CHINESE AMERICANS CHINESE AMERICANS AND JAPANESE AND JAPANESE

AMERICANSAMERICANS

CHAPTER 13CHAPTER 13

Chinese AmericansChinese Americans Americans held conflicting views on Chinese Americans held conflicting views on Chinese

immigration from the beginningimmigration from the beginning Settlers unwilling to tolerate alien cultureSettlers unwilling to tolerate alien culture Labor was welcomedLabor was welcomed

Chinese exclusion act of 1882 - 1943Chinese exclusion act of 1882 - 1943 Gradual immigration from 1943 - 1965Gradual immigration from 1943 - 1965 Increase in immigration came with the Increase in immigration came with the

passage of the 1965 Immigration Actpassage of the 1965 Immigration Act

Significant component of Chinese in US are Significant component of Chinese in US are those adopted by American non-Chinese those adopted by American non-Chinese couplescouples Chinese adoption laws loosened to promote Chinese adoption laws loosened to promote

adoptions of childrenadoptions of children Mainly girls abandoned under China’s one-child Mainly girls abandoned under China’s one-child

policypolicy Faced complex issues of cultural and social Faced complex issues of cultural and social

identityidentity

Chinese Americans is a collective termChinese Americans is a collective term Vast diversity within the groupVast diversity within the group

• Language, nationality, and region of originLanguage, nationality, and region of origin

• Divisions are sharply expressedDivisions are sharply expressed

Occupational Profile of Occupational Profile of Chinese AmericansChinese Americans

Early on discriminatory laws were passed Early on discriminatory laws were passed making it difficult for Chinese to enter certain making it difficult for Chinese to enter certain occupationsoccupations

Early on gravitated toward service Early on gravitated toward service occupations or low paying jobs that whites occupations or low paying jobs that whites found undesirablefound undesirable

Chinese sought relative safety of Chinatowns Chinese sought relative safety of Chinatowns and the tourist industryand the tourist industry New immigrants find it difficult finding jobs outside New immigrants find it difficult finding jobs outside

of Chinatownof Chinatown Lack of English is another reason for new Lack of English is another reason for new

immigrants seeking work in Chinatownimmigrants seeking work in Chinatown

Chinatowns TodayChinatowns Today The economic paradox of ChinatownsThe economic paradox of Chinatowns The impression of glitter and wealth hidden The impression of glitter and wealth hidden

among economic deprivation and poverty in among economic deprivation and poverty in ChinatownChinatown

Rich history of organizational membershipRich history of organizational membership Clan or tsu organization and functions Clan or tsu organization and functions

(Surname Association)(Surname Association) Membership based on clan and family Membership based on clan and family

tiesties Provided mutual assistanceProvided mutual assistance

Hui Kuan (Huiguan)Hui Kuan (Huiguan) Benevolent associations that help members Benevolent associations that help members

adjust to a new lifeadjust to a new life Based on person’s district of origin rather than Based on person’s district of origin rather than

kinshipkinship

Hui kuan associations are part of a larger Hui kuan associations are part of a larger organization, Chinese Six Companies, organization, Chinese Six Companies, (Chinese Consolidated Benevolent (Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association)Association)

TongsTongs or or secret societiessecret societies Formed on the basis of common interestsFormed on the basis of common interests Some are political, others protest exploitation of Some are political, others protest exploitation of

Chinese workers, others provide illegal servicesChinese workers, others provide illegal services

Conclusions reached about the various Conclusions reached about the various social organizationssocial organizations All have followed patterns created in traditional All have followed patterns created in traditional

ChinaChina All three types have performed similar functionsAll three types have performed similar functions

• Providing mutual assistance and representing interests Providing mutual assistance and representing interests to a sometimes hostile dominant groupto a sometimes hostile dominant group

Because all groups had similar purposes and Because all groups had similar purposes and operated in the same locale, conflict was operated in the same locale, conflict was inevitableinevitable

Old associations have declined in significanceOld associations have declined in significance When communicating with dominant society, all When communicating with dominant society, all

groups downplayed problems of Chinatowngroups downplayed problems of Chinatown

Social ProblemsSocial Problems Myth that Chinese Americans and Myth that Chinese Americans and

Chinatowns have no problemsChinatowns have no problems The tourist industry in Chinatown as double The tourist industry in Chinatown as double

edged swordedged sword Jobs but at substandard payJobs but at substandard pay

PovertyPoverty Poor health care, especially for the elderlyPoor health care, especially for the elderly High suicide ratesHigh suicide rates Poor and run-down housingPoor and run-down housing Rising crime ratesRising crime rates Poor working conditionsPoor working conditions Inadequate care for the elderlyInadequate care for the elderly Weak union representation of laborersWeak union representation of laborers

Family and Religious LifeFamily and Religious Life People’s Republic of In the China organized People’s Republic of In the China organized

religion barely existsreligion barely exists State policy discourages and prohibits foreign State policy discourages and prohibits foreign

missionary activitymissionary activity

Change in family life is most difficult cultural Change in family life is most difficult cultural change to acceptchange to accept

