CHALLENGES IN FOOD DEVELOPMENT AND...

CURRENT TRENDS

IN COMMODITY

SCIENCE

CHALLENGES IN FOOD

DEVELOPMENT AND PROCESSING

EDITORS

Urszula Samotyja

Wojciech Zmudziński

POZNAŃ 2017

Title: Current trends in commodity science. Challenges in food

development and processing

Editors: Urszula Samotyja, Wojciech Zmudziński

Reviewers:

Magdalena Ankiel

Przemysław Dmowski

Zenon Foltynowicz

Iwona Jasińska-Kuligowska

Justyna Kiewlicz

Aleksandra Kowalska

Maciej Kuligowski

Grażyna Lewandowicz

Piotr Przybyłowski

Joanna Ptasińska-Marcinkiewicz

Iga Rybicka

Henryk Szymusiak

Krzysztof Wójcicki

Katarzyna Wybieralska

Copyright by: Poznań University of Economics and Business

Faculty of Commodity Science

al. Niepodległości 10, 61-875 Poznań

ISBN 978-83-948206-0-2

Printed by: ESUS Tomasz Przybylak, 2017

ul. Południowa 54, 62-064 Plewiska

Current Trends in Commodity Science. Challenges in Food Development and Processing

3

Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................... 5

Bożena Borycka, Aleksandra Sawadro

New Generation Foods Perceived by Young Consumer .................................. 7

Anna Żbikowska, Małgorzata Kowalska, Magdalena Paździor,

Piotr Paździor

Assessment of the Consumer Awareness in the Range of Bakery Fats ......... 25

Anna Bona

Convergences in Current Research of Baby Food Products

from Developed Markets ................................................................................ 43

Maria Sielicka, Inga Klimczak

The Role of Sensory Evaluation in a New Food Product Development ........ 57

Aleksandra Wilczyńska, Natalia Żak

Physicochemical and Sensory Aspects of Mead ............................................ 75

Dorota Klensporf-Pawlik, Beata Gruch, Dominika Karcz,

Weronika Kiełtyka, Agnieszka Strugała

Comparison of the Total Phenolics and HMF Content of Different

Beer Types ...................................................................................................... 87

Stanisław Popek

The Impact of the Process of Germination of Wheat Grain

on Nutritional Value of Flour ....................................................................... 101

Anna Dankowska, Olga Bińczak, Grzegorz Złotecki

Application of Synchronous Fluorescence Spectroscopy

with Multivatiate Data Analysis for the Detection

of Fruit Juices Adulteration .......................................................................... 121


4

Marta Biegańska, Wojciech Kozak

Contemporary Technologies Used for Product Traceability

and Quality Control ...................................................................................... 135

Urszula Samotyja, Olga Bińczak, Agata Czyż, Natalia Plucińska

The Influence of Oilseed Cake Flours on Hydrolytic Rancidity

of Breadsticks ............................................................................................... 149

Joanna Le Thanh-Blicharz, Paulina Maciejewska,

Jacek Lewandowicz, Hanna M. Baranowska

Quality of Food Emulsions Stabilized by Resistant Starches ...................... 163

Anna Małysa

The Safety and Functionality of Food Grade Lubricants ............................. 177


5

Introduction

In modern food industry manufacturers are competing to develop alternative

products for consumers. Food companies involved in product development

and processing are facing new challenges. A global demand on resources, an

increasing number of competitors, strict regulations, fickle consumers,

available novel technologies create an environment that forces food

businesses operators to be creative and innovative. New challenges are the

topics of interest of scientists in the field of food commodity science,

inspiring them to research presented in this monograph.

In a competitive world a lot of food categories is being proposed to

meet consumers’ needs and expectations. Presented results of Borycka and

Sawadro study exhibited that plurality of the categories of new generation

food can raise problems with identification and specification of particular

foods. As it was shown in the work of Żbikowska and co-workers,

consumers have deficiencies in the general knowledge of fats which might be

related to bad eating habits. In the light of these date, educational actions are

of a great importance as they may help in creating consumers’ awareness and

influence purchasing decision. There is a great role and responsibility of food

business operators offering food with health and nutritional claims, what is

the key issue in the study of Bona. As observed, front-of-package nutrition

claims often highlight a single area of good nutrition without mentioning that

the same product is high in inadvisable ingredient. By this kind of

emphasizing a single positive nutritional aspect, a powerful marketing

strategy has been developed aiming at changing of consumer behaviour.

It is not easy to maintain innovation in new products when consumer

demands change quickly and often in unpredictable ways. The application of

properly selected methods to evaluate and define sensory properties of new

food products seems to be crucial in successful commercialization.

The spectrum of sensory techniques commonly used in NPD in food

companies was discussed by Sielicka and Klimczak, who not only presented

the area of their application but also pointed out some limitations and

difficulties in use. An interesting case study on the application of sensory

methods in the development of innovative pork snack was also presented.

The next papers authored by Wilczyńska and Żak, Klensporf-Pawlik and co-

workers and Popek were focused on physicochemical, sensory and nutritional


6

aspects of foods and beverages quality in context of origin and processing

conditions.

Adulteration of food and beverages is a significant problem that

involves a great deal of edible products. The potential of synchronous

fluorescence spectroscopy followed by chemometric analysis for rapid

detection of pomegranate and raspberry juices adulteration with apple juice

was presented by Dankowska and co-workers. Traceability of food products

as well as control of their quality became a challenge in era of globalization

forcing the search of modern technologies. In the scope of this issue, the

paper of Biegańska and Kozak presented recent developments in intelligent

packaging devoted to automatic identification of products and evaluation of

their condition during production, storage and distribution.

Product reformulation and design faces with problems of food

constituents stability. Oilseed cake flours obtained after cold pressing of oils

are interesting alternative in enrichment and replacement of wheat flour in

confectionery and bakery products, being in line with global trends of the use

of food processing residues. Samotyja and co-workers showed the

unfavourable influence of oilseed cake flours on stability of lipid fraction of

baked products what should be taken into consideration during food

reformulation and design. Constant increase in diseases evidence drives

scientists to look for new food additives that apart from technological effect

can be classified as functional food ingredient. The aim of the work of Le

Thanh-Blicharz was to understand the role of different resistant starch

preparations in formation and stabilisation of food emulsions. Starch resistant

to amylolytic enzymes is an example of functional food additive, which,

apart from texture promoting properties, it has prebiotic effect.

In addition to issues related to food constituents, their role and

transformation during design, processing and storage of products, operational

safety aspects and functionality requirements applicable to lubricants used in

the food industry have been raised. This specific group of products used in

food industry must meet strict quality and safety requirements, discussed by

Małysa.

We wish you a nice reading,

Urszula Samotyja and Wojciech Zmudziński


7

NEW GENERATION FOODS PERCEIVED BY YOUNG

CONSUMER

Bożena Borycka1, Aleksandra Sawadro2

1Department of Commodity and Quality Science, Faculty of Economics and Legal Sciences,

Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Radom, Poland

[email protected] 2SymPhar Sp. z o.o in Warszawa

Warszawa, Poland

ABSTRACT

New types of foods have been appearing in the food market since several

decades. Plurality of the categories of such alimentary products – novel foods

(among others: functional, genetically modified, ecological, convenient,

enriched, of special nutritious purpose, diet supplements, etc.) raise problems

with their identification and specification.

The purpose of this paper is to specify some types of the health-

promoting foods of new generation exampled by the special nutritious

purposes foodstuff in the context of the food law provisions, presentation of

the so-called ‘soft boundaries’ between different types of foods of new

generation as well as the analysis of the state of the knowledge on the foods

of new generation, its healthiness and behaviours of the young segment of the

market towards this type of foods.

Carried out study demonstrates that young consumers who participated

in the questionnaire are scarcely interested in the foods of new generation,

however they are aware that they consume it.

Key words: health-promoting foods, diet supplements, attitudes, consumer

INTRODUCTION

New types of foods have been appearing in the food market since several

decades. Plurality of the categories of such alimentary products – novel foods

(among others: functional, genetically modified, ecological, convenient,


8

enriched, of special alimentary purpose, diet supplements, etc.) raise

problems with their identification and specification.

The purpose of this paper is to specify some types of health-promoting

foods of new generation exampled by the special alimentary purposes

foodstuff in the context of the food law provisions, presentation of the so-

called ‘soft boundaries’ between different types of foods of new generation as

well as the analysis of the state of the knowledge and behaviours of the

young segment of the market towards this particular type of foods.

THE ESSENCE OF HEALTH-PROMOTING FOODS OF

NEW GENERATION AGAINST CONSUMERS’ NEEDS

Scientific research (epidemiological and experimental on animals and clinical

on people) carried out for more than fifty years have proved that manner of

nutrition is significantly important when it comes to the good health

condition, but it may also prevent number of diseases [Grajeta 2004].

On the basis of the observed co-relation between the manner of

nutrition and the quality of consumed products and illness incidence,

a concept of new generation food and special purposes foodstuffs has been

elaborated [Saluk-Juszczak 2010; Journal of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item

1225]. Research carried out in this field was inspired by the market as the

turn of the 19th and 20th century bloomed with the intense interest of the

customers in the maintenance of ‘welfare’ manifested by good health

condition and the stopping of the aging processes [Gawęcki 2002].

Development trends of the new generation foods in part result from hedonic

motives as the 21st century society pays attention not only to the healthy life

style more frequently, but it is quite common to expect that the food of the

21st century will be helpful in preserving beauty, shaping of the body

according to the modern trends and inn reducing stress [Borycka 2015].

Moreover in the recent years we have observed that in Poland and in the

entire world have appeared new trends in the behaviours of the customers

connected with the foods that allowed for the specification of five main

categories of determinants of its selection, i.e. – pleasure (54,5%) – treating

foods as the source of the pleasure, hedonic experiences and in particular the

tastiness of the food products; health (19,9%) – positive impact of the foods

on health; – comfort (16,8%) – simplicity of the use and adjustment to the


9

new life style; - physicality (6,1%) – drawing attention to own appearance,

physical and mental condition; – ethics (2,7%) – interest in foods produced in

human-friendly ecological way [Gutkowska et al. 2014].

Current analyses of the market of the new generation health-promoting

foods prove that there is no strict limits of qualifications between the types of

such products. Such a notion as for example ‘healing foods’ and ‘functional

foods’, ‘special nutrition purposes foods’ or ‘diet supplements’ are used

interchangeably [Błaszczak and Grześkiewicz 2014,]. Figure 1 presented

below illustrates the manner in which different types of health-promoting

‘new generation’ foods interact.

Fig. 1. Relations and correlations between the groups of products of

health-promoting ‘foods of new generation’

Source: authors’ elaboration based on Błaszczak and Grześkiewicz 2014.

In order to emphasize the so-called ‘soft boundaries’ between different

types of modern foods fostering the ‘well-being’ of the human, we may

present definitions to be found in the literature of the discussed subject, of

functional foods covering also other types of health-promoting products

mentioned among others is the act on food and nutrition safety in the

categories of foodstuffs of special nutritious purpose, e.g.: foods designed for

a specified group of recipients; medical foods used in hospital treatment, after

Foodstuffs for

special nutritional

uses

S Dietary

supplements

Medical

Food

Fortified foods

Functional foods


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surgeries, injected foods; therapeutic foods with the specified curing effects,

e.g. for diabetics, celiac disease sufferers; foods of specified health

usefulness; foods with physiologic effects (e.g. products with reduced sodium

contents); foods of special nutritional purpose (e.g. dietetic and hypo-allergic

products); vital foods [Błaszczak and Grześkiewicz 2014].

The most popular and best described and most recognizable types of

the new generation foods include functional and convenient foods.

The idea of functional foods is very similar to the definition of

traditional foods and it originated from the culture of the East where the

foods was perceived as a special kind of treatment [Borycka 2015].

Functional foods includes specially manufactures foodstuffs which exercise

a positive and documented influence on health which exceeds the influence

connected with the presence of nutritious components traditionally

acknowledged as indispensable [Świderski and Kolanowski 2003].

The need for safe, easily accessible foods allowing for efficient

preparation of the meal at any time and in any place connected with human

activity, for many years has been triggering the search for such solutions and

methods of processing and preserving foods in order to make it more

convenient and fast in use [Borycka 2015]. New generation convenient food

include ‘products ready for direct use or requiring slight culinary processing,

portioning and packing in a manner particularly convenient for the customer’

[Gawęcki 2002]. The above mentioned foods may also include products of

high degree of processing as well as slightly processed articles for the fast

use. Świderski specifies this type of foods as ‘the foodstuffs obtained as

a result of the processing of resources with the use of operations

recommended by good technological practice that provides the products with

desired durability and allow for fast preparation of safe meals out of the

above mentioned products or combined with other processed ingredients’

[Świderski 2006].

While analyzing consumer attitudes towards new generation health-

promoting food sit is worth to mention that the notion of novelty itself in

respect of the foods is comparative and subjective from the consumer’s point

of view and the goods introduced to the market by the producer as a novelty

does not have to be perceived by him in the same way [Dąbrowska and

Babicz-Zielińska 2011]. The behaviour of the consumer is determined by

a number of factors; on one hand there is curiosity and search for novelties

and on the other hand there is reluctance towards changes and fear from


11

something new (Neophobia) [Dąbrowska and Babicz-Zielińska 2011]. The

diversity of the offered types of health-promoting foods of new generation

undoubtedly has its advantages aa well as threats. A positive phenomenon is

the possibility of including the said foods in the diet which may result in

rational health advantages. However its uncontrolled presence in the diet may

cause certain health problems, in particular in case of the excessively

consumed functional foods especially when the diet is additionally regularly

supplemented pharmacologically what may lead to e.g. hypervitaminosis

[Dąbrowska and Babicz-Zielińska 2011]. It is worth mentioning that

pharmacologists raise the issue of insufficient research in the field of health

interaction of e.g. diet supplements which prior to the introduction to the

market merely undergo the notification procedure – this procedure consists in

submitting notification on the intent of sale to Chief Sanitary Inspectorate – it

suffices to inform the above mentioned institution about the ingredients, their

quantity and form present in a given diet supplement. Documentation

confirming the quality and declared effect of action are not required

[http://www.rynekaptek.pl/March 2017].

LEGAL ASPECTS OF SELECTED CATEGORIES OF NEW

GENERATION FOODS OF HEALTH-PROMOTING

NATURE

In the recent years, the so-called OTC products i.e. drugs available without

prescription (over-the-counter drugs), which include among others diet

supplements and special alimentary purpose foodstuffs turned out to be

absolute ‘best sellers’ in the Polish market. Until now only some of the types

of the new generation are defined in the Polish food law and thus the and thus

the producers often misuse the term ‘health-promoting foods’ or unlawfully

ascribe healthy properties to it. In order to document the profitable influence

of the new generation foods (e.g. functional foods) on health it is necessary to

carry out research on randomly selected population. Specific effects of the

said foods according to the legal provisions should be properly declared on

the label of the food product in order to limit the possibility of excessive

consumption of biologically active substance and limit the risk of its

improper use by the consumers [Offical Journal EU L 304/18, Official

Journal EU L 228/5]. Requirements for the new generation foods similarly as


12

for any other foodstuff are in general governed by the provisions of the food

law [Journal of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225]. Proper development of

a human, his physical and mental skills, health condition are strictly

connected with the manner of nutrition thus the special purpose foods

addressed to special groups of consumers is such an important type of the

foods of new generation. Diet supplements, special nutrition purpose

foodstuffs and enriched foods are special types of the health-promoting

foods referred to in the act of 25 August 2006 on the safety of foods and

nutrition [Journal of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225, Borycka and

Sawadro, 2013].

Act of 26 August 2006 on the safety of foods and nutrition [Journal of

Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225] defines special purpose foodstuffs as

foodstuffs which due to the special composition or way of preparation are

significantly distinct from the commonly consumed foodstuffs and according

to the information placed on the packaging are put on the market in order to

satisfy the specific nutrition needs of:

− the persons whose digestion and metabolic processes are disturbed or

persons who due to their physiological condition may benefit from the

controlled consumption of specified substances contained in the foods –

such a foodstuff may be defined as ‘dietetic foodstuff’;

− healthy newborns and small children in age up to 3 years.

The same act [Journal of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225] defines

a diet supplement as ‘a foodstuff whose aim is to supplement regular diet and

that is a concentrated source of vitamins and mineral elements or other

substances with the nutritious or physiological effect, simple or complex

introduced to the market in a form allowing for dosage (…), excluding the

products with treatment properties according to the pharmaceutical law’. Diet

supplements may have nutritious or other physiological effects, whereas

medical products – metabolic effects. Foodstuffs popular among Polish

consumers (especially the female ones) rose numerous controversies and

objections raised in particular by medical environment. A diet supplement

should not be confused with a treatment product, however sometimes it is

difficult to distinguish these effects as the similar form of application of diet

supplements and medical products (pills, capsules) and similarities

concerning the composition cause difficulties within the scope of proper

specification of these products [Borycka and Sawadro 2013]. Dilemmas

connected with health-promoting effects of the above mentioned products


13

were undoubtedly emphasized by the recent report of the Supreme Audit

Office on the supplements published on 9 February 2017. In the report it was

stated that ‘the market of diet supplements in Poland should be evaluated as

the area of high risk, insufficiently diagnosed and supervised by national

services responsible for food safety’ https://www.nik.gov.pl/,

https://www.nik.gov.pl/plik/id,12749,vp,15155.pdf March 2017]. It should be

mentioned that a Company introducing a diet supplement on the market does

not have to prove that a given supplement has health-promoting qualities,

whereas in order to withdraw the supplement from the market, it should be

proven that it is harmful for human’s health[http://www.rynekaptek.pl/March

2017].

Section 7 of the act of 25 August 2006 on food and nutrition safety

[Journal of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225] concerns next to the diet

supplements, the enrichment of foods. According to article 28 of the act,

vitamins, mineral elements or other substances with nutritious effects or other

physiological effects may be added to the foodstuffs with consideration of the

requirements specified in the regulation (EC) no. 1925/2006 of the European

Parliament and the Council concerning the adding of the vitamins, mineral

elements and some other substances with nutritious or physiological effect to

the foods [Journal of Laws EU L. 404 of 30 December 2006]. It is worth

adding that vitamins and mineral elements cannot be added to the

unprocessed foods (covering in particular fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry and

fish).

Regardless of current statutory defined types of special foods [Journal

of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225] a difference between a supplement and

a foodstuff of special purpose or foods enriched with vitamins and mineral

elements is observable among the customers. Any amendments of applicable

legal acts concern quantity or quality changes of the components included in

the above mentioned foodstuffs, their marking or advertising and provisions

of consumer safety.

