/ft3.


weight (ASTM D 6023), temperature (ASTM C 1064), and setting (ASTM D 6024) were


prepared from each mixture for compressive strength (ASTM D 4832). Compressive

strength of CLSM was measured at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days. The amount of

bleedwater and level of the solids (settlement) of CLSM mixtures was measured in a 6x12-

inch cylinder. All test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM D 4832.

5.4.2.2 Concrete prototype mixtures

Based the results of the lab manufacturing, four concrete mixtures were manufactured at the

Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. The first mixture (Control) was proportioned

without wood ash, and the remaining three mixtures contained wood ash. All four concrete

mixtures also contained Class C fly ash. Wood ash and Class C fly ash were used as a partial

replacement of cement in the concrete mixtures. The wood ash content in the mixtures was

approximately 0, 6, 9 and 13%, respectively, as expressed as a percentage of total

-25-

cementitious materials. Class C fly ash content in the mixtures was 52, 98, 112, and 152

lb/yd3, respectively.



mixture. The slump of all concrete mixtures was maintained between 3 and 5-1/2 inches.

The fresh concrete density varied between 142.2 and 145.1 lb/ft3. Ambient air temperature

was also measured and recorded. For each concrete mixture, concrete test specimens were

cast, in accordance with ASTM C 192, for compressive strength (ASTM C 39), splitting

tensile strength (ASTM C 496), flexural strength (ASTM C 78), resistance to freezing and

thawing (ASTM C 666, Procedure A), and drying shrinkage (ASTM C 157) measurements.

Compressive strength and splitting tensile strength were measured at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days.

Flexural strength was measured at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days. Specimens were cured for one

day in their molds at the plant site at a temperature of 75 ± 5o F, brought to the UWM-CBU

laboratory, demolded, and placed in a standard moist-curing room (100% R.H. and 73 ± 3o

F) until they were tested. Test specimens for length change were cured for one day in their

molds, then removed from the molds and placed in lime-saturated water until the age of 28

days. Specimens were then moved to a controlled humidity room maintained at 50% R.H.

and 73 ± 3o F.

5.4.3 Full-scale manufacturing

Full-scale manufacturing of CLSM and concrete mixtures was carried out at the ready-mixed

concrete plant (Midway Concrete Co.) near Rothschild, WI. Wood ash was not stored at the

-26-

facilities of the Midway Concrete Co. Wood ash was transported directly from the

Weyerhaeuser Company plant for manufacturing of concrete and CLSM mixtures.

Remaining wood ash from full-scale manufacturing was returned to the Weyerhaeuser

Company.

Three series of CLSM mixture proportions were made. For each series, between five and

seven batches of CLSM were manufactured. The volume of each batch of CLSM was

approximately nine cubic yards. Four series of concrete mixtures were made. Each series of

concrete mixtures consisted of three to four batches of approximately nine cubic yards of

ready-mixed concrete.

A construction demonstration of a section of a structural pavement using air-entrained

concrete and a demonstration of CLSM used for the section of pavement base was

conducted. The structural pavement and base course was used for a section of the log-yard

at the facilities of the Weyerhaeuser Company, Rothschild, WI. Mixtures from full-scale

CLSM and concrete manufacturing were used for the demonstration. The constructed area

for area each of the three series of CLSM pavement base mixtures was about 800 to 1200 ft2.

The thickness of the CLSM base varied between 9 and 24 inches depending on the depth of

the soil excavated. Each concrete mixture was used to cast a section of the pavement area of

about 800 to 1200 ft2. Thickness of the concrete slab was specified at eight inches.

Minimum concrete compressive strength was specified to be 4000 psi at the age of 28 days.

Placement of the CLSM and concrete for the full-scale mixtures is shown in Figs. 9 to 12.

-27-

5.4.3.1 CLSM full-scale mixtures

Full-scale manufacturing of CLSM mixture was also conducted at the Midway Concrete Co.,

near Rothschild, WI. All ingredients were batched and mixed at the facilities of the ready-

mixed plant. All CLSM was manufactured in accordance with the recommendations of ACI

229R. Cement, fine aggregate, Class C fly ash, wood ash, and water were automatically

batched and added into a conventional ready-mixed concrete truck at the ready-mixed plant.

The wood ash was introduced into one of the bins typically used for aggregate, conveyed to

scales for weighing and then discharged into the ready-mixed concrete truck. Once all the

materials were introduced, the material was mixed in the truck with the drum rotating at high

speed for approximately 70 revolutions. The resulting mixture was then discharged into a

pan where fresh CLSM tests were performed and test specimens were cast.

For each series, five to seven batches of CLSM were made. The first series of mixtures

contained wood ash between 572 and 580 lb/yd3, cement between 137 and 139 lb/yd

3, and

sand between 2130 and 2145 lb/yd3. The second series of mixtures contained 95 and 100

lb/yd3 of wood ash, cement between 161 and 165 lb/yd

3, Class C fly ash between 480 and

496 lb/yd3, and sand between 2130 and 2145 lb/yd

3. The third series of mixtures contained

843 and 858 lb/yd3 of wood ash, cement between 101 and 104 lb/yd

3, and sand between 1535

and 1580 lb/yd3. The unit weight of the first series of mixtures varied between 123.2 and

125.2 lb/ft3, between 137.2 and 139.2 lb/ft

3 for the second series of mixtures, and between

115.6 and 119.0 lb/ft3 for the third series of CLSM mixtures.

-28-


weight (ASTM D 6023), temperature (ASTM 1064), and setting (ASTM D 6024) were


prepared from each mixture, to test for compressive strength (ASTM D 4832) and water

permeability (ASTM D 5084). The compressive strength of CLSM was measured at the

ages of 3, 7, 28, 91, 182, and 365 days. Permeability was tested at the ages of 63, 90 and 227

days. The amount of bleed water and level of the solids (settlement) of CLSM mixtures was

measured in a 6x12-inch cylinder. All test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM D

4832.

5.4.3.2 Concrete full-scale mixtures

Full-scale concrete manufacturing was carried out at the Midway Concrete Co., near

Rothschild, WI. Four series of air-entrained concrete mixtures were proportioned. For each

series three to four batches of concrete were made. The first series of mixtures (Control) was

proportioned without wood ash, and the remaining three mixtures contained wood ash. All

the concrete mixtures contained Class C fly ash. Wood ash and Class C fly ash were used as

a partial replacement of cement in the concrete mixtures. The wood ash content in the

mixtures was approximately 0, 6, 9, and 12% (expressed as a percentage of total

cementitious materials). Class C fly ash content in the mixtures was between 49 and 52, 99

and 102, 129 and 138, and 130 and 135 lb/yd3. The slump for all concrete mixtures was

maintained between 4 and 6 inches. The fresh concrete density varied between 142.1 and

144.9 lb/ft3.

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mixture. The ambient air temperature was also measured and recorded. For each concrete

mixture, concrete test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM C 192, for

compressive strength (ASTM C 39), splitting tensile strength (ASTM C 496), flexural

strength (ASTM C 78), freezing and thawing resistance (ASTM C 666, Procedure A), and

drying shrinkage (ASTM C 157) measurements. Compressive strength and splitting tensile

strength were measured at 3, 7, 28, 91, 182, and 365 days. Flexural strength was measured

at 7, 28, 91, and 365 days. Specimens were cured for one day in their molds at the plant site

at 75 ± 5o

F, brought to the UWM-CBU laboratory, demolded, and placed in a standard

moist-curing room (100% R.H. and 73 ± 3o F) until the time of their test. Test specimens for

length change were cured for one day in their molds, then removed from the molds and

placed in lime-saturated water until the age of 28 days. Specimens were then moved to a

controlled humidity room maintained at 50% R.H. and 73 ± 3o F.

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6.0 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The test results and discussions are presented in two parts. The first part, Section 6.1,

presents the results of material testing in the laboratory, design of laboratory mixture (both

CLSM and concrete) proportions, and testing. Based on the laboratory results, mixture

proportions for CLSM and concrete were refined and mixtures were manufactured on a

prototype-scale and tested. The second part, Section 6.2, details the full-scale mixture (both

CLSM and concrete) proportioning, and test results of various properties of CLSM and

concrete.

6.1 Laboratory and Prototype Manufacturing (Selection and Refinement of Mixtures

and Testing)

6.1.1 Materials

The fine aggregate used was natural sand with a 1/4-inch nominal maximum size and the

coarse aggregate was crushed dolomite aggregate with a maximum size of 3/4-inch for

laboratory mixtures. The physical properties and gradation of fine aggregate and coarse

aggregate are given in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. Both aggregates satisfied ASTM

C 33 requirements. Type I portland cement conforming to ASTM C 150 requirements was

used in this study. The physical and chemical properties for the portland cement used are

shown in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively. The cement met ASTM C 150 specifications for

Type I cement. One source of wood ash was used. The physical and chemical properties of

the wood ash were determined in accordance with ASTM C 311 (Table 5 and 6). The wood

ash used in this project did not conform to all the requirements of ASTM C 618 for coal ash

(Class C and F) or volcanic ash (Type N). ASTM standard specifications do not exist for

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wood ash. One source of Class C fly ash (P-4) was used. Its physical and chemical

properties are given in Tables 7 and 8, respectively. The Class C fly ash used satisfied

ASTM C 618 requirements for Class C fly ash.

6.1.2 Elemental analysis

The results for the elemental analysis of the cement and wood ash used in this project are

given in Table 9. As expected, the elemental composition of the cement and wood ash

differed considerably. Primary elements in the cement were Aluminum, Calcium, Iron, and

Potassium. The predominate elements contained in the wood ash (>5000 ppm) were

Aluminum, Cadmium, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Manganese, Potassium, Sodium, and

Titanium. The wood ash had much higher amounts of Magnesium, Manganese, Potassium,

Aluminum, and Sodium than the cement. The total elemental composition of these

materials gives some indication of the potential for leaching.

6.1.3 Mineralogical analysis

Major mineral species (crystalline phases) that were found in the cement and Class C fly ash,

and wood ash are shown in Table 10 and 11, respectively. The predominate crystalline

phase present in the wood ash sample was quartz (SiO2), Table 11. Additional trace

amounts of crystalline phases detected in wood ash included gypsum (CaSO4·H2O),

magnetite (Fe3O4), microcline (KAlSi3O8), mullite (Al2O3·SiO2), periclase (MgO), and

plagioclase (NaCa). The mineralogical analysis also indicated large amounts of amorphous

material present in the wood ash sample (46.9%). The calcite, hematite, magnetite,

microcline, mullite, plagioclase, and quartz present in the wood ash are generally not reactive

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when used in concrete. The cement samples had predominant phases of tricalcium

aluminate, dicalcium silicate, tetracalcium aluminoferrite, and tricalcium silicate (Table 10).

The fly ash samples had predominant phases of anhydrite, lime, dicalcium silicate, periclase,

quartz, and tricalcium aluminate.

6.1.4 Wisconsin DNR Chapter NR 538 Standards

Chapter NR 538 Standards (“Beneficial Use of Industrial By-Products”) of the Wisconsin

Department of Natural Resources (WI-DNR) were used for determining environmental

compliance and potential uses of the wood ash used for this project. ASTM D 3987 water

leach tests and EPA SW-846 elemental tests were performed on the sources of wood ash.

The WI-DNR NR 538 standards specify the allowable leachate and elemental concentrations

when using industrial by-products in various applications. Based upon these leachate and

elemental concentrations, NR 538 specifies a category to the material, one through five.

Category 1 material has the least restrictions placed upon its use, while Category 5 has the

most restrictions (Table 12). The WI-DNR NR 538 standards are applicable to the wood ash

sample evaluated as a part of this project. The wood ash was analyzed per the NR 538

leachate and elemental analysis guidelines established for “other” industrial by-products to

evaluate all parameters established by NR 538.

6.1.4.1 Leachate Characteristics of Wood Ash

The results of the leachate characterization per NR 538 for the wood ash are presented in

Table 13. The WI-DNR requirements for the leachate concentrations for Category 1 to 4 are

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shown in Table 14. The results of the leachate characterization, compared with the NR 538

standards, are presented in Table 15. The wood ash material met the leachate requirements

of NR 538 Category 1 with the exception of aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium,

cadmium, chromium, lead, and mercury, which met Category 2 & 3 requirements. One

leachate parameter, thallium concentration, exceeded the limits specified for Category 2 & 3

applications, but did meet Category 4 requirements. However, the higher concentration was

not due to detected levels of thallium, but rather due to the detection limits of the leachate

analysis. The detection limit of the analysis, 0.0043 mg/l, slightly exceeded the maximum

concentration specified for Category 2 & 3, 0.004 mg/l. Since this was the only parameter

that did not meet Category 2 & 3, if additional use options are desired for the wood ash that

are part of the Category 2 options, a more accurate analysis of the thallium concentration

should be performed. Since the use options implemented for this project correspond to

Category 4 use options specified in NR 538, the re-analysis of the wood ash was not

performed as a part of this project.

6.1.4.2 Elemental Characteristics of Wood Ash

The results of the elemental characterization of the wood ash are given in Table 16. The WI-

DNR requirements for the elemental concentrations are shown in Table 17. The elemental

concentrations compared with the NR 538 standards, are presented in Table 18. Elemental

analysis results for the wood ash indicate that the wood ash meets NR 538 Category 1

requirements with the exception of arsenic, beryllium, and total PAHs, which meet Category

2 requirements. NR 538 does not specify a standard value for total PAHs for Category 1

materials; therefore, the detection of any measurable PAHs automatically places the material

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in Category 2. The concentration of elemental thallium in the sample was less than half of

the limit specified for a Category 1 use option. This also supports the conclusion reached

from the leachate analysis, that if a more accurate analysis was performed for thallium, the

material could be approved for Category 2 uses.