Domestic violence is a problem that recently Domestic violence is a problem that recently surfacedsurfaced

Another problem is rise in gang activityAnother problem is rise in gang activity Chinese American youth are not part of the model Chinese American youth are not part of the model

minorityminority

Japanese AmericansJapanese Americans Initial Japanese immigrants came around Initial Japanese immigrants came around

1885 (Push and pull factors)1885 (Push and pull factors) Came from a very stratified societyCame from a very stratified society Most came from the lower class in JapanMost came from the lower class in Japan Initially many found employment in forestry, Initially many found employment in forestry,

agriculture and then migrated to cities along agriculture and then migrated to cities along the West Coast and established small the West Coast and established small businessesbusinesses

Feelings of “yellow peril” also directed at the Feelings of “yellow peril” also directed at the JapaneseJapanese

Japanese Americans distinguish themselves Japanese Americans distinguish themselves according to number of generations a family has according to number of generations a family has been in the USbeen in the US

Each succeeding generation more acculturated and Each succeeding generation more acculturated and less likely to know Japaneseless likely to know Japanese Issei (pronounced “EE-say”)Issei (pronounced “EE-say”)

• First generation born in JapanFirst generation born in Japan Nisei (“Nee-say)Nisei (“Nee-say)

• Children of first generation born in USChildren of first generation born in US Sansei (“SAHN-say”)Sansei (“SAHN-say”)

• Third generation must go back to grandparents to reach their Third generation must go back to grandparents to reach their rootsroots

Yonsei (“YAWN-say”)Yonsei (“YAWN-say”)• Fourth generationFourth generation

Kibei (“KEE-boy”)Kibei (“KEE-boy”)• Nisei sent back to Japan for schooling and marriage then return Nisei sent back to Japan for schooling and marriage then return

to USto US

Early DiscriminationEarly Discrimination Laws were passed prohibiting Issei from becoming Laws were passed prohibiting Issei from becoming

citizenscitizens California Alien Land Act of 1913California Alien Land Act of 1913

Prohibited anyone who was ineligible for citizenship from Prohibited anyone who was ineligible for citizenship from owning land and limited leasesowning land and limited leases

Economic impact on agricultural land owned by Economic impact on agricultural land owned by Japanese AmericansJapanese Americans

Adjustments to the act led many to transfer Adjustments to the act led many to transfer ownership to their American born childrenownership to their American born children

Many left agriculture and migrated to cities and Many left agriculture and migrated to cities and established small businesses catering to both the established small businesses catering to both the Japanese and dominant groupJapanese and dominant group

The Wartime EvacuationThe Wartime Evacuation Executive Order 9066, signed by President Executive Order 9066, signed by President

Roosevelt on February 13, 1942Roosevelt on February 13, 1942 Defined strategic military areas and authorized Defined strategic military areas and authorized

the removal of people considered threats to the removal of people considered threats to national securitynational security

Economic cost to the evacuees was in excess Economic cost to the evacuees was in excess of $400 million or in current dollars $3.7 billionof $400 million or in current dollars $3.7 billion

Psychological impact and weakened family Psychological impact and weakened family tiesties

The way out and the loyalty testThe way out and the loyalty test Questions were ambiguousQuestions were ambiguous

Japanese Americans demonstrated their Japanese Americans demonstrated their loyalty to the United States by participating in loyalty to the United States by participating in the war effortthe war effort

Racism and internmentRacism and internment German and Italian Americans were not internedGerman and Italian Americans were not interned Japanese in Hawaii left alone because they were Japanese in Hawaii left alone because they were

and integral part of the economyand integral part of the economy

Japanese migration from the camps after the Japanese migration from the camps after the warwar

Mitsuye Endo v. United States (1944)Mitsuye Endo v. United States (1944) Detainment was unconstitutional and Detainment was unconstitutional and

consequently freedom was to be grantedconsequently freedom was to be granted

Commission on Wartime Relocation and Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (1981)Internment of Civilians (1981) Government formally apologized and give Government formally apologized and give

$20,000 tax-free to 82,000 surviving internees$20,000 tax-free to 82,000 surviving internees

Civil Liberties Act (1988)Civil Liberties Act (1988) Signed by Ronald Reagan authorizing paymentsSigned by Ronald Reagan authorizing payments

Payments slow in coming, other federal Payments slow in coming, other federal expenditures had priorityexpenditures had priority

Aging internees dying at rate of 200/monthAging internees dying at rate of 200/month First checks issued in 1990First checks issued in 1990

Economic PictureEconomic Picture Socioeconomic status very different from Socioeconomic status very different from

Chinese AmericansChinese Americans Upward mobility after WWIIUpward mobility after WWII Japanese American educational attainment is Japanese American educational attainment is

higher than whiteshigher than whites Occupationally have been upwardly mobile Occupationally have been upwardly mobile

but still experience the glass ceiling and wallbut still experience the glass ceiling and wall Higher median family income than whitesHigher median family income than whites Few excuses apart from racism to explain Few excuses apart from racism to explain

why Whites continue to view Japanese as why Whites continue to view Japanese as different from themdifferent from them

