CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR TRADITIONAL PRODUCTSAN
ANALYTICAL STUDY OF KARNATAKACHAPTER-1INTRODUCTION1.1. INTRODUCTION
OF THE STUDYThe market place isnt what it used to be. In the recent
past, the culture and tradition has brought great changes across
the world. The key characteristic of todays global market is the
speed with which the demand for a product and change in its style,
design, and colour, offer greater opportunities as well as threats
to producers. Perhaps, improved technology with advanced
infrastructure, to a greater extent promotes hastened movement of
goods without trade barriers. The growing commercialization of
Karnatakas traditional handicraft products is assign of inevitable
movement of cottage industries to keep them refreshed with changing
markets. The pre carious nature of handmade craft markets invites
strategic approaches to reach global consumers. But, delayed
response can push these deep-rooted traditional handmade products
out, replacing them with mass, factorymade, machine crafts.
Karnatakaa land of rich cultural heritage presents colourful
traditional handmade products handed down from generations.
Regional products, especially craftworks, involve large and
diversified designs in wood, metals, glass, stone, clay and other
materials. Although large industries did not make in roads in rural
Karnataka, the inspiration is to preserve village traditions and
encourage artisans to organize themselves into small craft units
under cooperative line.1.1.2 Traditional products:The scarcity and
distinctive nature of materials needed for production compel
artisans to move their units in to interior regions, close to
forests, in search of good quality raw materials at low cost.
Perhaps, for this reason, until recently, most traditional hand
made products of the State lack accessibility to urban pockets.In
recent years, the notion to expand rural tourism with assign if I
cantmove to promote rural crafts by the government invited
attention of private traders to this industry. The industry joined
with government sponsored crafts centers and the State Tourism
Campaign. Private traders welcomed the move and established
factory-made production and marketing units in villages. The
growingglobal publicity for Traditional products encouraged private
traders to setup business in rural tourist pockets. Enjoying a
better share of Karnataka markets, private merchants revolutionized
the handmade product industry with fake, low priced crafts.Experts
agree that the rush of imported crafts had an impact on production
and marketing of handmade traditional products in rural Karnataka.
Unaware of the current market realities, a majority of cooperative
artisanal units struggled to place their products with the
conventional methods of marketing. This paper explores current
market realities for traditional products of Karnataka. Selecting,
rural artisanal units functioning under cooperative principles as
an example, this study appraises the extent of competitive threat
faced by the hand made traditional products of the State.Focusing
on past research on related issues in promoting hand-made crafts
the literature review explores the market scenario of traditional
hand-made products of India as well as Karnataka. Explaining the
data and methodology, following sections explain the results and
summary of study with suggestions for further
research.1.1.3.Traditional Markets in Indian Market:People pursue
artistic and creative expression through a variety of outlets:
formal theatrical performances, sculptures, paintings, and
buildings; as well as the less formal arts, music and food
festivals, celebrations and informal cultural gatherings, pickup
bands, and crafts groups. Together, these formal and informal,
tangible and intangible, professional and amateur artistic and
cultural activities constitute a community's cultural assets. These
activities which encompass a diverse set of locations, spaces,
levels of professionalism and participation, products, events,
consumers, creators, and critics are essential to a community's
well-being, economic and cultural vitality, sense of identity, and
heritage.Resourcing encompasses the development in and manipulation
of human resources, financial resources, technological resources
and natural resources, since organizations can be viewed as
systems, management can also be defined as human action, including
design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a
system. This view opens the opportunity to manage oneself, a
pre-requisite to attempting to manage others. 1.1.4. Cultural
Growth: The broadest sense, Cultural Resources Management (CRM) is
the vocation and practice of managing cultural resources, such as
the arts and heritage. It incorporates cultural heritage management
which is concerned with traditional and historic culture. It also
believes into the material culture of archaeology. Cultural
resources management encompasses current culture, including
progressive and innovative culture, such as urban culture, rather
than simply preserving and presenting traditional forms of
culture.1.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE1.2.1. Traditional Artisans:
In early periods, artisans selected local markets as their
outlets to sell in ligneous traditional products. However, with
expanding tourism, the trend to globalize rural craft markets
offered a wide opening to several traditional ethnic products
across the world (Margaret,1990). In addition ,the rising in come
and consequent change in life styles brought demand for handmade
home accessories and dcor crafts (TedandMarina,2006). However, in
the age of globalization, a study by The author (2010) on applying
quantitative marketing in handicraft industry recommends artisans
not to limit their designs to affixed range, but to diversify
products to push themselves ahead of their competitors. 1.2.2
Traditional Products:Todays markets witness radical changes because
of technological shifts in consumers buying behavior
(Kotler,et.al,2009). For instance, the information age with fast
market communication ease producers link with business partners,
customers and government regulators. Eventually, things designed
manually become computerized (Osmond,2010), exposing even regional
products to global consumers. The indigenous traditional products
are not an exception, because-promotions offer wide exposure to the
diverse culture and traditions of a number of countries to global
consumers.The growing markets for decorative crafts intensified
competition between handmade and factory-made crafts in Karnataka.
But sometimes, in contrast to the market observations, some
products, because of the aesthetic designs are unable to be copied
by machines. These products fetch a good share in global markets
(Rajagopal,1989). Even if, globalization encourages cottage
industries to their rather than with their aesthetic beauty
(Vanaja,2010), It brings a market threat because of free trade ,
mass factory production or import of low priced crafts
(Thomaset.al,2003). To add to Pradeep (2008) discovers that in a
majority of rural crafts deregulation and privatization eventually
out priced the hard labour of artisans.If one asked the cottage
industries to identify the greatest challenges faced by them, one
of the commonest responses would be competition
(Norman,et.al,2009). What causes, In deed drives the increased
competition may vary from smart arrival to large factory units
competing at a low price (ExecutiveOutlook,2006). Therefore, when
consumers receives ame products with less differentiation but at
low price, rural artisans face competitive pressure in same market
(Norman,et.al,2009). Also, the emergence of several-retailers,
similar to Amazon.com, by passes existing rural retailers,
facilitating buyers to place orders online at lower prices. This
new distribution strategy has enormously expanded the market
horizon, welcoming crafts of different regions into Karnataka
markets (New Karnataka,2009). 1.2.3. Developments and Growth Of
Handmade products: Because of the market developments reflected on
a global scale , majority of village artisans have lost their hold
over the old patron-client market net work (Manoj,1994). In some
parts of rural India, regional markets remained untapped with an
impression that handmade goods are high priced and poorly designed
(Layila, 1994 and Nerys.et.al,2006) .An early study by Uma (1965)
discovers wide disparities in market opportunities between urban
and rural products and complaints on the in ability of village
crafts to penetrate external markets competing with machine made
urban crafts.Keplans (1977) study on relative significance of
strategic marketing to promote cottage industries corroborates Umas
findings. Much has been discussed about the prevailing economic
conditions of traditional industries of various states
(Manzoor1992; Thambi1975 and Thaimani, 1987).A study by Nurkse
(1954) warns of a threat of a vicious circle of under development
in this sector. With low productivity, low income and low
investment, this vicious circle gradually leads to market failure.
To support the above argument Dak (1989) lists reasons that cause
market failure to handmade products. He claims poor designs, low
product quality and in efficient market approaches are the major
weaknesses of rural artisans. These weaknesses exploited by urban
based factories, with low costs keep village crafts from global
markets (Digbey, 1960; Sanjay, 1988 and Luckose (1992). In response
to these issues, emerging literature addressing the limitations of
rural enterprises recommends viable solutions to above market
issues (Gundiff,1972; Manzoor1992; Thambi,1975 and Ram,
1988).Thaimani (1987), admits that a lack of market awareness is
the main obstacle pulling village products from global markets.
Some researchers recommend periodic market research to design work
able solutions to gain competitive advantage (Prajapati,1986;
Layila, 1994; George, 2009 and Vanaja, 2010).A strategic market
study by Aron (2003) also supports these issues, recommending
innovation-based strategies to assess market threats .In brief,
artisans should have an understanding of market dynamics including
variations in channel policies and pricing techniques to develop a
comprehensive plan to meet tailor-made demands
(KashyapandRaut,2006).When multinational companies re filled rural
Karnataka with hi-tech marketing (Art and craft,2010), Apparent
change in s: consumer buying trends and the entry of various
aggressively promoted factory products result. In light of this
artisans must appraise their own market policies. Conceptualizing
the significance of assessing market realities for these products,
the aim of this study is to explore the challenges for indigenous
traditional products through a competitive and threat analysis ,
selecting Karnataka handicraft markets as a case example. 1.2.4.
Gap AnalysisExtensive literature review suggested that not much
emphasis has been given on exhaustively identifying the antecedents
and predictors of Traditonal Products. Since engaging nomads is a
pertinent issue, focused efforts need to be undertaken by business
organizations in that direction. Literature review also revealed
absence of a holistic Traditional Products models. Another gap
identified was the absence of such a study in the cultural sector
in India and worldwide. Hence it was decided to address these gaps
in the scope of this study. The study has explored and established
that organizational culture and communication act as drivers and
play an instrumental role in shaping nomads attitudes, feelings and
behaviour. Thus literature review brought out the importance of
developing Traditional Products model to give organizations a
sustainable competitive edge. Literature revealed the absence of an
Traditional Products framework through organizational drivers like
culture and communication. The absence of a methodology which
measures the same also surfaced through literature review. These
research gaps have been identified and addressed through this
study.