6.1.4.3 WI-DNR NR 538 Specified Use Options

When the results of the leachate and elemental analysis are combined, the wood ash used

meets NR 538 Category 4 requirements. NR 538 specifies the following beneficial use

applications for a Category 4 material:

raw material for manufacturing a product

waste stabilization/solidification

supplementary fuel source/energy recovery

land fill daily cover/internal structures

confined geotechnical fill

-commercial, industrial or institutional building subbase

-paved lot base, subbase & subgrade fill

-paved roadway base, subbase & subgrade fill

- utility trench backfill

-bridge abutment backfill

-tank, vault or tunnel abandonment

-slabjacking material

encapsulated transportation facility enbankment

However, only one parameter limited the beneficial use options for the wood ash to NR 538

Category 4 applications. The detection limit of thallium slightly exceeded the limit specified

for Category 2 and 3. Since the concentration of elemental thallium present in the sample

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meets NR 538 Category 1 requirements, most likely, if a more detailed analysis were

performed for this element, the material most likely would meet Category 2 limits.

Beneficial use methods approved per NR 538 for materials meeting Category 2 requirements

includes all of the uses approved for a Category 4 material as well as the following additional

applications:

capped transportation facility embankment

unconfined geotechnical fill

unbonded surface course

bonded surface course

decorative stone

cold weather road abrasive

6.1.5 Laboratory manufacturing results

6.1.5.1 Laboratory CLSM mixture results

Mixture proportions and fresh properties

Mixture proportions and fresh properties of CLSM mixtures are given in Table 19. Three

CLSM mixtures were manufactured in the UWM-CBU laboratory (LS-1, LS-2, and LS-3).

Cement content was varied between 81 and 116 lb/yd3. Wood ash content in the CLSM

mixtures was varied between 2130 and 995 lb/yd3. The third CLSM mixture also contained

sand (1570 lb/yd3). The unit weight of the mixtures varied between 101 and 114 lb/ft

3. Flow

of CLSM mixtures was maintained between 12 and 13 ½ inches. Bleed water and settlement

results are given in Table 20 and 21, respectively.

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Compressive Strength

Compressive strength results are given in Table 22. Tests were conducted at the ages of 1, 2,

and 3 days. At the age of 3 days, CLSM mixtures attained compressive strengths of 30 to 45

psi.

6.1.5.2 Laboratory concrete mixture results


Mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties for the air-entrained concrete mixtures are

given in Table 23. Four air-entrained concrete mixtures (ML1-A, ML2-A, ML4-A, and

ML4-B) were manufactured in the UWM-CBU laboratory. Mixture ML1-A contained no

wood ash, 53 lb/yd3

of Class C fly ash, and 511 lb/yd3

of cement. Mixture ML2-A

contained 36 lb/yd3

of wood ash, 99 lb/yd3 of Class C fly ash, and 473 lb/yd

3 of cement.

Mixture ML4-A contained 61 lb/yd3 of wood ash, 165 lb/yd

3 of Class C fly ash, and 422

lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture ML4-B contained 88 lb/yd

3 of wood ash, 161 lb/yd

3 of Class C

fly ash, and 412 lb/yd3 of cement. The mixtures had slump of 3 to 4 ½ inches. Fresh

concrete density varied between 143 and 146 lb/yd3.

Compressive strength

Compressive strength was determined at the ages of 3, 14, and at 28 days. Results are given

in Table 24. Mixtures ML-1A, ML-2B, ML-4A, and ML-4B achieved strengths of 1180,

1365, 2025, and 3605 psi, respectively, at 28 days.

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6.1.6 Prototype manufacturing results

6.1.6.1 Prototype CLSM mixture results


Mixture proportions and fresh properties of CLSM mixtures manufactured on a prototype-

scale are given in Table 25. Three CLSM mixtures (SL-1, SL-2, and SL-3) were

manufactured at the Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. Cement content was varied

between 87 and 134 lb/yd3. Wood ash content was between 2035 and 967 lb/yd

3. The third

mixture (SL-3) also contained sand (1495 lb/yd3). The unit weight of the mixtures was

between 108 to 115 lb/ft3. Flow of CLSM mixtures varied from 11 ½ to 12 inches. Bleed

water and settlement results are given in Tables 26 and 27, respectively.


Compressive strength data are given in Table 28. Tests were conducted at 7, 14, 28, 91 and

182 days. At the age of 28 days, Mixtures SL-1 and SL-2 attained compressive strengths of

100 and 190 psi, respectively, whereas Mixture SL-3 achieved strength of 90 psi.

Compressive strengths at later ages (91 and 182 days) show further increases, due to

continuing pozzolanic action.

6.1.6.2 Prototype concrete mixture results


Prototype mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties for the air-entrained concrete are

given in Table 29. Four series of mixtures (R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4) were proportioned.

Mixture R-1 did not contain wood ash, but contained 52 lb/yd3

of Class C fly ash and 515

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lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture R-2 contained 37 lb/yd


3 of Class C fly ash,

and 476 lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture R-3 had 55 lb/yd


3 of Class C fly

ash, 454 lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture R-4 contained 84 lb/yd


3 of Class

C fly ash, and 409 lb/yd3 of cement. The mixtures had slump between 3 and 5 ½ inches. Air

content varied between 5.6 and 7.0 percent. Fresh concrete density varied between 142.2

and 145.1 lb/yd3.


Compressive strength results of the prototype concrete mixtures are tabulated in Table 30.

Compressive strength was determined at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. Mixture R-1 attained a

strength of 4115, 4595, 5050, and 5690 psi at the age of 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.

Compressive strengths of Mixture R-2 were 3485, 4000, 4255, and 4585 psi at the ages of 7,

14, 28, and 91 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 achieved compressive strengths of 4075,

5040, 5065 and 5555 psi at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively. Mixture R-4 achieved 3100,

3535, 4315, and 4585 psi of strength at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.

Splitting tensile strength

Splitting tensile strength test results of the prototype concrete mixtures are given in Table 31.

Splitting tensile strength was determined at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. Mixture R-1 attained

splitting tensile strengths of 450, 495, 570 and 565 psi at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.

Mixture R- 2 achieved 355, 440, 460, and 510 psi of splitting tensile strength at 7, 14, 28,

and 91 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 attained strength of 520, 510, 530 and 615 psi at 7,

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14, 28, and 91 days. Mixture R-4 achieved a slitting tensile strength of 315, 440, 465, and

520 psi at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.

Flexural Strength

Flexural strength test results of the prototype concrete mixtures are given in Table 32.

Flexural strength was determined at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-1

attained flexural strengths of 535, 560, 595, 600 and 520 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days,

respectively. Mixture R- 2 achieved flexural strengths of 530, 520, 650, 475 and 565 psi at

3, 28, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 attained flexural strengths of 510, 635,

660, 675 and 640 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-4 achieved

flexural strengths of 420, 495, 545, 535, and 560 psi at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days,

respectively.

Compressive Strength from Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure

Compressive strength for the concrete mixture proportions was also determined by using

broken portions of beams that were tested in flexure. The test results are given in Table 33.

Compressive strength was determined at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days. Mixture R-1 attained

compressive strengths of 1945, 2000, 3195, 3610 and 3580 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days,

respectively. Mixture R- 2 achieved compressive strengths of 1650, 2270, 1970, 2840 and

2805 psi at 3, 28, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 attained compressive

strengths of 2335, 2620, 3830, 4160 and 4355 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively.

Mixture R-4 achieved compressive strengths of 1305, 1780, 2195, 2965, and 2835 psi of

strength at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days, respectively.

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Resistance to Freezing and Thawing

Air-entrained concrete mixtures were tested for resistance to freezing and thawing cycling.

As part of this evaluation, pulse velocity, relative dynamic modulus, and length change was

also determined.

Pulse velocity of the concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 1. The pulse velocity of the concrete

mixtures was not significantly affected by freezing and thawing cycling.

Relative dynamic modulus of the concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 2. There is no

significant effect of freezing and thawing cycles (300 cycles) on the relative dynamic

modulus of any of the concrete mixtures. The relative dynamic modulus was 92.4%, for

Control Mixture (R-1), 92.4 % for Mixture R-2, 94.8% for Mixture R-3, and 95.3 % for

Mixture R-4.

Percent change in length of concrete mixtures subjected to freezing and thawing is shown in

Fig. 3. The length change of the air-entrained concrete mixtures did not vary significantly

from the readings at 30 cycles through 213 cycles of freezing and thawing.

Drying Shrinkage

Drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 4. Drying shrinkage of Control

Mixture R-1 (without wood ash) was approximately –0.02% at 7 days and –0.04% at 247

days of testing. For concrete Mixture R-2, the shrinkage ranged between approximately

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-0.04% at 7 days to -0.04% at 247 days. Shrinkage value for concrete Mixture R-3 was

approximately -0.02% at 7 days, and -0.04% at 247 days. Mixture R-4 had a change in

length between -0.0.02% at 7 days and -0.05% at 247 days.

6.2 Full-Scale Manufacturing/Production Results

6.2.1 Full-scale CLSM mixture results


Mixture proportions and rheological properties for the CLSM mixtures from full-scale

manufacturing are given in Tables 34 to 36. Three series of CLSM mixtures (S-1, S-2 and S-

3) were produced at the Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. Series S-1 consisted of

seven batches and there were five and seven batches for Series S-2 and S-3, respectively.

The volume of CLSM produced for each batch was approximately nine cubic yards.

For Series S-1, cement content varied between 137 and 139 lb/yd3. Flow for Series S-1

mixtures was between 3 ½ and 7 inches. The unit weight of the mixtures varied between

123.2 and 125.2 lb/ft3.

For Series S-2, cement content of the mixtures ranged from 160 to 165 lb/yd3. Flow of

Series S-2 mixtures was between 4.5 and 6.75 inches. The unit weight of the mixtures varied

between 137.2 and 139.2 lb/ft3.

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For Series S-3, cement content was varied between 101and 112 lb/yd3. Flow of Series S-3

mixtures was between 4.75 and 6.5 inches. The unit weight of the mixtures varied between

115.6 and 119.0 lb/ft3.

For Series S-1, S-2, and S-3 bleed water and settlement of CLSM mixtures are given in

Tables 37 and 38, respectively. Bleed water is given as the depth of water present at the top

of a 6x12-inch cylinder filled with CLSM. The measurements indicate the amount of bleed

water per foot of CLSM. Also, the bleed water gives an indication of the cohesiveness of the

CLSM mixture. Minimizing the amount of bleed water is desirable to minimize potential

leaching of elements. Bleed water measurements for the Series S-1 CLSM mixtures show

that bleed water measurement was up to a depth of 1/8-inch after one hour, but was 1/16 inch

after 22 hours. Bleed water measurements for the Series S-2 CLSM mixtures were 1/16 inch

after one hour and remained the same even after 22 hours. Bleed water measurements for

Series S-3 CLSM mixtures were 1/8 inch, after 1 hour as well as 22 hours.


The compressive strength for all three series (S-1, S-2, and S-3) mixtures is given in Tables

39 to 41, respectively. Compressive strength test results for S-1 mixtures at 3, 7, 28, 91, 182,

and 365 days, are given in Table 39. S-1 mixtures attained compressive strengths between

90 and 120 psi at 28 days, 205 psi at 91 days, 180 and 225 psi at 182 days, and 200 psi at 365

days.

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Compressive strength of S-2 mixtures at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 182 days is given in Table 40.

Series S-2 mixtures gained compressive strengths between 40 and 120 psi at 28 days, and

from 645 to 830 psi at 182 days. Compressive strength of the Series S-3 mixtures is shown

in Table 41. Compressive strength was between 70 and 110 psi at 28 days, 100 psi at 91

days, between 135 and 155 psi at 182 days, and 150 psi at 365 days.

Water Permeability

Test results of water permeability of Series S-2 and S-3 mixtures are given in Tables 42 and

43, respectively. Tests were conducted at 63, 90, and 227 days for Series S-2 and S-3. At

the age of 63 days, the permeability varied between 2.4 x 10-5

and 13.2 x 10-5

cm/sec for

series S-2 CLSM mixtures and between 2.6 x 10-5

and 3.7 x 10-5

cm/sec for series S-3 CLSM

mixtures at 65-day. Permeability decreased at 90 and 227 days for both series due to the

increase in strength and improved microstructure of the CLSM matrix. At 90 days,

permeability was between 1.1 x 10-5

and 4.1 x 10-5

cm/sec for Series S-2 CLSM mixtures,

and between 2.9 x 10-5

and 4.4 x 10-5

cm/sec for Series S-3 mixtures at 91 days. At 227

days, it was between 1.1 x 10-5

and 0.2 x 10-5

cm/sec for series S-2 CLSM mixtures, and 1.1

x 10-5

and 0.4 x 10-5

cm/sec for Series S-3 mixtures.

6.2.2 Full-scale concrete mixture results


Mixture proportions and rheological properties for the concrete mixtures from full-scale

manufacturing are given in Tables 44 to 47. Four series of mixtures (C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-

4) were proportioned. Mixture C-1 did not have wood ash. It contained Class C fly ash

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between 49 and 51 lb/yd3, and cement content was between 509 and 520 lb/yd

3. Mixture C-2

contained wood ash between 33 and 36 lb/yd3, Class C fly ash between 99 and 102 lb/yd

3,

and cement between 474 and 480 lb/yd3. Mixture C-3 had wood ash between 53 and 55

lb/yd3, Class C fly ash between 129 and 138 lb/yd

3, and cement between 439 and 460 lb/yd

3.