In connection with the above it should be added that in 2016 many

aspects have changed in the provisions of the EU food law in particular

including the scope of foods of health-promoting nature:

− since 13 December 2016 the requirement of giving obligatory

information on the nutritious value based on the rules specified in the

Regulation 1169/2011[Official Journal. EU L 304/18] is applicable;


14

− since 20 July 2016 Regulation 609/2013 (FSG) [EU Official Journal

L 181/35] concerning the foods for newborns and small children and

foods for special medical purposes and foodstuffs substituting every

day diet is applicable (while some of the groups of foods defined in the

act on foods and nutrition safety as special purposes foodstuffs among

others: food for sportsmen and foods substituting meals will have to

change currently used categories);

− since 20 July 2016 Regulation 828/2014 of 30 July 2016 concerning the

provision of information for the customers on the absence or reduced

gluten contents in foods is applicable [EU Official Journal L 228/5].

For comparison reasons the table below presents the categories of foodstuffs

of special nutritious purpose according to the act on foods and nutrition

[Journal of Laws of 2006, No. 171, item 1225] and the new EU legal act

[Official Journal EU L 181/35].

Table 1. Categories of special purposes foodstuffs

Act of 25 July 2006 on foods and nutrition

safety

Regulation (EU) no. 609/2013

Since 20 July 2016

Mixtures for primary nutrition of newborns and

mixtures for further newborn nutrition,

Mixtures for primary nutrition of

newborns and mixtures for further

newborn nutrition,

Supplementary foodstuffs covering processed grain

products and other foodstuffs for newborns and

small children,

Processed grain products and other

foods for newborns and small children,

Dietetic foodstuffs of special medical purpose, Foods of special medical purpose,

Foodstuffs used in diets of reduced Energy

contents in order to reduce the body mass,

Foodstuffs substituting every day diet,

to control the body mass,

Foodstuffs satisfying the needs of the organism

during physical exertion, especially of the

sportsmen,

Foodstuffs for persons with metabolic

carbohydrate disorders (diabetes),

Low-sodium foodstuffs including dietetic salts of

low sodium contents or sodium-free foodstuffs,

Gluten-free foodstuffs

Source: authors’ elaboration


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YOUNG CONSUMER TOWARDS NEW GENERATION

FOODSTUFFS

According to numerous researchers in the field of foods marketing, nutritious

behaviours of a human are shaped by the factors connected with both the type

of the product and the consumer. Human behaviours are also influenced by

evironmental factors. Factors connected with the consumer include

demographic, physiological and psychological factors. The studies carried

out by Dąbrowska and Babicz-Zielińska prove that human’s foods

behaviours in respect of new generation foods are inseparably connected with

social and demographic characteristics of the consumer [Dąbrowska and

Babicz-Zielińska, 2011].

The results of the studies demonstrate that the a young educated

consumer is the most open to the new products. Such a customer, from the

marketing point of view is classified to courageous groups curious about new

experiences, equipped with wide knowledge originating both from school and

mass media, the so-called pioneer customers open to changes and ready to

take any risk [Szull 2016]. A young man is additionally interested in a good

psychophysical condition thus the knowing of the degree of its familiarity

and basic behaviours in respect of selected categories of new generation

foods seemed to be an interesting problem.

AIM AND METHODS OF THE STUDIES

The aim of the studies was the analysis of recognition and degree of the

knowledge of the foods of new generation and behaviours of the young

segment of the market towards this type of foods and its healthiness.

The studies were carried out with the use of the author’s questionnaire

in the last quarter of 2016 and it covered 50 randomly selected respondents

(mainly students), of both sexes, from 18 up to 35 years old with different

level of education. Questions covered issues concerning the knowledge of the

new generation foods, sources of acquisition of the knowledge of such foods

and its recognition, preferences of the types pf such foods, frequency of its

consumption attitude towards its healthiness, barriers regarding its purchase

and suggestions concerning the encouragement to purchase the said foods.


16

Characteristics of the research sample is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Characteristics of the research sample

Sample [%] Age [%] Education [%]

Woman Man <18 18-25 25-35 Elementary Average Higher

64 36 16 68 16 16 76 8

Source: authors’ elaboration.

RESULTS OF THE STUDIES AND DISCUSSION

The results of the studies proved that the interest of young respondents in the

new generation foods is relatively small (34%). It is possible that it is caused

by the fact that young people live on the constant run, do not have enough

time for themselves and every day issues.

Fig. 2. Level of the interest in the new generation foods


In order to identify the problem of the slight interest in the new generation

foods presented by a young segment market, the ability to recognize the

respondents of such products was examined (Figure 3).

34%

66%

Yes no


17

Fig. 3. Recognition of the new generation foods


The results of the carried out research demonstrate that the majority of

respondents is not sure if they recognize the types of the new generation

foods and merely 18 persons confidently identifies this particular type of

foods. This is the argument supporting the existence of educational gaps

within this scope. Similar conclusions were drawn up in their studies by

Dąbrowska and Babicz- Zielińska, who paid attention to the alarming low

awareness of the consumer of the availability of these products [Dąbrowska

and Babicz-Zielińska 2011].

The analysis of the preferences of researched young consumers

indicates that a significant majority of them – 82% prefers convenient foods

and 18% prefers functional foods (Figure 4). The remaining studied

categories of the new generation foods is beyond the interest of the

respondents. The reason why the foods of special nutrition purpose was not

selected was probably the lack of the knowledge of the respondents on this

matter. Phobia concerning GMO foods is quite popular, thus the results of the

studies indicating the lack of the acceptance of the respondents of this

particular type of foods, is not surprising. Reluctance of the consumption of

this type of foods may be caused by the decrease of confidence of the society

in genetic modifications. Similar results were obtained by Dąbrowska and

Babicz-Zielińska, who paid attention to the mistrust demonstrated by the

consumers in some types of foods e.g. genetically modified foods. The same

researchers emphasized the total lack of criticism and control of consumption

36%

6%

58%

Yes

no

I do not know


18

for particular groups of the new generation foods (e.g. convenient foods)

[Dąbrowska and Babicz-Zielińska, 2011] .

Fig. 4. Preferences of the types of the new generation products


In spite of the slight interest in innovative types of foods, a significant

majority of young respondents (80%) is aware of that fact that they are

consuming the new generation foods (Figure 5).

Fig. 5. Awareness of consuming of the new generation foods


0%

82%

18%

0%

GM food

convenience food

functional food

food for special

purpose

80%

20%

yes no


19

50

38

11

20

3

0,00

10,00

20,00

30,00

40,00

50,00

60,00

Internet TV school Friends magazine

The question concerning the sources of information about new types of

foods obtained the following answers (with the possibility of selecting the

answer twice): mainly the Internet (50 persons i.e. 100% of respondents) and

mass media (TV 38), the newspapers (3 persons).

Fig. 6. Sources of acquiring information concerning the new generation

foods


While selecting a young segment of the market for the research, it

could have been expected that the respondents will mainly choose the

Internet as the basic source of acquiring knowledge on foods as today it is

one of the most comfortable and the fastest way to gain knowledge on any

matter without leaving home.

The analysis of the level of the knowledge on healthiness of the new

generation foods proves that only 10% of young respondents has a negative

attitude towards health-promoting values of this kind of foods.


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Fig. 7. Awareness of the healthiness of the new generation foods


The majority of young respondents (54%) could not give any answer in

this matter but there is however a large group of respondents (36%) who are

aware of the healthiness of this type of foods. It is worth adding that in their

studies Kozirok with the co-workers [2012] proved that a neutral and positive

attitude towards health-promoting foods was dominant among the

respondents.

Fig. 8. Barriers against buying the new generation foods


36%

10%

54%

Yes

no

I do not know

9

27

6

2

3

14

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Inadequate promotion

No relevant information on the

packaging

Wont go to any other food

Small assortment

Low availability

High price


21

The young respondents notice barriers against buying the new

generation foods, above all, in the lack of appropriate information placed on

the packaging (27 respondents). This turned out to be of the highest priority

to them as a modern customer wants to make conscious decisions, in

particular the ones concerning shopping. They also indicated that the high

price (14 respondents) discourages them from buying the new generation

foods.

SUMMARY

Carried out study on the state of the knowledge on the new generation foods

and it healthiness and behaviours of the young segment of the market towards

this type of foods explicitly indicates that the level of the knowledge of the

respondents is relatively low as well as the recognition of the categories of

these products what translates into a slight degree of interest in this particular

type of foods. The research has also proved on one hand the preferences of

convenient foods and on the other hand the reluctance of GMO foods.

Young respondents, in most cases, had doubts whether this type of foods

positively influences health and probably this is the reason why they are so

indifferent towards the foods of special nutritious purpose. Thus it should be

emphasized that next to certain advantages and benefits connected with the

consumption of the new generation foods, it also bears certain risk of

a number of nutritious disturbances. For example, excessively consumed

convenient foods preferred by researched young consumers, may lead to

obesity and malnutrition.

Attention should be drawn, as other researchers have already

emphasized, to the necessity of elaborating the models of foods education

aiming to eliminate the threats of nutritious disorders at the same time

influencing the consumers’ behaviours towards in particular health-

promoting foods of new generation.

REFERENCES

Borycka B., Sawadro A., 2013, Ussesfulnes of selected fibre waste from fruit and vegetable

processing for dietary supplements and fuctional foods in: D. Gwiazdowska,


22

K. Kluczyńska (eds.) Current trends in Commodity Science: Food bioactive

compounds, Poznań University of Economics Print Shop, pp. 7-19.

Borycka B. 2015. Żywność nowej generacji - specjalnego zastosowania, [in] R. Borek -

Wojciechowska (ed.), Nowoczesna żywność część II, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu

Technologiczno-Humanistycznego, Radom, pp. 11-43.

Błaszczak A., Grześkiewicz W., 2014, Żywność funkcjonalna – szansa czy zagrożenie dla

zdrowia, Medycyna Ogólna i Nauki o Zdrowiu, Tom 20, Nr 2.

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 307/2012 of 11 April 2012 establishing

implementing rules for the application of Article 8 of Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006

of the European Parliament and of the Council on the addition of vitamins and

minerals and of certain other substances to foods [Official Journal of the European

Union L 102/2]

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 828/2014 of 30 July 2014 on the

requirements for the provision of information to consumers on the absence or reduced

presence of gluten in food Text with EEA relevance [Official Journal EU L 228/5].

Dąbrowska A., Babicz-Zielińska E., 2011, Zachowania konsumentów w stosunku do

żywności nowej generacji. Hygeia Public Health 46(1), pp. 39-46.

Gawęcki J., 2002, Żywność nowej generacji a racjonalne żywienie, Żywność Nauka

Technologia Jakość, nr 4, pp. 5-17.

Grajeta H., 2004, Żywność funkcjonalna w profilaktyce chorób układu krążenia, Adv Clin

Exp Med 13, 3, pp. 503–510.

Gutkowska K., Kowalczuk I., Sajdakowska M., Żakowska-Biemans S., Kozłowska A.,

Olewnik-Mikołajewska A., 2014, Postawy konsumentów wobec innowacji na rynku

żywności. Handel Wewnętrzny 4(351) pp. 80-93.

https://www.nik.gov.pl/plik/id,12749,vp,15155.pdf access: March 2017].

https://www.nik.gov.pl//aktualności,nik-o-dopuszczaniu-do-obrotu-suplementow-diety

access: March 2017].

Kozirok W., A. Baumgart A, E. Babicz–Zielińska E., 2012, Postawy i zachowania

konsumentów wobec żywności prozdrowotnej, Bromat. Chem. Toksykol. – XLV, 3,

pp.1030–1034.

Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October

2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC)

No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the

Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive

90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the

European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and

2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004 Text with EEA relevance.

[DOfficial Journal. EU L 304/18].

Regulation (EU) No 609/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 June

2013 on food intended for infants and young children, food for special medical

purposes, and total diet replacement for weight control and repealing Council

Directive 92/52/EEC, Commission Directives 96/8/EC, 1999/21/EC, 2006/125/EC

and 2006/141/EC, Directive 2009/39/EC of the European Parliament and of the


23

Council and Commission Regulations (EC) No 41/2009 and (EC) No 953/2009 Text

with EEA relevance [Official Journal EU L 228/5].

Saluk-Juszczak J., 2010, Antocyjany jako składnik żywności funkcjonalnej stosowanej

w profilaktyce chorób układu krążenia, Postępy Hig Med Dośw. (online), 64,

pp. 451-458.

Świderski F., Kolanowski W., 2003, Żywność funkcjonalna i dietetyczna, PWN Warszawa.

Świderski F., (ed.), 2006, Żywność wygodna i żywność funkcjonalna, WNT, Warszawa.

Szull E., 2016, Konsumenci wobec innowacyjnych produktów, Nierówności Społeczne

a Wzrost Gospodarczy, nr 46, 2, pp. 227- 236.

Uleczyć rynek suplementów diety, http://www.rynekaptek.pl/March 2017

Ustawa z dnia 25 sierpnia 2006 r o bezpieczeństwie żywności i żywienia [Journal of Laws

of 2006, No. 171, item 1225].

STRESZCZENIE

Celem opracowania była charakterystyka niektórych rodzajów

żywności prozdrowotnej nowej generacji na przykładzie środków

spożywczych specjalnego żywieniowego przeznaczenia w kontekście

przepisów prawa żywnościowego, pokazanie tzw. ‘miękkich granic’

pomiędzy różnymi rodzajami żywności nowej generacji a także analiza

stanu wiedzy na temat żywności nowej generacji i jej zdrowotności oraz

zachowań młodego segmentu rynku wobec tego rodzaju żywności.

Z przeprowadzonych badań wynika, iż respondenci dysponują niskim

poziomem wiedzy i rozpoznawalności kategorii takich produktów, co

przekłada się na mały stopień zainteresowania ich taką żywnością. Badania

wykazały też z jednej strony preferencje z tego rodzaju żywności dla

żywności wygodnej a z drugiej niechęć dla żywności z GMO. Młodzi

respondenci w większości mieli wątpliwości czy tego rodzaju żywność za

korzystnie wpływającą na zdrowie, stąd też przypuszczalnie wynika ich

obojętny stosunek do żywności specjalnego żywieniowego znaczenia.

Słowa kluczowe: żywność prozdrowotna, suplementy diety, postawy,

konsument


24


25

ASSESSMENT OF THE CONSUMER AWARENESS

IN THE RANGE OF BAKERY FATS

Anna Żbikowska1, Małgorzata Kowalska2, Magdalena Paździor2,

Piotr Paździor1

1 Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW),

ul. Nowoursynowska 159C, Poland 2Faculty of Material Science, Technology and Design, Kazimierz Pulaski University

of Technology and Humanities, ul. Chrobrego 27, 26-600 Radom, Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Due to the increasing consumer demand for the quality of products and also

with consideration of the continuous increase in the consumption of

confectionery, it is appropriate to pay special attention to the type and quality

of fats used.

The aim of that study was to investigate and analyse the views of

a selected group of consumers regarding fats suitable for baking cakes and

pastry products. The questionnaire was carried out in that study. More than

200 respondents participated in the survey. Respondents were differentiated

in terms of gender, age and education. The questionnaire contained 16

substantive questions concerning the purpose and the scope of work.

Based on the conducted research it was found that ignorance of

consumers in the field of bakery fats and views expressed erroneously might

be associated with poor eating habits.

Due to the relatively low level of consumer knowledge in the field of

fats, in authors’ opinion, there is a need to undertake educational activities to

raise the level of knowledge in this field.

Keywords: bakery fats, pastry, consumers’ views.


26

INTRODUCTION

In pastry products the content of fats is diversified depending on a type of

pastry and prescription composition. According to Świderski et al. [2006],

filled wafers available in trade have the highest fat content (over 30%), then

biscuits (11.5%). In turn, Ratusz and Wirkowska [2008] provide the fat

content in commercial short-dough cookies in the range of 11.2-39.1%.

Significant fat percentage in the composition of pastry products

translates into the quality of the end product. Thus, it is important that it

meets specific requirements. In the pastry production fat is considered the

main component, which keeps gases in dough during kneading, provides it

with desired plasticity and facilitates the mixture of components. Fat affects

the sensory quality of products: taste, texture, flavour, and if it is not fresh

enough, it ruins the desired effect by causing the impression of rancidity

[Baltsaviast et al. 1997, Caponio et al. 2008]. In the baking process fat is

a warmth carrier, while in the finished product it provides pastry with

homogenous structure and desired volume [Stauffer 2005]. Moreover,

nutritional quality of pastry products depends on the composition of fatty

acids (FA) in fat. Saturated fatty acids and trans isomers of fatty acids from

the hydrogenation process lower its quality [Żbikowska 2010].

Plasticity constitutes a basic feature of bakery and confectionery fats.

Proportions of the solid and liquid phase in various temperatures affect the fat

plasticity and the scope of its melting. The lower the content of the solid

phase, the softer the fat. If the solid phase content comes to approx. 5-35%,

fat is considered plastic, while above 40% – crispy [Żbikowska 2010a].

The solid phase of fat and its melting point determine its specific application

in the pastry-making [Żbikowska 2011]. The bakery fat’s melting point

cannot be too low, as it affects the dough structure and makes it impossible to

retain the sufficient amount of air in it. Too high fat melting point requires

additional heating in the technological process [Żbikowska and Kowalska

2010].

Pastry products are baked, that is why it is important that bakery fats

are resistant to heating. Oxidative stability is a significant qualitative

parameter of fats. Factors affecting the rate of oxidative changes in bakery fat

include e.g. chemical structure of FA in a particle of triglycerides, amount

and place of unsaturated bonds, as well as presence of pro-oxidant and

antioxidant substances [Drozdowski 2014b]. Baking temperature for pastries


27

is favourable for changes in fats, such as hydrolysis, oxidation and

polymerisation. The hydrolysis process causes decomposition of fat particles

to free AF and glycerol. Glycerol may transform into unsaturated aldehyde –

acrolein that causes severe irritation of mucosa, eyes and upper respiratory

tract [Ziemlański and Budzyńska-Topolowska 1991].