1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY1.3.1. To study and analyse the
production and marketing activities in Karnataka State.:A sign of a
healthy community is its simultaneous ability to preserve and
invent its culture that is, to conserve its history and heritage
and at the same time develop new expressions for current times.
Arts and cultural activity and the leadership of artists,
historians, folklorists, anthropologists, planners, and other
community leaders play important roles in preserving the history
and heritage of a place, as well as easing tensions and encouraging
respect for the changing cultural landscape. Despite the importance
of history and heritage, preservation is rarely seen as a potential
basis for innovation and advancement. As a result, too often
sufficient resources are not dedicated to preserving significant
meaningful spaces and objects, documenting stories from elders, and
recording a community's contemporary cultural practices. 1.3.2. To
study and examine the challenges related to production and
marketing of traditional products:Artistic, cultural, and creative
strategies help to reveal and enhance the identity the unique
meaning, value, and character that underlies the physical and
social form of a community. As part of an overall strategy to
explore community context, embrace and nurture community diversity
and uniqueness, and build upon and celebrate community character,
planners can utilize artistic and cultural inventories, community
visioning processes, design guidelines, arts and culture
programming, master plans, and public financial investments in
urban design and placemaking. All of these elements require the
consideration of all community interests in key decision-making
processes; the integration of arts and cultural resources in a
contextual civic framework; and the recognition and balancing of
the inherent, conflicting nature of past, present, and future
social values. However, there is another threat looming large, that
is, of losing these communities to outright annihilation or due to
their amalgamation in the mainstream. Moreover, with the
commercialisation of even natural resources, traditional knowledge
that managed to maintain sustainable levels of harvest has been
sidelined. Issues of privatisation, alienation and bio-piracy are
major areas of concern. Tribals had a deep attachment for trees and
animals. But politicians and officials were ruthlessly felling
trees in forests for monetary considerations. Tribals had a rich
oral tradition, which was one of the pillars of Indian
culture.1.3.3. To study the institutions involved in the promotion
of traditional products:Community engagement is a process of
relationship building that encourages both learning and action, as
well as the expression of opinions about a place based issue or
program. A higher level of community engagement in planning offers
vibrancy and innovation by strengthening the level of public
commitment and making more perspectives available to decision
makers. Both planners and community leaders already promote
community engagement through a variety of traditional tools,
including public opinion surveys, visioning workshops, asset-based
planning, town halls, meetings, and public hearings. However,
creative tools are now also being used more and more to promote
community engagement with planning activities and goals. The use of
creative tools such as visual-art techniques, storytelling,
festivals, exhibits, dance, spoken word, Photo Voice, music,
performances, web-based applications and community gatherings
emphasizes receptiveness to input, genuine acknowledgment of
feedback, easy participation, and the development of
relationships.1.3.4. To study and analyse the capabilities of
traditional products:People are increasingly recognizing the
connection between the activity of the arts and culture sector and
the economic vitality in a neighborhood or community. High
concentrations of creative enterprises and workers in a geographic
area may provide a competitive edge by elevating a community's
quality of life, improving its ability to attract economic
activity, and creating a climate for innovation to flower.
Communities in which arts and culture activities of all types
flourish are important for the recruitment and retention of a
skilled and educated workforce in a city or region. 1.3.5. To study
and analyse the opportunities and challenges compete with modern
products:An important area in which Data has designed and
implemented the efficient and innovative solutions is that of the
preservation and promotion of cultural heritage and artistic
creation. It concentrates on Design and implementation of
collection management systems. The preservation of cultural
heritage in the digital age is closely related to efficient
digitization and documentation of cultural heritage artifacts and
collections. Data verse has implemented custom artifact cataloguing
and documentation solutions.1.3.6. To study the opinion of
respondents of the study area:Historically, planners utilized art
and culture as a community revitalization tool; more recently,
however, planners are realizing the potential contributions of art
and culture to other social, economic, and environmental aspects of
community life. In Uttara kannada there are 11 taluks. The
geographical area like Uttara Kannada districts is very rare. It
has its own consideration and its worth. It can be classified in to
three situations like costal, hilly (Malenadu), and dry
geographical areas. Uttara Kannada is a district in the southern
state of karnataka.Arts and culture provide a medium to preserve,
celebrate, challenge, and invent community identity. engage
participation in civic life. inform, educate, and learn from
diverse audiences. communicate across demographic and socioeconomic
lines..1.4. METHEDOLOGY TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES:1.4.1. Research
Design
This study undertook the design of descriptive research. Once
the theoretical framework was developed, the data collection
procedure was planned and executed. For the current study, artisans
drawn from these three types of traditional products were
studied.
1.4.2. Preliminary Exploratory Research
An exploratory pilot study for a sample size of hundred
respondents drawn from the culture was undertaken. This was used to
test the reliability and validity of the scales used in the study.
Some items with lower factor loadings and cross loadings were
deleted after pre-testing. The pre-testing also asserted that there
were no issues on comprehensibility of the statements used in the
questionnaire. It helped in estimating that 10-15 minutes time was
taken by the respondents to answer the same.1.4.3. Hypothesis:In
statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis (or
maintained hypothesis or research hypothesis) and the null
hypothesis are the two rival hypotheses which are compared by a
statistical hypothesis test.In the domain of science two rival
hypotheses can be compared by explanatory power and predictive
power.Null hypothesis A proposition that undergoes verification to
determine if it should be accepted or rejected in favor of an
alternative proposition. Often the null hypothesis is expressed as
"There is no relationship between two quantities."For example, in
market research, the null hypothesis would be "A ten-percent
increase in price will not adversely affect the sale of this
product." Based on survey results, this hypothesis will be either
accepted as correct or rejected as incorrect.Null hypothesis: There
is a significant relation between challenges faced by the
traditional consumers and modern consumers. This type of hypothesis
is considered as H1.Alternative hypothesis: In hypothesis testing,
a proposition that is accepted if the null hypothesis is
rejected.Alternative hypothesis: There is no any significant
relation between challenges faced by the traditional consumers and
modern consumers. It is considered as H0.1.4.4. Need of the
studyUttara Kannada, is bordered by the state of Goa and Belgaum
district to the north, Dharwad district and Haveri district to the
east, Shivamogga district and Udupi district to the south and the
arabian sea to the west. The city of karwar is the administrative
headquarters of the districs. The main languages spoken in this
district is Kannada, Konkani, Marathi. Kannada is the predominant
language followed by Konkani which is also widely spoken. The study
will concentrates on the Income and Employment Generation Through
the Management of Cultural Art in Uttara Kannada district of
karnataka state. Because Uttara Kannada was the home of the Kadamba
Kingdom. After the subjugation of the Kadambas the district came
under successive rule of empires like Chalukyas, Rastrakutas,
Hoysalate, and vijaynagar empire. Yakshagana is a classical dance
drama popular in the state of Karnataka in India, most popular in
the district of Uttara Kannada. This theater art involves Music,
Songs, Dance, Acting, Dialogue, story, and unique costumes. We can
find vast number of rich cultural activities like Music, Painting,
Drama &films, Dance, Sculpture, Animation, etc. so it helps to
get effective resources and the materials, to collect the sources
for detailed studies.With the above stated strong background of the
study the investigator intended to throw some useful light on the
present research entitled challenges and opportunities for
traditional products-An analytical study of Karnataka.1.4.5. Brief
profile of the study area:In uttarakannada there are 11 taluks. The
geographical area like Uttara Kannada districts is very rare. It
has its own consideration and its worth. It can be classified in to
three situations like costal, hilly (Malenadu), and dry
geographical areas. Uttara Kannada is a district in the southern
state of karnataka. 1.4.6. Limitations:This one presents the market
realities for cottage industries engaged in production of
indigenous traditional products in Karnataka. Focusing on 200 rural
artisans, randomly selected from traditional handcraft cooperative
units, the study explores market threats for handmade products. The
competitive strength of the sample units were compared with their
rivalry units by measuring the key factors that determine the
success of craft marketing on at endpoint scale. Competitor profile
matrix reveals that product quality is the main strength for
handmade products, however, these units fail to compete with the
private and government sponsored production units with innovative
distribution, promotion and customer service strategies. This study
identifies the lack of innovative design as a severe threat.
Therefore, to win global demands, the traditional handmade products
have to traverse with diversified market strategies.
One limitation common with most of the works in this area is
availability of data to consider the influence of other factors on
threat analysis. The relative impact of anticipated market threats
was assessed based on the perception of rural artisans on their own
market as well as their competitors strategies. Taking into account
the gap in primary data on competitors opinion on their market
strategies, we acknowledge the need for further research in this
area to explore the efficacy of traditional handicraft units to
accommodate strategies as well to challenge market threats.
CHAPTER-2MARKETING OF TRADITIONAL PRODUCTS IN KARNATAKA2.1.