Family and Religious LifeFamily and Religious Life Acculturation and change in family Acculturation and change in family

structurestructure Conjugal nuclear family structureConjugal nuclear family structure Neolocal pattern of residenceNeolocal pattern of residence Outgroup marriage is increasing and is Outgroup marriage is increasing and is

approximately 50% among the Yonseiapproximately 50% among the Yonsei Rising divorce rateRising divorce rate Crime, delinquency, and reported mental Crime, delinquency, and reported mental

illnessillness Japanese have lower incidence than other Japanese have lower incidence than other

minorities and Whitesminorities and Whites

Dual religious customs in Japan Dual religious customs in Japan One can be Shinto and Buddhist at the same One can be Shinto and Buddhist at the same

timetime

United States the emphasis is on United States the emphasis is on belonging to a single religionbelonging to a single religion Immigrants found it easy to accept ChristianityImmigrants found it easy to accept Christianity

Impact is changing religious customs over Impact is changing religious customs over time among Japanese-Americanstime among Japanese-Americans

Buddhism growing in USBuddhism growing in US New adherents are Whites attracted to their New adherents are Whites attracted to their

perception of a more enriching value systemperception of a more enriching value system

Remnants of Prejudice Remnants of Prejudice and Discriminationand Discrimination

Fu Manchu image is gone, but replacement Fu Manchu image is gone, but replacement is not betteris not better

Entertainment media, if presentEntertainment media, if present Karate experts or technical specialistsKarate experts or technical specialists Chinese Americans are ignored or Chinese Americans are ignored or

misrepresented in history booksmisrepresented in history books

Chinese and Japanese Americans believe Chinese and Japanese Americans believe racism has decreased but subtle reminders racism has decreased but subtle reminders remainremain

Young Asian Americans are trying to fight Young Asian Americans are trying to fight racist and exclusionary practicesracist and exclusionary practices

Intermarriage, not typical, legal and more Intermarriage, not typical, legal and more commoncommon More than 1/4More than 1/4 thth of Chinese Americans marry of Chinese Americans marry

someone who is not Chinesesomeone who is not Chinese Increase indicates Whites are increasingly Increase indicates Whites are increasingly

accepting Chinese Americansaccepting Chinese Americans Also suggests Chinese and Japanese ties to Also suggests Chinese and Japanese ties to

native cultures are weakeningnative cultures are weakening

Chinese and Japanese Americans more Chinese and Japanese Americans more acceptable and less alien to Whitesacceptable and less alien to Whites

Japanese American community struggles Japanese American community struggles to maintain its cultural identity while paying to maintain its cultural identity while paying homage to those interned during WWIIhomage to those interned during WWII

Some are seeking to justify internmentSome are seeking to justify internment Critics feel that teaching of internment too Critics feel that teaching of internment too

biased and arguments for internment being biased and arguments for internment being correct action should be includedcorrect action should be included

Some Japanese Americans, especially Some Japanese Americans, especially Sansei are politically activeSansei are politically active Emerged as activists for environmentEmerged as activists for environment Attack apparent rise in hate crimes in US Attack apparent rise in hate crimes in US

against Asian Americansagainst Asian Americans

Lobbied for passage of Civil Rights Lobbied for passage of Civil Rights Restoration ActRestoration Act Extending reparations to evacueesExtending reparations to evacuees

Japanese Americans show little evidence Japanese Americans show little evidence of wanting to maintain distinct way of lifeof wanting to maintain distinct way of life

Values that have endured areValues that have endured are Attitudes, beliefs, and goals shared by and Attitudes, beliefs, and goals shared by and

rewarded by White middle-classrewarded by White middle-class

Any Asian American is culturally part of a Any Asian American is culturally part of a society that is dominated by a group that society that is dominated by a group that excludes others because of racial excludes others because of racial distinctionsdistinctions

QUESTIONS QUESTIONS

What has been the legacy of the “yellow What has been the legacy of the “yellow peril”?peril”?

What made the placement of Japanese What made the placement of Japanese Americans in internment camps unique?Americans in internment camps unique?

In what respects does diversity In what respects does diversity characterize Chinatowns?characterize Chinatowns?

How has Japanese American assimilation How has Japanese American assimilation been blocked in the United States?been blocked in the United States?

What are the most significant similarities What are the most significant similarities between the Chinese American and between the Chinese American and Japanese American experience?Japanese American experience?

What are the differences?What are the differences?

The Japanese were provided and apology The Japanese were provided and apology and monetary reparations for their and monetary reparations for their internment during WWII. What differences internment during WWII. What differences are reflected in their situation compared to are reflected in their situation compared to African Americans and their struggle for African Americans and their struggle for reparations for slavery?reparations for slavery?

What events can you imagine that could What events can you imagine that could cause the United States to again identify cause the United States to again identify an ethnic group for confinement in some an ethnic group for confinement in some type of internment camps?type of internment camps?