In order to improve the quality and functionality of fats obtained from

raw vegetable or animal materials, they must be often subject to

modifications [Kowalska et al. 2008]. The food industry is searching for new

technological solutions in the production of fats with better functional and

nutritional properties. Thanks to the selection of appropriate composition of

the reaction mixture and conditions, new fats can be obtained with

programmed physical and chemical properties [Ledóchowska and Datta

1999]. The processes that may change physical and chemical properties of

fats in a directed way include hydrogenation, over-esterification (chemical,

enzymatic), fractioning, mixing or genetic modifications [Drozdowski

2014b]. The processing properties of fats matter in the production technology

of pastry products and intermediate products. Fats used for baking have

a liquid or solid consistency. From the technological point of view, both

vegetable and animal fats are suitable for baking. Fats applied for pastry

products include margarines, shortenings, oils [Drozdowski 2014b].

As the consumer requirements are increasing and pastry products are

popular among the consumers, it is justified to pay special attention to a type

and quality of applied bakery fats and to a level of consumer awareness

within this scope.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the study, survey was conducted to allow for the most effective

examination of the population and for the assessment of the consumer

awareness within the scope of fats, especially bakery fats.

Survey was transferred directly (by giving a paper form directly to the

respondents) and indirectly (electronically). In total, 222 respondents

participated in the survey. The survey paper form was completed by 85

respondents, while 137 persons answered via Internet. The survey was

conducted among the incidental (accidental) population. Women prevailed


28

among the respondents (over 2/3 of the respondents). The survey was

participated by 162 women and 60 men (Table 1).

The survey questionnaire included the metrics (three questions – sex,

age, education) and substantive questions (ten questions) directly concerning

the survey purpose and scope.

Table 1. Sex of the respondents

Sex Number of ticks Percentage [%]

Woman 162 73

Man 60 27

Total 222 100

The majority of the surveyed group was constituted by respondents in the age

of 21-30 (53%). This fact may result from the availability of an internet

survey form. Persons in this age group can understand the efficacy of this

survey form much better and more eagerly participate in it. The youngest

respondents – below the age of 20 – constituted 20 % of the sample. Persons

over the age of 40 constituted 16% of the sample. Persons aged 31-40

constituted 11% of the respondents (Table 2).

Table 3 includes the data concerning age of the persons surveyed with

distribution into particular age and sex groups. Table 4 presents the

educational structure of the persons surveyed with consideration of their sex.

The educational level of the respondents allows to say that from among

all respondents, most of them (55%) had secondary education (38% –

women, 17% – men), while almost 40% had higher education (30% –

women, 8% – men). Elementary education was declared by 7% of the

persons surveyed (5% – women, 2% – men).


29

Table 2. Sex and age of the respondents

Question Results

Sex of the

respondents

Age of the

respondents

Table 3. Age structure of the persons surveyed with consideration of

their sex

Age group

Age

Sex Total

Woman Man

below 20 frequency 31 13 44

percentage [%] 13.96 5.86 19.82

21-30 frequency 89 29 118

percentage [%] 40.09 13.06 53.15

31-40 frequency 19 5 24

percentage [%] 8.56 2.25 10.81

over 40 frequency 23 13 36

percentage [%] 10.36 5.86 16.22

Total frequency 162 60 222

percentage [%] 72.97 27.03 100.00

53,15%

19,82%

16,22%

10,81%

21-30

below 20

over 40

31-40

72,97%

27,03%

Women

Men


30

Table 4. Educational structure of the persons surveyed with

consideration of their sex

Education

Sex Total

Woman Man

elementary frequency 11 5 16

percentage [%] 4.95 2.25 7.20

secondary frequency 85 38 123

percentage [%] 38.29 17.12 55.41

higher frequency 66 17 83

percentage [%] 29.73 7.66 37.39

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the survey concerning the consumer awareness, cognition of the

consumers' self-assessment was considered the significant issue, thus the

respondents were asked to assess the level of their general knowledge of

bakery fats (e.g. Figure 1).

Fig. 1. The respondents' self-assessment of knowledge of bakery fats

[in points], 1 – very low; 5 – very high

18,92 16,0526,67 25,00

15,25 16,6625,00

31,25

14,6422,89

28,3827,16

31,6725,00

27,97 25,00

36,11

6,2533,33

25,30

36,94 39,51

30,00

31,8238,98

50,00

27,78

43,7535,77 37,35

11,71 12,968,33

11,36 13,564,17 11,11

12,50 11,38 12,054,05 4,32 3,33 6,82 4,24 4,17 6,25 4,88 2,41

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

wo

men

men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

elem

enta

ry

seco

ndar

y

hig

her

Sex Age Education

1 2 3 4 5


31

Regardless of sex, age and education of the respondents, the least persons

surveyed defined their knowledge as very good (in total 4%), while 37% of

them – as sufficient. Taking into account sex of the respondents, an

analogous distribution of the indicated answers was claimed. Both women

and men were usually awarding themselves the grade 3 (respectively: 40%

and 30%), while the most seldom they recognised their knowledge as very

good (respectively: 4% and 3%). Similarly, persons below the age of 20

(32%), in the age of 21-30 (39%), 31-40 (50%), over 40 (28%) claimed that

their knowledge of fats had the grade 3, and the most seldom 5 (below 20 –

7%, 21-30 – 4%, 31-40 – 4%, over 40 – 11%). Education of the respondents

did not practically affect the structure of awarded grades for the level of their

knowledge of bakery fats. Also in that structure the most persons claimed

that their knowledge was on the level of 3 (elementary education – 44%,

secondary – 36%, higher – 37%), and the least on the level of 5 (elementary –

6%, secondary – 5%, higher – 2%).

The respondents with elementary education assessed their knowledge

usually as 3 (44%), more seldom as 4 (13%) and 5 (6%), but simultaneously

the most of them assessed their knowledge as 1 (31%). There can also be

observed the dependence that the higher the respondents' level of education,

the less the indications of 5, which may suggest more critical approach to the

issue. Based on the self-assessment results, it may be stated that the lowest

level of knowledge (grade 1) of bakery fats was indicated by men, persons

below the age of 20 and over 40, with elementary education.

As vegetable and animal fats are applied for baking cakes in home and

industrial environment, questions 2 and 3 of the survey were to collect the

respondents' opinion on the properties within the scope of composition, i.e.

presence of nutritionally undesirable saturated fats in fats (e.g. Figure 2, 3, 4).

The obtained results unanimously indicated that more than a half of the

persons surveyed, regardless of sex, age and education, knew that vegetable

fats were dominated by unsaturated fats, while animal fats were constituted

by saturated fats. In general, approx. 60% of the respondents answered

correctly to that question (respectively 59% for vegetable fats and 61%

for animal fats). It is interesting that the same number of persons declared

that they did not know a type of fatty acids present in oils and animal fats

(e.g. Figure 3, 4).


32

Fig. 2. Structure of answers to the questions concerning the composition

of fatty acids in vegetable and animal fats

The obtained results unanimously indicated that more than a half of the

persons surveyed, regardless of sex, age and education, knew that vegetable

fats were dominated by unsaturated fats, while animal fats were constituted

by saturated fats. In general, approx. 60% of the respondents answered

correctly to that question (respectively 59% for vegetable fats and 61%

for animal fats). It is interesting that the same number of persons declared

that they did not know a type of fatty acids present in oils and animal fats

(e.g. Figure 3, 4).

Fig. 3. Structure of answers to the question concerning the composition

of fatty acids in vegetable fats with consideration of age and

education of the respondents

16,67

15,43

15,77

58,33

61,73

60,81

53,33

60,49

58,56

15,00

12,96

13,51

30,00

24,08

25,68

26,67

25,31

25,68

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Men

Women

All persons surveyed

Men

Women

All persons surveyed

Veg

etab

le f

ats

are

mo

stly

:

An

imal

fat

s ar

e

mo

stly

:

saturated

unsaturated

I don’t know

15,76 15,44 16,6729,54

15,25 8,33 5,55

37,50

17,07 9,64

58,56 60,49 53,33

47,7365,25

54,17 52,78

50,00

61,79

55,42

25,68 24,07 30,00 22,73 19,5037,50 41,67

12,5021,14

34,94

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

tary

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

Sex Age Education

I don’t know

unsaturated

saturated


33


of fatty acids in animal fats

Correct indication of the composition of unsaturated FA in vegetable fats and

saturated FA in animal fats was carried out proportionally by most women

(respectively 61% and 62%), persons aged 21-30 (respectively 65% and

66%), and persons with secondary education (respectively 62% and 66%).

The highest percentage of persons aware of their lack of knowledge within

the scope of composition of unsaturated AF in vegetable fats was among the

men surveyed (30%), persons aged above 40 (42%) and with higher

education (35%).

Fat is a significant component of everyday diet [Drozdowski 2014b],

so its composition affects the nutritional and health value of food products

directly. In this context, it seems that 1/4 of the persons surveyed who

indicated incorrect answers concerning the fat composition constitutes quite

a high number of unaware consumers.

In the study there was also conducted a survey concerning the

consumer opinion on the origin of fats for margarine production (Figure 5).

60,81 61,73 58,33 59,0966,11

54,16 50,00 50,00

65,8555,43

13,51 12,96 15,0020,45

15,25

4,175,56

25,00

13,82

10,84

25,68 25,31 26,6720,45 18,64

41,67 44,44

25,00 20,3333,73

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

tary

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

Sex Age Education

I don’t know

unsaturated

saturated


34


of fatty acids in margarines

More than 90% of the consumers surveyed, regardless of a distinction of sex,

age and education, defined margarine correctly as a vegetable fat.

The persons surveyed eagerly commented on that question, as they associated

an advertisement of margarines with a picture of sunflower – hence they

concluded of its vegetable origin. That is why it may be stated that the

answers provided result from commercial campaigns conducted by

manufacturers of this product. Nevertheless, regardless of a source of

expressed opinion, the consumers' level of knowledge within that scope

appeared to be very high.

The subsequent question aimed at the cognition of the respondents'

knowledge of a type of fat applied for baking cakes. In particular, whether the

respondents were aware of nutritionally unfavourable trans isomers of AF in

that type of fats [Ziemlański and Budzyńska-Topolowska 1991] (Figure 6).

2,70 2,47 3,34 4,55 3,39 6,25 4,07

90,99 90,1293,33 93,18 91,53

87,50 88,89

93,7591,87

89,16

6,31 7,41 3,33 2,27 5,0812,50 11,11

4,0610,84

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

ta

ry

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

I don’t

know

vegetable


35

Fig. 6. Structure of answers to the question: ‘In what products may

the trans isomers of AF be present?’

If it is about the content of trans isomers of AF, regardless of sex, age and

education, the most respondents selected the answer ‘I don't know’ – in

general 48% (48% – women, 47% – men). Margarine was indicated by 26%

of the persons surveyed (25% – women, 28% – men). The majority – 38% of

persons with elementary education – indicated incorrectly that trans isomers

of AF were present mainly in oils. At the same time, that group of

respondents selected the answer ‘I don't know’ the most seldom (31%).

The correct answer, i.e. margarine fat, was indicated by the majority of

the surveyed men (28%), persons aged 21-30 (31%) and persons with

secondary education (33%). The lowest level of knowledge within that scope

was admitted by the persons with higher education (59%). In turn, the answer

‘I don't know’ with simultaneous indication of margarine was provided by

17% of the respondents. Based on the obtained answers, it may be suspected

that the level of education has increased the respondents' awareness of the

issue, but not necessarily was connected with the level of acquired

knowledge. When the respondents were to think – express a specific opinion

– it appeared that educated persons approached the issue in a conservative

way and instead of giving an incorrect answer – they preferred to mark the

answer ‘I don't know’. In turn, the highest percentage of expressed positive

opinions among the persons aged 21-30 and with secondary education may

19,82 19,75 20,00 15,9124,58 25,00

5,56

37,50

17,89 19,28

6,31 6,79 5,00 13,642,54 4,16

11,11

12,50

6,50 4,81

26,13 25,31 28,3325,00 30,51

16,67

19,44

18,75

33,33

16,87

47,74 48,15 46,67 45,45 42,3754,17

63,89

31,2542,28

59,04

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

tary

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

Sex Age Education

I don’t

knowmargarine

butter

oil


36

attest to the fact that they are representatives of young generation who are

still learning or have recently finished education, that is why the issues of fat-

related health aspects may constitute an element of their education and

a result of the fashion for healthy lifestyle.

A particularly important property of fats, from the point of view of

nutritional values, is constituted by their previously mentioned susceptibility

to oxidation processes [Kowalska et al. 2012, Drozdowski 2014b]. Figure 7

presents the structure of answers concerning the question connected with the

fat autoxidation process.

Fig. 7. Structure of answers to the question: ‘Which fats are suitable for

baking?’

Almost a half of the persons surveyed (49% – in total, 49% – women, 48% –

men) expressed the opinion that they did not know whether easily or hardly

autooxidising fats were suitable for baking. The correct answer (hardly

autoxidising) was indicated by 21% of the persons surveyed, including 19% –

women, 28% – men. The highest percentage of incorrect answers was marked

by persons with elementary education – 56% (total indications of answers:

easily autooxidising – 43% and both answers are correct – 12%).

Simultaneously, it is a group of the least indications of the answer ‘I don't

know’. This may result from the fact that scholar curriculum does not contain

similar contents. It may be expected that the presented consumer group has

not had yet practical experience within the scope of a gastronomic application

19,37 21,6013,33

40,91

16,95 12,515,56

43,75

20,3313,25

21,17 18,5228,33

9,09

26,2720,83

19,44

6,25

26,02

16,87

10,81 11,11 10,006,82

11,86

8,3313,89

12,5013,81

6,02

48,65 48,77 48,34 43,18 44,9258,33 61,11

37,50 39,84

63,86

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

tary

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

Sex Age Education

I don’t know

both answers

are correcthardly oxidised

easily oxidised


37

of fats. Besides, maybe a group selected for that survey preferred to apply the

rule of providing any answer and counting on hitting the correct one.

Respondents with elementary education and persons below the age of 20

indicated the least correct answers (respectively – 6% and 9%). In this

context a result of the answer ‘I don't know’ in a group of the persons

surveyed with higher education (64% of indications) seems to be

controversial. It may rather result from the real self-assessment of their

knowledge indicated by the persons surveyed, where in this group there were

the least grades – 5 (e.g. Figure 1). Relatively large number of answers

‘I don't know’ can also result from the lack of knowledge of what the term

‘fat oxidation’ means.

Another question of the survey concerned the cognition of consumers'

views of the cholesterol content in vegetable fats (Figure 8).

Fig. 8. Structure of answers to the question: ‘Do baking fats contain

cholesterol?’

Although the issue of cholesterol content in fats is frequently discussed, e.g.

in scientific programmes, in industrial and scientific magazines, it appeared

that for the persons surveyed it was not obvious that vegetable fats did not

contain cholesterol. About a half of the persons surveyed – 49% – expressed

the opinion that vegetable fats contained cholesterol, while 20% admitted that

they did not know an answer to that question. The answer ‘I don't know’ was

indicated mostly by the persons surveyed below the age of 20 and aged 31-40

– 25% indications per each. The most incorrect answers were provided by the

persons surveyed with elementary education – 69%. According to 30.63% of

49,10 54,32

35,00

56,82 50,85 45,8336,11

68,75

47,97 46,99

30,63 25,93

43,33

18,18 29,6629,17 50,00

25,00

30,08 32,53

20,27 19,75 21,67 25,00 19,49 25,0013,89

6,2521,95 20,48

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

tary

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

Sex Age Education

I don’t

know

do not

contain

cholesterol


38

all respondents (26% – women and 43% – men), bakery vegetable fats did

not contain cholesterol. The correct – from the point of view of general

knowledge of fat – opinion was usually provided by men (43%), persons over

40 (50%) and with higher education (33%). It may be assumed that this group

of respondents is concerned by the issue of nutritionally undesirable effects

of consumption of food products with elevated cholesterol, thus they have an

established opinion and sufficient knowledge within this scope. In the

presented survey, respondents were asked also about fat perfect for baking in

their opinion (Figure 9).

Regardless of sex, age and education, in every category differentiating

the respondents, a margarine block was considered perfect for baking cakes.

In total, 52% of respondents (50% – women and 57% – men) regarded

a margarine block as the fat perfect for baking cakes. The margarine block

was mostly indicated by men (57%), persons below the age of 20 (57%) and

with elementary education (69%). Another fat with regard to a number of

answers was butter (27% – in total, 28% – women and 26% – men). Among

other fat types proposed in the survey, proportionally the most answers

concerning a perfect fat for baking cakes opted for, respectively, lard – 12% –

men, oil – 11% of women and 11% of persons below the age of 20, coconut

oil – 5% of women, clarified butter – of 3% persons below the age of 20.

Fig. 9. Structure of answers to the question: ‘Please indicate a fat that

you consider perfect for baking’

4,55 6,17 2,28 1,71 4,17

17,14

1,639,88

51,83 50,0056,90 56,82 55,56

45,83

37,14 68,75

53,6645,68

27,27 27,78 25,86 22,73 25,64 37,50 31,43

25,00

25,2030,86

0,65 0,31 1,72 3,391,21

3,43 4,63 1,15 4,274,17

2,864,48

2,479,09 11,11

3,45

11,36 8,558,33

8,576,25

8,949,88

3,1812,07

2,27 4,27 2,86 4,88 1,23

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

In t

ota

l

Wom

en

Men

bel

ow

20

21-3

0

31-4

0

over

40

Ele

men

tary

Sec

on

dar

y

Hig

her

Sex Age Education

lard

oil

coconut oil

clarified

butter


39

CONCLUSIONS

The results presented in the paper and the conducted analysis of views of

a group of consumers concerning the fats for baking cakes and pastries

indicated that the majority of the persons surveyed (approx. 60%) knew that

nutritionally undesirable saturated fatty acids (FA) were present mainly in

animal fats, while the desirable unsaturated FA – in vegetable fats.

According to the half of the consumers surveyed, a perfect fat for

baking was constituted by hard margarine, which – according to the vast

majority (approx. 90%) – is a vegetable fat. Almost half of the respondents

was not aware that in fats there take place unbeneficial changes related to

their oxidation.

It was stated that higher level of knowledge of fats was not often

connected with higher education of the respondents and their potential

experience arising from age.

The conducted analysis allowed for the statement that the respondents

had deficiencies in the general knowledge of fats and expressed wrong views

of bakery fats, which might be related to bad eating habits. That is why

educational actions should be taken to draw attention to the issue and to the

improvement of knowledge within this scope.

REFERENCES Baltsaviast, A., Jurgens, A., Vliet, T., 1997, Factors affecting fracture properties of short-

dough biscuits, Journal of Texture Studies, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 205-219.

