PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College
C H A P T E R
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
1 The Human Body: An Orientation: Part A
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy: The study of structure
• Subdivisions:
• Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)
• Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
• Developmental (e.g., embryology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Essential tools for the study of anatomy:
• Mastery of anatomical terminology
• Observation
• Manipulation
• Palpation
• Auscultation
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology: The study of function at many levels
• Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Essential tools for the study of physiology:
• Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular)
• Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement)
• Basic chemical principles
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Principle of Complementarity
• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
• Function always reflects structure
• What a structure can do depends on its specific form
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Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical: atoms and molecules (Chapter 2)
• Cellular: cells and their organelles (Chapter 3)
• Tissue: groups of similar cells (Chapter 4)
• Organ: contains two or more types of tissues
• Organ system: organs that work closely together
• Organismal: all organ systems
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Cardiovascular system
Organelle Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels
Epithelial tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
1 2
3
4
5 6
Figure 1.1
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Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1
Figure 1.1, step 1
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Organelle Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Smooth muscle cell
1 2
Figure 1.1, step 2
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Organelle Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
1 2
3
Figure 1.1, step 3
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Organelle Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ)
Epithelial tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
1 2
3
4
Figure 1.1, step 4
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Cardiovascular system
Organelle Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels
Epithelial tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
1 2
3
4
5
Figure 1.1, step 5
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Cardiovascular system
Organelle Molecule Atoms
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems.
Smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels
Epithelial tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
1 2
3
4
5 6
Figure 1.1, step 6
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Overview of Organ Systems
• Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems (Fig. 1.3)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3a
Nails Skin
Hair
(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3b
Bones
Joint
(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3c
Skeletal muscles
(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Main- tains posture, and produces heat.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3d
Brain
Nerves Spinal cord
(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3e
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland Thyroid
gland Thymus
Adrenal gland Pancreas
Testis
Ovary
(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3f
(f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
Heart
Blood vessels
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3g
Lymphatic vessels
Red bone marrow
Thoracic duct
Thymus
Spleen
Lymph nodes
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3h
Nasal cavity
Bronchus Pharynx Larynx Trachea
Lung
(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3i
Liver
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Large intestine
Stomach Small intestine
Rectum Anus
(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3j
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder Urethra
(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3k-l
Prostate gland
Ductus deferens
Penis Testis
Scrotum
Ovary
Uterine tube
Mammary glands (in breasts)
Uterus Vagina
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
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Organ Systems Interrelationships
• All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
• Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2
Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)
Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2
Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients
Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid
Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment
Blood
Heart
Feces Urine
CO2 O2
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Necessary Life Functions
1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
• Plasma membranes
• Skin
2. Movement (contractility)
• Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
• Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
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Necessary Life Functions
3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli
• Withdrawal reflex
• Control of breathing rate
4. Digestion
• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
• Absorption of simple molecules into blood
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Necessary Life Functions
5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
• Catabolism and anabolism
6. Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
• Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
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Necessary Life Functions
7. Reproduction
• Cellular division for growth or repair
• Production of offspring
8. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism
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Survival Needs
1. Nutrients
• Chemicals for energy and cell building
• Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
2. Oxygen
• Essential for energy release (ATP production)
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Survival Needs
3. Water • Most abundant chemical in the body
• Site of chemical reactions
4. Normal body temperature • Affects rate of chemical reactions
5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure • For adequate breathing and gas exchange in
the lungs
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Homeostasis
• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes
• A dynamic state of equilibrium
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)
• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
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Components of a Control Mechanism
1. Receptor (sensor)
• Monitors the environment
• Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
2. Control center
• Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
• Receives input from receptor
• Determines appropriate response
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Components of a Control Mechanism
3. Effector
• Receives output from control center
• Provides the means to respond
• Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
Receptor detects change.
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.
Receptor Effector
Control Center
BALANCE
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway
1
2
3 4
5
Figure 1.4
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
1
Figure 1.4, step 1
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
Receptor detects change.
Receptor
BALANCE
1
2
Figure 1.4, step 2
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
Receptor detects change.
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Receptor
Control Center
BALANCE
Afferent pathway
1
2
3
Figure 1.4, step 3
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
Receptor detects change.
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Receptor Effector
Control Center
BALANCE
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway
1
2
3 4
Figure 1.4, step 4
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
Receptor detects change.
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.
Receptor Effector
Control Center
BALANCE
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway
1
2
3 4
5
Figure 1.4, step 5
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Negative Feedback
• The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
• Examples:
• Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
• Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.5
Sweat glands activated
Shivering begins
Stimulus Body temperature rises BALANCE
Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center
Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center
Afferent pathway
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway
Efferent pathway
Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors
Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors
Stimulus Body temperature falls
Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain
Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain
Effectors Sweat glands
Effectors Skeletal muscles
Control Center (thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Control Center (thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Response Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends
Response Body temperature rises; stimulus ends
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Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH • Receptors sense decreased blood volume
• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood
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Positive Feedback
• The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
• Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (Chapter 28)
• Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
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Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Positive feedback loop
Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals.
Released chemicals attract more platelets.
Platelet plug forms.
1
2 3
4
Figure 1.6
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Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
1
Figure 1.6, step 1
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Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals.
1
2
Figure 1.6, step 2
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Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Positive feedback loop
Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals.
Released chemicals attract more platelets.
1
2 3
Figure 1.6, step 3
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Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Positive feedback loop
Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals.
Released chemicals attract more platelets.
Platelet plug forms.