About KarnatakaThe land of Karnataka is blessed with many
fascinating monuments, historical structures, lush forests, and
some amazing scenic beauty along with a vibrant culture. This state
is a place of variety, where you can have a unique travel
experience. Bengaluru, earlier known as Bangalore, which is an IT
hub, is the capital of the state. Other interesting destinations of
Karnataka include coorg, Mysore, Hampi and Pattadakal, Bijapur, and
so on. Wildlife sanctuaries of Bandipur, Nagarhole and Dandeli, as
well as the Ranganathittu Bird's Sanctuary are other places of
interest in Karnataka. Like everything in the state, the
handicrafts of Karnataka are also amongst the most sought after
things for tourists because of their uniqueness.2.2. Karnataka
handicraftsMost art and crafts of Karnataka are produced by using
traditional methods, which has proved to be the hallmark of
fineness in craftsmanship for Karnataka artisans. The temples and
monuments in Karnataka are the living examples of stonework and the
perfect skills of the craftsmen in the state. Moreover, these
crafts have been going on for generations. Paintings, ivory
carving, sandalwood crafts, Mysore silk etc., are some of the many
interesting crafts seen in Karnataka. Moreover, metal work of Udupi
is also renown for heir intricate craftsmanship.2.3. Different
categories of Karnataka handicraftsWood Works
Mysore Silk, Cloth material
Leather lampshade
Metal Ware
Paintings
Ivory Carving
Stone Carving
Sandalwood Craft
Doll Making
Bidri Crafts
2.3.1. Wood Works or wood carving: Is an ancient and very
popular craft of Karnataka. The temples of the state and their
architecture show case the most impressive works of wood in
Karnataka. The detailed designs done on wooden ceilings, doors etc.
show the best of such works. The wooden works are done by means of
traditional methods. Many idols of deities are also a part of this
beautiful crafts. The wooden works are done by means of traditional
methods.
2.3.2. Mysore silk and Cloth material handmade: Another very
known and most heard about craft of Karnataka is the Mysore Silk,
which is the major export material of the state. More than half of
India's production of mulberry silk comes from Karnataka. Mysore
became the main center during the time of Tipu Sultan, who ruled
the city long back. The concept of Sericulture influenced him and
he brought silk worms from Bengal to establish the silk business in
Mysore. Now, you can buy saris and shawls made of Mysore silk,
which are extremely popular. 2.3.3. Metal Ware Work : Metal ware
work in Karnataka is limited to few areas and cities only. Bronze
casting is famous in some part of the state whereas bell metal in
some other. Many things required in performing religious duties are
made up of metal. Udupi, Karkala, Mangalore and Nagamangala are
some popular places where metal work is still done.2.3.4.
Paintings: There is no doubt that Paintings are the most popular
and one of the most oldest form of art preset in Karnataka. These
paintings are still made in the same form as they were being made
in the ancient period. The use of vegetable colours in bright hues,
gold leaf, and fine lines make these paintings unique and
exclusive.
2.3.5. Ivory Carving: Ivory Carving is another popular craft of
Karnataka. In this craft articles are curved delicately showcasing
the figures deities. Stone Carvers is again an interesting craft
form of the state. Most of the skills of these stone carvers in
Karnataka can be seen in the temples and its idols. Sandalwood
Craft is used to produce beautiful art pieces include images of
lord Krishna, lamp shades, trays, jewel boxes, decorative articles,
combs and walking sticks and so on. 2.3.6. Doll Making and leather
puppets: In Karnataka is a craft where dolls are made by wood or on
wooden platform. They are then decorated and painted upon. Besides
these wooden puppets, Karnataka also produces leather puppets which
are more extensively used. Leather skin lamp headers and other
decoration hangings, these are beautiful lamshade hand painted
lampshade and other decorated figures for home decorations, made of
goat leather skin. strippling by thin pin and painted by beautiful
colours, Leather lamp shadesMetal JewelleryMetal Jewellery is
handcrafted by the nomadic Lambani tribes of Karnataka.
Traditionally, the Lambani women folk wear jewellery made out of
copper, white metal and silver. In a village of 200 traditional
metal smiths from this tribe, there are only 20 families who are
still working to sustain this craft. The others have moved on for
better prospects, mostly to nearby cities.The designs presented in
this website are more contemporary. The picture of a Lambani woman
on the left will give you an idea of their traditional designs. To
make the jewellery, the metal sheets are cut into desired sizes
depending on the designs. The metal strip is then placed on a metal
block with the inverted design and hit with a hammer to give the
metal strip the desired shape. Heat is then used to weld the
various pieces together. The finished piece is then given the
desired finish by either oxidizing it or giving it a silver
coating. Meet Vinod, a traditional craftsman, whose family has been
into making metal jewellery for the Lambani tribe in traditional
designs for several generations. But as there are fewer Lambani
women wearing traditional jewellery nowadays, he has branched out
to cater to a wider audience. Making jewellery is a symbol of
togetherness for Vinod, where his wife helps him cut and give shape
to the metal strip; while his son takes the completed jewellery to
the weekly market to find buyers. Cotton Beads Jewellery This range
of jewellery comprises of handmade cotton yarn beads which are
interspersed with metal beads and metal pendants. Each cotton bead
is painstakingly made by the craftswomen of North Karnataka. The
cotton yarn is knotted around a knitting needle (or any similar
metal rod) to make the beads in various sizes. On an average, five
to ten minutes are required to make one cotton bead. The beads are
then put through a cotton chain and the ends are pleated and
knotted for a clean finish. The pendants used in these necklaces,
are made by the local metal smiths.Wool Related Products Karnataka
has over 7 million sheep, and the Wool production is second only to
Rajasthan in India. The Kurba and Gollar Shepherding communities
comprise about 40% of the population of North Karnataka. There are
around 25,000 weavers and 50,000 spinners in the region out of
which only ten percent are engaged on a regular basis. They have
been negatively affected due to inefficient market mechanisms and
the absence of an active shepherding organization. An NGO based in
Belgaum, Shramik Abhivrudi Sangh, has initiated awareness and
organizational building among the shepherding communities over the
last two decades. They have also given training to these
communities to enable them to make finished products from sheep
wool. Over 7 women self-help groups are currently engaged in making
excellent quality bags, laundry baskets, floor mats and wall
hangings from local sheep wool. The wool is first sorted as per
colour and quality. Then it is twisted into a yarn. The yarn can be
made by two methods either by twisting it against the thigh or by
spinning it using a charka, as you can see in the pictures below.
The woolen yarn is then used to make knotted bags and floor mats.
Sorted wool can also be felted to make woolen sheets which are then
used to make products.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
The purpose of this introductory chapter is to introduce the
topic and to describe the general procedures used in this study.
This chapter provides an overview of the topic, a rationale
describing the importance of the study, statement of the problem,
objectives of the study, review of literature, scope of the study
and the approaches used in this study. This chapter also deals with
the research methods and techniques used in the study.
1.2 Social Formation: A Definition
Social formation, largely synonymous with society, is a concept
which refers to the institutional context that provides the
conditions of existence of society, a term devised by the
structuralist Louis Althusser. It is a complex of concrete
economic, political, and ideological relations bound together.1 The
social, economic, legal and political structures and traditions of
a given community or society; in the modern period often embodied
within a nation state is called social structure.2 And social
formation embodies all the above elements.
According to Ginsberg social formation or structure is concerned
with the principal forms of social organization i.e., types of
groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these
which constitute societies. A full account of social formation
would involve a review of the whole field of comparative
1 Gordon Marshall, "Social Formation." A Dictionary of
Sociology. 1998.
2 www. Marxists economic.com.
2
institutions.3 Murdock uses social evolution instead of social
formation. In speaking of the evolution of social organization he
refers to the normal processes of cultural change as they find
special application in the area of social formation. 4
Social formation of Siddhis is an interesting element to observe
as their social structure is different from that of the other
tribes in the vicinity. The isolation that they succumb to has
played a vital role in their exclusive social formation in the
districts of Karwar and Dharwad of Karnataka state. Past 500 years
in the history of Siddhis in Karnataka have given a new turn to
their lives in their social formation in the given areas of
research. A real social imposition process was on from the day they
began serving the masters in these areas.
1.3 Siddhis
Siddhis are a tribal community who are found in the jungles of
Western Ghats in the Dharwad and Karwar districts of Karnataka; an
important social group whose history, experience, and expression
are part of the ongoing changing world culture of dispersed
peoples.5 These tribal people believe to be indigenous where as in
reality they are not. They are supposed to have come or being
brought from outside India for diverse purposes. In the words of
Sunil Janah, people of all races and religions had come and
settled, intermingled within these hospitable shores to make the
people of this subcontinent culturally rich and wholesome. 6
3 Ginsberg Morris, Social Change, British Journal of Sociology,
Vol.IX, 1947, pp. 1-8.
4 George Peter Murdock, Social Sturcture, The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1960, p. 184.
5 Ruth Simms Hamilton, Ed. Creating a Paradigm and Research
Agenda for Comparative Studies of the Worldwide Dispersion of
African Peoples, East Lanssing, Michigan State University, 1990, p.
28.
6 Sunil Janah, The Tribals of India, New Edition, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 1993, p. 1.
3
Among such variant races that settled here Siddhis are one, who
resemble those of Negroes, a Diaspora that has its history of more
than a five hundred years in India.