Caponio, F., Summo, C., Pasqualone, A., Bilancia, M.T., 2008, Effect of kneading and

baking on the degradation of the lipid fraction of biscuits, Journal of Cereal Science,

vol. 48 no. 2 , pp. 407-412.

Drozdowski, B., 2014, Charakterystyka ogólna tłuszczów jadalnych [General Description of

Edible Fats], in: Sikorski, Z.E. (ed.), Chemia żywności, sacharydy, lipidy i białka,

Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa.

Kowalska, M., Aljewicz, M.,Mroczek, E.,Cichosz, G., 2012, Olej palmowy – tańsza

i zdrowsza alternatywa [Palm Oil – Cheaper and Healthier Alternative], Bromatologia

i Chemia Toksykologiczna, vol. 45 no. 2, pp. 171-180.

Ledóchowska, E., Datta, I., 1999, Wpływ frakcji nietriacyloglicerolowej na stabilność

oksydatywną tłuszczu przeestryfikowanego chemicznie i enzymatycznie [Influence of

the Non-Triacylglycerol Fraction on the Oxidative Stability of Chemically and

Enzymatically Over-Esterified Fat], Żywność. Nauka. Technologia. Jakość, vol.6,

no. 1, pp.15-24.


40

Ratusz, K., Wirkowska, M., 2008, Udział izomerów trans kwasów tłuszczowych

w wybranych wyrobach ciastkarskich i chipsach ziemniaczanych [Content of Trans

Isomers of Fatty Acids in Selected Pastry Products and Potato Chips], Żywność.

Nauka. Technologia. Jakość, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 96-102

Stauffer, C.E., 2005, Fats and oils in bakery products, in Shahidi, F. (ed.), Bailey’s industrial

oil and fats products, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.

Świderski, F., Waszkiewicz-Robak, B., Obiedziński, M., Matias, D., 2006, Jakość

rynkowych wyrobów cukierniczych z dużym udziałem tłuszczu [Quality of Market

Confectionary with a High Fat Content], Żywność. Nauka. Technologia. Jakość, vol.

46, no. 1(46) Suppl., pp. 192-200.

Ziemlański, Ś., Budzyńska-Topolowska, J., 1991, Tłuszcze pożywienia i lipidy ustrojowe

[Fats andLipids], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa.

Żbikowska, A., 2010, Bez tłuszczu ani rusz [No Can Do Without Fat], Przegląd

Gastronomiczny, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 12-13.

Żbikowska, A. 2011, Tłuszcze od podszewki [Fats from the Scratch], Przegląd

Gastronomiczny, vol. 65, no. 9, pp. 11 - 14.

Żbikowska, A., Kowalska, M., 2010, Charakterystyka technologiczna i zastosowanie

tłuszczów cukierniczych [Technological Description and Application of Bakery Fats],

Tłuszcze Jadalne, vol 45, no. 1-2, pp. 41-49.

STRESZCZENIE

W związku z rosnącymi wymaganiami konsumentów odnośnie jakości

produktów i mając na uwadze ciągły wzrost spożycia wyrobów ciastkarskich,

celowym jest zwrócenie szczególnej uwagi na rodzaj i jakość stosowanych

tłuszczów.

Celem pracy było zbadanie i analiza poglądów wybranej grupy

konsumentów na temat tłuszczów przeznaczonych do pieczenia ciast

i ciastek.

W części doświadczalnej przeprowadzono badania ankietowe,

w których wzięło udział 222 respondentów, zróżnicowanych pod względem

płci, wieku oraz wykształcenia. Kwestionariusz ankiety zawierał 16 pytań

merytorycznych dotyczących celu i zakresu pracy.

W oparciu o przeprowadzone badania oraz ich analizę stwierdzono,

że braki wykazane w wiedzy ogólnej konsumentów oraz wyrażane mylne

poglądy, dotyczące tłuszczów przeznaczonych do pieczenia, mogą być

związane ze złymi nawykami żywieniowymi polskiego społeczeństwa.


41

W związku ze stosunkowo niskim poziomem wiedzy konsumentów z zakresu

tłuszczów powinny być podejmowane działania edukacyjne, mające na celu

zwrócenie uwagi na problem oraz podniesienie poziomu wiedzy w tym

zakresie.

Słowa kluczowe: tłuszcze piekarskie, ciastka, poglądy konsumenckie.


42


43

CONVERGENCES IN CURRENT RESEARCH OF BABY

FOOD PRODUCTS FROM DEVELOPED MARKETS

Anna Bona

Department of Food Commodity Science, Faculty of Commodity Science,

Poznań University of Economics and Business, Poznań, Poland,

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

In the light of increase of the level of children's obesity, which can be related

to overmuch energy intake, great percentage of existing research in the area

of packaged baby foods from developed markets focuses specifically on

monitoring of saturated fat, added sugar and also salt content. Results show

that there are some products targeted at young children aged 1-3 years, which

actually provide more sugar and salt per serving than similar products for

adults.

Apart from the prevalence of studies on nutritional quality in relation to

the nutrition recommendations also the issue of manufacturer claims,

specifically nutritional symbols accompanying baby food products, can be

perceived as a hot topic. Front-of-package nutrition claims often highlight

a single area of balanced nutrition without mentioning that the same product

is high in undesirable ingredient.

This review paper is a summary of the data regarding nutritional profile

of available baby food products from the markets of US, Canada and UK also

mentioning one study from Australia.

Keywords: baby food, toddler food, sugar, salt, nutrition claims

INTRODUCTION

The number of children from developed countries who consume industrially

produced baby food is prevalent and it is predicted that this trend will still

increase in coming years. Additionally, much attention is paid to the healthy

diets, especially in affluent parts of the world.


44

During the far-reaching process of globalization nowadays, consumers

can visibly experience diffusion of the baby food industry. In many

developed countries differences in consumption patterns are easily unified.

Baby food producers are mostly multinational companies, which build their

strategies on the knowledge of local cultures and markets to compete with

tradition of home cooking. Therefore their activity reflects the struggle

between duration of cultural variety and international trends leading to the

equalization of food consumption.

Food consumption is an important and complex social activity. Type of

nourishment that society chooses to feed its children reveals much about its

tastes and concepts regarding health. The invention of commercial baby food

shaped many societies’ notions regarding infancy and heavily affected the

evolution of parental and pediatric care.

Baby food is a global business primarily centered in North America and

Western Europe with major growth potential in China, India, Eastern Europe,

and Latin America [Global Baby Food Market 2012]. The creation of story

initiated Mrs. Dorothy Gerber in the late 1920s setting in motion

development of mass-produced convenience processed products. From

historical point of view this branch of industry underwent a real revolution

that took place in the early years of twenty-first century in the homeland of

the USA. Change was dictated by sobering scientific evidence about infants’

and toddlers’ food consumption. The first baby food products were laden

with salt, starch and sugar and became a gateway to the industrialized diet

that blossomed during this period.

The invention and production of baby food in the 1920s was driven by

the different ethos in comparison to the more recent times. In the dominant

culture of the 1920s was the belief that science and technology, reflected

through industrial production would bring a better, cleaner, safer product, one

that would just mitigate the burden on mothers. In the twenty-first century

ethos, at least for an educated, higher-income population, “industrial’ does

not mean better, cleaner, and safer – frequently it signifies more vulnerable

on contaminants and deficiencies, whether with regard to nutrition, esthetics,

or taste. The early twentieth-century admiration of products “untouched by

human hands’ contrasts with the twenty-first century ‘New Baby Food’

creators, who (having the luxury of worrying less about product safety than

those a hundred years earlier) want to know their child’s food is made by

human hands – that it is minimally processed, free of additives, and delicious


45

[Strasser 1982, Bentley 2014]. Public discourse and action in the new century

represents a new maturity in thinking.

Little jars of baby food are meant to resolve a multitude of problems in

the domestic sphere: they are to make caretakers feel empowered by reducing

their anxieties towards nutrition and health of their children and they also

offer to women irresistible convenience enabling possibility to go back to

work.

Nowadays, baby food persists to be formed by medical, commercial,

and parenting trends. Baby food producers now try to deal with health and

nutrition problems as well as the rise of alternative food movements like eco

or bio food. All of this counts a lot as it is during infancy that human palates

become acclimated to tastes and textures, including those of highly

processed, minimally nutritious, and calorie-dense industrial food products

[Harris 2008].

This article aims to present a review of currently available data

regarding issues connected to nutrition profile and labeling of baby food from

several developed markets. This direction in the research of baby food is

dictated by general concerns about increases in adult and childhood obesity

and high intakes of energy, saturated fat, sugar, salt and the fact that certain

categories of food – such as baby foods – have, to date, been overlooked in

nutrition and health policy. Nevertheless some selected studies have begun to

explore this gap.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CURRENT BABY FOOD

PRODUCTS

Processed baby foods designed for infants (4–12 months) and toddlers (12–

36 months) (excluding infant formula, follow-on formula, the so-called

growing-up milks, and cereal-based foods for infants), which are referred to

as baby foods, are specific products defined by a European regulation

[Commission Directive 2006/125/CE]. According to this Directive such

foods have a composition adapted to the nutritional needs of children at this

age and should comply with specifications related to food safety in terms of

ingredients, production processes and prevention of infectious and

toxicological hazards. Hence, they differ from ordinary foods and from non-

specific processed foods. This market segment includes the full range of


46

foods that can be part of children’s diet: dairy products (dairy desserts,

yoghurts, and fresh cheese), sweet products (nondairy desserts, fruit, and

drinks) and salty products (soups, vegetable-based foods, meat, fish, and full

dishes). Those foodstuffs are intended to be used for the weaning period of

infants and also as complementary feeding of young children and/or for their

progressive adaptation to a normal diet. These particular foods must be

distinguished from infant formulas, follow - up preparations, milks for

growth, and infant cereals, which are covered by other regulations - also

referred to as baby foods.

Baby food products are packaged in small pots, cups, bowls, plates, and

packs with containers (glass, plastic, metal, etc.) to respond the needs for the

various meals of the day. The also offer varies according to the target age

category: dishes of variable capacity, homogenized consistency and smooth

texture for infants, then into more pieces, more consistent for the older

children.

Baby food accounts for smaller fraction of overall food intake than that

of growing-up milks. That is the reason why their impact on the quality of

young children’s diet is much less, particularly for preventing insufficient

iron and vitamin D intake [Ghisolfi et al. 2012]. Their consumption,

however, has an indirect benefit on the nutritional quality of the diet and on

food safety, particularly regarding toxicological hazards, as it postpones the

introduction of non-specific processed foods, which are inadequate for this

group because of both their nutritional composition and lower food safety

control. Baby foods represent a family of products meeting parents’

expectations and adapted to infants and young children [Ghisolfi et al. 2013].

The major part of the baby food market is occupied by a few

multinational companies. In the developed countries the list of producers is

usually very short - up to several trademarks are possible to distinguish.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CONTEMPORARY BABY

FOOD USAGE

In western countries commercial baby foods are widely used to introduce

infants to solid diet [Siega-Riz et al. 2010, Foterek et al. 2014]. An important

factor that has to be taken into consideration when examining the usage of

commercial baby foods is the parental experience of weaning and reasons for


47

choosing and introducing particular foods. Overall, commercial baby foods

are an approachable, non-perishable and portable option of feeding. The

growth in their usage can be perceived as a reflection of present-day lifestyles

when people are very busy and have definitely less time for cooking. This

leads to a general rise and reliance on ready-made foods. A deep

understanding of parental needs regarding weaning enables health care

professionals to tailor their advice and potentially inform industry to develop

more suitable products [Jabs and Devine 2006].

The companies producing and distributing baby food products tend to

use a specific kind of discourse to promote and develop this market. Main

attention is paid to highlight that unbalanced use of common, non-specific

industrial foods leads to mistakes in the child’s diet. On the other hand foods

for babies are characterized by adapted composition, which participates in the

auspicious child development and avoiding nutritional mistakes. These

products are also advertised as innovations, advances in science and

technology having a real value of modernity. Finally the psychological aspect

is to seek the reduction in parents’ feeling guilty for not cooking for their

child. The main image created for baby foods refers them to be natural

products, which can be perceived as the most important for parents who often

experience sociological situation of decreasing supply of homemade food.

Consumer surveys reveal that baby foods are mostly of interest for parents of

children below 12 moths old, while half of them think that after one year

children can eat the same as the rest of the family. Only 38% consider

nutritional superiority of commercial over homemade and industrial non-

specific feeding stuffs; in turn 36% believe that they are more toxicologically

safe than food from non-specific industries. Finally, purchases of baby foods

are more probably conditioned by sociocultural connotations like: lifestyle,

availability, cultural identity [McAndrew et al. 2012; Ghisolfi et al. 2013].

CURRENT CONCERNS REGARDING COMMERCIALLY

PRODUCED BABY FOOD

From a toxicological point of view, the consumption of commercially

produced baby food can be perceived as guaranteed. Those products must

respond to the regulatory constraints much more severely than conventional

and industrial non-specific foods. It is confirmed that the exposure of infants


48

and young children to the toxic substances is essentially related to the use of

common foods [Ghisolfi 2013]. Nevertheless some concerns towards the

enlarged reliance on commercially produced baby food have been defined,

specifically reduced dietary variety, taste profile, differing nutritional content

and reduced microbial load [Garcia et al. 2013, Foterek et al. 2015]. Those

factors in common cumulatively create a significant change in early food

exposure, with potential implications for the development of non-

communicable diseases, namely allergy [Bjorksten et al. 2001, Grimshaw

et al. 2014] and obesity [Luoto et al. 2011].

Current studies indicate that commercial baby food is often

characterized as the possible option of reducing the multiplicity of foods and

tastes introduced to an infant’s diet. This problem have displayed some

European studies concluding for example that most meals are based on carrot

[Mesch et al. 2014] and there is a lack of seafood based meals [Carstairs

et al. 2016]. A longitudinal UK study reported that feeding home-cooked

fruit or vegetables during the weaning period was associated with increased

intake and diversity of consumed fruit and vegetables at the age of seven

years, whereas feeding ready-prepared products during infancy did not

provide positive results in variety of fruit and vegetable consumption

[Coulthard et al. 2010]. An interpretation of this issue suggested that

commercial fruit and vegetable products tend to have a uniform taste and

texture, whereas those home-prepared or eaten raw always differ in

accordance to the seasonal variability and cooking method. Inclusion of

multiplicity of fresh foods during the stage of complementary feeding

provides a platform for establishment of balanced taste preferences.

Nevertheless, recent research notify about large amount (up to 70-80 %) of

currently offered commercial baby foods that is sweet with a significant

shortage of bitter vegetables used. A study of 479 commercially available

products concluded that the majority of products investigated would not

enhance the nutrient density and diversity of taste or texture in infants’ diet.

Fruit and vegetables contribute significantly to sugar content of commercial

baby foods evidencing their sweetness. Demand for food perceived as

wholesome is well identified by producers but yet exists commercial pressure

for their products to be highly palatable [Garcia et al. 2016]. A report carried

as cross-sectional survey in the UK critically reviewed the variety and

nutritional characteristics of baby foods revealing that most of them are

supplied as sweet, soft, spoonable meals whose energy density is lower than


49

formula milk and generally much less nutrient-dense than homemade foods

[Garcia et al. 2013].

In recent years nutritional quality of foods destined for young children

aged between 1 and 3 years old (named as ‘toddlers’) has been recognized as

the knowledge gap. For that reason a series of studies have been launched to

specifically analyze sugar-derived calories in toddler foods and products that

are high in sodium content. Early life exposures to sodium and sugar can set

preferences and determine health trajectories [Mennella 2014].

Recent results of complementary infant and toddler foods investigation

from the United States showed that all but two of the 657 infant dinners,

vegetables, fruits, dry cereals, and ready-to-serve mixed grains and fruits

were low in sodium (≤ 140 mg/RACC – reference amount customarily

consumed). The majority of these foods did not contain added sugars.

However, 41 of 79 infant mixed grains and fruits contained ≥1 added sugar,

and 35 also contained >35% calories from sugar. 72% of 72 toddler dinners

were high in sodium content (>210mg/RACC). Toddler dinners contained an

average of 2295 mg of sodium per 1000 kcal (sodium 212/100 g). So called

‘savoury’ infant/toddler snacks (n=34) contained an average 1382 mg of

sodium in 1000 kcal (sodium 486/100 g); one was summarized as high in

sodium. Thir32% of toddler dinners and the majority of toddler cereal bars,

breakfast pastries, fruit, baby/toddler snacks, desserts, and juices contained

≥1 added sugar. These findings apparently show that substantial proportion of

toddler meals and other commercial foods meant for children at the age

above 12 months are of potential concern because of their high sodium

content or presence of ≥1 added sugar [Cogswell et al. 2014]. Another

research reported on the high sodium content of commercial baby and toddler

foods sold in grocery stores in the United States (approximately seven out of

ten toddler meals and dinners were high in sodium content and concentration

of sodium in savoury snacks was comparable to common potato chips).

Whereas the amount of calories from sugar in toddler cereal bars and dry fruit

based snacks (even up to 62% of calories from total sugars) also did not

differ from similar products targeted at older children and adults [Maalouf et

al. 2013]. Those overall findings on sodium and total sugar content have been

specified as similar to the more previous from Canada where in many types

of infant and toddler food products indicated contents were also quite high

[Elliot and Conlon 2011]. A Canadian study found that more than 60 % of


50

the baby foods available in the stores were high in sodium content or had

a high proportion of sugar-derived calories [Elliot 2011].

The results of description the types of commercial baby and toddler

foods available in Australia and summary of their nutritional content revealed

that the majority of them are ready-made fruit-based products aimed at

children under 12 months of age. The main conclusion indicated definitely

lower amount of products with high levels of sodium and sugar. However,

the fact of predominant type of fruit-based products (58%) led the authors to

conclude that relatively high sugar content deriving from fruits requires close

attention. This aimed to ensure that these foods do not replace other more

nutrient-dense ones, given children have an innate preference for sweet tastes

[Dunford et al. 2015].

NUTRIENT CLAIMS ON BABY FOOD PRODUCTS

Over the past few decades the quality of baby food in developed countries

has been turned into a serious topic because of the general concern about

healthy nutrition and diets. Many factors influencing the quality of the

product have to be under control and declared to the consumer. There

growing interest in environmental problems and popularity of all sorts of

related philosophies and trends (like organic, eco, bio-food, etc.) in nutrition

is still rising. Those results make this issue for parents even more substantial.