1
2 3
4
Figure 1.6, step 4
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Homeostatic Imbalance
• Disturbance of homeostasis
• Increases risk of disease
• Contributes to changes associated with aging
• May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)
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• Sweating. Body sweats in order to cool the body’s internal body temperature.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• Milk Production (in lactating mothers) Milk will be produced until the baby is done breast feeding.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• Contractions during childbirth. Contractions will continue to occur until the birth of the child.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• Shivering. Skeletal muscles contract in order to warm up the body.
Positive or negative feedback?
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Positive or negative feedback?
• Blood clotting. Will continue to occur until the tear is sealed.
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• ADH released into the bloodstream. When blood volume is low, an antidiuretic is released into the bloodstream.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• Insulin is released into the bloodstream when blood glucose levels are high.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• A spike in estrogen release during the follicular phase of ovulation causes the follicle to rupture and the egg to be released into the fallopian tube.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• Glucagon is released into the bloodstream due to a decrease in blood glucose levels.
Positive or negative feedback?
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• Fever. Body heats until the bacteria or invader is destroyed.
Positive or negative feedback?
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College
C H A P T E R
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
1 The Human Body: An Orientation: Part B
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
When you are finished…
• Eat your candy!
• Keep your lab write up – this goes in your packet!
• THROW AWAY your trash
• Work on anything in your packet (homeostasis worksheet, unit guide, etc…)
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Anatomical Position
• Standard anatomical body position:
• Body erect
• Feet slightly apart
• Palms facing forward
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a
Cervical
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Pubic (genital)
Cephalic Frontal Orbital Nasal Oral Mental
Thoracic Axillary Mammary Sternal
Abdominal Umbilical
Pelvic Inguinal (groin)
Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist)
Manus (hand) Palmar Pollex Digital
Lower limb Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Metatarsal Digital Hallux
Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1
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Regional Terms
• Two major divisions of body:
• Axial
• Head, neck, and trunk
• Appendicular
• Limbs
• Regional terms designate specific areas
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a
Cervical
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Pubic (genital)
Cephalic Frontal Orbital Nasal Oral Mental
Thoracic Axillary Mammary Sternal
Abdominal Umbilical
Pelvic Inguinal (groin)
Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist)
Manus (hand) Palmar Pollex Digital
Lower limb Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Metatarsal Digital Hallux
Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7b
Cervical Back (dorsal)
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Gluteal Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)
Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm) Manus (hand) Metacarpal Digital Lower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal Pedal (foot) Calcaneal Plantar
Cephalic Otic Occipital (back of head)
Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum)
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Body Planes
• Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study
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Body Planes
• Sagittal plane
• Divides body vertically into right and left parts
• Produces a sagittal section
• Midsagittal (median) plane
• Lies on midline
• Parasagittal plane
• Not on midline
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Body Planes
• Frontal (coronal) plane • Divides body vertically into anterior and
posterior parts
• Transverse (horizontal) plane • Divides body horizontally into superior and
inferior parts
• Produces a cross section
• Oblique section • Cuts made diagonally
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.8
Transverse plane
Median (midsagittal) plane
Frontal plane
Liver
Spleen
Pancreas
Aorta
Vertebral column
Spinal cord Subcutaneous fat layer Body wall Rectum Intestines Left and
right lungs Liver Heart Stomach Spleen
Arm
(a) Frontal section (through torso)
(b) Transverse section (through torso, inferior view)
(c) Median section (midsagittal)
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Anatomical Variability
• Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:
• Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place
• Small muscles may be missing
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Body Cavities
• Dorsal cavity
• Protects nervous system
• Two subdivisions:
• Cranial cavity
• Encases brain
• Vertebral cavity
• Encases spinal cord
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Body Cavities
• Ventral cavity
• Houses internal organs (viscera)
• Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b
Cranial cavity (contains brain)
Dorsal body cavity
Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord)
Cranial cavity
Superior mediastinum
Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum
Pleural cavity
Vertebral cavity
Abdomino- pelvic cavity
Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)
Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera)
Diaphragm
Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)
Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs)
(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity
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Ventral Body Cavities
• Thoracic cavity subdivisions: • Two pleural cavities
• Each houses a lung
• Mediastinum
• Contains pericardial cavity
• Surrounds thoracic organs
• Pericardial cavity
• Encloses heart
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Ventral Body Cavities
• Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:
• Abdominal cavity
• Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
• Pelvic cavity
• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b
Cranial cavity (contains brain)
Dorsal body cavity
Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord)
Cranial cavity
Superior mediastinum
Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum
Pleural cavity
Vertebral cavity
Abdomino- pelvic cavity
Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)
Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera)
Diaphragm
Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)
Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs)
(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity
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Serous Membrane (Serosa)
• Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid
• Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
• Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.10a-b
Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa) Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa)
Heart
Parietal pericardium
Pericardial space with serous fluid Visceral pericardium
(b) The serosae associated with the heart.
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Abdominopelvic Regions
• Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.11
Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
• Divisions used primarily by medical personnel
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.12
Epigastric region
Umbilical region
Right lumbar region
Left lumbar region
Right hypochondriac
region
Left hypochondriac
region
Hypogastric (pubic) region
Right iliac (inguinal)
region
Left iliac (inguinal)
region
Liver Gallbladder Ascending colon of large intestine Small intestine
Appendix Cecum
Diaphragm Stomach
Descending colon of large intestine
Transverse colon of large intestine
Initial part of sigmoid colon Urinary bladder
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
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Other Body Cavities
• Oral and digestive cavities
• Nasal cavity
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear cavities
• Synovial cavities