They are found in various parts of India, states such as
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Though a few of
them have assimilated themselves in the Indian society most of them
continue to maintain their indigenous customs, traditions, identity
and the way of life despite settling in India five hundred years
ago or more. But in Karnataka, Siddhis live in small clusters of
distinct settlement either in the forest or in the outskirts of it
in small villages, settled almost in six major Talukas of Karwar
across the Western Ghats. The reason why they settled only in these
districts in large numbers is a matter that is discussed in the
following chapters. The researcher has focused on these two
districts because they are found in large numbers and the
researcher has lived with them in these areas.
The census report of 2001 census does not count them as tribes
rather they are placed in the OBC section, which takes 41st place
in that division.7 These Siddhis seem to have assimilated what the
local culture and traditions offered them. From the time they have
entered into India and later moved into various parts of Karnataka
they have been very observant and have acculturated in response to
what the land offered them. There has been a gradual social
formation into being Indian rather than a foreigner so much so that
they call themselves indigenous people today.
7 Bhatt, S C & Gopal K. Bhargava. Land and People of Indian
States and union Territories: Karnataka, Vol.13, Kalpaz
Publications, Delhi, 2005, p. 139.
4
1.4 Etymology
The most widespread name of these Afro-Indians is usually
spelled Siddi and pronounced Siddhi in Kannada language. The name
is assumed by some linguists to be derived from Saiyed, an Islamic
honorific meaning a descendant of the prophet Mohammad. Platts
gives the derivation of the word as a vulgarization of Saiyid, an
appellation of Africans; a negro. The term, Siddhi is taken to be
corrupt form of Syed8 or Saiyad9 or Saidi 10or Sayyid.11
Saiyad is considered to be the designation of a descendant of
the prophet12and which, according to some authorities, means
priest. But it is contested that a term designing priest should
have been used by the Abyssinians (Abyssinia) who were notorious
for their lack of priestly qualities. 13 Abyssinians, from the
Arabic Habsh, the name applied to the country called Abyssinia,
meaning
dark.14 Hubshy15 as well as Zanzibar were places from where
slaves were
8 Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XI, p. 433.
9 Russel R.V. and Hiralal, The Tribe and Castes of the Central
Provinces of India, Vol. I, London, 1916, p. 409.
10 Census of India, 1961 Vol. V. Part II A (ii); Siddi a Negroid
Tribe of Gujarat, 1969, p.1.
11 Oxford Dictionary, Vol. IX, 1993, p. 22.
12 Russell and Hiralal, The Tribes and Castes of the Central
Provinces of India, Vol I, London 1916, p. 409.
13 Kiran Kiran Kamal, In Search of an Identity: an Ethnographic
Study of the Siddis in Karnataka. Jana Jagriti Prakashana,
Bangalore, 2005. p.71.
14 Edward Grey, The Travels of Pietro Della Valle in India, the
old English Translation of 1664, Ed. G. Havers, Vol. 1, Asian
Educational Services, New Delhi, 1991, p. 131.
15 Carey W. H., The Good old Days of Honourable John Company:
manners and customs of the British in India during the rule of the
East India company, from 1600-1858, Printed at the Arcus Press,
Simla, 1882, p. 71.
5
globally imported. Other forms of Sidi are Seedi, Syddy, Siddy,
Siddee, Seddhee, seddee, sid, sidi, seedy (a Urdu Sd, Marathi-
Siddh, ad., Arab Sayyid meaning My Lord) originally, a title of
honour given in Western India to African
Mohammedans holding high positions under the kings of the
Deccan. They were preferred to chief employments, which they enter
by the name of Siddhis.16
Sayyid- also as Seid, Seyd, Seyed, Seyyad, Syed, meaning lord or
prince in
Arab language. In Mohammedan countries, the title given to a man
who is supposed to trace his descent from Husain, the elder
grandson of the prophet.17
Murdock, In his book Africa divides the Sidamo tribes of
Ethiopia into seven major groups. He mentions Sidis as a tribe of a
major group called Ometo.18
1.5 Geographical Settings of Dharwad District
Dharwad district is the secondary district in Karnataka that has
a very scanty Siddhi presence as in Kalgatigi which solely
represents the Siddhi dwelling unit in the district. There are few
Siddhis who have temporarily migrated in the cities of Hubli and
Dharwad in search of jobs. Their number though less compared to
Karwar district, Siddhis make their presence felt very much in
Dharwad district.19 In the senses of 2001 ST population of the
district was 5.3%. 20 (See appendix. Fig. No. 03)
16 The Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. IX, Charendon Press,
Oxford, 1933, p. 22.
17 Ibid. p. 155.
18 Kadetotad N. K., Siddi, People of India: Karnataka, General
Ed. K.S. Singh, Vol. XXVI, Part Three, Anthropological Survey of
India, Affiliated East-West Press PVT Ltd, New Delhi, 2003, p.
1291.
19
20 Census of India 2001; Karnataka, District Population Booklet,
Dharwad, Series 30, Directorate of Census Operations, Karnataka,
2005, p. 5-8.
6
While referring to topography of the Dharwad district, it
contains black soil though red soil is found is suitable for
vegetable cultivation.21 The climate is on the whole healthy and
agreeable. It is pleasantest in the tract parallel with the
Sahyadri crest between Dharwar, Hubli, Kod and Bankapur. There are
thorny forests, scrub forests in the district. The forests are of
deciduous type. Containing a good percentage of teak on the west,
sides bordering Kanara and towards east it is scrubby containing
good percentage of sandal wood. The chief forest produce are
timber, firewood, Charcoal and sandal wood. Minor produce are jumri
leaves, harda, tarwal and kakki, gum, honey and bamboos that are
marketable.22 The Bombay wild Animals and Wild birds Protection Act
(XXIV of 1951)23 has enabled the forests to preserve the wild
animals and birds. The wild animals found in these forests are
Tiger, pig, deer, Leopard cat, Indian sloth bear, Indian bison,
wolf, Hyena, Jackal, Indian fox, wild dog, spotted deer, sambar,
wild boar, bats and monkeys. Birds of various kinds also are found
here such as wood peckers, bluebird and so on.24
1.6 Geographical Settings of Karwar
Karwar also known as Uttara Kannada, is one of the biggest
districts of Karnataka. It is located in the Western part of
Karnataka state. It is divided into eleven administrative Talukas,
namely Karwar, Bhatkal, Sirsi, Yellapura, Siddapur, Mundgod,
Honnavar, Haliyala, Ankola, Kumta and Supa. The district has a
population of 13, 53,644 according to 2001 census. The total area
of the
21 Gazetteer of Bombay State: Dharwad District. (Rev. Ed.).
Government Central Press, Bombay, 1959, p. 185.
22 Ibid. pp. 15-36.
23 Ibid. p. 40
24 Ibid. pp. 41 -42.
7
district is 10,291 sq. km.25 This district is located in the
Midwestern part of Karnataka, between 13- 55 and 15 - 31 North
latitude and 74 - 9 and 75 -
10 East longitude. 26(See appendix. Figure no. 01 and 02)
Topography of Karwar District freveals that there are four
principal rivers drain westwards from the crest of the Sahyadris to
the sea; from north to south they are the Kali, Gungawali,
Aghanashini and Sharavati. The North Western Ghats moist deciduous
forests cover the Sahyadris below 1000 meters elevation. In pockets
above 1000 meters elevation lie the evergreen North Western Ghats
mountain rain forests. Anishi National park, near Dandeli,
preserves approximately 250 kms of semi-evergreen forest, which is
home to tigers, elusive black panthers, leopard cats, gaurs, Asian
elephants, Sambars and a range of birds and reptiles. Dandeli
wildlife Sanctuary protects 834 km of semi-evergreen and bamboo
forest in the watershed of the Kali River and its tributaries, the
Kaneri and Nagajhari. Much of the lowland has been cleared for
agriculture.27
The chief crops of the district are rice and sugarcane, along
with a great diversity of other crops. Tree crops include coconut,
areca nut, cocoa, cashew, mango, banana, pineapple, Garcinia, and
sapota; vegetables include onion, radish, cucumber, cauliflower,
sweet potato, brinjal, and amaranth; spices include pepper,
cardamom, ginger and nutmeg. Millet and cotton are grown in the
drier portion of the district east of the Ghats.
25 Manorama Year Book 2007, Malayalam Manorama, Kottayam, 2007,
p. 621.
26
27
8
1.7 Demographics
In India, Karnataka has the largest concentration of Siddhis.
According to latest estimates there are around 3,700 Siddhis
families in the state with a total population of 18,000. Apart from
these settlements in Karnataka State Siddhis are also found in the
states of Gujarat in negligible numbers in states of Andhra
Pradesh, and Maharashtra. There are about 10,000 Siddhis in Gujarat
and 12,000 in Hyderabad. A few hundred are also in Lucknow, Delhi
and Calcutta. Pakistan has some 30,000 Shidis and fewer than 1,000
Ceylon Kapris live in Sri
Lanka.28
1.7.1 Reasons for settling in this area
The geographical settings of Dharwad and Karwar are very
convenient for the tribes to settle in here as the terrain in
mountainous covered with thick forest with rich fauna and flora.