That is the reason why labels on baby foods in many countries resemble a bit

a chemical laboratory statement and contain detailed information about the

absence of additives (artificial aromas or colorants, preservatives), gluten,

and cow’s milk, as well as about the environmental safety of the product.

Declaring obligatory or voluntary information about what is present in the

baby food product seems to become even less important than accentuation

the data reflecting that what is absent. Regulations specify that the labeling

for these industrial foods, in addition to the information on their composition,

shall contain a statement indicating the age at which the food may be used -

having regard to its composition, texture or other special properties.

Nutrition claims and symbols are meant to help customers in

recognizing foods that are more wholesome variants. European Commission

has founded a research project named CLYMBOL (‘Role of health-related

claims and symbols on consumer behaviour’) running from 2012 to 2016 that


51

aimed to understand the effects of claims and symbols on food labels and

how this affects purchase and consumption behaviours. Within this project

the prevalence of claims and symbols on food products has been measured.

The results showed that among all the product categories, baby foods were

indicated to be of the highest prevalence of on-pack claims. Within 2036

foods sampled in five EU countries (Germany, The Netherlands, Spain,

Slovenia and UK), 41 products were classified as baby foods and all health-

related information from the packaging was drawn out for investigation. The

analysis indicated that most of the baby foods carry nutrition or/and health

claims. 78% of the baby foods labels contained nutrition claims and in most

of the cases covered: sugar, salt, fat, and protein-related statements, as well as

some claims on vitamins and minerals. Health claims revealed 71% of the

products. Overall health claims were concentrated on healthy growth and

wellbeing. Several other functions – like nutrient claims focused on mental

growth, digestive/metabolic, cardiovascular, and neuro-musculoskeletal

functions. Most claims were presented in the front of the packaging [Heike et

al. 2015].

Baby food manufacturers in the USA tend to make sporadically

unsupported nutrition claims that is contested by consumers’ advocates or

government regulators. For example the Food and Drug Administration cited

Gerber for making unauthorized nutrient content claims on its baby food

labels; pronounces found on second foods carrots and graduates fruit puffs:

‘healthy as fresh’, ‘an excellent source of vitamin A’, ‘no added sugar’ were

inconsistent with the labeling regulations of the products specifically

intended for little children [Dorfman and Heavey 2010].

Results from the American study that aimed to examine the nutritional

profile of products targeted at the youngest population, based on the presence

or absence of nutritional symbols and the issuing body of the symbols,

indicated that products with a nutritional symbol issued by government

/health professionals were healthier than foods with nutritional symbols

issued directly by the manufacturer and than foods with no nutritional

symbols. The discrepancy between the appearance of a nutritional symbol

and food content may be misleading for consumers and raises ethical and

regulatory concerns [Metcalfe and Elliot 2014]. In another study the results

showed that out of all products targeted at children, 71% contained

a nutrition claim and 58% of these contained high levels of sugar, sodium or

fat [Colby et al. 2010]. By emphasizing a single positive nutritional aspect,


52

a powerful marketing strategy has been developed. This action targets at

changing parental consumer behaviour by providing restricted data about

how manufacturers’ products fit into a healthy diet of a child.

CONCLUSIONS

The baby food market is an offer that meets expectations of parents. These

products are, practical and easy to use. The interest in their usage is obvious

in terms of health security and due to the toxicological risks associated with

the use of non-specific foods, as well as due to convenience.

Nowadays in the context of baby food research at the forefront of

concerns about children’s health emerge sugar and salt content. The studies

in some developed countries reveal that much attention should be directed at

those products targeted at the very young consumers. The issues of sugar and

sodium are not only concerned to creating taste preferences. Foods designed

for babies do adhere to a higher nutritional standard but parents should be

aware of necessity to be vigilant enough in studying the labels of products.

Although the national intake recommendations and food regulations differ

between the countries of Europe, America and Australia, the convergences in

the problem of sugar and sodium content, especially in some foods targeted

at children aged 1-3 years, is evident and somewhow concerning.

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Carstairs, S., Marais, D., Craig, L., Kiezebrink, K., 2016, Seafood inclusion in commercial

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Cogswell, M.E., Gunn, J.P., Yuan, K., Park, S., Merritt, R., 2014, Sodium and sugar in

complementary infant and toddler foods sold in the United States, Pediatrics, vol. 135,

no. 3, pp. 416-423.

Colby, S.E., Johnson L., Scheett, A., Hoverson, B., 2010, Nutrition marketing on food labels,

Journal of Nutrition Education and Behaviour, vol. 42, issue 2, pp. 92-98.

Commission Directive 2006/125/EC of 5 December 2006 on processed cereal based food

and baby foods for infants and young children, Brussels.


53

Coulthard, H., Harris, G., Emmett, P., 2010, Long-term consequences of early fruit and

vegetable feeding practices in the United Kingdom, Public Health Nutrition, vol. 13,

no. 12, pp. 2044-2051.

Dorfman, B., Heavy, S., 2010, U.S. Issues Warning Over Food Labels. Nanaimo Daily News

from March 4th.

Dunford, E., Louie, J.C.Y., Byrne, R., Walker, K.Z., Flood. V.M., 2015, The nutritional

profile of baby and toddler food products sold in Australian supermarkets, Maternal

and Child Health Journal, vol. 19, issue 12, pp. 2598-2604.

Elliot, C.D., 2011. Sweet and salty: nutritional content and analysis of baby and toddler

foods, Journal of Public Health, vol. 33, issue 1, pp. 63-71.

Elliot, C.D., Conlon, M.J., 2011. Toddler foods, children’s foods: assessing sodium in

packaged supermarket foods targeted at children, Public Health Nutrition, vol. 14,

issue 3, pp. 490-498.

Foterek, K., Hilbig, A., Alexy, U., 2014, Breast-feeding and weaning practices in the

DONALD study: age and time trends, Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and

Nutrition, vol. 58, no.3, pp. 361-367.

Foterek. K., Hilbig, A., Alexy, U., 2015, Associations between commercial complementary

food consumption and fruit and vegetable intake in children, Results of the DONALD

study, Appetite, vol. 85, pp. 84-90.

Garcia, A.L., Raza, S., Parrett, A., Wright, C.M., 2013, Nutritional content of infant

commercial weaning foods in the UK, Archives in Disease in Childhood, vol. 98,

issue 10, pp. 793-797.

Garcia, A.L., McLean, K., Wright, C.M., 2016, Types of fruits and vegetables used in

commercial baby foods and their contribution to sugar content, Maternal and Child

Nutrition, vol. 12, issue 4, pp. 838-847.

Ghisolfi, J., Fantino, M., Turck, D., Potier de Courcy G., Vidailhet M., 2012, Nutrient

intakes of children aged 1–2 years as a function of milk consumption, cows’ milk or

growing-up milk, Public Health Nutrition, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 524–534.

Ghisolfi, J., Bocquetb, A., Bressonc, J.L., Briendd, A., Chouraquie, J.P., Darmaunf, D.,

Dupontc, C., Frelutg, M.L., Girardetg, J.P., Gouletc, O., Hankardh, R., Rieui, D.,

Simeonij, U., Turckk, D., Vidailhetl, M., 2013, Processed baby foods for infants

and young children: A dietary advance? A position paper by the Committee on

Nutrition of the French Society of Paediatrics. Archives de Pediatrie, vol. 20, no. 5,

pp. 523-532.

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Organic Baby Food. PRNewswire, August 16, 2012. Accessed February 2017.

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to-2016---asia-an-emerging-market-for-organic-baby-food-166386666.html

Grimshaw, K.E.C., Maskell, J., Oliver, E.M., Morris, R.C.G., Foote, K.D., Mills, E.N.,

Margetts, B.M., Roberts, G., 2014, Diet and food allergy development during infancy:

Birth cohort study findings using prospective food diary data, Journal of Allergy and

Clinical Immunology, vol. 133, no. 2, pp. 511-519.

Harris, G., 2008, Development of taste and food preferences in children. Current Opinion in

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54

Hieke, S., Kuljanic, A.N., Wills, A.J., Miklavec, A.K., Pravst, B.I., 2015, Prevalence

of nutrition and health claims on baby foods in 5 EU Member States, Nutrients vol. 8

(3) 137.

Jabs, J, Devine, C.M., 2006, Time scarcity and food choices: An overview,

Appetite vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 196-204.

Luoto, R., Kalliomaäki, M., Laitinen, K., Delzenne, N.M., Cani, P.D., Salminem, S., Isolauri,

E., 2011, Initial dietary and microbiological environments deviate in normal-weight

compared to overweight children at 10 years of age, Journal of Pediatric

Gastroenterology and Nutrition, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 90-95.

Maalouf, J., Cogswell, M.E., Gunn, J.P., Merritt, R., 2013, Sodium content of commercial

baby and toddler foods, Circulation, 127, AP253.

Maubach, N., Hoek, J., McCreanor, T., 2009, An exploration of parents’ food purchasing

behaviours, Appetite, vol. 53, no.3, pp. 297-302.

Mennella, J.A., 2014, Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for

health, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 99 (suppl. 3), pp. 704S-711S.

Mesch, C.M., Stimming, M., Foterek, K., Hilbig, A., Alexy, U., Kersting, M., Libuda, L.,

2014, Food variety in commercial and homemade complementary meals for infants in

Germany. Market survey and dietary practice, Appetite, vol. 76, pp. 113-119.

Metcalfe, A., Elliott, C., 2014, Differences in the nutritional content of baby and toddler

foods with front-of-package nutrition claims issued by manufacturers v.

governments/health organizations, Public Health Nutrition, vol. 18, issue 1, pp. 75-80.

McAndrew, F., Thompson, J., Fellows. L., Large, A., Speed, M., Renfrew, M.J., 2012,

Infant Feeding Survey. Health and Social Care Information Centre, IFF Research

Siega-Riz, A.M., Deming, D.M., Reidy, K.C., Fox, M.K., Condon, E., Briefel, R.R.,

2010, Food consumptions patterns of infant and toddlers: where are we now?

Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, vol. 110, issue 12, Supplement

pp. S38-S51.

Strasser, S., 1989, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market, New

York: Pantheon Books.

STRESZCZENIE

W świetle wzrostowej tendencji zjawiska otyłości wśród dzieci, wprost

proporcjonalnie związanej z między innymi nadmiarem podaży

energetycznej konsumowanej żywności, znaczna część badań nad jakością

gotowych posiłków dla niemowląt i małych dzieci z krajów wysoko

rozwiniętych jest skoncentrowana na monitorowaniu zawartości tłuszczów

nasyconych, cukru oraz soli. Niektóre doniesienia wykazują, iż na rynku są

dostępne produkty żywnościowe z kategorii specjalnie przeznaczonej dla

małych dzieci w wieku 1-3 lat, które dostarczają więcej cukru lub soli niż

podobne produkty dla osób dorosłych. Oprócz powszechności badań


55

oceniających jakość odżywczą omawianych produktów w odniesieniu do

zaleceń żywieniowych, tematem wiodącym jest także kwestia

towarzyszących im oświadczeń żywieniowych i zdrowotnych. Zauważono,

iż w oświadczeniach częstokroć podkreślany jest wybrany pojedynczy obszar

prawidłowego odżywiania, podczas gdy jednocześnie ten sam produkt

charakteryzuje się wysokim udziałem niepożądanego składnika.

Niniejszy artykuł przeglądowy stanowi podsumowanie wybranych

danych dotyczących profilu żywieniowego produktów żywnościowych dla

niemowląt i małych dzieci dostępnych na rynkach: amerykańskim,

kanadyjskim, brytyjskim oraz jedno badanie z Australii.

Słowa kluczowe: żywność dla niemowląt i małych dzieci, cukier, sól,

oświadczenia żywieniowe


56


57

THE ROLE OF SENSORY EVALUATION IN A NEW

FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Maria Sielicka, Inga Klimczak

Department of Food Commodity Science, Faculty of Commodity Science,

Poznan University of Economics, Poznan,, Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Sensory evaluation is an important part of new product development (NPD)

process and its role has been recently appreciated by many companies.

Basically, there are three types of sensory methods: discriminative

(difference test), descriptive and affective (preference and acceptance test)

tests. The application of properly selected methods to evaluate and refine

sensory properties of new food product seems to be crucial in successful

commercialization of designed product. In the first part of this manuscript,

the validity of incorporation of sensory techniques in food companies is

discussed and focus is made on different sensory methods that are commonly

used in NPD. In the second part, the application of sensory methods in

the development of innovative pork snack was described. The process

included many stages and the different sensory tests were applied to shape

appropriate colour, texture, taste properties and general consumer acceptance.

The use of paired-comparison test, Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA),

preference and hedonic tests was shown.

Keywords: sensory evaluation, new product development, food design,

consumer acceptance

INTRODUCTION

New product might be developing through different activities such as the

formulation of a new product (new to that company or entirely new to the

market), reformulation of an existing product, use of new technology, a new

ingredient, or some other activity that directly impacts a product to a degree


58

that it can be promoted to the consumer (or target market) as new or some

similar designation [Stone, Bleibaum and Thomas 2012]. The new product

development (NPD) cycle begins with a product idea that might be generated

basing on consumer research or technical discovery and is complete when

marketing research demonstrates sufficient consumer interest in this new

product. When the concept is developed, and evaluated, the development

stage involving product design, prototyping, packaging development and

product testing proceeds. The NPD is finished by introducing the product on

the market in commercialization stage [La Rocca et al. 2016]. Newly created

or newly rebranded goods launched on the market are thought to meet the

needs of customers/users. Introducing new ‘solution’ includes usually more

than just a product or service because for the customer the value is related to

a number of additional elements, such as logistics, assistance, guarantees,

customer service that need to be conceived, developed and integrated [Ulaga

and Eggert 2006].

The process by which consumers accepts or rejects new food product is

multi-dimensional. In complex food matrices, it is not so easy to establish

relationships between the individual chemical stimuli concentration,

physiological perception and customers reaction which results in product

acceptance. Consumers’ responses to food are not only based on past

experience, previous information acquired about the product and their

attitudes and beliefs but also on the sensory characteristics of the product.

Sensory analysis is not new to the food industry but its application as a basic

tool has gained new recognition and its role has been recently appreciated by

many companies.

In the first part of this manuscript, the validity of incorporation of

sensory techniques in food companies is discussed and focus is made on

different sensory methods that are commonly used in NPD. In the second

part, the impact of sensory tests used in product development stage are

analysed basing on example.

APPLICATION OF SENSORY ANALYSIS IN FOOD

COMPANIES

In most companies the application of sensory evaluations may be discussed

in three operating areas (Table 1). The outcomes of sensory testing may


59

service in marketing department in the processes of competition monitoring,

advertising claim support, identification of consumer preference groups or

test design and supervision process. In R&D centres sensory research might

be used as an investigative and informative tool in new product development

process, pilot-plant scale-up, production benchmark, cost-reduction,

product/processing change, industrial/sensory correlations, product stability

and shelf life tests or product optimisation activities. As the last one,

servicing the quality assurance and quality control departments, the sensory

evaluations can participate in the processes of product distribution, training

and monitoring of Quality Assurance and Quality Control panels and

programmes as well as in the development of sensory specifications [Lawless

and Heymann 2010; Stone, Bleibaum and Thomas 2012].

Table 1. The possible application of sensory information

Department Possible implementation of sensory analysis

Marketing 1. Monitoring the quality of company’s and competitors’ products

2. Providing with the information about sensory quality as a base

for promotion and advertising

3. Providing with the information about consumer’s preferences

and their segmentation

R&D 1. Designing new products – describing sensory quality of

prototypes

2. Optimization and modification of existing products – choosing

the direction of modification

3. Sensory changes in the product after shift from pilot scale to full

scale production

4. Sensory modifications caused by changes in recipe as a result of

saving practises Sensory alternations caused by replacing

ingredients or changes in production process (other than

focussed on cost reduction)

5. Determining shelf-life stability of the product (‘best

before’/’use before’)

Quality

assurance/control

1. Establishing the sensory specification of the product and

determining unacceptable limits of sensory characteristics

2. Sensory evaluation of the product already on the market

Source: Own elaboration based on [Lawless and Heymann 2010; Stone, Bleibaum

and Thomas 2012]


60

There are many examples in the literature of the importance of sensory

analysis in terms of designing, formulating, testing, launching and rethinking

of food products. When these tools are conceived of not only as a unique

science but also jointly with other fields in marketing research, the

interdisciplinary approach increases the potential and effectiveness of

research and development. Sensory information are not only strategic for

defining how consumers will perceive a product in relation to position of the

product but also how the product competes with other products in that

category. When the market is overloaded, the challenge is to create new

products or update and reposition the existing products so that it can attract

new consumers. Incorporating the voice of consumer, especially using

sensory tests, in early stages of the new product development process has

been identified as a critical success factor for NPD [Simeone and Marotta

2010; Stone, Bleibaum and Thomas 2012].

The problem that small companies encounter is a lack of proper

structure, personnel and qualification to run sensory analyses, even though

they are aware of its meaningful role. Larger companies with independent

department are trying to incorporate sensory evaluation as one modern tool to

improve their efficiency and income [Carbonell-Barrachina 2007].

Fig. 1. The role of sensory analysis within food company

Source: Own elaboration based on [Carbonell-Barrachina 2007]


61

As clearly presented on Figure 1 sensory evaluation complete marketing

research activities at the beginning of new product development, continuing

through preparing product profile that supports prototyping. Sensory tests are

often used in prototype testing to understand what features of the product

from a sensory level drive overall liking or from the other side, which

sensory properties are responsible for unsatisfactory acceptance ratings.

Finally, appropriate sensory evaluations help to establish control parameters

for new products which might be valuable to insure the stability of product

quality. Product tasting is undertaken partly to communicate and partly to

provide an input for decision making. The application of properly selected

methods to evaluate and refine sensory properties of new food product seems

to be crucial in successful commercialization of designed product.

SENSORY METHODS USED IN NEW FOOD PRODUCT

DEVELOPMENT

Basically, there are three types of sensory methods: discriminative

(difference test), descriptive and affective (preference and acceptance test),

which are used alternately and usually there is no single sensory method that

may satisfactory solve producers’ problems and questions encountered during

the food product creation. Any of these sensory methods can be repeated

throughout the development process and can be used in any order depending

on the goals of the project (Table 2). Moreover, considerable care must be

exercised in the selection of sensory panels, control of testing conditions and

interpretation of data received [Lawless and Heymann 1999].