Mixture C-4 contained wood ash between 83 and 86 lb/yd3, Class C fly ash between 130 and

135 lb/yd3, and cement between 444 and 452 lb/yd

3.

The density of concrete Mixture C-1 was between 142.1 and 144.9 lb/ft3, between 143.0 and

144.2 lb/ft3

for Mixture C-2, between 137.4 and 144.8 lb/ft3 for Mixture C-3, and between

143.2 and 144.4 lb/ft3 for Mixture C-4.


The compressive strength data for the concrete mixtures (Series C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4)

from full-scale manufacturing are presented in Tables 48 to 51. The compressive strength of

concrete mixtures without wood ash (Series C-1) is shown in Table 48. Series C-1 mixtures

achieved a compressive strength of 3225 to 3340 psi at the age of 3 days, 3875 to 4185 psi at

7 days, 4620 to 5410 psi at 28 days, 5085 to 6075 psi at 91 days, 5975 to 6270 psi at 182

days, and 6260 to 6495 psi at 365 days.

Series C-2 mixtures (Table 49) achieved a compressive strength of 3375 to 3550 psi at the

age of 3 days, 4065 to 4545 psi at 7 days, 4425 to 4980 psi at 28 days, 5430 to 6015 psi at 91

days, 5750 to 6270 psi at 182 days, and 6105 to 6410 psi at 365 days.

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Series C-3 mixtures (Table 50) achieved compressive strengths of 2225 to 3680 psi at the

age of 3 days, 3025 to 4605 psi at 7 days, 3635 to 5355 psi at 28 days, 4440 to 6610 psi 91


Series C-4 mixtures (Table 51) achieved compressive strengths of 3075 to 3500 psi at the

age of 3 days, 3945 to 4835 psi at 7 days, 4320 to 5205 psi at 28 days, 5660 to 6195 psi at 91


Splitting Tensile Strength

The splitting tensile strength for the Series C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4 concrete mixtures is

presented in Table 52. Series C-1 mixtures (without wood ash) achieved tensile strengths of

365 psi at the age of 3 days, 440 psi at 7 days, 555 psi at 28 days, 600 psi at 91 days, 615 psi

at 182 days, and 625 psi at 365 days. The tensile strength of Series C-2 mixtures was 360 psi

at the age of 3 days, 425 psi at 7 days, 515 psi at 28 days, 540 psi at 91 days, 570 psi at 182

days, and 615 psi at 365 days. Series C-3 mixtures achieved tensile strengths of 425 psi at

the age of 3 days, 435 psi at 7 days, 550 psi at 28 days, 650 psi at 91 days, 700 psi, and 745

psi at 365 days. Series C-4 mixtures achieved tensile strengths of 410 psi at the age of 3

days, 450 psi at 7 days, 575 psi at 28 days, 590 psi at the 91 days, 605 psi at 182 days, and

620 psi at 365 days.

Flexural Strength

Flexural strength for Series C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4 full-scale concrete mixture is given in

Tables 53. Series C-1 mixtures (without wood ash) gained flexural strengths of 450 psi at

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the age of 7 days, 590 psi at 28 days, 600 psi at 91 days, and 635 psi at 365 days. Flexural

strengths of C-2 series mixtures were 560 psi at the age of 7days, 585 psi at 28 days, and

635psi at 91 days, and 620 psi at 365 days. C-3 series mixtures achieved flexural strengths

of 550 psi at the age of 7 days, 635 psi at 28 days, 730 psi at 91 days, and 775 psi at 365

days. Series C-4 mixtures gained flexural strengths of 460 psi at 7 days, 565 psi at 28 days,

630 psi at 91 days, 755 psi at 365 days.

Compressive Strength from Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure

The compressive strength of full-scale concrete mixtures was also determined by using

portions of beams broken in flexure. The test results are given in Tables 54. Series C-1

mixtures (without wood ash) achieved a compressive strength of 3105 psi at 28 days, 3435

psi at 91 days, and 3480 psi at 365 days. Series C-2 mixtures attained a compressive

strength of 3185 psi at the age of 7 days, 3960 psi at 28 days, 2890 psi at 91 days, and 4350

psi at 365 days. Series C-3 mixtures achieved compressive strengths of 2930 psi at the age

of 7 days, 3685 psi at 28 days, 3920 psi at 91 days, and 4200 psi at 365 days. Series C-4

mixtures obtained compressive strengths of 2415 psi at the age of 7 days, 3590 psi at 28

days, 4400 psi at 91 days, and 4925 psi at 365 days.

Resistance to Freezing and Thawing

Resistance to freezing and thawing of concrete mixtures manufactured for the full-scale

mixtures were evaluated by testing for changes in pulse velocity, relative dynamic modulus,

and change in length.

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The pulse velocity of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 5. There is no significant effect

from inclusion of wood ash on the pulse velocity of concrete mixtures. At 300 cycles, the

pulse velocity of concrete Mixtures C-1 was 17800 ft/sec, 17970 ft/see for Mixture C-2,

18225 ft/sec for Mixture C-3, and 17830 ft/sec for Mixture C-4.

The relative dynamic modulus of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 6. There is no

significant effect of freezing and thawing cycles (300 cycles) on the relative dynamic

modulus of the concrete mixtures. The inclusion of wood ash in concrete mixtures did not

make a significant difference in relative dynamic modulus. For Control Mixture (C-1)

without wood ash, the relative dynamic modulus was 97.7%, 95.7 % for Mixture C-2, 97.8%

for Mixture C-3, and 95.7 % for Mixture C-4.

Percent change in length of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 7. For Control Mixture (C-1),

percent change in length was 0% at 32 cycles, and -0.00556% at 360 cycles. The percent

change in length for Mixture C-2 was –0.003273% at 32 cycles and 0.01113% at 300 cycles,

0.002942% at 32 cycles and 0.00903% at 300 cycles for Mixture C-3, -0.000417% at 32

cycles and 0.01156% at 213 cycles for Mixture C-4.

Drying Shrinkage

Drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 8. Drying shrinkage of the Control

Mixture C-1 (without wood ash) was - 0.009% at 7 days, and - 0.051% at 232 days. For

concrete Mixture C-2, the shrinkage ranged from 0.115% at 7 days to -0.027% at 232 days.

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Shrinkage values for concrete Mixture C-3 were 0.014% at 7 days, and -0.013% at 232 days.

Mixture C-4 had shrinkage between -0.005% at 7 days and -0.044% at 232 days.

6.3 Technology Transfer and Field Demonstration

A technology transfer seminar was conducted in Rothschild, WI on September 27, 2001.

The title of the seminar was “Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood

Ash in Concrete and Flowable Slurry.” A total of 26 people attended the seminar. An actual

construction demonstration of structural concrete slab and flowable slurry was carried out.

Concrete and slurry containing wood ash was manufactured at the facilities of Midway

Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. The seminar was organized into two parts. The first part

of the seminar consisted of a series of lectures presented on the use of wood ash in CLSM

and concrete, applications of CLSM in constructions, and environmental considerations

when using wood ash. A copy of the seminar announcement is given in Appendix 1. The

following speakers participated in this technology transfer seminar:

Prof. Tarun R. Naik, Director, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, presented

“Physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of wood ash: use of wood ash in ready-

mixed concrete; Mixture proportions for non-air entrained and air entrained concrete, and

flowable slurry with wood ash; and Test results for concrete and flowable slurry with wood

ash.”

Bruce W. Ramme, Principal Engineer, We Energies, presented “Field Applications:

Flowable slurry containing industrial by-products in backfilling of excavations, trenches and

-49-

underground voids; Effects of slurry mixture proportions on setting characteristics and

placement, thermal, and electrical resistivity properties, field performance, economy, and

marketing”.

Michael L. Miller, Waste Management Specialist, West Central Region, WI-DNR, presented

“Regulatory perspective: use of wood ash in concrete and flowable slurry relative to NR 538

requirements”.

For the construction demonstration and full-scale manufacturing/production, concrete

Mixture C-4 (Table 47) and slurry Mixture S-3 (Table 36) was used, Figs. 9 to 12.

Although not directly supported by the funds of this project, additional presentations were

made in Wisconsin and elsewhere on the use of wood ash and the results of this project

furthering the technology transfer efforts. Presentations that included the results of this

project on the use of wood ash as a construction material were made at the following

conferences or meetings: High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete in Structures and Pavements

Seminar, ACI Maharastra Chapter, Mumbai, India, July, 2001; Residual Wood Ash

Conference – Residual-to-Revenue, Richmond, BC, Canada, November 2001; Weyerhaeuser

Co., Seattle, WA, November 2001; UWM-CBU Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash and other

Coal-Combustion Products in Concrete and Construction Materials, March 2002; meeting at

Stora Enso North America, Wisconsin Rapids, WI, March 2002; NCASI Central Lake States

Regional Meeting, Oshkosh, WI, May 2002; ACI Fall 2002 Convention, Phoenix, AZ,

October 2002; CANMET/ACI Lyon, France, and Barcelona, November 2002; Weyerhaeuser

-50-

Company Workshop on Alternative Management Methods for Weyerhaeuser Residuals,

Albany, OR, October 2003; ACI 2004 Spring Convention, Washington, D.C., March 2004,

and at the UWM-CBU Seminar on Recent Advances in Cementitious Materials, Milwaukee,

WI, March 19 – 20, 2004.

A presentation was also made by Tarun R. Naik on January 28, 2004 as a part of a meeting

on the Wisconsin Department of Transportation’s (Wis-DOT) I-39 Highway 51 Corridor

Project near Rothschild, WI. This meeting was conducted to present ideas on the potential

use of wood ash in the proposed WI-DOT project. Meeting participants included employees

of the WI-DNR, WI-DOT, and Weyerhaeuser Co. The results of this wood ash

implementation project were also distributed at the meeting.

Additional technical papers have been presented, published, or submitted for publication

based on the activities of this project.

A paper titled “Greener Concrete Using Recycled Materials” was published by the

ACI Concrete International, July 2002.

A paper titled “Durability of Concrete Incorporating Wood Fly Ash” was presented

and published at the Sixth CANMET/ACI International Conference on Durability of

Concrete, Thessaloniki, Greece, June 2003.

Another paper titled “Properties of Controlled Low-Strength Material made with

Wood Fly Ash” was presented and published at the ASTM Symposium on

Innovations in Controlled Low-Strength Material (Flowable Slurry), Denver, CO,

June 2003 (ASTM STP 1459, scheduled for publication in Fall 2004).

-51-

A paper has been published in the ACI Concrete International magazine titled “A

New Source of Pozzolanic Material,” December 2003.

A paper has also been preliminarily accepted for publication by the ASCE

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Division titled “Permeability of

Flowable Slurry Materials Containing Wood Ash.”

A paper has been accepted for publication by ACI Committee 555 for a ACI Special

Publication (SP) titled “Properties of Flowable Slurry Containing Wood Ash.”

As evidenced by the numerous presentations and publications listed above, the effort to

disseminate the information and experience obtained during this project will continue

beyond the ending date for this funded project.

6.4 Long-Term Evaluation and Condition Assessment

The structural concrete slab placed as a part of the full-scale manufacturing and technology

transfer seminar was evaluated after approximately two years. The overall condition of the

pavement (Fig. 13 to 14) was excellent. No cracking due to shrinkage or freezing and

thawing were present. There were some cracks observed in the pavement, as shown in Fig.

14. However, upon closer examination, the cracking that occurred was concluded to be due

to over-loading. This conclusion was also confirmed by the Weyerhaeuser engineer, who

indicated that there were some unanticipated material handling operations that frequently

occurred in the newly paved area of the log yard. For example, equipment such as a front-

end loader frequently cleared debris accumulated in the shovel by impacting the shovel in

pavement. This resulting impact load was not part of the original design loads when

determining the pavement thickness and reinforcing. Overall, Weyerhaeuser was extremely

-52-

pleased with the performance of the pavement, and intended to use wood ash in future

projects.

-53-

7.0. COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF USING WOOD ASH IN FLOWABLE

SLURRY (CLSM) AND CONCRETE

Wisconsin industries (pulp and paper mills, saw mills, wood products industries such as

doors and windows, and other forest products industries) generate approximately one million

dry tons (or approx. 1.8 million cubic yards) of wood ash per year [1]. NCASI has estimated

that of the total wood ash produced in the U.S., only about 30% is being utilized [2].

Disposal of wood ash in landfills costs Wisconsin industry significant direct cost plus

unknown future liabilities due to possible environmental impact related to such materials in

landfills. The objective of this project was to establish initial manufacturing technology for

the use of wood ash generated by the forest products industry in flowable slurry (Controlled

Low Strength Materials, CLSM) and concrete.

For cost/benefit analysis of using wood ash in CLSM and concrete, an economic analysis

was conducted. Unit costs were assigned for the mixture components in order to establish a

cost per cubic yard for CLSM and concrete mixtures. The cost assumed for each component

was: cement: $ 75/ton; Class C fly ash: $45/ton; aggregates: $7/ton; mid-range water

reducing admixture (MRWRA) or air-entraining admixture (AEA): $7/gallon ($0.05476/oz);

and, disposal cost of wood ash at $35/ton (cost to transport wood ash to the ready-mixed

concrete manufacturer is accounted for in this cost since the cost to transport wood ash to a

disposal site or a ready-mixed concrete manufacturer would be similar). The cost per cubic

yard of the concrete and CLSM were then compared with Control Mixture without wood ash

to determine the net/overall benefit. NR 538 requirements specify certain storage conditions

for materials prior to its use in manufacture in a product. However, the requirements

specified in NR 538.16 do not apply to the storage of Category 2 or 3 materials when stored

-54-

for less than a two-year period. In most cases, a ready-mixed concrete facility has some

excess storage capacity available for wood ash. Similar to the use of wood ash for this

project, larger-scale projects can take delivery of the materials just prior to its use, on an as-

needed basis; therefore, saving the cost of developing a storage area specifically for wood

ash. The cost associated with storage of wood ash on site has not been accounted for in the

overall cost of the concrete.