The forest gave them a cover to hide from their enemies besides the
Siddhis were used to living in the forest. Forest provided them
with rich food that would keep them alive and strong. The west
coast of India in which these two districts are situated is
accessible to sea by land as well as by water. This sought of
conveyance during the time of danger enabled the Siddhis to settle
down in these districts. Siddhis also were in much demand for
labour in these districts as land lords needed strong, hardworking
and personnel skilled in agriculture. Siddhis were good at climbing
trees which was also a need in these areas due to tall aracnut
trees, trees that hold honey combs, trees that have delicious
fruits for consumption as well as for sale. Historically we see in
the later chapters that Siddhis were very skilled at Guerilla
warfare which kept the enemies fearful and at
28 Devika Sequeira, Near Forgotten, Siddis to Meet, Deccan
Herald News Service, Panaji, Jan, 2006.
9
bay. In this sense the west coast was a safe haven for them
which forced the Siddhis to settle down without much
hesitation.
1.7.2 Reasons for choosing these two districts for research
The districts of Dharwad and Karwar hold the highest number of
Siddhis in India. Though there are few of them settled in Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Maharashtra, these two districts
have huge number of them living in several settlements. History
reveals that these Siddhis who have settled themselves have come
down to these districts right from Bengal, Hyderabad, goa and
Maharashtra as they felt secure in the western Ghats of India which
has very many mountains covered with dense forests.
As their number is considerably more than any other parts of
India the researcher chose these districts for the research. It was
easy for the researcher to work in these districts even though the
settlements were in remote areas non-accessible and tough.
1.8 Ethnicity of Siddhis as Tribe
Tribes have their own life ethos, historical individuality and
ethnicity, in which case Siddhis have intra-tribal Hierarchy and
not inter-tribal. The attributes that constitute core of ethnicity
according to S.C. Doshi, which are basic to any tribal life include
as follows:
a. Scattered pattern of habitation, as witnessed today among the
Siddhis.
b. Life style oriented to hills, forests and isolations
c. Institutions such as polygamy, bride-price, status of women,
drinking etc
d. Subsistence economy
10
e. Fairs and festivals.29
Siddhis enjoy distinct identities who have shared values, mode
of life, exclusive symbol of identity and a consciousness of kind.
The caste principle of hierarchy is non-existent among Siddhis.
Siddhis live in hills, forests and isolations and have some of the
traits of tribes as enumerated above by Doshi. The researcher
discusses a few of those characters that concern Siddhis as a
tribe.
1.8.1 Scattered Pattern of Living
In both districts of Karwar and Dharwad, Kiran Kamal Prasad,
found Siddhis living in about 80 villages30. But the researcher
raises it to 118 settlements. The settlements remain more or less
the same except for the fact that many people shift their
settlements. But Siddhis have not begun any new settlements due to
new forest laws that forbid them to clear the forest and begin a
new settlement as intended by them.
Only eleven families lived in Dandeli, a town in Haliayal Taluka
in 1984. The settlements are in eight Talukas of three districts
namely Ankola, Yellapura, Sirsi, Supa, Mundgod, Haliyala of Karwar
district, Kalgatgi of Dharwad district and Khanapur of Belguam
district. Most of the Siddhis like to live in the forest and in
small isolated settlements.31 Houses in the compact villages are
close to each other and fields are at some distance from the
village. No matter to which religion one belongs, rich or poor,
educated or illiterate the Siddhis express fondness to reside in a
scattered village which becomes a core of their ethnicity.
29 Doshi S.C. Tribal Ethnicity; Class and Integration, Rawat
Publicaitons, Jaipur, 1990, p. 144.
30 Kiran Kamal Prasad, In Search of an Identity, 2005, p
xxviii.
31 Kiran Kamal Prasad, 2005, p 6.
11
1.8.2 Unique Physical Features
Siddhis have thick protruding lips, flat and wide noses, dark
hairless bodies and frizzy, wooly and bushy hair on the head.32
They have a strong physic and are athletic by nature, living in the
deep jungles of Dandeli forest. They are sought after for hard
labour in the farms be it digging, cutting wood, hunting or working
in the scorching sun. Simple in their life style are also dance
loving and singing tribe. There is rhythm in their body that
automatically moves pulls them dance and singing especially at
gatherings and in the evenings.
1.8.3 Unique Language
Siddhis in common use a mixture of Konkani, Marathi and Kannada
in their conversation. Yet those who follow Konkani, Marathi or
Kannada cannot follow their dialect as it is unique to them alone.
Though the assimilation has taken place with regard to language
they seem to have no knowledge of their original dialect. They
picked up Konkani as it was the local language spoken in Goa as
well as throughout the Konkan region with change of accents. Though
Portuguese officials time and again made every effort to make
Portuguese compulsory language of the Estado da India, people
rarely followed the instructions. They preferred Konkani to
Portuguese.33 Siddhis speak a corrupt form of Konkani which is a
bit difficult to follow. Even those with knowledge of Konkani
might, at times, need the assistance of an interpreter or
translator. The
32 Roy Choudary D. Anthropology of the Siddis the Negroid
Population of North Kanara. Bulletin of the Department of
Anthropology, Vol. VI, No. I, 1957, p. 54.
33 Sen S N., Indian Travels of Thevenot and Careri, Indian
Travels of Careri
Published by the national Archives of India, 1949, p. 188.
12
uniqueness of their language lies in the fact that it is a
mixture of Konkani, Marathi and Kannada.
1.8.4 Religion
Among the Siddhi families in Karnataka there are Catholics,
Hindus and Muslims. In Haliyala there are only Muslims and
Christians, and in the ghat areas of Yellapura and Ankola only
Hindus. Owing to the division of the Siddhi people into three
religious groups a distinct self-identity has not developed.34 In
terms of religious affiliations, 40 percent are Catholics, 33
percent are Muslims and 27 percent are Hindus.35 It was a normal
procedure for the Portuguese to baptize Negros before boarding the
ship to be transported to other countries.36 Yet those Africans who
were brought by the Muslim merchants and sold to sultans in India
embraced Islam and those who remained in the houses of Bhats of
Yellapura and surrounding talukas followed the religion of their
master.
1.9 Significance of the Study
Siddhis, the only African Diaspora found in Indian sub-continent
are migrants from east Africa. Lack of sufficient research has made
this tribe unheard in the state of Karnataka and India at large.
Hence the researcher took up the study
34 Sathanabailina Kaadinalli Siddhi Samskruthi Pratheeka
Siddhinyasa Jaatre,
Karavali Munjaane [Uttara Canara] 09 May 2003, late ed.: A.
2.
35 Henry John Drewal, Aliens and Homelands: Identity, Agency and
the Arts among the Siddhis of Uttara Kannda, Sidis and Scholars;
Essays on African Indians, Ed. Amy Catlin & Edward A. Alphers,
Rainbow Publishing Limited, Noida, 2004, p 145.
36 Jeanette Pinto,. Slavery in Portuguese India (1510-1812),
Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay, 1992, p 63.
13
after living with these Siddhis for a few years, observing their
life style and their living conditions. The researcher chose these
two districts specifically because Siddhis are large in numbers in
these districts than any other in the state of Karnataka. The
findings in this research will reveal to us the gradual social
formation of Siddhis in the years spent in India as well as Siddhis
political, economic, social and cultural history and their
struggles for survival and their contributions to the Indian
society at large.
The present research work assumes importance as it enables the
law making authority to enact appropriate legislation to look into
the socio-economic problems of the siddhi community. Besides it
also helps the executive authority to implement the existing law
more effectively for the benefit of the siddhi community and
enlightens academicians, students and interested group concerned to
know the conditions of Siddhi community and undertake further
research which contributes towards the existing literature on
history.
1.10 Formulation of Research Problem
The unique features of the Siddhis living in Dharwad and Karwar
including their physical features, language and life style raise a
number of questions in the minds of researcher and the researcher
tries to frame the following problems:
1. Why do the Siddhis differ from other people of India? What
are the unique features of the Siddhis?
2. Are they the original inhabitants of India?
3. What is the social status of the Siddhis?
4. Are the Siddhis a marginalized group? Are their rights
protected by the existing systems?
5. Are they following their traditional customs and
practices?
14
6. How far the life of the Siddhis is influenced by the cultures
and life styles of other people in India?
7. Does the modern education have any impact on the
socio-economic and cultural changes of the Siddhis?
8. How did their traditional household skills, religious
practices, social customs and traditions reach to the present
status?
1.11 Objectives of the Study
The major objectives of the study are:-
1. To trace the history of Siddhis migration to India and the
aftermath.
2. To critically analyze the major socio-economic and cultural
changes that had taken place in the Siddhi community after their
settlements in the forest of Karnataka state.
3. To assess the role of education in the transformation of the
community.
4. To analyze the aftermath of the governments initiatives to
uplift the economic status of the Siddhis.
5. To evaluate the position of women among the Siddhis.
6. To make an exhaustive study of the religious beliefs of the
Siddhis in the settlements.
7. To examine the changes which have taken place in the power
structure of the Siddhi tribe.
8. To have an in depth investigation into the subsistence
economy of the Siddhis.
9. To explore the cultural changes which have taken place due to
their contact with other people of the locality.
10. To study the changing consumption pattern and its impact on
tribal economy.
