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Student Learning Outcomes:Differentiate between, anabolism, and catabolism.Identify the components of an enzyme and describe the mechanism of enzymatic action.List the factors that influence enzymatic activity.Explain what is meant by oxidation–reduction.Describe the chemical reactions of glycolysis.Explain the products of the Krebs cycle.Describe the chemiosmotic model for ATP generation.Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.Describe the chemical reactions and some products of fermentation.Categorize the various nutritional patterns among organisms according to energy and carbon source.
Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions
• Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
• Catabolism: Provides energy and building blocks for anabolism.
• Anabolism: Uses energy and building blocks to build large molecules
Role of ATP in Coupling ReactionsA metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzymatically
catalyzed chemical reactions in a cell.Metabolic pathways are determined by enzymes, which are
encoded by genes.
Fig 5.1
Collision Theory• states that chemical reactions (formation or
breakage of bonds) can occur when atoms, ions, and molecules collide
• Activation energy is needed for most chemical reactions
• Reaction rate depends on frequency of collisions with enough energy to bring about a reaction.
• Reaction rate can be increased by enzymes or by increasing temperature or pressure
Enzymes
• Biological catalysts; specific; not used up in that reaction
• Composition of Holoenzyme: Apoenzyme plus cofactor; or apoenzyme plus coenzyme (NAD+, NADP+, FAD)
• Naming of enzymes (see Table 5.1): Oxidoreductases (e.g.: Lactate dehydrogenase and Cytochrome oxidase); ligases, hydrolases etc.
Fig 5.3
These graphs indicate that optimum enzyme activity will occur at:
A. 25 oC and pH 7.0.
B. 25 oC and pH 5.0.
C. 37 oC and pH 7.0.
D. 37 oC and pH 5.0.
E. 45 oC and pH 7.0.
Feedback Inhibition
Also known as end-product inhibition
Controls amount of substance produced by a cell
Mechanism is allosteric inhibition
Fig 5.8
Energy Production: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Oxidation = removal of e-
• Reduction = gain of e-
Fig 5.9
Redox reaction = oxidation reaction paired with reduction reaction.
Oxidation-Reduction cont.
In biological systems, the electrons are often associated with hydrogen atoms.
Biological oxidations are often dehydrogenations.
Fig 5.10
The Generation of ATP
Phosphorylation:
1. Substrate level phosphorylation: transfer of a high-energy PO
4– to ADP.
2. Oxidative phosphorylation: transfer of electrons from one compound to another is used to generate ATP by chemiosmosis.
Metabolic Pathways of Energy Production: COH Catabolism
• Cellular respiration– Aerobic respiration– Anaerobic respiration
• Fermentation
The three steps of aerobic respiration1. Glycolysis (oxidation of _____ to ______)2. Krebs cycle (oxidation of acetyl CoA to ___)3. Oxidative phosphorylation (e- transport chain)
Glycolysis
Multi – step breakdown of glucose into pyruvate
Generates • small amount of ATP (how many?)
• small amount of reducing power – (?)
• Alternative pathways: Pentose phosphate and Entner-Doudoroff
Krebs Cycle
• Other names?• Preparatory (Transition) step generates
acetyl-CoA from pyruvate (decarboxylation)• Acetyl group of acetyl-CoA enters TCA cycle• Generates ATP and reducing power • Generates precursor metabolites
Electron Transport Chain• Formed by series of electron carriers (cytochromes)
located in ___________
• Oxidation/Reduction reactions. Electron carriers (reducing power) from glycolysis and TCA cycle transfer their electrons to the electron transport chain
• Generates proton gradient or proton motive force (pmf)
• In chemiosmosis, pmf generates energy via oxidative phosphorylation
Electron Transport and the Chemiosmotic Generation of ATP
Fig. 5.16 See Textbook Animations
Anaerobic Respiration
• Inorganic molecule is final electron acceptor, e.g.:– NO3
- – SO4
2-
• ATP yield lower than in aerobic respiration because only part of Krebs cycle operates under anaerobic conditions.
Fermentation• Any spoilage of food by microorganisms (general use)• Any process that produces alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy
products (general use)• Any large-scale microbial process occurring with or without
air (common definition used in industry)
Scientific definition:• Uses an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor• Does not use the Krebs cycle or ETC• Energy yield low• Diversity of end products: _____________________(see Table 5.4)
Pathway Eukaryote Prokaryote
Glycolysis
Preparatory step
Krebs cycle
ETC
Location of Carbohydrate Catabolism
Pathway ATP Produced NADH Produced
FADH2 ProducedGlycolysis
Preparatory step
Krebs cycle
Total
Energy produced from complete oxidation of one glucose molecule using aerobic respiration
Pathway By Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
By Oxidative Phosphorylation
From NADH From FADH
Glycolysis
Intermediate step
Krebs cycle
Total
ATP produced from complete oxidation of one glucose using aerobic respiration
Catabolism of Other Compounds
• Polysaccharides and disaccharides–Amylases for digestion of ___________
(very common)–Cellulase for digestion of __________
(only bacteria and fungi have this enzyme)–Disaccharidases
• Lipid catabolism not covered
Protein Amino acids
Extracellular proteases
Krebs cycle
Deamination, decarboxylation, dehydrogenation, desulfurylation
Organic acid
Protein Catabolism
Decarboxylation
Biochemical Tests and Bacterial Identification: Fermentation Tests
Different species produce different enzymes test detects enzyme
Mannitol Fermentation:
Metabolic Diversity among Organisms
• Energy source: Phototrophs vs. Chemotrophs
• Principal carbon source: Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs
• Chemoheterotrophs use organic compound as energy source and carbon source. Most medically important bacteria.
• Saprophytes vs. parasites