7.1 Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Containing Wood Ash

For cost/benefit analysis of CLSM containing wood ash, average mixture proportions from

the full-scale manufacturing were used. In full-scale manufacturing, there were three

mixtures containing wood ash. A CLSM mixture without wood ash was not produced.

Therefore, a Control Mixture proportion (without wood ash) was chosen per ACI 229R to

compare the cost/benefit analysis of CLSM mixture with wood ash. Mixture proportions

details are given in Table 55.

Based on the unit cost of CLSM components and disposal cost of wood ash, the cost/benefit

per cubic yard of CLSM containing wood ash is given in Table 56.

Mixtures S-1 (81% wood ash), S-2 (12.5% wood ash), and S-3 (89% wood ash) contained

576, 100, and 843 pounds, respectively, of wood ash per cubic yards of CLSM mixtures.

Wisconsin produces approximately 750,000 tons of usable wood ash, and assuming if 10%

of it is used in CLSM, then 75,000 tons of wood ash could be used in making CLSM.

Therefore, by using Mixtures S-1 (81% wood ash), S-2 (12.5% wood ash), and S-3 (89%

-55-

wood ash) over 260,000 cubic yards, 1,500,000 cubic yards, and 118,000 cubic yards of

CLSM, respectively, could be produced, from 75,000 tons of wood ash.

Based on the calculation presented in Table 56, the overall savings by using wood ash in

CLSM is shown in Table 57. It is evident from Table 57 that between 645,000 to 5,833,340

dollars could be saved each year in Wisconsin by using between 12.5 and 89% of wood ash

in the CLSM materials.

7.2 Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Containing Wood Ash

For cost/benefit analysis of concrete containing wood ash, average mixture proportions from

the full-scale manufacturing were used. In full-scale manufacturing, there was one Control

Mixture (without wood ash) and three concrete mixtures with wood ash. Mixture

proportions details are given in Table 58. Based on the unit cost of concrete components and

disposal cost of wood ash, the cost/benefit per cubic yard of concrete containing wood ash is

shown in Table 59.

Approximately 5,000,000 cubic yards of concrete is produced in Wisconsin each year and

assuming, if only 5% of 5,000,000 cubic yards concrete would be produced with wood ash,

then the quantity of concrete produced with wood ash would be 250,000 cubic yards. Based

on the calculation presented in Table 59, the overall savings by using wood ash in concrete is

shown in Table 60. It is evident from Table 60 that 120,000 to 505,000 dollars could be

saved each year in Wisconsin by using only between 5 and 12% wood ash content of the

total cementitious materials in concrete.

-56-

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

The following general conclusions can be drawn based on the work performed for this

project:

(1) The wood ash used for this implementation project met NR 538 Category 4 requirements.

NR 538 specifies the following beneficial use applications for a Category 4 material:

raw material for manufacturing a product

waste stabilization/solidification

supplementary fuel source/energy recovery

land fill daily cover/internal structures

confined geotechnical fill

-commercial, industrial or institutional building subbase

-paved lot base, subbase & subgrade fill

-paved roadway base, subbase & subgrade fill

- utility trench backfill

-bridge abutment backfill

-tank, vault or tunnel abandonment

-slabjacking material

encapsulated transportation facility enbankment

However, only one parameter limited the beneficial use options for the wood ash to NR

538 Category 4 applications. The detection limit of thallium slightly exceeded the limit

specified for Category 2 & 3. The concentration of elemental thallium present in the

sample would lead to the conclusion that if a more detailed analysis were performed for

the leachate concentration of thallium, the material most likely would meet Category 2

limits. This would open additional markets for the wood ash source used for this

project.

-57-

(2) CLSM can be manufactured using wood ash as the primary component. CLSM from

each series produced compressive strengths between 40 and 120 psi at 28 days and

increased in strength at 182 days to between 150 and 830 psi. CLSM containing a

combination of Class C fly ash and wood ash developed the highest strength at later

ages.

(3) Inclusion of wood ash in CLSM may also help in reducing the permeability of CLSM at

later ages. This is possibly due to the enhancement of compressive strength at later ages,

which may be due to the pozzolanic reactions of the wood ash.

(4) The addition of wood ash did not affect the compressive strength of concrete. The

compressive strength of mixtures made with wood ash was very much comparable to

the mixture containing no wood ash. In fact, at later ages (91, 182, and 365 days) wood

ash seemed to have contributed to strength gain due to pozzolanic reaction. All

concrete mixtures from full-scale manufacturing achieved approximate strengths of

5000 psi at 28 days and over 6,000 psi at 365 days. Therefore, concrete made with

wood ash can be used for many structural applications. Splitting tensile strength and

flexural strength results also showed a similar pattern of increased strength with age.

(5) Inclusion of wood ash did not affect the freezing and thawing resistance of concrete

mixtures. All mixtures had excellent resistance to freezing and thawing.

(6) Based on results available, it can be concluded that structural concrete can be produced

with the addition of wood ash..

(7) A cost/benefit analysis of using wood ash in concrete and CLSM was carried out.

Calculations revealed that each year in Wisconsin, approximately 120,000 to 500,000

US dollars could be saved by using only 5 to 12% wood ash as a part of the total

-58-

cementitious materials in concrete, and approximately 650,000 to 5.8 million US dollars

by using wood ash content between approximately 12 and 90 % as a part of flowable

CLSM materials.

-59-

9.0 LIST OF REFERENCES

(1) National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (NCASI), “Alternative

Management of Pulp and Paper Industry Solid Wastes,” Technical Bulletin No. 655,

NCASI, New York, NY, November 1993, 44 pages.

(2) Etiegni, L., “Wood Ash Recycling and Land Disposal,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of

Forest Products, University of Idaho at Moscow, Idaho, USA, June 1990, 174 pages.

(3) Etiegni, L., and Campbell, A. G., “Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Wood

Ash," Bioresource Technology, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., England, UK, Vol.

37, No. 2, 1991, pp.173-178.

(4) Campbell, A. G., “Recycling and Disposing of Wood Ash,” TAPPI Journal, TAPPI

Press, Norcross, GA, Vol. 73, No. 9, September 1990, pp.141-143.

(5) Mishra, M. K., Ragland, K. W., and Baker, A. J., “Wood Ash Composition as a

Function of Furnace Temperature,” Biomass and Bioenergy, Pergamon Press Ltd.,

UK, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1993, pp. 103-116.

(6) Steenari, B. M., and Lindqvist, O., “Co-combustion of Wood with Coal, Oil, or Peat-

Fly Ash Characteristics,” Department of Environmental Inorganic Chemistry,

Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, Report No. ISSN 0366-

8746 OCLC 2399559, Vol. No. 1372, 1998, pp. 1-10.

(7) Steenari, B. M., “Chemical Properties of BC Ashes,” Report No. ISBN 91-7197-618-

3, Department of Environmental Inorganic Chemistry, Chalmers University of

Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, April 1998, 72 pages.

-60-

(8) Naik, T. R., “Tests of Wood Ash as a Potential Source for Construction Materials,”

Report No. CBU-1999-09, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Department of

Civil Engineering and Mechanics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee,

August 1999, 61 pages.

(9) Meyers, N. L., and Kopecky, M. J., “Industrial Wood Ash as a Soil Amendment for

Crop Production,” TAPPI Journal, TAPPI Press, Norcross, GA, 1998, pp. 123-130.

(10) Nguyen, P., and Pascal, K. D., “Application of Wood Ash on Forestlands:

Ecosystem Responses and Limitations,” Proceeding of the 1997 Conference on

Eastern Hardwoods, Resources, Technologies, and Markets, Forest Product Society,

Madison, WI, April 21-23, 1997, pp. 203.

(11) Bramryd, T. and Frashman, B., “Silvicultural Use of Wood Ashes – Effects on the

Nutrient and Heavy Metal Balance in a Pine (Pinus Sylvestris, L.) Forest Soil,”

Water, Air and Soil Pollution Proceeding of the 1995 5th

International Conference

on Acidic Deposition: Science and Policy, Acid Reign ’95, Part 2, Kluwer

Academic Publishers, Dordrecht Netherland, Vol. 85, No. 2, June 26-30, 1995, pp.

1039-1044.

(12) Naik, T. R., “Flowable Slurry incorporating Wood Fly Ash from the Weyerhaeuser

Company,” Report No. CBU-2000-01, Rep-367, UWM Center for By-Products

Utilization, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, January 2000, 37 pages.

(13) Mukherji, S. K., Dan, T. K., and Machhoya, B. B., “Characterization and Utilization

of Wood Ash in the Ceramic Industry,” International Ceramic Review, Verlag

Schmid GmbH, Freiburg, Germany, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1995, pp. 31-33.

-61-

(14) Naylor, L. M., and Schmidt, E. J., “Agricultural Use of Wood Ash a Fertilizer and

Liming Material,” TAPP Journal, TAPPI Press, Norcross, GA, October 1986, pp.

114-119.

(15) Proceedings of the Workshop and Field Demonstration for uses of Flowable Slurry

Containing Coal Ash, Used Foundry Sand and other Recyclable Products,

University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Center for By-Products Utilization,

Portwashington, WI, and August 1999.

(16) Proceedings of the Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash and Other Coal Combustion

Products in Concrete and Construction Materials, University of Wisconsin-

Milwaukee, Center for By-Products Utilization, Madison, WI, and February 2000.

(17) Naik, T. R and Kraus, R N., “Use of Wood Ash for Structural Concrete and

Flowable CLSM,” Report No. CBU-2000-31, UWM center for By-products

Utilization, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Final Report Submitted to The

University of Wisconsin System, Solid Waste Management and Research Program,

October 2000, 121 pages.

-62-

Table 1 - Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures

Unit

Weight

(lb/ft3)

Bulk

Specific

Gravity

SSD

Bulk

Specific

Gravity

Apparent

Specific

Gravity

SSD

Absorption

(%)

Percent

Void

Fineness

Modulus

Material

Finer

than

#200 Sieve

(75 μm)

(%)

Clay

Lumps

and

Friable

Particles

(%)

Organic

Impurity

for Fine

Aggregate

ASTM

Test

Designation

C 29

C 127/C 128

C 29

C 136

C 117

C 142

C 40

Sand (Fine

Aggregate)

110.4

2.64

2.67

2.72

1.3

38.0

2.7

0.6

0.0

Passes

Stone

(Coarse

Aggregate)

97.6

2.66

2.67

2.70

0.7

41.2

6.7

0.0

0.0

Passes

-63-

Table 2 - Gradation of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures

Fine Aggregate*

Coarse Aggregate*

Sieve Size

%

Passing

ASTM C 33

% Passing

Sieve Size

% Passing

ASTM C 33

% Passing

3/8" (9.5-mm)

--

100

1" (25.4-mm)

99.2

100

#4 (4.75-mm)

100

95 to 100

3/4" (19-mm)

90.9

90 to 100

#8 (2.36 mm)

88.7

80 to 100

1/2" (12.7-mm)

55.6

-

#16 (1.18 mm)

73.5

50 to 85

3/8" (9.5-mm)

30.8

20 to 55

#30 (600 μm)

49.9

25 to 60

#4 (4.75-mm)

2.3

0 to 10

#50 (300 μm)

18.9

10 to 30

#8 (2.36-mm)

1.0

0 to 5

#100 (150 μm)

3.4

2 to 10

#16 (1.18-mm)

-

-

* Values reported for % passing are an average of three tests.

-64-

Table 3 - Physical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures

ASTM TEST

DESIGNATION

TEST

PARAMETER

RESULT

ASTM C 150

Requirements

Minimum

Maximum

C 109

Compressive Strength, psi

3-day

7-day

28-day

2565 psi

3860 psi

5625 psi

1800 psi

2800 psi

4000 psi

--

--

C 151

Autoclave Expansion, %

0.055

--

0.8

C 430

Fineness

(% Retained on

No. 325 Sieve)

4.0

--

--

C 204

Fineness

(Air Permeability, Specific

Surface, m2/kg)

340

280

--

C 191

Vicat Time of Initial Set

(min)

275

Initial

365 Final

45

375

C 185

Air Content of Mortar, %

11.0

--

12.0

C 188

Specific Gravity

3.15

--

--

-65-

Table 4 – Chemical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures

OXIDES, SO3, AND LOSS ON IGNITION ANALYSIS, (%)

Analysis Parameter

Cement

ASTM C 150

Requirements

(Maximum)

Silicon Dioxide, SiO2

21.9

--

Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3

4.9

--

Iron Oxide, Fe2O3

3.0

--

Calcium Oxide, CaO

64.1

--

Magnesium Oxide, MgO

2.4

6.0

Titanium Oxide, TiO2

0

--

Potassium Oxide, K2O

0.5

--

Sodium Oxide, Na2O

0.1

--

Tricalcium Aluminate, C3A

(as calculated from oxides)

7.9

--

Sulfite, SO3

1.4

3.5

Loss on Ignition, LOI

1.7

3.0

Moisture

0.9

--

Available Alkali, Na2O,

(ASTM C-311)

0.88

0.60*

* Required only where potentially reactive aggregate is used.