15
1.12 Hypothesis
The important hypotheses of the study are the following:
1. The Siddhis belong to a different race from the majority of
the Indians and, being the most recent entrants into the Indian
society, they are in a way foreign to it. The physical or
geographical factors did influence in bringing about socio-economic
changes in their society.
2. The impact of education was very little for socio-economic
changes in the siddhi society. The advancement of technology has
not brought about very significant socio-economic changes in the
siddhi community.
3. Cultural diffusion has taken place in the siddhi
community.
4. Embrace of the religion of the Siddhi community from their
native religion is always believed to be voluntary.
1.13 Sources of Data
The study is largely based on the variety of sources both
primary and secondary, collected from the archival repositories and
other centers of research. The primary sources include Government
orders, Government files, Census reports, Administration reports,
reports of the various committees, Manuals, Gazetteers and
directories. So far as collection of data is concerned there are
sources such as direct source and indirect source. The former
represents data collected directly from the respondents relating to
the Siddhis economic background, their conditions, standard of
living, and their association with other world, how they have been
marginalized, whether these people have access to welfare
programmes sponsored and implemented by the government. The latter
comprises both primary and secondary data such as text books, rules
and
16
regulations dealing with this community, current awareness
publications, encyclopedias, periodicals, websites, hand books
sponsored by public offices, NGOs etc. This study is based on
historical accounts of contemporary regimes, anthropological works
and data that the researcher has collected through field study.
The supplementary material for this study was collected
primarily from various Siddhi settlements in Haliyala, Yellapura,
Ankola and Mundgod talukas of Uttar Kannada. The selection of
places and households was at random. The study material was also
collected partly through an interview schedule formulated for
collecting information regarding family, kinship, education,
economy, health, medicine and political life of this tribe.
Besides, the data was also collected through exhaustive field work
and through personal observation and participation in social,
religious and cultural gatherings. Thus for the purpose of the
extraction of data concerned various research techniques have been
used such as interview schedule, observation, personal
participation etc in addition to the traditional methods.
1.14 Research Methodology
The research methodology followed in the present work covers
both empirical and non-empirical methods. For a detailed study of
the topic primary data was collected and analyzed, various text
books, committee reports, statutory rules and regulations, journals
on tribal community, have been comprehensively analyzed. The
empirical method assumes vital significance in collecting relevant
information from the respondents. It focuses on the real life
situation, problems and difficulties faced by the respondents and
their predecessors. Research techniques adopted in undertaking the
empirical study are Questionnaire, Interview Schedule, and Personal
Observations.
17
1.15 Scope of the Study
The scope of the study was restricted to all the siddhis living
in the Karwar and Dharwad districts of Karnataka.37 The study
focuses on the social formation of Siddhis from the year 1500 C.E.
to 2003 C.E. The area of the study includes the districts of
Dharwad and Karwar. The major Talukas of Karwar and Dharwad
districts are Haliyala, Yellapura, Ankola, Sirsi, Mundgod, and
Kalgatagi. Out of 180 Siddhi Settlements about 45 major Siddhi
Settlements were selected for empirical study such as Gadgera,
Balashettikoppa, Birolli, Gardolli, Bukkinkop, Mainalli, Gundolli,
Hosur, Hosalli, Yellapur town, Bomnalli, Gund, Golehalli, Kirwatti,
Idgundi, Gotgolli, Lalguli, Bhagavathi, Gunjavathi, Chikkoti,
Manchikere, Bidrolli, Dehalli, Balagar, Wada, Kegdal, Tatwanigi,
Nagshettikoppa, Balashetikop, Bidralli, Angod, Kotemane, and
Hunshettikoppa.
1.16 Limitations of the Study
Bearing in mind the various constrains it was impossible for the
researcher to cover chief segments of nearly hundred and eighty
settlements of the Siddhis. The vastness of area and lack of
transport, lack of approachable roads and the dangerous terrain
made the researcher to restrict his research works and visits to
the area accessible to him. Much care has been taken to make the
research as much impartial and methodical as possible. Further, the
results of the study cannot be generalized beyond the limits of the
study area as the articulated views of the respondents with regard
to various topics may not be completely free from personal
prejudice. In comparison to the Siddhi population the number of
37 Devika Sequeira, Near Forgotten, Siddis to Meet, Deccan
Herald News Service, Panaji, Jan, 2006.
18
members interviewed and respondents approached for filling the
questionnaire are very less.
1.17 Review of Literature
Complete and extensive literature on the socio- economic
situation of Siddhis of Dharwad and Karwar has been very little,
thin and insufficient.
For the first time Joseph Harris in 1971 produced The African
Presence in Asia: consequences of the East African Slave Trade.
This great work provided us with a historical survey of the Siddhis
in Indian subcontinent. He gives the details of history of Siddhis
both in North and South India, their life in slavery, their
political participation, their services as soldiers and generals in
the military services of various kingdoms, and their rise and fall
in power.
A classical work on the sociological aspects of the Siddhis in
Karnataka, especially in North Karnataka was published by
Palakshappa T. C. in 1976.
He did a focused study on the Siddhis social situation of the
time. He gives a good analysis of the kinship systems, as well as
religious practices of Siddhis. He made an in depth study on their
settlements, their family structure, their marriage and children,
their kinship, their daily routine life, of their religion,
language and also political organization. The study includes the
working of the Siddhi community and its assimilation and absorption
into various religions mainly Hinduism, Christianity and Islam.
Lobo Cyprian Henry S.J. (1984) studied the Siddhis in Karnataka.
He covered general issues such as sociological aspect, particularly
laying stress on their literature, occupation, family kinship,
religion and rituals right from birth to marriage and death. The
main focus of his study was to make
19
the Siddhis known to the people of Karnataka as well as
governments both of state and central as a distinct group with an
ethnic identity, deserving a tribal status. He observed one common
feature of all Siddhis found in Gujarat, Karnataka and elsewhere
India that they had not retained anything of their original
culture.
Shirodkar P.P. (1985) has discussed Slavery in Coastal India:
with special reference to Goa, Daman and Diu. He has traced the
roots of Slavery right from centuries before Anno Domini (A.D) both
in the west as well as Eastern countries and kingdoms of the past.
While indicating slavery in the East he mentions about the slavery
during the wars between the invading Aryans and the aborigines.
Barter of slaves was common even during the time of Buddha. While
in the West slavery existed in the Greek and Roman civilizations
that exceeded the citizens of Rome leading the way to rebellion. He
describes the role of the Portuguese who increased slave trade
between East African coast to West coasts of India and the
abolition of slavery in the Esato da India (Portuguese territories
in the East) and China.
Pavate P.P. (1985) gathered information on the anthropometrics,
dermatoglyphics and blood groups from the three endogamous groups
of
Siddhis. He focused on Morphogenetic Study of the Siddhis in
Karnataka. He observed that there is not much difference in the
distribution of ABO and d genes in all the three groups. While
accepting that the three groups of Siddhis are descendants of the
same ancestors he indicated the dermatoglyphic difference between
Christian Siddhis and Hindu Siddhis as well as the Muslim Siddhis
in A-B bridge count. He also indicates that the differences may be
due to the adaptation of these groups to a particular social set
up.
20
Vijayakumar M., Malhotra K.C. et al (1987) in their publication,
Genetic Studies among the Siddhis of Karnataka, India: a migrant
population from
Africa, have focused on examining the blood samples of around
237 Siddhis. The research scholars concentrated on the serological
and biochemical markers such as blood group antigens, Isozymes,
serum proteins and hemoglobin variants. The DNA study revealed that
Siddhis genetic pattern matches with that of Ethiopians and not of
Indians and their study established the Siddhis origin and
confirmed their migration into
India.
In the same year D Souza T.R. ( 1987) produced a paper on The
Afro-Asian Church in the Portuguese Esato da India, and observed
that there prevailed a great tradition of open and peaceful
commercial relationship between East Africa and India right from
centuries before Portuguese could come. He also examines the
African Slave trade with India and opines that the Ethiopians
slaves continued to flow into India as late as 18th century.
Siddhis have contributed to the cultural richness of south India as
well as have assimilated few elements into their culture.
Hiremath R.S. (1993) made an in depth study of Life, living and
language among Siddhis of North Karnataka District, and his
research speaks of
Siddhis social status as well as their social living conditions.
He also enumerated how Siddhis social contact has enabled them to
emerge with a new language of their own that is totally different
from the language spoken in their original land i.e., Ethiopia and
other north Eastern African countries. He also made an attempt to
give a comprehensive picture of
Siddhis life, migration, health and language.
21
Prakash V. Patil (1998) in his research paper a Biomedical Study
of Siddhis of Karnataka observes that the Siddhi population has
increased by
60% over a decade. He examined samples of 269 Siddhis as well as
224 non-Siddhis in his research and observed that Siddhis were
healthier than non-Siddhis due to their specific nutrition and
hygiene. His research showed that scabies, tinea, eczema and
leprosy were slightly more than the non-Siddhis due to poor
hygiene. He also observed that medicine had something to do with
their living social conditions.