Discrimination analysis enable one to determine whether the overall or

attribute difference between products is perceived. Identification of stimulus

magnitude is not required in subject’s task. It can be very useful in product

development when investigating new possibilities in modification of product

recipe or some steps in the processing of product without creating

a detectable change for the consumer. On the other hand, when food

company create a ‘new and improved’ version of existing product, they want

to be sure that consumers will perceive some difference between the old and

new product [Lawless and Heymann 2010]. The most frequently used tests

are: paired-comparison, triangle or ranking test. One limitation of these tests

is that the nature of the differences is not defined. Moreover, results of these


62

methods cannot tell us whether that difference is important. Therefore, other

testing are necessary used to determine a quantitative description of the

sensory differences that can be identified and degree of consumer acceptance

of the product (Table 2).

Table 2. Sensory methods division depending on the goals of the project

Sensory

methods

The question to be

answered

Participants Example of tests

Discrimination

analysis

Are products different

in any way?

Which product has

greater intensity of an

attribute?

Partly trained

panel (20-40

participants)

Paired-comparison,

Triangle, Duo-trio,

Ranking test

Descriptive

analysis

How do products differ

in specific sensory

characteristics?

Trained panel (8-

12 participants)

Quantitative descriptive

analysis (QDA), Free-

Choice Profiling, Napping,

Flash Profile

Affective

analysis

How well are the

product liked? Which

product is preferred?

What is the

acceptability of the

product?

Untrained panel,

75-150

consumers,

20 for pilot

testing

Preference:

Paired preference, Ranking

preference

Acceptance:

Hedonic scale, Labelled

Affective Magnitude scale

(LAM), Just-about-right

scale (JAR)

Source: Own elaboration based on [Lawless and Heymann 1999; Murray, Delahunty and

Baxter 2001; Meilgaard et al. 2007; Dehlholm et al. 2012]

Descriptive analysis can be used when company wants to know which

attributes have changed in sensory characteristics of the new product.

Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA), developed by Stone et al. (1974),

is still the most common descriptive method and it involves some steps in

accordance with the procedure set forward in standard ISO 13299 2003. The

first step is the presentation of the profiling method to panelists. The second

step is the selection of sensory characteristics (odor, flavor) typical for


63

analyzed product, individually by each person and then by the whole group.

Next step is development of definitions of various characteristics. Then, for

training purpose a preliminary assessment of selected samples is carried out.

The intensities of sensory attributes are usually rated on semi structured

scales with a length of 10 cm (corresponding to 10 conventional units, 10 cu).

The final step are proper assessments – profile analysis of product samples.

Since descriptive techniques (QDA, Flavor Profile, Texture Profile, Spectrum

method) are expensive, training can take from few weeks to several months,

there is obvious need for faster and more cost-effective methods [Murray

et al. 2001]. Recently, several methods such as Napping, Flash Profile, Free

Multiple Sorting have been offered as the alternatives to descriptive analysis.

These methods do not require a training phase and can be performed either by

trained or untrained assessors [Dehlholm et al. 2012].

Affective analysis also called consumer test is an effective tool to

evaluate the personal response of preference or acceptance by current or

potential customers concerning a product idea, an existing product or some

specific product characteristics. In a preference tests (paired preference test,

ranking test) the consumer is asked to tell which of two or more samples that

he/she prefers (Table 2). One limitation of these tests is that they do not

indicate to degree one of the product are more preferred. Acceptance test

(hedonic scale, LAM scale, JAR scale) measure degree of liking or disliking

of foods. Among the hedonic scales, 9-point degree of liking scale is the most

commonly used. It is a balanced bipolar scale around neutral at the center,

with four positive and four negative categories on each side. One limitation

of this scale is its inequality of scale intervals and the lack of a zero point.

Because of the general tendency to subjects to avoid using extreme categories

the scale is highly vulnerable to ceiling effects [Lim 2011]. Reduction 9-point

scale to 7-point scale prevents its ability to discriminate among very well

liked or very disliked stimuli [Lim and Fujimaru 2010].

Labeled Affective Magnitude scale (LAM) is a modification of the

9-point hedonic scale and has been found to be useful to provide greater

separation among products that are well liked but where the differences are

thought to be small. The LAM is a line scale anchored at its end points with

the phrases ‘greatest imaginable like’ and ‘greatest imaginable dislike’ and

uses as intermediate anchors the nine phrases of the traditional hedonic scale

[Lawless, Popper, Kroll 2010; Lim 2011].


64

Just About Right scale (JAR) measure the consumer’s reaction to

a specific attribute (e.g. sweetness, saltiness, thickness) and determine the

optimal level of this attribute. The JAR is a scale anchored at its end points

with the phrases e.g. ‘very much too salty’ and ‘very much not salty enough’.

The centre point represents the point where the regarded attribute is just right,

and is therefore labelled ‘just right’ or ‘just about right’ [Lawless and

Heymann 2010].

USE OF SENSORY TESTING IN NEW PRODUCT

DEVELOPMENT – PORK SNACK CASE

This section details some of the applications of sensory methods in new

product development process. The idea of the undertaken project1 was to

develop a nutritious snack that is suitable to consume at home or outside and

is dedicated to people who lead a fast lifestyle but try to eat healthy and high

quality food. Pork meat supplies the body with proteins of high biological

value, which contains all the essential amino acids and are faster absorb

than proteins obtained from plant material. Pork is an excellent source of

B vitamins, mainly vitamin B1 and provides some amounts of well absorbed

home iron, so it can be a valuable component of a healthy diet [Reig, Aristoy

and Toldrá 2013]. The texture, juiciness, flavour and tenderness together with

visual appearance are eating quality attributes that positively influence most

consumers’ preferences in pork.

Taking that into consideration, dry snack from pork meat with added

herbs was developed. The product is an example of convenient food, might

be stored in room temperature and is ideal for an active day, a trip or

a meeting with friends.

Development of innovative pork snack included many stages and the

different sensory tests were applied in order to answer the questions:

how to prepare the marinade for meat?

what is optimal temperature and length of baking?

should honey be used as ingredient of marinade or after baking the

snack?

1 The project was realized as a part of the subject ‘Food product development’ by

a group of students: Joanna Brzezińska, Joanna Nożewnik, Marcelina Płatkiewicz,

Grzegorz Złotecki supervised by dr inż. Maria Sielicka


65

what kind and what quantities of herbs should be used?

how much salt should be applied?

may the yeast extract enhance the sensory properties of product?

so that the snack would have appropriate colour, texture and taste and would

be accepted by consumers. Among different sensory methods: paired-

comparison test, Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA), preference and

hedonic tests were applied.

Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistica 12.0 and

Microsoft Excel. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated. The analysis of

results obtained for QDA method was carried out by one-way analysis of

variance (ANOVA). The post-hoc Tukey test was used to verify the

significance of differences between mean values. The t-test was applied in

case of hedonic tests to determine if samples are significantly different from

each other. The level of significance was set at α = 0.05.

The production process included mincemeat pickling for two days with

addition of soy sauce, rapeseed oil, paprika and pepper in the proportion

53:33:5:1. Then, the meat was rolled out and baked in oven. After setting the

optimal baking parameters such as temperature and length of process, the

paired-comparison test was applied to decide whether the honey should be

used as ingredient of marinade or placed on the snack after baking. Majority

of assessors considered second option as more effective in shaping the

texture of the product.

The most crucial stage was to decide what herb should be used and if

the addition of salt is necessary. A problem with low-salt or no-salt meat

products is that, along with saltiness, reducing sodium also affect product

texture and flavour intensity. Four different herbs: oregano, estragon

(tarragon), thyme and coriander were selected after introductory tests. They

were added in an amount of 0.8%. The Quantitative Descriptive Analysis

[Stone and Sidel 2004] was chosen as a suitable method. The focus was made

on flavour profile of the samples. The research material consisted of

8 different samples as presented in the Table 3. The salt addition in sample

OS, ES, TS and CS was on the same level (0.4%).


66

Table 3. The research material for QDA method

Herb/Salt With salt added With no salt added

Oregano OS ONS

Estragon ES ENS

Thyme TS TNS

Coriander CS CNS

Source: own elaboration based on project ‘Pork snack development’1

Ten panellists familiar with the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis method

took part in the experiment. The panellists were previously trained according

to PN-EN ISO 8586:2014-03. The sensory attributes such as salty taste,

sweet taste, spicy flavour, herbal flavour were chosen and the panellists

agreed on their definitions. Samples were labelled with a 3-digit code and

evaluations of chosen attributes’ intensity were made on a 10-cm line-scale

anchored ‘no perception’ and ‘extremely intensive’. The overall quality was

assessed with use of 10 cm line-scale anchored ‘very low quality’ and ‘very

high quality’.

The intensity of salty taste, sweet taste and spicy flavour was on

moderate level (2.6-4.3, 2.7-4.0 and 2.4-4.2, respectively), while the herbal

flavour was stronger (3.6-5.6 on 0-10 scale) (Figure 2). The addition of salt

influenced the perceived intensities of sensory attributes. In case of salty

taste, in all snacks the presence of salt increased the saltiness and the biggest

impact of salt addition was recorded in the sample with oregano (OS) in

comparison to sample without salt. The influence of salt addition on sweet

taste sensation was generally gentle, a bit stronger in sample TS with thyme.

The presence of salt in samples affected the perception of spicy flavour,

so that the flavour was more intense in samples with salt. Similarly, the usage

of salt increased the perceived intensity of herbal flavour except sample with

oregano. In case of samples with coriander, the highest, statistically

significant (p<0.05) increment in intensity of herbal flavour was noted (3.6 to

5.6).


67

Fig. 2. The intensity of sensory attributes of pork snacks with different

herbs and with or without salt.

Source: own elaboration based on project ’Pork snack development’1

Abbreviations: OS – pork snack with oregano and salt; ONS – pork snack

with oregano and without salt; ES – pork snack with estragon and salt; ENS –

pork snack with estragon and without salt; TS – pork snack with thyme and

salt; TNS – pork snack with thyme and without salt; CS – pork snack with

coriander and salt; CNS – pork snack with coriander and without salt.

0 2 4 6 8

CNS

CS

TNS

TS

ENS

ES

ONS

OS

Intensity of salty taste

0 2 4 6 8

CNS

CS

TNS

TS

ENS

ES

ONS

OS

Intensity of sweet taste

0 2 4 6 8

CNS

CS

TNS

TS

ENS

ES

ONS

OS

Intensity of spicy flavour

0 2 4 6 8

CNS

CS

TNS

TS

ENS

ES

ONS

OS

Intensity of herbal flavour


68

Figure 3. The overall quality of pork snacks with different herbs and

with or without salt Abbreviations explained below Figure 2.

Source: own elaboration based on project “Pork snack development’1

All samples exhibited good quality ranging from 3.8 points for CS sample to

6.2 points for OS sample on 10-point scale (Figure 3). As the aim of this

sensory research was to find out which herb allows to receive a snack with

appropriate perceived sensory attributes, the sample OS with oregano and salt

was selected to further testes as it showed optimal intensities of salty and

sweet taste, spicy and herbal flavour and high overall quality.

As the current approach in food production is to reduce the content of

sodium in processed foods and meat products the next challenge was to find

an alternative additive that would substitute salt but still keep the same level

of saltiness in the sample. The yeast extract was selected among different

flavour enhancers [Inguglia et al. 2017] as it gives savoury flavour and

balance the overall flavour profile of the product. In contrast to monosodium

glutamate (MSG) which needs to be labelled on food packaging as an

additive with an E-number according to EU food law, the yeast extract is

natural product and receives increased attention as flavour enhancer in

products such soups, sauces, gravies, chips, crackers and low-sodium

fermented sausages [Campagnol et al. 2011; Pancrazio et al. 2016].

In order to find an optimal level of yeast extract, different amounts of

additive were applied to the pork snack with oregano before baking and then

snacks were tested using ranking test with the aim of placing a series of test

6.2

4.94.5 4.6 4.8

5.7

3.8

4.8

0

2

4

6

8

10

OS ONS ES ENS TS TNS CS CNS


69

samples in rank order basing on overall impression (preference test).

The most preferable sample occurred the sample with 1.1% of yeast extract

(Springer 2002/20-MG-L), which was selected for further tests.

The final research in the new product development process involved

consumer testing. The aim of the study was to assess liking of colour, odour

(smell), juiciness, taste and overall desirability of two prototypes. The

research material consisted of pork snack with oregano with salt (OS) and

pork snack with oregano with yeast extract in the amount of 1.1% (OYE).

The study was conducted on 25 young, active consumers who declared

regular snacking and eat meat products. The seven-point hedonic scale was

used (Figure 4).

Dislike

extremely

Dislike

very much

Dislike

moderately

Neither like

nor dislike

Like

moderately

Like

very much

Like

extremely

Figure 4. 7-point hedonic scale used in consumer testing

In general, the snacks were accepted by group of consumers and positively

rated (4.7 – 5.6 points on 7-point scale). Both samples were quite similarly

assessed (Figure 5). In case of colour and overall liking a bit higher notes

obtained meat snack with yeast extract, although the difference between the

averages was not significant (t-test, p>0.05).

Fig. 5. Consumer liking of pork snack with oregano and yeast extract

or salt

Source: own elaboration based on project ‘ Pork snack development’1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Overall liking

Taste liking

Juiciness liking

Odour liking

Colour liking

Pork snack withoregano and yeastextract

Pork snack withoregano and salt


70

Performing consumers sensory test did not result in obtaining exact

information which prototype is more liked. It could have been caused

because of small quantity of assessors involved in the study. Expansion of

product testing in consumer-friendly conditions may provide more valuable

information.

As sodium chloride is one of the most widely used additives in the food

processing sector and currently the daily sodium intake is few times higher as

the recommended daily allowance, to create truly healthy meat snack, efforts

should be directed towards the reduction of those components in the

formulation that are less healthy and thereby improve the image of meat

products for consumers. Taking that into consideration, application of yeast

extract, on condition it would keep proper shelf-life stability of the product,

could be possibility good solution in case of innovative pork snack with

oregano.

Further sensory tests of designed product might be undertaken as

presented on Figure 1 in order to assess product stability, establish the

sensory specification and critical points that may be crucial from the safety

point of view. Moreover, launching new snack on the market should be

supported by testing that will allow to observe the consumers’ attention and

finally determine sales.

CONCLUSIONS

The relevance of sensory evaluation in food industry could not been

discounted. It is strongly believed that sensory analysis contributes to the

research through binding the interests of both R&D and marketing

departments and thus servicing the business strategy. Moreover, the

information from sensory affective tests provides greater opportunities for

interaction with marketing research and integrates the two informal sources.

The presence of sensory tests in quality control departments allow producers

to keep the quality of the product on expected level. Application of variety of

sensory methods on different stages of food product development help to

answer complicated questions that might be crucial for final product

acceptance. In consequence, understanding the importance of knowing

products’ sensory attributes influencing customers’ choice at the point of sale

is essential to the success of new product.


71

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The project was realized as a part of the subject ‘Food product development’

by a group of students: Joanna Brzezińska, Joanna Nożewnik, Marcelina

Płatkiewicz, Grzegorz Złotecki supervised by dr inż. Maria Sielicka.

The study was partially financed by support for young scientists (MNID

51103-3-442) and statutory research (51103-021).

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Carbonell-Barrachina, A.A., 2007, Application of sensory evaluation of food to quality

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Dehlholm, C., Brockhoff, P.B., Meinert, L., Aaslyng, M.D., Bredie, W.L.P., 2012, Rapid

descriptive sensory methods – Comparison of Free Multiple Sorting, Partial Napping,

Napping, Flash Profiling and conventional profiling, Food Quality and Preference,

vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 267-277.

Inguglia, E.S., Zhang, Z., Tiwari, B.K., Kerry, J.P., Burgess, C.M., 2017, Salt reduction

strategies in processed meat products, A review, Trends in Food Science

& Technology, vol. 59, pp. 70-78.

ISO 13299. 2003. Sensory analysis. Methodology – General guidance for establishing

a sensory profile.

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i monitorowania wybranych oceniających i ekspertów oceny sensorycznej

La Rocca, A., Moscatelli, P., Perna, A., Snehota, I., 2016, Customer involvement in new

product development in B2B: The role of sales, Industrial Marketing Management,

vol. 58, pp. 45–57.

Lawless, H.T., Heymann, H., 2010, Sensory Evaluation of Food, Springer.

Lawless, H.T., Heymann, H., 1999, Sensory Evaluation of Food: Principles and Practices,

Chapman & Hall, New York.

Lawless, H.T., Popper, R., Kroll, B.J., 2010, A comparison of the labeled magnitude (LAM)

scale, an 11-point category scale and the traditional 9-point hedonic scale, Food

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Lim, J., 2011, Hedonic scaling: A review of methods and theory, Food Quality and

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Murray, J.M., Delahunty, C.M., Baxter, I.A., 2001, Descriptive sensory analysis: past,

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M.P.L.V.O., Pinho, O., 2016, Spent brewer's yeast extract as an ingredient in cooked

hams, Meat Science, vol. 121, pp. 382-389.

Reig, M., Aristoy, M.-C., Toldrá, F., 2013, Variability in the contents of pork meat nutrients

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pp. 478-482.

Simeone, M., Marotta, G., 2010, Towards an integration of sensory research and marketing

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Stone, H., Bleibaum, R., Thomas, H.A., 2012, Sensory Evaluation Practices, fourth edition,

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Meilgaard, M.C., Civille, G.V. and Carr, B.T., 2007, Sensory Evaluation Techniques, Fourth

Edition, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, USA.

STRESZCZENIE

Ocena sensoryczna stanowi ważny etap w procesie projektowania

nowych produktów (NPD – New Product Development) i jest coraz częściej

doceniana przez producentów. Metody stosowane w badaniach

sensorycznych można podzielić na: dyskryminacyjne (metody różnicowe),

opisowe (metody sensorycznej analizy opisowej) oraz sensoryczne badania

konsumenckie (test preferencji i akceptacji konsumenckiej). W procesie

opracowywania nowego produktu niezwykle ważne jest zastosowanie

odpowiednich metod do oceny oraz doskonalenia cech sensorycznych

produktu. W pierwszej części pracy omówiono zasadność włączenia ocen

sensorycznych na poszczególnych etapach projektowania nowego produktu

oraz najczęściej stosowane metody sensoryczne. Natomiast w drugiej części

pracy, opisano zastosowanie szeregu metod sensorycznych w opracowaniu

innowacyjnej przekąski z mięsa wieprzowego. Proces ten obejmował wiele

etapów i różne testy sensoryczne zostały wykorzystane w celu kształtowania

odpowiedniej barwy, tekstury, smaku oraz oceny akceptacji konsumenckiej.