-66-

Table 5 - Physical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures

TEST

PARAMETER

Wood

Ash ASTM C 618 Specification

CLASS C

CLASS F

CLASS N

Retained on No.325

sieve, (%)

90

34 max

34 max

34 max

Strength Activity

Index with Cement

(% of Control)

3-day

7-day

28-day

102.0*

83.3*

78.7*

75 min

75 min

75 min

75 min

75 min

75 min Water Requirement

(% of Control)

115*

105 max

105 max

115

Autoclave Expansion,

(%)

-0.63*

±0.8

±0.8

0.8 max

Unit Weight (lb/ft

3)

85.9

-

-

-

Specific Gravity

2.60

-

-

-

Variation from Mean,

(%)

Fineness

Specific Gravity

0.6*

1.9

5 max

5 max

5 max

5 max

5 max

5 max

*Material passing, No. 100 (150 um) sieve was used for these tests.

-67-

Table 6 – Chemical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures

Analysis Parameter Wood Ash

ASTM C 618 Requirement Class C

Class F

Class N

Silicon Dioxide, SiO2

61.4

--

--

--

Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3

6.2

--

--

--

Iron Oxide, Fe2O3

2.6

--

--

--

SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3

70.2

50.0 min

70 min

70 min.

Calcium Oxide, CaO

12.3

--

--

--

Magnesium Oxide, MgO

2.9

--

--

--

Titanium Oxide, TiO2

0.57

--

--

--

Potassium Oxide, K2O

3.3

--

--

--

Sodium Oxide, Na2O

1.4

--

--

--

Sulfite, SO3

0.8

5.0 max

5.0 max

4.0 max.

Loss on Ignition, LOI (1000

0 C)*

8.4

6.0 max

6.0 max

10.0 max.

Moisture

8.9-12.1

3.0 max

3.0 max

3.0 max.

Available Alkali, Na2O,

(ASTM C-311)

0.8 1.5 max

1.5 max

1.5 max.

* Per ASTM C618: The use of Class F pozzolan containing up to 12% Loss on Ignition

may be approved by the user if either acceptable performance records or laboratory test

results are made available

-68-

Table 7 - Physical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures

TEST

PARAMETER

Class C

Fly Ash

ASTM C 618

SPECIFICATIONS

CLASS C

CLASS F

Retained on No.325 sieve, (%)

10

34 max

34 max

Strength Activity Index with Cement

(% of Control)

3-day

7-day

28-day

109.2

110.8

104.7

75 min

75 min

75 min

75 min Water Requirement (% of Control)

95

105 max

105 max

Autoclave Expansion, (%)

0.08

±0.8

±0.8

Unit Weight (lb/ft

3)

67.6

-

-

Specific Gravity

2.58

-

-

Variation from Mean, (%)

Fineness

Specific Gravity

0.3

1.9

5 max

5 max

5 max

5 max

-69-

Table 8 – Chemical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures

Analysis Parameter

Class C

Fly Ash

ASTM C-618 Requirements

Class C Class F Class N

Silicon Dioxide,

SiO2

38.5

--

--

--

Aluminum Oxide,

Al2O3

20.4

--

--

--

Iron Oxide, Fe2O3

6.1

--

--

--

SiO2 + Al2O3 +

Fe2O3

65.1

50.0 Min

70 Min

70 Min

Calcium Oxide,

CaO

23.3

--

--

-- Magnesium Oxide,

MgO

4.8

--

--

--

Titanium Oxide,

TiO2

1.4

--

--

--

Potassium Oxide,

K2O

0.66

--

--

--

Sodium Oxide,

Na2O

1.8

--

--

--

Sulfite, SO3

1.5

5.0 Max

5.0 Max

4.0 Max

Loss on Ignition,

LOI

1.2

6.0 Max

6.0 Max 10.0 Max

Moisture

0.2

3.0 Max

3.0 Max

3.0 Max

Available Alkali,

Na2O,

(ASTM C-311)

1.6

1.5 Max

1.5 Max

1.5 Max

-70-

Table 9 - Elemental Analysis of Cement and Wood Ash

for Laboratory Mixtures

Elemental (Bulk Chemical Analysis)

Element ASTM Type I

Cement

Wood

Ash

Aluminum (Al)

18104.0

27478.3

Antimony (Sb)

12.7

3.6

Arsenic (As)

95.2

148.3

Barium (Ba)

<94.9

291.5

Bromine (Br)

<0.4

2.7

Cadmium (Cd)

<1322.0

<1375.9

Calcium (Ca)

<116255.4

17043.1

Cerium (Ce)

16.1

43.3

Cesium (Cs)

<0.3

1.0

Chlorine (Cl)

<146.1

416.7

Chromium (Cr)

20.5

31.4

Cobalt (Co)

4.9

3.8

Copper (Cu)

<265.1

<241.6 Dysprosium (Dy)

<4.3

<7.5

Europium (Eu)

0.3

0.3

Gallium (Ga)

<357.4

<660.8

Gold (Au)

<0.0

<0.0

Hafnium (Hf)

1.0

2.7

Holmium (Ho)

<3.7

<6.5

-71-

Table 9 (Cont'd) - Elemental Analysis of Cement and

Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures


Element ASTM Type I

Cement

Wood

Ash

Indium (In)

<0.4

<0.6

Iodine (I)

<10.9

<16.1

Iridium (Ir)

<0.0

<0.0

Iron (Fe)

19601.2

17519.9

Lanthanum (La)

14.8

29.4

Lutetium (Lu)

0.5

0.7

Magnesium (Mg)

4581.0

6216.0

Manganese (Mn)

4329.5

17605.6

Mercury (Hg)

1.1

0.4

Molybdenum (Mo)

<65.0

<65.3

Neodymium (Nd)

17.2

26.1

Nickel (Ni)

<1265.1

<1206.2

Palladium (Pd)

<616.0

<905.5

Potassium (K)

6148.2

44220

Praseodymium (Pr)

<13.6

<32.5

Rubidium (Rb)

<21.7

<100.4

Rhenium (Re)

<61.5

100.1

Ruthenium (Ru)

6.3

22.9

Samarium (Sm)

4.0

5.1

-72-

Table 9 (Cont'd) - Elemental Analysis of Cement and

Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures


Element ASTM Type I

Cement

Wood

Ash

Scandium (Sc)

3.3

2.6

Selenium (Se)

<72.7

<75.7

Silver (Ag)

<7.2

<7.2

Sodium (Na)

637.2

6036.1

Strontium (Sr)

64.9

<285.9

Tantalum (Ta)

0.5

1.1

Tellurium (Te)

0.2

<0.3

Terbidium (Tb)

<0.2

<0.3

Thorium (Th)

2.3

3.7

Thulium (Tm)

<0.4

8.3

Tin (Sn)

<198.4

<194.6

Titanium (Ti)

1241.0

2971.2

Tungsten (W)

<2.0

11.6

Uranium (U)

9.0

6.2

Vanadium (V)

59.7

32.1

Ytterbium (Yb)

2.7

3.8

Zinc (Zn)

<10.2

<18.2

Zirconium (Zr)

60.7

<103

-73-

Table 10 - Mineralogy of Cement and Class C Fly Ash

for Laboratory Mixtures

Analysis Parameter

Cement

Fly Ash

Amorphous

8.8

70.8

Anhydrite, CaSO4

--

1.0

Dicalcium Silicate

(C2S) 2CaOSiO2

12.8

2.1

Lime, CaO

--

1.6

Periclase, MgO

--

2.9

Quartz, SiO2

--

10.0

Tricalcium Aluminate

(C3A) Ca3Al2O6

0.8

11.0

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite

(C4AF) 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3

13.2

--

Tricalcium Silicate

(C3S) 3CaOSiO2

63.9

--

Table 11 - Mineralogy of Wood Ash for

Laboratory Mixtures

Analysis Parameter

W-3

Amorphous

46.9

Calcite (CaCO3)

3.6

Quartz (SiO2) 34.5 Microcline (KAlSi3O8)

7.9

Mullite (Al2O3

•SiO2)

--

Albite (NaAlSi3O8)

5.7

Portlandite (Ca(OH)2

1.4

Syngenite (K2Ca(SO4)2

•H2O)

--

-74-

Table 12 - Beneficial Use Methods for By-Products Based Upon Characterization Category, per NR 538

Industrial By-Product Category

5 4 3 2 1

(1) Raw Material for Manufacturing a Product

X X X X X

(2) Waste Stabilization / Solidification

X X X X X

(3) Supplemental Fuel Source / Energy Recovery

X X X X X

(4) Landfill Daily Cover / Internal Structures

X X X X X

(5) Confined Geotechnical Fill

(a) commercial, industrial or institutional building subbase

(b) paved lot base, subbase & subgrade fill

(c) paved roadway base, subbase & subgrade fill

(d) utility trench backfill

(e) bridge abutment backfill

(f) tank, vault or tunnel abandonment

(g) slabjacking material

X X X X

(6) Encapsulated Transportation Facility Embankment

X X X X

(7) Capped Transportation Facility Embankment

X X X

(8) Unconfined Geotechnical Fill

X X X

(9) Unbonded Surface Course

X X

(10) Bonded Surface Course

X X

(11) Decorative Stone

X X

(12) Cold Weather Road Abrasive

X X

Other General beneficial use in accordance with sect.

NR 538.12 (3)

X

-75-

Table 13 - Leachate Analysis Data for Wood Ash

Parameter

NR 538 Leachate

Analysis

(mg/l)

Wood Ash

Aluminum (Al)

1.9

Antimony (Sb)

<0.0025

Arsenic (As)

<0.0081

Barium (Ba)

0.46

Beryllium (Be)

<0.00061

Cadmium (Cd)

<0.00053

Chromium, Tot.

0.019

Copper (Cu)

<0.00090

Total Cyanide

<0.0015

Fluoride (F)

0.23

Iron (Fe)

<0.019

Lead (Pb)

0.0018

Manganese (Mn)

<0.00032

Mercury (Hg)

<0.00030

Molybdenum (Mo)

0.023

Nickel (Ni)

<0.0012

Nitrite & Nitrate (NO2+NO3-N)

<0.047

Phenol

0.012

Selenium (Se)

<0.0048

Silver (Ag)

<0.0011

Sulfate

22

Thallium (Tl)

<0.0043

Zinc (Zn)

<0.0025

-76-

Table 14 - Leachate Standards per DNR NR 538

Parameter

NR 538

Leachate Standard

Material Category

1

2 & 3

4 Aluminum (Al)

1.5

15

--

Antimony (Sb)

0.0012

0.012

0.03*

Arsenic (As)

0.005

0.05

0.25*

Barium (Ba)

0.4

4

10*

Beryllium (Be)

0.0004

0.004

0.02*

Cadmium (Cd)

0.0005

0.005

0.025

Chloride (Cl)

125

1250*

2500*

Chromium, Tot. (Cr)

0.01

0.1

0.5

Copper (Cu)

0.13

1.30*

6.5*

Total Cyanide

0.04*

0.40*

1*

Fluoride (F)

0.8*

8.0*

20*

Iron (Fe)

0.15

1.5*

3*

Lead (Pb)

0.0015

0.015

0.075*

Manganese (Mn)

0.025

0.25

0.5*

Mercury (Hg)

0.0002

0.002

0.01*

Molybdenum (Mo)

0.05

--

--

Nickel (Ni)

0.02

0.20*

0.5*

Nitrite & Nitrate

(NO2+NO3-N)

2

20*

50*

Phenol

1.2*

12*

30*

Selenium (Se)

0.01

0.1

0.25

Silver (Ag)

0.01

0.1

0.25

Sulfate

125

1250

2500

Thallium (Tl)

0.0004

0.004

0.01*

Zinc (Zn)

2.5

25*

50*

--: Not Available

-77-

Table 15 - NR 538 Categories for Wood Ash per Leachate Analysis

Parameter

NR 538

Categories

Leachate Analysis

Wood Ash

Aluminum (Al)

2&3

Antimony (Sb) 2&3 Arsenic (As) 2&3 Barium (Ba)

2&3

Beryllium (Be)

2&3

Cadmium (Cd)

2&3

Chromium, Tot.