Pashington Obeng, in his study and publication Shaping
Membership, Defining nation: The cultural politics of African
Indians in South Asia, deals with the history of Siddhis in general
India and gives an insight into the Siddhis beliefs and practices,
examines the uniqueness of Siddhi culture as he appreciates the
geo-social displacements, social and religious oppressions
experienced by individuals. Further he explores into the extent to
which Siddhis depend on their faith and their cultural resources to
endure and struggle for their freedom.
The present research work tries to build a bridge between the
elements that are not duly answered by the previous scholarly
researches. The present research tries to answer questions of
Siddhis uniqueness as people from Africa, their cultural, social
and religious diversity and the gradual social formation. The work
also concentrates on the economic aspects of the Siddhis, their
living condition, their liabilities, savings, diet and their
subsistence farming etc. The present research also focuses on an in
depth study into the Indian cultural traits that are found in
Siddhis culture as well as their contribution as a tribe to the
Indian society, culture and economy.
22
1.18 Conceptual Clarifications
Definition of various terms clarifies the sense of words used in
the thesis. There are few words which need to be defined so as to
give clarity to the writings as well as right understanding of
everything in it.
Abyssinia
This name was formerly used in a general way to denote the
African Continent, and sometimes even Asia, Persia, Chaldea and
Assyria. In the present instance, however, the name seems to apply
to the country properly known as Ethiopia i.e., Abyssinia
Baara Buddi
Expression denotes inconsistency in matters of trust and
responsibility. Literally means twelve minds. This word is utilized
by the non-Siddhis in the locality to put down those siddhi people
who are inconsistent in their works or payment of debts etc.
Caffree
A name used for any African or Siddhi in India as well as in
some parts of world. The word indicates the colour and the other
physical features of an African. This word distinguishes others
from Africans.
Casado
An offspring born out of marriage between Portuguese men and
native women that are settled in Goa are called casado. This is to
distinguish the casados from castico who are born of Portuguese but
reside in Goa.
23
Caste
Caste refers to the hierarchical system of social control in
India with each subgroup assigned a ranked status, depending on its
origin and religious strictness.38 Caste system is prevalent and
very strong among Hindus in India. The caste system has so many
forms of discrimination and oppression built into it that some of
these forms of discrimination and oppression such as bonded labour,
slavery often fail to draw pointed attention.39
Dhamaam
Name of a drum, which is cylindrically long and has a two feet
wide mouth on both-sides, covered with skin preferably deer skin or
buffalo skin according to availability. This instrument is played
both by male and female but squatting.
Gele
A kind of fruit socked in water and used for washing clothes in
olden days by Siddhis. This fruit is also used to catch the fish in
rivers and ponds. This fruit cannot be eaten by people.
Hiriyaru
Hiriyaru in the ordinary usage is understood as a form of
addressing the elders with respect. But among Siddhis this word
means the ancestor and not just an ordinary usage. In fact they do
not use this word to address elders that are alive but only to the
dear departed who are elder to them. For Siddhis Hiriyaru is
38 Madan S. N., Dictionary of Anthropology, Anmol Publications,
New Delhi, 1989, p. 62.
39 Kiran Kamal Prasad, Understanding and Eradicating Bonded
labour in India,
Jana Jagriti Prakashana, Bangalore, 2008, p. iii.
24
a family god because according to their cosmology, the parents
after their death become benevolent spirits and reside in the
house.40 This is a unique belief of Siddhis though others have such
beliefs but do not stick to it so much as the Siddhis do.
Jamma
The god of Siddhis which guards their settlements from evils
such as disease, epidemics, bad spirits and alien elements. Jamma
is usually worshiped under a tree which is considered holy by the
Siddhis. Animal sacrifices are made every year to the tree in order
to keep the deity happy and the settlement safe. Every siddhi
settlement has a boundary and this boundary is guarded by
jamma.
Jthre
It is the periodical celebrations connected with a deity or
crowds that gather at a religious festival. 41 People from all
walks of life gather in order to pay their homage to a particular
deity at a particular place. Jthre is common for people of
Karnataka a practice specially carried out by the Hindus.
40 Palakshappa T C. The Siddhis of North Karnataka, Sterling
Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 1976, p. 73.
41 Sheshagirirav L S., Subhaash Nigantu, Subhash Stores Books
Corner, Bangalore, 1998 p. 202.
25
Kafara
The term Kafara is of Arabic origin meaning pagan abd ub te
colonial usage of various European languages in eastern and
southern African, it was borrowed from Swahili to mean negro42 or
black.
Katte
A place where justice is delivered in a village by the Panchayat
members. Usually it is under a huge tree demarked by the members of
the settlements for the purpose of delivering judgment. A raised
plat form helps the leaders to sit over who can be seen by all the
members of the village or settlement during the jury. Justice is
delivered which is undisputed and is accepted by the members of the
settlement.
Kon
A bigger portion of house that is used for sleeping and keeping
the used clothes. Siddhis do not have large houses that are found
in the locality. Their houses mostly are comprise of two portions
one functions as kitchen and the other as space for rest and other
activities such as eating, relaxing and entertainment.
Mantapa
It is a temporary shelter made for a specific purpose among
Hindus for various purposes. The mantapa is made with four standing
sticks that are covered with either coconut leaves or mango leaves
and a temporary roof created out of pleated
42 Abdulaziz Y. Lodi, African Settlements in India. Nordic
Journal of African Studies 1(1), 1992, pp 83-87.
26
coconut leaves. Mantapa mostly is decorated well and is the
centre of attraction for the guests as the important ceremonies
take place there. It is mostly erected for the nuptial purpose.
Muttaideyaru
Muttaideyaru are those married women who have not lost their
husbands and are happy with their husbands. They are revered in the
society, especially among the Hindus to be people of great
importance and are given privilege to be part of various
celebrations as against widows who are not expected to be present
at auspicious ceremonies. Muthaide also means a married woman who
dies before her husband dies.
Nyasa
Nyasa is a lake towards the mouth of Jambesi river located in
Abyssinia of Africa Continent. 43 Nyasa meaning lake is fed by 14
perennial rivers, and is the third largest of the East African Rift
Valloey lakes of East Africa, lying in a deep trough mainly within
Malawi.44 Nyasa land itself was too crowded for all to farm and too
isolated from most markets45 due to which people from here began to
move away. Siddhi Nyasa is a black stone in the dark forest around
which Siddhis gather annually for a great celebration called
Siddhi- Nyasa Jaathre. 46 Siddhis do
43 Indu Siddhi Jnaangada Ekaika Moola Samskrutiya Siddhinyasa
Jaatre,
Karavali Munjaavu [Uttara Canara] 04 May 2003, late ed.: A.
2.
44 The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Nyasa, Vol 8, Micropedia,
15th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Inc, Chicao, 2007, p.
839.
45 Donal L. Wiedner, A History of Africa; South of the Sahara,
Rondom House, New York, 1962. P. 473.
46 Sathanabailina Kaadinalli Siddhi Samskruthi Pratheeka
Siddhinyasa Jaatre,
Karavali Munjaane [Uttara Canara] 09 May 2003, late ed.: A.
2.
27
not seem to have a historical record about the whereabouts of
this black stone. Siddhis believe that during the time of Shivaji,
the king of the Marathas, this stone was found at Yaana in Karwar
district of Karnataka from where it was taken and was installed at
Sathanabailu by Siddhi ancestors who recognized the stone from the
details left behind them by their forefathers. Siddhi Nyasa was
brought by their African ancestors along with them as they were
brought captured by the Portuguese. And this stone has traveled
wherever the family and their descendants carried them following
their migration from place to place. At last it came to the hands
of Dabaguli family which was called upon to worship it.47
Panchamrutha
A mixture of five products taken from a cow and prepared by a
Brahmin which is considered sacred and used for various religious
ceremonies especially by the Hindu people.
Patta
Patta is a document issued by the government acknowledging the
ownership of an individual. With which one can claim possession of
the given property for ones personal use be it building a house, or
cultivating or selling to another person
Panjari
It is a ceremony in which turmeric, neem leaves, jaggery and a
lamp are set up at the place of delivery by the midwife. This is
done in order to protect the mother and the baby from the evils
that exist around the place.
47Ibid., p. 2.
28
Pott Bhorchenm
A ceremony during puberty in which all sought of edibles are
placed in the girls sari by the family members so that she may be a
fruitful in her life and bear many children after her marriage.
This ceremony is carried on mostly by the Hindu and Christian
Siddhis.
Slavery
The word Slave comes from the word servus which is not cognate
with servare, as has often been supposed; it is really related to
the Homeric and the verb , with which the Latin servo is to be
connected. It may be mentioned here that slave was originally a
national name; it meant a man of Slavonic race captured and made a
bondman to the Germans. The historian eludes the derivation of the
national name from Slava, glory.48
Slavery means one person legally owing and controlling another
and denying him freedom of action or movement. 49 The slave was
bound to absolute obedience, a human chattel, a commodity that
could be treated at will if not treated better than their pet
animals.50 Utility was the prize of their personality having no
right to set back from the given assignments. A Condition in which
a human
48 The Encyclopedia Britannica, Cambridge, 1911, p. 216.
49 Madan S. N., Dicitonary of Anthropology, Anmol Publications,
New Delhi, 1989, p. 293.
50 The Encyclopedia Brittanica, Slavery Vol 10, 15th Edition,
2007, pp. 184-185.