73

Zastosowano metodę parzystą, ilościowej analizy opisowej (QDA) oraz

ocenę pożądalności z wykorzystaniem skali hedonicznej.

Słowa kluczowe: ocena sensoryczna, projektowanie nowego produktu,

projektowanie żywności, ocena akceptacji konsumenckiej


74


75

PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND SENSORY ASPECTS

OF MEAD

Aleksandra Wilczyńska, Natalia Żak

Department of Commodity Sc. and Quality Management

Gdynia Maritime University, ul. Morska 81-8, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland

[email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Mead is a traditional alcoholic beverage produced in Poland since ancient

times. Mead is generally made from honey and water, sometimes with

addition of various other ingredients, such herbs or fruit juices, in which

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used to conduct the fermentation process.

The ethanol content in mead can vary from 8 to 18 % (v/v). There are several

criteria by which it is possible to divide mead into several classes. Meads are

divided mainly due to preparation method of honey wort (saturated, non-

saturated), honey and water ratio in wort (póltorak, dwójniak, trójniak,

czwórniak), additional wort supplementation (natural, herbal, hops, fruit) and

aging and ripening time.

All these types of mead have slightly different properties, therefore the

aim of this study was to evaluate the selected physicochemical and sensory

aspects of mead. In the samples of eight meads pH, total acidity, extract

content and reducing sugars were determined. QDA flavoured profiling was

also performed. It was found that most of the analysed parameters meet the

requirements for different types of mead. The results of the conducted

profiling analysis showed that dwójniak’s – mead with the greatest amount of

honey in wort, was characterized by the highest intensity of colour, honey

aroma and flavour.

Keywords: mead, quality parameters, QDA

mailto:[email protected]



76

INTRODUCTION

Honey is the oldest known sweetener, used by people for centuries. Honey

was also used to make spirits. One of the first most popular alcoholic

beverages was mead. The first recipes were already known in Poland before

the introduction of Christianity. The climatic conditions prevailing in our

country were not suitable for vines, but for beekeeping, therefore the first

beverage of our ancestors was beer and mead rather than wine, which was

well known in the south and west of Europe [Synowiec et al., 2010].

Mead is an alcoholic beverage obtained by fermenting an aqueous

solution of honey (wort) containing the extract of the possible hops, spices or

fruit juice. Sugars from honey are used by the yeast Saccharomyces

cerevisiae in the fermentation process and converted into alcohol and carbon

dioxide. The result is mead - a golden liquid with various shades, most often

with the smell of natural honey. The content of ethyl alcohol in the mead is

between 8 and 18% by volume [Luty, 2009; Pereira et al, 2009].

Currently, mead is often produced in a way that is traditionally related,

although new ideas are likely to be of interest to a broader group of

consumers. An example may be refreshing mead carbonated with carbon

dioxide, which is an alternative to beer. The increase in production and the

quality of honey was influenced by the selection of appropriate types of yeast

and spice additives. Primary mead plants are ordinary rooms where they

fermented and aged mead in oak muffs. Today's mead is a high-standard

factory that meets sanitary standards, often with quality certificates. In some

cases the oak muffs are replaced by stainless steel tanks. The oak can mask

the aroma of the mead, thereby worsening its flavour and aroma [Jaros,

2008].

Quality of meads depends on many factors, especially on good quality

raw materials, accordingly selected yeast strains, the pH level and acidity of

the wort and fermentation temperature. At the end of the fermentation, the

product must be protected from oxidation [Gupta and Sharma, 2009;

Mendes-Ferreira et al., 2010; Synowiec et al., 2010]. However, the most

important role in the development of the quality of the finished product plays

the honey (type of honey used) [Pereira et al., 2009]. The most common

honey used in the production of mead is honey with a distinctive aroma such

as buckwheat, lime, heather or rape. It should be of the highest quality, not

fermented, with no odour defects and free of any impurities. Honey content


77

in wort depends on the amount of alcohol in the final product, as well as on

the type of honey (półtorak, dwójniak, trójniak, czwórniak). In the saturated

mead can be used raw material of worse quality - the process of saturation

(cooking) causes the removal of impurities. On the other hand, the process of

saturation decreases the intensity of the aroma.

The fermentation process of wort is also an important factor affecting

quality. On the correctness of the fermentation process affects, among others,

proper choice of the yeast. Yeasts used in mead production are starter yeasts,

such as strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae used in wine, beer, and

champagne production. However, regarding the composition of honey and

wine must, namely the higher sugar levels (>60% versus 20–25%) and lower

nitrogen concentrations (0.04% average versus 4–5% optimum) present in

honey, it was thought that these strains might not be always the most suitable

for mead production. The most appropriate are strains isolated from honey

[Gupta and Sharma, 2009; Pereira et al., 2013]. Equally important are the

conditions of fermentation process. The optimum temperature of the

fermentation is 20°C but it also happens correctly in the temperature range of

15-25°C. For the fermentation it is also very important the pH adjusting.

Wine yeasts are well fermented at pH>3.2. Below this value is the

deterioration of the fermentation, and at pH <3.0 the fermentation may be

inhibited. Obstacles to fermentation may also be due to the accumulation of

yeast metabolites (fatty acids and esters) as these products interfere with

yeast activity as they attach to their surface and reduce the permeability of

their cell walls. In this case, it is desirable to add a formulation of yeast cell

wall, which prevents distortion of the fermentation process [Adamaczak,

2007].

Immediately after the fermentation the mead has no well-formed

organoleptic and bouquet characteristics and is unstable. After the

fermentation process is filtered through diatomaceous earth. Its maturation

occurs during aging process and consists in the reduction of acidity,

a bouquet of flavours is formed, and eventually the insolubles, such as dyes,

tannins, proteins or polysaccharides, precipitate out. The final aroma of mead

is influenced by aromatics derived from the raw material, fermented aromatic

substances and aroma substances occurring during the aging process

[Synowiec et al., 2010]. The minimum period of aging depends on the type

of mead and is 9-12 months for czwórniak, 1-1.5 year for trójniak, 3 years for

dwójniak and 5 years for półtorak.


78

In order to improve the taste and smell of mead it can also be seasoned

with fruit juice or herbs and spices. These raw materials can be added at

different stages of mead production: cooking, fermenting or aging. The

resulting meads are called herbal, fruity or hop meads. Meads with additives

differ in their properties, above all in the sensory characteristics, of natural

mead.

Meads can be classified in many ways. Due to the method of

preparation of the wort can be distinguished:

non-saturated mead - formed by dissolving honey in cold or slightly

heated water, which preserves the natural aroma and colour of honey,

but requires longer maturing;

saturated mead - formed by heating honey with water (brewing) to kill

all the microbes and to cut off the protein, to remove impurities, to

round off the taste (after cooking is not so sharp, raw, but also loses

some delicate aromas) and add caramel flavours and darker colour.

Then the honey wort is fermented using wine (honey) yeast.

Due to kind of seasoning can be distinguish:

natural meads - called homogeneous, their ingredients are only water

and bee honey, or they are acidified with organic acids. Honeys with

intense flavour and aroma are used for their production, the

composition of which will provide the finished product with

characteristic taste and aroma;

herbal or spicy meads - mead with addition of aromatic herbs during

cooking, fermentation or aging. In the case of spicy meads, the

sweetness of honey is usually controlled by bitterness derived from

various aromatic herbs or spices. If the herbs are not bitter, it is often

added citric acid to balance the sweetness. It can be made as saturated

mead;

hop mead - formerly a very popular type of mead (this type of mead

was traditionally called mead). Today it is the least popular type of

mead in Poland. Hops not only compensated for the natural sweetness

of honey, but it was primarily antimicrobial, preventing the spoiling of

liquors;

fruit meads – mead, in which some of the water used to dilute honey is

replaced by fruit juice. The most popular are meads with raspberry

juice (called raspberry) and cherry, apple, grape, gooseberry, crayfish,

etc. They can be made as saturated or not saturated (when juices are

added after cooking and cooling water with honey). In these liquors the


79

sweetness is balanced by the natural acidity of the fruit juice. It can be

also use the composition of several fruit juices, thanks to which such

types of honey obtain an additional taste and smell of fruit.

As could be seen there is many factors influencing the final features of mead.

Therefore the aim of this study was to evaluate the selected physicochemical

and sensory aspects of different types of mead.

MATERIALS

The material for laboratory tests consisted of 8 meads differing in both wort

extract and flavour, originating from various sources, including: 4 samples of

“trójniak’ (including one with raspberry juice), 2 samples of “dwójniak’ and

2 of “czwórniak’ (including one with addition of spices). Taste profiling was

performed on 4 samples: natural dwójniak and trójniak, trójniak with

raspberry juice, czwórniak with spices from the same producer.

METHODS

In the examined meads the °Brix, general acidity, density of the product from

which alcohol was removed, the extract content, pH and the reducing sugar

content were determined using official methods recommended by the

regulation of Ministry of the Agriculture and Rural Development [Rozp.

MRiRW, 2013a]. Additionally colour parameters using a Minolta CR-400

Chroma-meter were evaluated. The instrument was standardised against

a white tile before the measurements. Colour was expressed in CIE-Lab

parameters as L* (whiteness/darkness), a* (redness/greenness), and b*

(yellowness/blueness). The relative colour differences according to the

formula: ∆𝐸 = √(𝐿1 − 𝐿2)2 + (𝑎1 − 𝑎2)2 + (𝑏1 − 𝑏2)2 were calculated.

Three measurements were performed in triplicate on each sample and

the mean value and standard deviation were calculated. Additionally

statistical analysis was performed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The

significance of the differences was verified by the Duncan test, with

significance level P <0.05. Statistica 12.0 was used for statistical calculations.

For sensory characteristic Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) was

applied. Objective of this method is to find the minimum number of terms,


80

returning the maximum amount of information about the sensory properties

of the product [Babicz-Zielińska, Rybowska and Obniska 2009]. Attribute

descriptors for evaluation of mead developed by 10 panelists. Panelists were

staff from JS. Hamilton Laboratory, who regularly participated in sensory

analysis and had experience in profiling other food products. The descriptors

chosen by more than 3 panelists were used for preparing of final

questionnaire. Finally 9 descriptors of taste (sweet, sour, bitter, alcoholic,

fruity, flower, honey, other and flavour intensity), 8 descriptors of smell

(fruity, honey, flower, sour, sweet, alcoholic, other and intensity of aroma)

and 3 descriptors of appearance (colour, intensity of colour and clarity) were

selected. Descriptors were quantified in 10 point scale, from 0 to 10, where

0 means attribute not present, 10 attribute extremely strong. The test took

place in specially designed white boxes with white light for reliable

assessment. Coded samples were presented in glasses, covered to minimize

evaporation.


In the Table 1 the results of assessment of physicochemical parameters are

shown. As could be seen the highest density as well as extract content and

reducing sugars content were characterized by dwójniak’s – mead with the

greatest amount of honey in wort. In turn, the lower density, extract content

and reducing sugars content has been detected in czwórniak’s - mead with the

smallest amount of honey in wort. Similar relationships were not observed

for acidity. The lowest acidity was characterized by trójniak with raspberry

juice (total acidity 3.8 g malic acid/ dm3, pH 4.94) and the highest – dwójniak

II (respectively 6.43 g malic acid/ dm3 and pH 4.84). Statistical analysis

confirmed that the values of physicochemical parameters differ significantly

for the different types of mead, the value of the individual parameters were

influenced by both the content of honey in the wort in the wort and the

additives used.

Obligatory quality requirements for mead are specified in regulation of

Ministry of the Agriculture and Rural Development [Rozp. MRiRW, 2013b].

According to this regulation reducing sugars content should be no less than

250 g/dm3 for czwórniak, 323 g/dm3 for trójniak, and 490 g/dm3 for dwójniak.

Acceptable acidity expressed as a malic acid is 3.5-8 g/dm3. The extract


81

content determined by refractometry (°Brix) should range between 15% for

czwórniak and 35% for półtorak. Comparing the results of our own research

with requirements it can be stated that most the evaluated parameters met the

requirements. Meads were characterized by proper acidity but somewhat low

content of reducing sugars. The standard for sugar content only met trójniak

III and trójniak with raspberry juice. Also the °Brix value in dwójniak was

slightly too low – less than 25%. However it has not significant impact on

general quality of investigated meads.

Table 1. The mean values of physicochemical parameters of investigated

meads

Sample Density

[g/dm3]

Extract

content

[g/dm3]

pH

Total acidity

[g malic acid/

dm3]

Reducing

sugars content

[g/dm3]

°Brix [%]

trójniak I 1.138±0.06a 361.7±21.32b 4.24±0.24b 4.13±0.27b 320.26±21.54b 22.02±1.23b

dwójniak I 1.242±0.13d > 527±18.75e 4.67±0.22c 5.57±0.31e 460.22±22.76d 23.02±0.98c

trójniak II 1.140±0.08a 367.0±12.54b 4.26±0.11b 4.20±0.09b 321.23±20.85b 22.12±0.76b

czwórniak 1.100±0.06a 261.0±12.45a 4.16±0.08a 4.57±0.14c 221.52±23.09a 20.15±1.65a

dwójniak II 1.220±0.09c > 527±14.98e 4.84±0.13d 6.43±0.17d 464.25±17.98d 23.22±0.98c

trójniak III 1.152±0.12a,b 396.3±11.34c 4.13±0.09a 4.43±0.21b,c 328.56±19.07b,c 22.86±1.12b,c

trójniak with

raspberry juice 1.168±0.07a,b 441.7±14.98c,d 4.94±0.15d 3.80±0.16a 350.42±22.05c 25.04±2.09d

czwórniak with

spices 1.115±0.07a 298.0±13.87a 4.22±0.08a,b 3.62±0.08a 215.23±14.09a 20.52±1.43a

Source: own research; a,b… e– consistent groups distinguished on the basis of post-hoc

analysis (Duncan test)

Colour is an important quality parameter of mead, although it is not

standardized. The obtained results showed (Table 2), that investigated meads

did not differ significantly in colour brightness. The value of L* ranged

between 11.20 – 13.49. The highest value L* was determined in czwórniak

with spices (13.49), while the smallest value of this parameter was

determined in dwójniak I and II (respectively 11.29 and 11.20). The value of

the a* parameter was between 8.00 and 13.30. All values obtained for this

parameter were positive, which means that all the tested beverages were

reddish. The highest value of the parameter a* was determined in trójniak I,

while the lowest value in trójniak with raspberry juice, what is wondering,

because visually this honey was the most red. Most probably, this value of


82

parameter a is related to the fact that this mead had also the brightest colour

and was the most transparent.

Table 2. The mean values of colour parameters

Sample L* a* b*

trójniak I 11.75±0.08b 13.30±0.07c,d -4.43±0.05c

dwójniak I 11.29±0.11a 12.55±0.05c -5.83±0.03d

trójniak II 11.70±0.09b 13.06±0.04d -4.20±0.04b,c

czwórniak 11.61±0.09b 12.72±0.03c -4.19±0.08b,c

dwójniak II 11.20±0.13a 12.99±0.07c -5.74±0.06d

trójniak III 12.95±0.11c 12.25±0.11b,c -1.81±0.12a

trójniak with raspberry juice 13.12±0.06c,d 8.00±0.05a -3.72±0.09b

czwórniak with spices 13.49±0.08d 10.68±0.06a,b -0.79±0.03a

Source: own research, a,b… d– consistent groups distinguished on the basis of post-hoc

analysis (Duncan test)

The parameter b* for all honeys had a negative value, what indicates

blueness, and raged between -0.79 for czwórniak with spices and -5.83 for

dwójniak I. The differences between the values of the colour parameters in

different kinds of mead were also statistically significant. The results

obtained in this study differed somewhat from the value previously identified

by the authors in the mead [Wilczyńska and Chomaniuk, 2015a]. According

to those studies, the content of honey in the wort had no effect on the final

colour of the mead. This difference may be due to the fact that meads from

other producers were examined.

The Table 3 show the values of relative colour differences (ΔE).

Among almost all tested meads can be seen a large difference in colour,

noticeable even by an unqualified observer. The largest and most noticeable

difference was observed between the dwójniak I and czwórniak with spices

(ΔE 5.81), while the smallest difference was found between trójniak I and

trójniak II (ΔE 0.34). These values confirm conclusions drawn on the basis of

statistical analysis.


83

Table 3. Matrix of relative colour differences between meads studied

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 - 1.65 0.34 0.64 1.45 3.07 5.52 4.81

2 1.65 - 1.76 1.68 0.44 4.36 5.34 5.81

3 0.34 1.76 - 0.35 1.62 2.82 5.28 4.53

4 0.64 1.68 0.35 - 1.63 2.77 4.98 4.39

5 1.45 0.44 1.62 1.63 - 4.36 2.39 2.43

6 3.07 4.36 2.82 2.77 4.36 - 4.66 1.95

7 5.52 5.34 5.28 4.98 2.39 4.66 - 3.99

8 4.81 5.81 4.53 4.39 2.43 1.95 3.99 -

Source: own research

Table 4 shows the results of a sensory profiling of meads. It could be seen,

that the trójniak with raspberry juice was characterized by the highest

intensity of descriptors being evaluated while the czwórniak with spices was

characterized by the lowest intensity of these descriptors.

Trójniak with raspberry juice obtained the highest scores for intensity

of aroma, sweet aroma, fruit aroma, and sweet and fruity taste. The panelists

have given a high scores also for colour and colour intensity of this mead.

Another highly rated mead was dwójniak, which obtained the highest scores

for colour and colour intensity, alcoholic and honey aroma, taste intensity

and honey taste. The instrumental analysis of colour parameters showed that

it was the darkest, and therefore obtained the highest scores for colour and

colour intensity. Despite the fact that the dwójniak was characterized by the

highest content of sugars, its intensity of the sweet taste was evaluated at the

same level like in trójniak with raspberry juice. But dwójniak was

characterized by the highest intensity of honey aroma and flavour.

In worst rated mead – czwórniak with spices, perceptibility of most

descriptors have been assessed on average at 5 point on 10 point scale. It is

worth noting that none of the examined samples showed the presence of

a other (foreign) flavour and aroma. Taste and smell like

another/foreign/stranger usually have a negative impact on the assessment of

product quality.