2&3

Copper (Cu)

1

Total Cyanide

1

Fluoride (F)

1

Iron (Fe)

1

Lead (Pb)

2&3

Manganese (Mn)

1

Mercury (Hg)

2&3

Molybdenum (Mo)

1

Nickel (Ni)

1

Nitrite & Nitrate (NO2+NO3-N)

1

Phenol

1

Selenium (Se)

1

Silver (Ag)

1

Sulfate

1

Thallium (Tl)

4*

Zinc (Zn)

1

*Dectection Limit of the Analysis

exceeded Category 2&3

-78-

Table 16 - NR 538 Elemental Analysis for Wood Ash

Parameter Elemental Analysis

Wood Ash Units Solids, total

92.3

%

Arsenic, ICP

6.0

mg/kg

Barium, (Ba)

490

mg/kg

Beryllium, ICP

0.37

mg/kg

Boron, (B)

49

mg/kg

Cadmium, (Cd)

1.1

mg/kg

Chromium, Hex. (Cr) <2.2

mg/kg

Lead. (Pb) 24

mg/kg

Mercury, (Hg) 0.0089

mg/kg

Molybdenum, (Mo) 1.8

mg/kg

Nickel (Ni) 9.6

mg/kg

Phenol 0.28

mg/kg

Selenium (Se) 1.1

mg/kg

Silver (Ag) 0.054

mg/kg

Strontium (Sr) 220

mg/kg

Thallium (Tl) 0.059

mg/kg

Vanadium (V) 17

mg/kg

Zinc (Zn) 130

mg/kg Acenaphthene

<4.8

ug/kg

Acenaphthylene

<6.4

ug/kg

Anthracene

<6.8

ug/kg

Benzo (a) anthracene

<5.4

ug/kg

Benzo (b) fluoranthene

Oranthene

<3.6

ug/kg

Benzo (k) fluoranthene

<6.7

ug/kg

Benzo (a) pyrene

<6.4

ug/kg

Benzo (ghi) perylene

<9.4

ug/kg

Chrysene

<4.2

ug/kg

Dibenzo (a,h) anthracene

<5.2

ug/kg

Fluoranthene

<4.7

ug/kg

Fluorene

<3.4

ug/kg

Indeno (1,2,3- cd) pyrene

<5.5

ug/kg

1-Methylnaphthalene

<2.7

ug/kg

2-Methylnaphthalene

<6.4

ug/kg

Naphthalene

<4.2

ug/kg

Phenanthrene Pyrene

<6.7

ug/kg

<3.7

ug/kg

NA: Not Available

-79-

Table 17 - Elemental Analysis per DNR NR 538

Parameter

NR 538 Standard Elemental Analysis (mg/kg)

Material Category

1

2

Aluminum (Al)

Antimony (Sb)

6.3

Arsenic (As)

0.042

21

Barium (Ba)

1100

Beryllium (Be)

0.014

7

Boron (B)

1400

Cadmium (Cd)

7.8

Chromium, Hex. (Cr)

14.5

Cobalt (Co)

Copper (Cu)

Lead (Pb)

50

Mercury (Hg)

4.7

Molybdenum (Mo)

78

Nickel (Ni)

310

Phenol

9400*

Selenium (Se)

78*

Silver (Ag)

9400*

Strontium (Sr)

9400*

Thallium (Tl)

1.3

Vanadium (V)

110

Zinc (Zn)

4700

Acenaphthene

900

Acenaphthylene

8.8

Anthracene

5000

Benz(a)anthracene

0.088

44

Benzo(a)pyrene

0.0088

4.4

Benzo(b)fluoranthene

0.088

44

Benzo(ghi)perylene

0.88

Benzo(k)fluoranthene

0.88

Chrysene

8.8

Dibenz(ah)anthracene

0.0088

4.4

Fluoranthene

600

Fluorene

600

Indeno(123-cd)pyrene

0.088

44

1-methyl naphthalene

8.8

2-methyl naphthalene

8.8

Naphthalene

600

Phenanthrene

0.88

Pyrene

500

Total PAHs

100

NA: Not Available

-80-

Table 18 - NR 538 Categories for Wood Ash per Elemental Analysis

Parameter NR 538 Category Elemental Analysis

Wood Ash Solids, total

--

Arsenic, ICP

2

Barium, (Ba)

1

Beryllium, ICP

2

Boron, (B)

1

Cadmium, (Cd)

1

Chromium, Hex. (Cr) 1

Lead. (Pb) 1

Mercury, (Hg) 1

Molybdenum, (Mo) 1

Nickel (Ni) 1

Phenol 1

Selenium (Se) 1

Silver (Ag) 1

Strontium (Sr) 1

Thallium (Tl) 1

Vanadium (V) 1

Zinc (Zn) 1 Acenaphthene 1 Acenaphthylene

1

Anthracene

1

Benzo (a) anthracene

1

Benzo (b) fluoranthene

Oranthene

1

Benzo (k) fluoranthene

1

Benzo (a) pyrene

1

Benzo (ghi) perylene

1

Chrysene

1

Dibenzo (a,h) anthracene

1

Fluoranthene

1

Fluorene

1

Indeno (1,2,3- cd) pyrene

1

1-Methylnaphthalene

1

2-Methylnaphthalene

1

Naphthalene

1

Phenanthrene 1 Pyrene

1

Total PAH

2*

*No Category 1 Parameter

-81-

Table 19 – Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of

CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing

Mixture Number LS-1 LS-2 LS-3

Wood Fly Ash (lb/yd3) 2130 1945 995

Water, W (lb/yd3) 820 812 667

Cement, (lb/yd3) 81 116 93

Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 101 100 114

Air Temperature, (°F) 77 76 75

Fresh CLSM Temperature,

(°F) 75 75 73

Flow, (in.) 12-1/2 13-1/2 12

Air Content, (%) 2.4 2.9 1.6

SSD Fine Aggregate (lb/yd3) - - 1570

-82-

Table 20 - Bleed water of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing

Lab

Mixture

Number

Bleed water (in.)*

1 hour

4 hour

24-hour

2-day

3 days

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Ave. Act.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

LS-1

1

1

3/4

¾

1/2

1/2

1/8

1/8

1/1

6

1/16

1 3/4 1/2

1/8 1/1

6

1 3/4 1/2

1/8

1/1

6

LS-2

1

1

1/2

½

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1/2 0

0 0

1

1/2 0

0 0

LS-3

3/4

3/4

1/2

½

1/4

1/4

1/8

1/8

1/1

6

1/16

3/4

1/2 1/4

1/8 1/1

6

3/4

1/2 1/4

1/8

1/1

6

*Bleedwater depth is the net water after bleeding minus evaporation.

-83-

Table 21 – Settlement of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing

Lab

Mixture

Number

Settlement (in.)

1 hour

4 hour

24-hour

2-day

3 days

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Ave. Act.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

LS-1

1

1

1

1

1

1/2

1

1

3/4

3/4

1 1 1 1 3/4

1 1 1 1 3/4

LS-2

1-1/8

1-1/8

1-1/8

1-1/8

1

1

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

1-1/8 1-1/8 1 3/4 3/4

1-1/8 1-1/8 1 3/4 3/4

LS-3

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4

3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4

3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4

-84-

Table 22 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory

Manufacturing

Lab

Mixture

Number

Compressive Strength (psi)

1-day

2-day

3-day

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave

LS-1

15

15

25

25

30 30

15

25

30

LS-2

20

20

35

35

45 45

20

35 45

LS-3

15

15

25

25

45 45

15

25 45

-85-

Table 23 – Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties for Air-Entrained

Concrete from Laboratory Manufacturing

Lab Mixture Number ML1-A ML2-A ML4-A ML4-B

Wood Fly Ash, (%)*** 0 6 9 13

Class C Fly Ash, (%)*** 9 16 25 24

Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 511 473 422 412

Class C Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 53 99 165 161

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 0 36 61 88

SSD Fine Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 1335 1390 1350 1313

SSD Coarse Aggregate, (lb/yd

3) 1695 1695 1700 1655

Water, W, (lb/yd3) 230 230 225 225

W/C* 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.56

[W/(C+A)]** 0.42 0.41 0.39 0.40

Mid-Range Water Reducing

Admixture, MRWRA, (oz./yd3)

208 159 126 123

Air Entraining Admixture, AEA,

(oz./yd3)

2.5 3.3 6.6 5.0

Slump, (in) 3-3/4 3-3/4 3 4-1/2

Air Content (%) 5.7 5.4 6.9 7.2

Air Temperature, (0F) 72 73 72 74

Concrete Temperature, (0F) 75 75 74 46

Fresh Concrete

Density, (lb/ft3)

146.0 146.0 147.0 142.9

* In the calculation of water/cement ratio, half of the amount of MRWRA has been

considered as water.

** In the calculation of water/cementitious material ratio, half of the amount of

MRWRA has been considered as water.

*** Fly ash has been expressed as percentage of total cement, wood ash, and coal ash

content.

-86-

Table 24 - Compressive Strength of Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from

Laboratory Manufacturing

Lab

Mixture

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class

C Fly

Ash

(%)


3-day

14-day

28-day

Actual

Ave.

Actual

Ave.

Actual

Ave.

ML-1A 0 9

320

310

385

485

1365

1180 280 510 1130

330 560 1050

ML-2A 6 16

225

230

390

395

1350

1365 235 415 1365

225 380 1375

ML-4A 9 25

95

90

125

135

1830

2025 90 130 1845

50 150 2402

ML-4B 13 24

120

145

215

220

2680

3605 165 240 3955

155 210 3255

-87-

Table 25 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for

CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype Mixture

Designation SL-1 SL-2 SL-3

Cement, (lb/yd3) 87 134 87

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 2035 2095 967

Water, W, (lb/yd3) 797 735 573

SSD Fine Aggregate,

(lb/yd3)

- - 1495

Flow, (in.) 11-1/2 12 12

Air Content, (%) 2.4 3.3 1.4



(°F) 83 80 83

Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 108 110 115

-88-

Table 26 - Bleed water for CLSM Mixtures from


Prototype

Mixture

Number

Bleed water (in.)*

1 hour

18- hours

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

SL-1

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2 1/2

1/2 1/2

SL-2

3/8

3/8

1/4

1/4

3/8

1/4

3/8

1/4

SL-3

1

7/8

3/4

5/8

3/4

1/2

7/8

3/4

*Bleed water depth is the net water after bleeding minus evaporation.

-89-

Table 27 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype

Mixture

Number

Settlement (in)

1 hour

18- hours

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

SL-1

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2 1/2

1/2 1/2

SL-2

3/8

3/8

3/8

3/8

3/8

3/8

3/8

3/8

SL-3

1

7/8

3/4

3/4

3/4

1/2

7/8

3/4

-90-

Table 28 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype

Mixture

Number


7-day

14-day 28-day 91-day 182-day

Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.

SL-1

25

25

45

45

105

100

85

135

115

130

25 35 105 85 140

20 50 85 230 125

SL-2

80

80

120

125

190

190

360

365

175

225 70 130 210 375 320

90 125 170 355 170

SL-3

50

45

80

65

90

90

180

210

160

165 40 55 95 210 170

50 65 85 235 165

-91-

Table 29 - Mixture Proportions for Air-Entrained Concrete from Prototype

Manufacturing

Prototype Mixture Number R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4

Wood Fly Ash, (%)* 0 6 9 13

Class C Fly Ash, (%)* 9 16 18 24

Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 515 476 454 409

Class C Fly Ash, A,

(lb/yd3)

52 98 112 152

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) - 37 55 84

SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1225 1385 1399 1314

SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1685 1655 1703 1674

Water, W, (lb/yd3) 213 196 196 212

[W/(C+A)] 0.38 0.34 0.35 0.38

Mid-Range Water

Reducing Admixture,

MRWRA, (oz./yd3)

33 34 34 33

Air Entraining Admixture,

AEA, (oz./yd3)

5 7.5 7 12.5

Slump, (in) 3-1/4 4-1/2 3 5-1/2

Air Content, (%) 7.0 6.8 5.6 7.0

Air Temperature, (°F) 73 77 77 82

Concrete Temperature,

(°F) 85 88 86 88

Fresh Concrete

Density, (lb/ft3)

142.2 142.2 145.1 142.3

* Fly ash has been expressed as percentage of total cement plus ash content.

-92-

Table 30 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype

Mixture

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)


7-day

14-day

28-day

91-day

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

R-1 0 9

4510

4115

4705

4595

5060

5050

5700

5690 3720 4490 5125 5675

- - 4960 -

R-2 6 16

3500

3485

4030

4000

4210

4255

4720

4585 3470 3965 4145 4450

- - 4415 -

R-3 9 18

4240

4075

4950

5040

5060

5065

5490

5555 3915 5125 5000 5620

- - 5125 -

R-4 13 24

3160

3100

3390

3535

4470

4315

4600

4585 3040 3675 4115 4570

- - 4360 -

-93-

Table 31 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype

Mixture

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)

Splitting Tensile Strength (psi)

7-day

14-day

28-day

91-day

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

R-1 0 9

455

450

480

495

605

570

565

565 450 510 580 -

- - 530 -

R-2 6 16

350

355

435

440

500

460

480

510 360 440 415 540

- - - 510

R-3 9 18

515

520

485

510

490

530

595

615 530 535 565 625

- - - 620

R-4 13 24

335

315

470

440

485

465

530

520 300 410 445 510

- - - -

-94-

Table 32 - Flexural Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype

Mixture

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)

Flexural Strength (psi)

3-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

120-day

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

R-1 0 9

525

535

580

560

555

595

630

600

555

520 545 545 600 605 620

540 560 635 565 380

R-2 6 16

585

530

545

520

625

650

450

475

565

565 525 460 740 480 550

485 450 590 495 575

R-3 9 18

515

510

600

635

710

660

615

675

680

640 560 640 645 750 535

450 670 625 655 710

R-4 13 24

450

420

485

495

585

545

505

535

575

560 395 530 535 540 550

420 470 515 555 560

-95-

Table 33 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of Beam Broken in Flexure

from Prototype Manufacturing

Prototype

Mixture

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)

Modified Cube Compressive Strength (psi)

3-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

120-day

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

R-1 0 9

1955

1945

1645

2000

3210

3195

3105

3610

4100

3580 1860 2195 3125 3410 3155

2020 2160 3245 3810 3490

R-2 6 16

1420

1650

1880

2270

-

1970

2150

2840

2930

2865 1550 2420 1935 3335 3650

1985 2505 2000 3035 2615

R-3 9 18

1975

2335

2870

2620

3830

3830

3885

4160

5165

4355 2645 1890 4100 4245 3195

2385 3105 3580 4345 4705

R-4 13 24

1290

1305

2150

1780

2070

2195

3115

2965

3005

2835 1100 1290 2305 2915 2645

1530 1900 2210 2860 2860

-96-

Table 34 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures


Batch Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Full-Scale Mixture Designation S-1/1 S-1/2 S-1/3 S-1/4 S-1/5 S-1/6 S-1/7

Cement, (lb/yd3) 138 137 139 138 138 139 137

Class C Coal Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) - - - - - - -

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 576 572 580 576 576 580 572

Water, W (lb/yd3) 498 495 496 498 478 494 492

SSD Fine Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 2145 2130 2160 2145 2145 2160 2130