29
being is owned by another. A slave was considered in law as
property, or chattel, and was deprived of the rights ordinarily
held by free persons.51
Thatto
A huge jar made out of bamboo sticks and smeared around with cow
dung that can contain two to six quintal of food grains. This is
specially found in the villages of Karnataka even today. In Kannada
they call it kanaja where in grains can be preserved for home
purposes for a long time.
Tribe
Tribe is a social group, having a definite area, dialect,
culture, homogeneity, and unifying social organization.52 The
Imperial Gazetteer of India defines tribe as a collection of
families, or group of families, bearing a common name, which as a
rule, does not denote any specific occupation, generally claiming
common descent from a historical ancestor and occasionally form an
animal, but in some parts of the country held together rather by
obligations of blood feud than by the tradition of kinship, usually
speaking the same language; occupying, or claiming to occupy, a
definite tract of country. A tribe is not necessarily endogamous,
i.e., it is not an invariable rule that a man of a particular tribe
must marry a woman of that tribe. 53
51 Britannica: Ready Reference Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia
Britannica (India) Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 2006, p. 74.
52 Madan S N., Dicitonary of Anthropology, Anmol Publications,
New Delhi, 1989, p. 316.
53 The Imperial Gazetteer of India: The Indian Empire, Vol. 1,
New Edition, Oxford at the Clarendon press, 1909, p. 308.
30
1.19 The Structure of the Thesis
The present work is structured in seven chapters, such as:
1. Introduction
2. The Historical Background of Siddhis
3. Social History of Siddhis
4. The role of education in the socio-economic changes and the
status of women among siddhis
5. Economic history of Siddhis, their social and religious
organization
6. Siddhi tribal community: a case study of Dharwad and Karwar
districts of Karnataka
7. Conclusion and suggestions
Including the introduction and conclusion the thesis contains
seven chapters. The introductory chapter provides the social
formation, etymology, geographical settings of Karwar and Dharwad
districts, ethnicity of Siddhis, significance of the study,
formulation of research problem, objectives of the study,
hypothesis, source of data, research methodology, scope of study
and limitations, review of literature, conceptual clarifications
and the structure of thesis. The first chapter directly introduces
the Siddhis as people living in parts of Karnataka, their physical
features, their distinct nature, religion, language, and their
population. The first chapter explores the origins of their name
Siddhi, and their attitude to that name as well as how they
describe themselves.
In the second chapter the researcher presents a description and
interpretive history of Siddhis in India. It begins with
explanation of oral and written traditions in examining the history
of Siddhis. The researcher begins to examine the reconstruction and
contribution of Siddhis as individuals and as a social group who
used their voluntary and forced migration to shape military, social
and
31
political life of India. The chapter tries to establish the fact
that Siddhis were from African continent and that they had their
role to shape the Indian politics. This chapter begins the
discussion by the waves of both voluntary and involuntary migration
of Siddhis carried out by the Africans themselves as merchants,
Arab slave- masters and finally the Europeans. It provides an
important background for examining how the Afro- Indians got to
India. The second chapter focuses on the reciprocal impact between
the African Indian history, their shared familiarities and how they
have responded to slavery, the caste system and other historical
forces to form their own identities and social practices. The
second chapter also focuses on various roles played by the Siddhis
in the Indian political system as rulers of Janjira islands, short
term rulers in Bengal history, as generals in the history of Delhi
sultanate, as soldiers in the history of Deccan, in the kingdoms of
Viajaynagar, Bhamani, Bijapur, Hyderabad, and other Deccan kingdoms
as well as slaves in the history of Goa and other parts of the West
Indian Coast.
Chapter three examines the social history of Siddhis in Dharwad
and Karwar districts. In this chapter the researcher enumerates the
social conditions of Siddhis in the past and compares and explains
why and how it has influenced Siddhis today. The manner in which,
their cultural evaporation and social decay have occurred in the
elapse of time. The researcher shows ways in which that marker of
identity is used as surname by some of the Afro-Indians to address
their own needs, particularly now that they have been granted
Schedule Tribe status in Karnataka since November of 2003. It also
examines how the categorization Siddi is an index of social status
and caste in India. The third chapter further tries to enumerate
the social justice that is meted out to Siddhis besides the
barriers that block their emancipation from various myths,
exploitations and oppressions. The chapter further deals with the
social set up of Siddhis as well as thier social formation from the
time they have entered India and the change that they face
32
today in their settlements and explain their idea of divine
kingship, marital status and housing pattern as well as food habits
and health. The researcher further examines marital relations that
Afro- Indians engage and the implications of such marriages for the
locality. The chapter also deals with the forest privileges that
the Siddhis enjoy.
While examining the cultural history of Siddhis the researcher
also enumerates their spontaneous composition songs, the
folkloristic culture, various dances such as dhamaam, poogdi and
Holi sigmu. The uniqueness of their fine arts, paintings are also
dealt in this chapter. Finally the tradition that is kept strong
such as hiriyara pooje is also dealt, a tradition which reminds
Siddhis of their uniqueness and gives them a special identity and
unity. The chapter is concluded with a reference to their cultural
sustenance which they preserved despite hardships and parts of
their tradition and culture that was lost.
The role of education in the socio-economic changes and the
status of women are discussed in the fourth chapter. Beginning with
the historical background of siddhi education the chapter continues
to enumerate the status of Siddhis in the field of education,
literacy rate and reasons for the low literacy rate besides
mentioning various organizations that are toiling to economically
uplift Siddhis by educating them. In this venture the researcher
mentions about the organisations which are meeting the need
innovatively in order to make education a livelier affair.
Later in the fourth chapter the researcher deals with the
position of women giving a gist of their status in the past and
present. The risks they had to endure as slaves, farm workers in
the past and daily labourers today. The expectations of the siddhi
community as a home maker as well as bread winner are mentioned.
The researcher also enumerates ways of their emancipation. The
researcher also
33
concentrates on explaining the changing attitudes of women
especially while to play their role in the local bodies. The rise
of siddhi women is also briefly discussed while their involvement
in various sports, social work, in knowing their rights and
exercising their authority in the house are explained.
The fifth chapter deals with several issues among the Siddhis,
economic history being dealt first, the researcher enumerates
economic position of the siddhi tribe in the past as well as their
psyche which sustained them through hard times. Then the researcher
discusses various means of their economy such as forest utilities,
agriculture, hunting, fishing, skill based earnings such as
quilting, wood carving, and other crafts. The reasons for the loss
of agricultural holding are also discussed besides discussing the
daily wage labourers. Later in the chapter their income, savings,
loan transactions and developmental schemes of Government is listed
besides briefly discussing various Acts that affect their
livelihood.
In the later part of the fifth chapter the researcher describes
about Siddhi social and religious organisations. Their construction
of cultural and religious ideas, the importance of ritual observed
in all stages of life and how they familiarize themselves in a
society that is religiously plural, multicultural and the
plurilinguistic in nature. The chapter enumerates in detail various
rituals observed during birth, adulthood, during marriage and death
in all the three major religions that they practice. The chapter
also discusses various sports that they enjoy as well as festivals
which concern their social life.
In the sixth chapter the researcher has analyzed the scheduled
data. The chapter gives tables and graphics that indicate the
percentage of respondents that have opined their view in the
schedule. The chapter enumerates right from the sex ratio, age,
occupation of the respondents, their education status, their
income, savings and debts of Siddhis. This chapter also catalogs
the data on Siddhi
34
religious practices, religious conversion, prevalent marriage
practices and festivals. It also deals with ancestral worship,
changes in their dressing pattern, the recreational facilities
available for them and changes in their food habit. It also gives
the opinions of various people interviewed on issues of religion,
caste, government policies, various Acts of the government and its
welfare schemes.
A birds eye view of the whole thesis is discussed in the
concluding chapter that would enable the reader to understand the
purpose and the results of the investigation done during the
research. The seventh chapter gives a list of suggestions to enable
various bodies to act for the development of Siddhis.
The following chapter provides a detailed history of Siddhis in
India as well as in Karnataka with a special reference to the
districts of Dharwad and Karwar.
CHAPTER-3CHALLENGES FOR MARKETING OF TRADITIONAL
PRODUCTSProblems of Tribal Development in Coastal Karnataka
Duggappa Kajekar
PG Dept of Social Work, Government First Grade College and
Centre for Post-Graduate Studies, Thenkanidiyur- Udupi
Abstract
Tribal population is the aboriginal inhabitants of India who
have been living a life based on the natural environment and have
cultural patterns congenial to their physical and social
environment. The Concerted efforts for the development of these
groups by the Central and State Governments have had only marginal
impacts on their socio-economic conditions in spite of the various
welfare measures and constitutional protection. This paper attempts
an analysis of the development and welfare programmes addressing
poverty, land alienation, exploitation, education, health care,
employment, social development and in their strengthening of
service delivery.This article is concentrated on the tribes of
three Districts Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada of
Karnataka state. The methodology adopted for the present study
includes both primary and secondary sources of data. The researcher
has visited Tribal areas with his students to collect the primary
data. The above three districts cover the foot hills of the Western
Ghats (Sahyadri) Agumbe range in Udupi District and other forest
areas in Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada.
Article
In India, the tribal development planning is being implemented
since the implementation of five-year plans by Gov