Flow, (in.) 7 4-3/4 3-1/2 7-3/4 4-1/2 5 4-1/4

Air Content, (%) 1.5 2.0 3.5 1.4 2.5 2.1 2.2

Air Temperature, (°F) 65 65 66 65 71 72 74

Fresh CLSM Temperature, (°F) 64 64 66 66 69 72 72

Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 124.4 123.2 125.2 124.2 123.8 125.0 123.2

-97-

Table 35 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM

Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2

Batch Number 1 2 3 4 5

Full-Scale Mixture

Designation

S-2/1 S-2/2 S-2/3 S-2/4 S-2/5

Cement, (lb/yd3) 165 164 161 162 160

Class C Coal Fly Ash,

(lb/yd3)

496 491 482 485

480

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 95 100 80 93 98

Water, W (lb/yd3) 454 381 518 534 462

SSD Fine Aggregate,

(lb/yd3)

2545 2565 2485 2485 2510

Flow, (in.) 6-3/4 5-1/2 6-1/2 6-1/2 4-1/2

Air Content, (%) 1.8 2.5 1.6 1.5 3.0

Air Temperature, (°F) 51 50 48 50 51


(°F)

66 57 64 62 65

Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 139.0 137.2 138.0 139.2 137.4

-98-

Table 36 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures


Batch Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Full-Scale Mixture Designation S-3/1 S-3/2 S-3/3 S-3/4 S-3/5 S-3/6 S-3/7

Cement, (lb/yd3) 104 102 104 102 101 102 112

Class C Coal Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) - - - - - - -

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 843 838 858 840 848 868 850

Water, W, (lb/yd3) 704 669 677 680 647 667 636

SSD Fine Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 1560 1535 1580 1545 1530 1540 1680

Flow, (in.) 6-1/2 4-3/4 5-1/4 4-3/4 6 6 5-1/4

Air Content, (%) 2.2 4.1 3.0 3.7 3.3 3.0 3.1

Air Temperature, (°F) 61 63 61 64 64 66 61

Fresh CLSM Temperature, (°F) 65 66 69 68 69 70 64

Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 119.0 116.4 118.4 117.4 115.6 117.6 121.4

-99-

Table 37 - Bleed water from CLSM Mixtures from


Full-Scale

Mixture

Number

Bleed water (in.)

1 hour

18- hours

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

S-1

1/8

1/8

1/16

1/16

1/8 1/16

1/8 1/16

S-2

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

S-3

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8 1/8

1/8

-100-

Table 38 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Full-Scale

Mixture

Number

Settlement (in)

1 hour

22- hours

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

S-1

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8 1/8

1/8 1/8

S-2

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16 1/16 1/16

1/16 1/16

S-3

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

1/8

-101-

Table 39 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-1

Full-

Scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number


4-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

182-day

365-day

Act. Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

S-1

S-1/3

50

60

55

65

105

120

200

205

225

225

195

200 65 65 140 205 250 220

60 80 120 210 195 180

S-1/4

-

-

65

60

100

105

-

-

165

180

-

- - 60 100 - 190 -

- 60 110 - 190 -

S-1/5

-

-

70

65

80

95

-

-

175

180

-

- - 55 100 - 185 -

- 70 110 - 175 -

S-1/7

-

-

35

45

85

90

-

-

200

195

-

- - 50 90 - 195 -

- 40 85 - 190 -

-102-

Table 40 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixture from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2

Full-Scale Mixture

Number

Batch

Number


4-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

182-day

Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.

S-2

S-2/2

-

10

10

55

120

-

-

770

780 - 10 125 - 790

- 10 175 - -

S-2/3

15

15

10

10

35

40

-

-

860

830 15 10 35 - 800

15 10 45 - 835

S-2/5

--

-

15

15

110

105

-

-

610

645 - 15 100 - 610

-- 15 100 - 710

-103-

Table 41 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-3

Full-

scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number


4-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

182-day

365-day

Act. Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

Act.

Ave.

S-3

S-3/2

-

55

60

30

70

-

-

130

140

-

- - 55 90 - 150 -

- 60 85 - 145 -

S-3/3

40

45

50

55

75

85

90

100

145

145

145

150 40 60 95 100 130 150

50 50 85 100 155 145

S-3/5

-

-

65

60

110

110

-

-

155

155

-

- - 60 110 - 175 -

- 55 110 - 130 -

S-3/7

-

-

50

45

75

70

-

-

135

135

-

- -- 45 75 - 125 -

- 45 60 - 145 -

-104-

Table 42 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing,

Series S-2

CLSM Mixture Series S-2

Test Age

63-day 90-day 227-day

Actual Average Actual

Average Actual Average

Permeability

(cm/s)

2.4 x 10-5

6.8 x 10-5

1.2 x 10-5

2.1 x 10-5

0.11 x 10-5

0.6 x 10-5

4.9 x 10-5

1.1 x 10-5

1.6 x 10-5

13.2 x 10-5

4.1 x 10-5

0.2 x 10-5

Table 43 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing,

Series S-3

CLSM Mixture Series S-3

Test Age

65-day 91-day 227-day

Actual Average Actual

Average Actual Average

Permeability

(cm/s)

3.6 x 10-5

3.3 x 10-5

4.4 x 10-5

3.9 x 10-5

0.11 x 10-5

1.2 x 10-5

2.6 x 10-5

2.9 x 10-5

0.35 x 10-5

3.7 x 10-5

4.4 x 10-5

3.0 x 10-5

-105-

Table 44 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained


Full-Scale Mixture

Number C-1

Batch Number C-1/1 C-1/2 C-1/3 C-1/4

Wood Ash (%) 0 0 0 0

Class C Fly Ash (%) 9 9 9 9

Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 509 511 517 520

Class C Fly Ash, A,

(lb/yd3)

51 49 52 50


SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1410 1430 1445 1440


Water, W, (lb/yd3) 231 222 230 218

[W/(C+A)] 0.41 0.40 0.40 0.38

Mid-Range Water

Reducing Admixture,

MRWRA, (oz /yd3)

34 34 34 34


AEA, (oz./yd3)

4.3 3.3 3.5 3.3

Slump, (in.) 4-1/2 6 4-1/2 5-3/4

Air Content, (%) 7.0 7.1 6.2 6.0


Concrete Temperature,

(°F) 70 71 71 75

Fresh Concrete

Density, (lb/ft3)

142.1 142.8 144.9 144.9

-106-



Full-Scale Mixture Number C-2

Batch Number C-2/1 C-2/2 C-1/4

Wood Ash (%) 5 6 6

Class C Fly Ash (%) 16 16 16

Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 480 474 474

Class C Fly Ash, A,

(lb/yd3)

102 99 99

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 33 35 36

SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1385 1440 1445

SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1655 1640 1630

Water, W, (lb/yd3) 261 209 247

[W/(C+A)] 0.45 0.36 0.43

Mid-Range Water

Reducing

Admixture,MRWRA,

(oz./yd3)

35 35 35


AEA, (oz/yd3)

4.3 4.3 4.4

Slump, (in.) 4-3/4 4-1/2 4-3/4

Air Content, (%) 5.8 6.6 5.7


Concrete Temperature, (°F) 68 70 73

Fresh Concrete

Density, (lb/ft3)

143.4 143.0 144.2

-107-




Batch Number C-3/1 C-3/2 C-3/3 C-3/4

Wood Ash (%) 9 9 8 8

Class C Fly Ash (%) 21 21 21 21

Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 439 460 460 460

Class C Fly Ash, A, (lb/yd3) 129 135 135 138


SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1315 1380 1365 1370


Water, W, (lb/yd3) 242 268 309 260

[W/(C+A)] 0.43 0.45 0.52 0.43


Admixture, MRWRA,

(oz/yd3)

34.5 36 36 36


AEA, (oz/yd3)

8.4 4.7 5.0 5.0

Slump, (in.) 4-1/2 5 4-1/2 5

Air Content, (%) 10.0 5 5.6 5.5


Concrete Temperature, (°F) 71 69 70 69

Fresh Concrete

Density, (lb/ft3)

137.4 144.8 143.8 143.8

-108-




Batch Number C-4/1 C-4/2 C-4/3

Wood Ash (%) 12 12 13

Class C Fly Ash (%) 20 20 20

Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 444 452 443

Class C Fly Ash, A, (lb/yd3) 135 132 130

Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 80 83 86

SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1360 1310 1325

SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1640 1635 1635

Water, W, (lb/yd3) 230 288 253

[W/(C+A)] 0.40 0.50 0.44


Admixture, MRWRA,

(oz/yd3)

34 34 34


AEA, (oz/yd3)

5.0 5.0 5.0

Slump, (in.) 4 5-1/4 4-1/2

Air Content, (%) 5.7 4.3 4.7


Concrete Temperature, (°F) 69 69 71

Fresh Concrete

Density, (lb/ft3)

143.2 144.4 143.2

-109-

Table 48- Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1

Full-

scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class

C Fly

Ash

(%)


3-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

182-day

365-day

Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Avg. Act. Ave.

C-1

C-1/1 0 9

3300

3340

3925

4110

4725

4710

5560

5085

6180

6120

6240

6260 3245 4280 4620 5045 6015 6310

3475 4120 4785 4655 6160 6230

C-1/2 0 9

3325

3225

3955

3875

4630

4620

5665

5620

5705

5975

6255

6335 3145 3795 4615 5515 6130 6450

3205 3875 4615 5680 6090 6300

C-1/4 0 9

2895

3300

4480

4185

5930

5410

5795

6075

6325

6270

6600

6495 3620 3725 5540 6445 6065 6360

3380 4355 4765 5985 6415 6250

-110-

Table 49 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-2

Full-

Scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)


4-day* 7-day 28-day 91-day 182-day 365-day


C-2

C-2/1 5 16

3540

3475

3835

4065

3035

4425

5850

5670

5515

5750

6365

6245 3495 4290 5005 5430 5825 6365

3390 4075 5235 5730 5905 6000

C-2/2 6 16

3460

3375

4020

4070

4505

4800

5240

5430

6105

6270

6405

6410 3305 4050 4910 5635 6355 6395

3360 4140 4985 5420 6350 6430

C-2/3 6 16

3595

3550

4665

4545

4690

4980

6120

6015

6245

6245

5870

6105 3305 4435 5155 6120 6240 6340

3755 4530 5095 5805 - -

-111-


Full-scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)


3-day

7-day

28-day

91-day

182-day

365-day


C-3

C-3/1 9 21

1975

2225

2960

3025

3790

3635

4510

4440

4720

4665

4285

4825 2420 3145 3565 4530 4830 5040

2275 2975 3555 4270 4445 5155

C-3/2 9 21

3620

3680

4550

4605

5420

5355

5975

6210

6755

6885

7065

7125 3660 4670 5275 5925 6965 7215

3755 4600 5365 6735 6940 7100

C-3/3 8 21

3350

3205

4375

4405

5140

5140

7120

6610

6415

6615

7020

6610 3260 4480 5345 6600 6795 6230

3005 4360 4940 6105 6640 6590

C-3/4 8 21

2855

3085

4315

4260

5130

5205

5825

6215

5600

6080

5980

6315 3135 4105 5475 6610 6240 6640

3270 4455 5015 6215 6400 6320

-112-


Full-scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)


3-day

7-day

28-day

91-day 182-day

365-day


C-4

C-4/1 12 20

3365

3500

4060

3945

4400

4320

5800

5660

5015

5720

5540

5770 3215 3885 4200 5550 6335 6050

3925 3890 4355 5625 5810 5720

C-4/2 12 20

2910

3415

4720

4835

5325

5205

5520

6195

6825

6465

6705

6550 3675 4895 5310 6650 6445 6800

3660 4895 4980 6415 6120 6270

C-4/3 13 20

3200

3075

4025

4170

4890

4890

5540

5665

5855

5795

-

- 3025 4170 5030 5690 5525 -

2995 4315 4775 5760 6010 -

-113-

Table 52 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Full-scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)

Splitting tensile Strength (psi)

3-day 7-day 28-day 91-day 182-day 365-day


C-1 C-1/2 0 9

355

365

435

440

555

555

630

600

615

615

580

625 370 470 495 580 585 590

370 415 610 595 645 705

C-2 C-2/2 6 16

380

360

400

425

540

515

540

540

610

570

670

615 320 470 465 515 525 505

375 400 535 565 575 670

C-3 C-3/2 9 21

415

425

425

435

560

550

605

650

700

700

790

745 455 440 540 655 695 715

410 440 545 685 700 735

C-4 C-4/2 12 20

385

410

475

450

600

575

600

590

625

605

600

620 425 400 545 580 610 700

420 470 580 590 585 565

-114-

Table 53- Flexural Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Full-scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)

Flexural strength (psi)


Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.

C-1 C-1/2 0 9

375

450

580

590

600

600

650

635 515 565 560 635

460 635 630 615

C-2 C-2/2 6 16

545

560

535

585

615

635

700

620 555 540 600 605

585 685 685 545

C-3 C-3/2 9 21

445

550

605

635

715

730

835

775 585 615 745 755

625 680 725 735

C-4 C-4/2 12 20

510

460

510

565

550

630

715

755 440 520 705 735

430 665 630 810

-115-

Table 54 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Full-scale

Mixture

Number

Batch

Number

Wood

Ash

(%)

Class C

Fly Ash

(%)

Modified Cube Compressive Strength (psi)


Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.

C-1 C-1/2 0 9

--

--

2710

3105

3420

3435

3595

3475

3480 -- 3240 3480 3335

3180

-- 3360 3400 3805

3485

C-2 C-2/2 6 16

3030

3185

3845

3960

2890

2890

4340

4300

4350 3525 3170 3085 4055

3005 4815 2680 4225

4830

C-3 C-3/2 9 21

2895

2930

3330

3685

3575

3920

4660

4200 2610 3365 4080 3705

3280 4365 4100 4240

C-4 C-4/2 12 20

2120

2415

4085

3590

4100

4400

5435

4925 2690 3295 4175 5055

2430 3390 4915 4290

-116-

Table 55 - Average Mixture Proportions of CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash from


Mixture Type S-1 S-2 S-3

Control CLSM

Mixture per

ACI 229R

Cement (lb/yd3) 138 165 104 200

Wood Fly Ash (lb/yd3) 576 100 843 0

Class C Fly Ash (lb/yd3) 0 496 0 350

Wood Fly Ash, % of

total cementitious

materials

81 12.5 89 -

SSD Fine Aggregate,

(lb/yd3)

2145 2565 1560 2750

Water (lb/yd3) 498 381 704 500

Unit Weight (lb/ft3) 124.4 137.2 119 -

Table 56 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of CLSM Mixtures

Containing Wood Ash

Mixture Type

CLSM

Materials

Cost/yd3,

dollars

Savings in

CLSM

Materials

Cost/yd3,

dollars

Savings

in

Disposal

Cost/yd3,

dollars

Net Savings

in CLSM

Materials/yd3,

dollars

Control Mixture (per

ACI 229 R) 25 0.0 0.0 0.0

S-1 (81% Wood Ash) 12.68 12.32 10.08 22.40

S-2 (12.5% Wood Ash) 26.32 - 1.32 1.75 0.43

S-3 (89% Wood Ash) 9.36 15.64 14.75 30.39

-117-

Table 57 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash

Mixture Type

Total Savings in

CLSM

Materials,

Dollars

Total Savings

from Disposal

Costs, Dollars

Overall

Savings in

Dollars

S-1 (81% Wood Ash) 3,208,337 2,625,003 5,833,340

S-2 (12.5% Wood Ash) -1,980,000 2,625,000 645,000

S-3 (89% Wood Ash) 1,844,503 1,739,541 3,584,044

Table 58 - Average Mixture Proportions of Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash from


Mixture Type C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4

Cement, C (lb/yd3) 509 480 439 444

Wood Fly Ash, A1 (lb/yd3) - 33 53 80

Class C Fly Ash, A2 (lb/yd3) 51 102 129 135

Equivalent Cementitious Content,

Ceq., (lb/yd3)

549 579 569 593

SSD Fine Aggregate (lb/yd3) 1410 1385 1315 1360

SSD Coarse Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 1635 1655 1605 1604

Water, W (lb/yd3) 231 261 242 230

% (Class C + Wood) Fly Ash* 9 22 29 33

% Wood Fly Ash** - 5 8 12

W/Ceq. 0.42 0.45 0.43 0.39


Admixture, MRWRA (oz/yd3)

34 35 34.5 34

Air Entraining Admixture, AEA

(oz/yd3)

4.3 4.3 8.4 5

Fresh Concrete Density (lb/ft3) 142.1 143.4 137.4 143.2

* (A1+A2)/(C+A1+A2) ** A1/(C+A1+A2)

-118-

Table 59 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of Concrete Mixtures Containing

Wood Ash

Mixture Type

Concrete

Materials

Cost/yd3,

Dollars

Savings in

Concrete

Materials

Cost/yd3,

Dollars

Savings in

Disposal

Cost/yd3,

Dollars

Net Savings

in

Concrete/yd3,

Dollars

C-1 (Control Mixture) 32.98 0.0 0.0 0.0

C-2 (5% Wood Ash) 33.08 - 0.10 0.58 0.48

C-3 (8% Wood Ash) 31.92 1.06 0.93 1.99

C-4 (12% Wood Ash) 32.36 0.62 1.40 2.02

Table 60 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash

Mixture Type

Total Savings in

Concrete Materials

with Wood Ash

Concrete, Dollars

Total Savings

from Disposal

Costs, Dollars

Overall Savings,

Dollars

C-2 (5% Wood Ash) - 25,000 145,000 120,000

C-3 (8% Wood Ash) 265,000 233,500 497,500

C-4 (12% Wood Ash) 155,000 350,000 505,000

-119-

Fig. 1 Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype

Manufacturing

13000

14000

15000

16000

17000

18000

19000

20000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Freezing and Thawing cycles

Pu

lse V

elo

cit

y,

ft/s

ec

Mixture R-1

Mixture R-2

Mixture R-3

Mixture R-4

Fig. 2 Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for


92.0

93.0

94.0

95.0

96.0

97.0

98.0

99.0

100.0

101.0

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Freezing and Thawing Cycles

Rela

tive D

yn

am

ic

Mo

du

lus

Mixture R-1

Mixture R-2

Mixture R-3

Mixture R-4

-120-

Fig. 4 Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing

-0.06

-0.05

-0.04

-0.03

-0.02

-0.01

0

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Drying Time (days)

Ch

an

ge

in

Len

gth

, p

ercen

t

Mixture R-1

Mixture R-2

Mixture R-3

Mixture R-4

Fig. 3 Percent Length Change versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for


-0.1000

-0.0750

-0.0500

-0.0250

0.0000

0.0250

0.0500

0 50 100 150 200 250


Ch

an

ge

in

Len

gth

, p

ercen

tMixture R-1

Mixture R-2

Mixture R-3

Mixture R-4

-121-

Fig. 6 Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-

Scale Manufacturing

94.0

95.0

96.0

97.0

98.0

99.0

100.0

101.0

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350


Rela

tive D

yn

am

ic M

od

ulu

s

Mixture C-1

Mixture C-2

Mixture C-3

Mixture C-4

Fig. 5 Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale

Manufacturing

16000

16500

17000

17500

18000

18500

19000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400


Pu

lse V

elo

cit

y,

ft/

sec

Mixture C-1

Mixture C-2

Mixture C-3

Mixture C-4

-122-

Fig. 7 Percent Change Length versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-

Scale Manufacturing

-0.0250

0.0000

0.0250

0.0500

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Freezing and Thawing Cycles Cycles

Ch

an

ge

in

Len

gth

, p

ercen

tMixture C-1

Mixture C-2

Mixture C-3

Mixture C-4

Fig. 8 Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures for Full-Scale Manufacturing

-0.2500

-0.2000

-0.1500

-0.1000

-0.0500

0.0000

0.0500

0.1000

0.1500

0 50 100 150 200 250

Drying Time (days)

Ch

an

ge i

n L

en

gth

, p

ercen

t

Mixture C-1

Mixture C-2

Mixture C-3

Mixture C-4

-123-

Fig. 9 Placement of CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration

Fig. 10 Leveling CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration

-124-

Fig. 11 - Placement of Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Fig. 12 - Finishing of Concrete Containing Wood Ash for Full-Scale Mixtures

-125-

Fig. 13 - Completed Concrete Slab from Full-Scale Manufacturing

Fig. 14 - Concrete Containing Wood Ash – Two Year Assessment

-126-

APPENDIX 1:

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER SEMINAR ANNOUNCEMENT

ROTHSCHILD, WI

UWM-CBU Concrete Materials Technology Series Program No. 50

Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood Ash in

Concrete and Flowable Slurry

Center for By-Products Utilization NONPROFIT ORGANIZATION

3200 North Cramer Street, Room W309 U.S. POSTAGE

P. O. Box 784 PAID

Milwaukee, WI 53201 MILWAUKEE, WI PERMIT NO. 864

UWM-CBU Concrete Materials Technology Series Program No. 50



Sponsored By

UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Milwaukee, WI Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Waste Reduction and Recycling Demonstration Grant

Program

Weyerhaeuser Company, Stora Enso North America, National Council of Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI)

Wisconsin Electric Power Company, and Wisconsin Public Service Corporation

Co-Sponsored By Wisconsin Chapter – American Concrete Institute, Wisconsin Ready-Mixed Concrete Association,and

American Society of Civil Engineers – Wisconsin Section

September 27, 2001, Rothschild, WI

Workshop Description

The purpose of the workshop is to present important technical information and review production and construction aspects

for the use of wood ash in ready-mixed concrete as well as in flowable slurry (CLSM). Flowable Slurry is a very low-strength

concrete-like material that is made from one or more of the following materials such as coal ash, wood ash, used foundry

sand, post-consumer crushed glass, concrete sand, water, and some portland cement. The strength of this material can vary

from 50 psi to 1200 psi at the age of 28 days. Flowable slurry is being specified increasingly by municipalities, state highway

departments, and engineers for many applications.

The workshop will present case histories of successful installations. It will also include a demonstration of use of wood ash in

structural concrete slab and slurry placement. Handout materials will be provided. The workshop should be of interest to

those associated with building design, engineers, architects, engineering technicians, engineers working in governmental

agencies, industry and private practice, engineering faculty and students, as well as ready mixed concrete producers,

aggregates suppliers, and contractors. Knowledgeable professionals engaged in specifying, approving, marketing, and using

concrete and flowable slurry will present state-of-the-art information.

PROGRAM



September 27, 2001, Rothschild, WI

8:00 a.m. Registration and Continental Breakfast

8:30 Welcome and Introduction

Stuart A. D. McCormick

8:45 Physical, Chemical, and Mechanical Properties of Wood Ash: Use of wood ash in ready-mixed

concrete. Mixture proportions for non-air entrained and air entrained concrete, and flowable

slurry with wood ash. Test results for concrete and flowable slurry with wood ash.

Tarun R. Naik

10:15 Break

10:30 Field Applications: Flowable slurry containing industrial by-products in backfilling of

excavations, trenches, and underground voids. Effects of slurry mixture proportions on

setting characteristics and placement, thermal and electrical resistivity properties, field

performance, economy, and marketing.

Bruce W. Ramme

12:00 Lunch

1:00 Regulatory Perspective: Use of wood ash in concrete and flowable slurry relative to NR 538

requirements.

Michael L Miller

1:30 Adjourn to the demonstration location.

1:45 Construction Demonstration of Structural Concrete Slab and Flowable Slurry with Wood

Ash: Placement, compaction, finishing, hardening and settlement process; and questions and

answers

Tarun R. Naik and Bruce Sopkowicz

3:15 Adjourn

---------------------------------------------------Advantages of Flowable Slurry--------------------------------------------------

No Compaction Required

Excellent Flowability – Fills all Voids

No Shrinkage or Settlement after Final Set

Reduced Labor Cost and Improved Construction Safety

Large Range of Mixtures with Different Strengths and Other Characteristics Available

SPEAKER INFORMATION

The program is scheduled to include the following speakers:

Stuart A. D. McCormick, P. Eng., Leader of Residuals, Solid Waste, and Groundwater

Specialists Network, Weyerhaeuser Company, Alberta, Canada. Since 1989 Mr. McCormick has

been a Registered Professional Engineer, and a member of Association of Professional Engineers,

Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta. He has made presentations to and/or authored papers for

many conferences and seminars, including National Council for Air and Stream Improvement

(NCASI), Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA), and Air and Waste Management

Association (A&WMA).

Michael L. Miller, Waste Management Specialist for the West Central Region, Wisconsin

Department of Natural Resources, Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin. Mr. Miller has worked for 23

years for the WI-DNR in the Solid Waste Program. He is responsible for solid waste activities in

Adams, Jackson, Juneau, Monroe, and Wood Counties. He is also responsible for NR 538 activities

for the entire West Central Region (18 counties).

Tarun R. Naik, Ph. D., P. E., Director, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Milwaukee,

Wisconsin. Dr. Naik has over 35 years of experience with cement, aggregates, and concrete. His

contribution in teaching and research has been well recognized nationally and internationally. His

research has resulted in over 250 technical reports and papers in ACI, ASCE, ASTM, RILEM, etc.

He is a member of ACI, ASCE, ASEE, ASTM, RILEM, NSPE, and WSPE. He is also a member of

technical committees of ACI, ASCE, ASTM, and RILEM. He has served as a president of WI-ACI,

WSPE, and other organizations.

Bruce W. Ramme, P. E., Manager, Combustion Products Utilization, Wisconsin Electric

Power Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Mr. Ramme has worked for approximately 20 years with

WEPCO and is currently working towards the goal of 100% utilization of WEPCO’s coal

combustion products. He is a member of ACI, ASCE, and other professional organizations. He is

also the chairman of ACI Committee 229 on Flowable Slurry (CLSM), chairman of ACI 213B on

By-Products Lightweight Aggregate, and a member of other technical committees of ACI. He is also

a past president of the Wisconsin Chapter of ACI.

THE UWM CENTER FOR BY-PRODUCTS UTILIZATION MISSION STATEMENT:

“To collect and analyze data, and disseminate information regarding the beneficial use of presently discarded

by-products from industrial, commercial, and public sector operations.”

The UWM-CBU was established in 1988 by a generous grant from Dairyland Power Cooperative, La Crosse; Madison Gas &

Electric Company, Madison; National Minerals Corporation, St. Paul, MN; Northern States Power Company, Eau Claire;

Wisconsin Electric Power Company, Milwaukee; Wisconsin Power & Light Company, Madison; and Wisconsin Public Service

Corporation, Green Bay. With their financial support and support from other organizations including Manitowoc Public

Utilities, US-DOE, Weyerhaeuser Company, NCASI, the UWS Applied Research Council and Solid Waste Recovery Research

Program, Wisconsin Recycling Market Development Board, Illinois Clean Coal Institute, and others, the UWM-CBU is

developing low- cost, high-quality construction materials from wood ash, pulp and paper mill primary residual solids, coal fly

ash, bottom ash, and clean-coal ash.

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