84

Table 4. Results of evaluation of sensory descriptors (mean scores)

Descriptor Dwójniak II Trójniak III Trójniak with

raspberry juice

Czwórniak

with spices

Colour 10.0 3.9 10.0 1.9

Colour intensity 9.9 3.9 9.8 1.7

Clarity 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.2

Aroma intensity 7.5 5.0 8.6 5.3

Alcoholic aroma 7.6 6.3 6.1 4.6

Sweet aroma 6.8 4.8 7.9 5.0

Sour (acid) aroma 0.8 1.3 2.6 2.9

Floral aroma 0.3 3.1 1.6 4.9

Honey aroma 7.2 5.9 6.0 5.6

Fruity aroma 0.0 2.8 8.3 2.4

Other aroma 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Taste intensity 9.0 6.0 6.9 5.7

Alcoholic taste 5.4 6.6 6.0 5.0

Sweet 7.4 5.7 7.7 4.1

Sour 4.7 4.4 4.8 5.8

Bitter 1.1 1.8 1.1 1.1

Floral taste 1.9 3.9 2.8 5.1

Honey taste 7.3 5.2 7.0 6.0

Fruity taste 0.1 6.9 7.4 2.7

Other taste 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: own research

The results suggest that the evaluators noted significant differences in

appearance, taste and aroma in investigated meads. Similar results have been

obtained by the authors in previous studies in which sensory-educated group

of consumers assessed the intensity of sensory descriptors in different types

of mead [Wilczyńsk and Chomaniuk, 2015b]

CONCLUSIONS

Meads are becoming increasingly popular. According to results of this study

it could be said, that quality of Polish meads is satisfactory. Based on the

research conducted it was confirmed that the different types of honey differ

from each other both physicochemical and sensory characteristics. The


85

highest density as well as extract content and reducing sugars content were

characterized by dwójniak’s – mead with the greatest amount of honey in

wort. It was also characterized by the highest intensity of colour, honey

aroma and flavour. The addition of fruit juices to mead cause the increase in

intensity of colour, aroma and taste.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge Mrs. Aleksandra Juszczyk from J.S. Hamilton Poland for

helping us with the research.

REFERENCES Adamczak M., 2007, Podstawy biotechnologii przemysłowej, Wydawnictwo Naukowo-

Techniczne, Warszawa.

Babicz - Zielińska E., Rybowska A., Obniska W., 2009, Sensoryczna ocena jakości

żywności, Wyd. AMG, Gdynia.

Gupta J., Sharma R., 2009, Production technology and quality characteristics of mead and

fruit-honey wines: A review, Natural Product Radiance, 8, pp. 345–355.

Jaros M., 2008, Nie tylko historia – czyli miód pitny dziś i jutro, Przemysł Fermentacyjny

i Owocowo-Warzywny, 1, pp. 11-12.

Luty J., Miody pitne sycone, a może lepiej niesycone?, 2009, Przemysł Fermentacyjny

i Owocowo-Warzywny, 7-8, .

Mendes-Ferreira A., Cosme F., Barbosa C., Falco V., Ines A., Mendes-Faia A., 2010,

Optimization of honey-must preparation and alcoholic fermentation by

Saccharomyces cerevisiae for mead production, International Journal of Food

Microbiology, 144, pp. 193-198.

Pereira A., Dias T., Andrade J., Ramalhosa E., Etevinho L. M., 2009, Mead production:

selection and characterization assays of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, Food and

Chemical Toxicology, 47, pp. 2057-2063

Pereira A.P., Mendes-Ferreira A., Oliveira J.M.; Estevinho L.M., Mendes-Faia A., 2013,

High-cell-density fermentation of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae for the optimisation of

mead production, Food Microbiology, 33, pp. 114–123.

Rozp. MRiRW z 21.05.2013 r. w sprawie w sprawie szczegółowego sposobu wyrobu

fermentowanych napojów winiarskich oraz metod analiz tych napojów do celów

urzędowej kontroli w zakresie jakości handlowej.

Rozp. MRiRW z 22.05.2015 r. w sprawie rodzajów fermentowanych napojów winiarskich

oraz szczegółowych wymagań organoleptycznych, fizycznych i chemicznych, jakie

powinny spełniać te napoje.

Synowiec, Wzorek W., Baca E., Miody pitne – historia, regulacje prawne oraz technologia

produkcji, 2010, Przemysł Fermentacyjny i Owocowo-Warzywny, 11-12.


86

Wilczyńska A., Chomaniuk N., 2015a, Ocena aktywności antyoksydacyjnej oraz barwy

różnych rodzajów miodów pitnych, Problemy Higieny i Epidemiologii, 96(3),

pp. 685-687.

Wilczyńska A., Chomaniuk N., 2015b, Ocena sensoryczna różnych rodzajów miodów

pitnych, Problemy Higieny i Epidemiologii, 96(3), pp. 681-684.

STRESZCZENIE

Miód pitny jest tradycyjnym napojem alkoholowym produkowanym

w Polsce od wieków. Jest to napój uzyskiwany w procesie fermentacji

alkoholowej, prowadzonej przez drożdże z gat. Saccharomyces cerevisiae,

wodnego roztworu miodu naturalnego (brzeczki miodowej) lub miodu

rozcieńczonego sokiem owocowym, z ewentualnym dodatkiem ziół

i przypraw korzennych, zawierający 9 – 18% (v/v) alkoholu. Miód pitny

można podzielić na kilka rodzajów w zależności od różnych kryteriów.

Ze względu na proces przygotowania brzeczki mody pitne dzielą się na

sycone i niesycone, z kolei stosunek ilości miodu i wody w brzeczce

miodowej jest podstawą klasyfikacji miodów pitnych na półtoraki, dwójniaki,

trójniaki, czwórniaki, z względu na zastosowane dodatki wyróżnia się miody

pitne naturalne, z sokami owocowymi, korzenne lub chmielone, ostatnim

kryterium podziału jest czas dojrzewania miodów pitnych.

Wszystkie wyżej wymienione rodzaje miodów pitnych różnią się

właściwościami, dlatego celem niniejszej pracy było porównanie cech

fizykochemicznych i sensorycznych ośmiu różnych miodów pitnych,

dostępnych na rynku. Zakres analiz obejmował oznaczenie: gęstości, pH,

kwasowości ogólnej, zawartości ekstraktu oraz cukrów redukujących.

Dodatkowo sporządzono profile sensoryczne wybranych miodów pitnych.

Wykazano, iż badane miody pitne spełniały wymagania określone w aktach

prawnych. Na podstawie przeprowadzonego profilowania stwierdzono,

iż miodem pitnym, charakteryzującym się największą intensywnością barwy,

smaku i zapachu był dwójniak – napój o najwyższej zawartości miodu

w brzeczce.

Słowa kluczowe: miód pitny, parametry jakości, profilowanie sensoryczne


87

COMPARISON OF THE TOTAL PHENOLICS

AND HMF CONTENT OF DIFFERENT BEER TYPES

Dorota Klensporf-Pawlik 1, Beata Gruch, Dominika Karcz,

Weronika Kiełtyka, Agnieszka Strugała

1Department of Food Commodity Science, Poznań University of Economics and Business,

al. Niepodległości 10, 61-875 Poznań, Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Beer is a complex mixture of different bioactive compounds with a positive

health effects, and its composition is strongly affected by a technological and

raw material variables. In our study, total phenolic content (TPC) and

hydroxymethylfurfural content (HMF) of mass-produced and craft beers were

determined. Both, TPC and HMF content vary significantly among different

types of beer. In craft beers, the TPC differ from 151.8 mg GAE/l for Korona

Olbrachta to 942.0 mg GAE/l for Marcowe. Whereas, in mass-produced

beers from 312.3 mg GAE/l for Żubr to 913.0 mg GAE/l for Cornelius.

Phenolic compounds are of particular interest to brewers because they play

a critical role in the brewing process by delaying, retarding or even

preventing oxidation processes. Additionally, HMF concentration was

investigated and the content in dark craft beers varying from 9.8 mg/l for

Kwas Beta to 66.4 mg/l for Lobkowicz Premium Cerny, and in mass-

produced 16.5 mg/l for Miłosław Pszeniczne to 61.7 mg/l for Żywiec Porter.

Keywords: craft beer, TPC, antioxidants, 5-hydroxymethyl furfural

INTRODUCTION

Beer is a well-known, one of the most widespread and commonly consumed

alcoholic beverage in the world. Global production of beer has had a rapid

growth during last few years and achieved great success even in countries, in

which tradition of brewing is not too long [Farina et al. 2017]. Beer has

centuries of history, and its healthy and nutritive properties have been


88

recognized for thousands of years. Moderate and responsible beer

consumption, set at the daily level 330 ml for women and 660 ml for a men

[Diaz et al. 2002], showed beneficial impact on immune system and resulted

in positive changes in several cardiovascular biomarkers [Brien et al. 2011;

Gorinstein et al. 2007]. Additionally, active substances in beer are able to

block cancer formation [Kondo 2004; Nozawa et al. 2004], protect against

coronary disease [Kondo 2004; Kaplan and Palmer 2000], reduce risk of

dementia [Nardini et al. 2006], prevent osteoporosis [Stevens and Page 2004]

and even prolong life [Kaplan and Palmer 2000]. The final beer composition

is a result of various biochemical phenomena involving mainly the

interaction of raw materials, such as malt, water hops and yeast (Cortacero-

Ramirez et al. 2003). All together affect the level of bioactive compounds in

final product. Beer is not only rich in carbohydrates, amino acids, minerals

and vitamins, but also phenolic compounds, and other endogenous

antioxidants such as Maillard reaction products and sulfite [Vanderhaegen et

al. 2006]. However, among these antioxidants, phenolic compounds are of

particular interest to brewers because they play a key role in the brewing

process, especially by delaying, retarding or preventing oxidation processes

[Guido et al. 2005], but also influence the nutritional value of beer. Phenolic

compounds present in beer include phenolic acids: ferulic, p-coumaric,

vanillic, protocatechuic. chlorogenic, caffeic and sinapic acids [Leitao et al.

2011], flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, tannins, and amino phenolic

compounds [Gorinstein et al. 2000]. But the diversity of phenolic compounds

depends on the quantity and quality of raw materials, even varieties of barley,

on the brewing process, as well as on the changes during storage [Leitao

et al. 2011].

Recently, the beer industry has been affected by a phenomenon called

the craft beer renaissance [Fastigi et al. 2015]. Craft beers have been steadily

gaining market share from the large national and international beer breweries,

its sales in United States nearly doubled between 2007 and 2012 [Assobirra

annual report 2012]. The existing definition of craft beer, also known as

microbrew beer, refers to the segment of full-flavoured, artisan-style beers

produced by small, independent and locally owned brewers. The annual

production of microbrewery is six million barrels maximum. Craft beers are

made with a variety of traditional ingredients, without any adjuncts to lighten

the taste, variety of styles and packaging that strongly reflect their

handcrafted origins. The raw materials used for craft beer production include


89

other cereals than barley malt, like wheat, spelt, lentil or rice, but usually

these are materials connected to the region of production. Moreover, craft

beers are clarified and only part of them is filtered or pasteurized, because

most of these beers are conditioned in the bottle, which imparts a decisive

influence on their flavor and aging profile [Rossi et al. 2014].

Although, the world beer market is dominated by traditionally and

mass-produced beers, a significant growing trend in the craft beer segment

can be noticed. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate if there are

a differences in total phenolic compounds and hydroxymethylfurfural

contents in a variety of mass-produced and craft beers, both light and dark.


Beer samples

Forty one beer samples including 20 craft beers and 20 mass-produced beers,

both light and dark one, were purchased at local markets, stored at 4°C and

analyzed within a few days from the purchase. All beers used in this study

were analyzed before the expiry date. Beer bottles were uncapped just the day

of the analyses and used immediately. Samples of beer were processed by

sonication to remove carbon dioxide. The detailed characteristic of all beer

samples are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristic of commercial beers

No. Brand Style

Alcohol

content

(%, v/v)

Country of

origin

mass-produced

(mp)/craft (c) pH

Color

EBC*

1 Fortuna Czarne Dark 5.8 PL MP 5.55±0.03 131.4±6.2

2 Miłosław Koźlak Dark 7.5 PL MP 5.32±0.03 65.5±8.1

3 Miłosław

Pszeniczne Dark 5.5 PL MP 5.37±0.06 26.4±1.0

4 Noteckie Ciemne Dark 5.6 PL MP 5.35±0.01 86.7±3.3

5 Książęce Ciemne Dark 4.1 PL MP 5.78±0.05 97.8±0.8

6 Żywiec Porter Dark 9.5 PL MP 4.73±0.02 167.9±7.1

7 Okocim Porter Dark 8.3 PL MP 4.54±0.01 158.2±1.3

8 Cornelius Porter Dark 8.1 PL MP 4.91±0.02 130.6±4.1

9 Karmi Dark 0.5 PL MP 5.04±0.01 81.0±0.4

10 Gniewosz Dark 6.0 PL MP 4.77±0.01 80.5±2.2

11 Kormoran Dark 4.5 PL MP 4.75±0.02 68.6±1.5


90

No. Brand Style

Alcohol

content

(%, v/v)

Country of

origin

mass-produced

(mp)/craft (c) pH

Color

EBC*

12 Miłosław

marcowe Light 6.0 PL MP 4.82±0.02 20.9±0.3

13 Miłosław

niefiltrowane Light 5.5 PL MP 4.83±0.01 24.3±0.8

14 Tyskie Gronie Light 5.5 PL MP 4.44±0.02 7.5±0.1

15 Tyskie klasyczne Light 5.0 PL MP 4.46±0.05 8.6±0.1

16 Żubr Light 5.0 PL MP 4.76±0.02 11.6±0.3

17 Żubr ciemnozłoty Light 6.5 PL MP 4.72±0.01 21.8±0.2

18 Żywiec Light 5.6 PL MP 4.44±0.02 8.6±0.5

19 Książęce

Czerwony Lager Light 4.9 PL MP 4.74±0.02 23.0±0.1

20 Łomża

podkapslowe Light 6.0 PL MP 4.47±0.03 9.9±0.5

21 Noteckie naturalne

Light 5.6 PL MP 4.84±0.01 19.8±0.3

22 Córa Koryntu Dark 7.0 PL C 4.02±0.01 27.3±0.6

23 Celtyckie Dark 4.5 PL C 3.94±0.01 50.9±2.3

24 Birbant Black Dark 6.5 PL C 3.75±0.01 72.9±1.1

25 Komtur Dark 6.5 PL C 4.30±0.03 57.2±0.4

26 Czarna Dziura Dark 4.0 PL C 4.09±0.01 51.1±0.3

27 Irish beer Dark 6.5 PL C 4.05±0.01 135.0±2.4

28 Kwas Beta Dark 3.2 PL C 3.82±0.03 14.6±0.7

29 Konrad ESO Dark 4.7 CR C 4.93±0.03 43.0±0.1

30 Lobkowicz

Premium Dark 4.7 CR C 4.79±0.01 160.6±3.0

31 Stout Cieszyński Dark 6.2 PL C 4.66±0.01 163.9±0.6

32 Lubusz Light 5.0 PL C 4.01±0.01 10.2±0.2

33 Korona Olbrachta Light 5.6 PL C 4.12±0.00 14.5±0.5

34 Kormoran Light 4.9 PL C 4.05±0.01 11.1±0.2

35 Rycerz Light 6.0 PL C 4.36±0.01 15.3±0.1

36 Pomorzanin Light 5.0 PL C 4.02±0.03 20.2±1.8

37 Pierwsza Pomoc Light 4.2 PL C 4.00±0.04 13.9±1.6

38 Pszeniczne Light 5.0 PL C 4.51±0.01 10.1±0.1

39 Hradebni Light 4.1 CR C 4.75±0.04 11.0±0.2

40 Gloger Light 4.3 PL C 4.76±0.02 10.9±0.1

41 Piwo Marcowe Light 5.8 PL C 4.86±0.00 22.0±0.3

*colour determined according to Polish Standard PN-A-79093-5


91

Chemicals

Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent, hydroxymethylfurfural and gallic acid were

purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. All other necessary chemicals were of

analytical grade and used for a subsequent analyses.

Total phenolic content (TPC) determination

The TPC of beer samples were determined according to the Folin-Ciocalteu

spectrophotometric method [Singleton and Rossi 1965] with slight

modification. Briefly, 0.1 ml of diluted and degassed beer sample was mixed

with 0.5ml of Folin-Ciocalteu phenol reagent and allowed to react for

3 minutes. Then, 1.5ml of 20% sodium carbonate solution was added, and the

final volume was made up to 10ml with deionized water. After 2 h of

reaction at room temperature the absorbance at 765 nm was determined. The

measurement was compared to a calibration line of prepared gallic acid (GA)

solution, and the results were expressed as milligrams of gallic acid

equivalents (GAE) per liter of beer (mg GAE/l).

Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) determination

HMF content in beer samples was determined using Keeney and Bassette

method [1959]. Ten milliliters of degassed beer was dissolved with deionized

water, added by 1 ml of Carrez solution I and after 5 min Carrez solution II.

The final volume was made up to 100 ml with deionized water. After 15 min

the solution was filtered, rejecting the first 10 ml of the filtrate. Aliquots of

2ml was introduced to tubes, added by 2 ml of 12% trichloroacetic acid

(TCA) solution and 2 ml of 0.025 M thiobarbituric acid solution, and mixed

thoroughly. The tube with the sample was then placed in a water bath at

40°C. After incubating for 50 min, the tube was cooled immediately using tap

water and the absorbance measured at 443 nm. The measurement was

compared to a calibration line of hydroxymethylfurfural solution, and the

results were expressed as milligrams of HMF per liter of beer (mg/l).

pH determination

The pH of the beer sample was measured with a pH meter according to

Polish Standard PN-A-79093-4. About 20 ml of degassed beer sample was

used for analyses. The pH meter was first standardized using buffer solution

of pH 4.01 and 9.20, the electrode was then rinsed with deionized water and


92

dipped into the beer sample allowing sufficient time for stabilization before

taking the reading.

Color determination

The color determination of beer samples was determined according to Polish

Standard PN-A-79093-5. Degassed beer samples were diluted with deionized

water in proportion allowing the spectrophotometric analyzes. Briefly, the

absorbance at 430 nm was determined, and the results were expressed as

EBC units.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica 10.0 (StatSoft, Inc.,

2000) program. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation of three

separate replications for each sample. In order to determine the effect of beer

style and technology of production on total phenolic content and

hydroxymethylfurfural, three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA/MANOVA)

was performed. Differences between samples were evaluated by Tukey’s test

at 5% level of significance.


Standard analysis of beers

The results of standard analysis of beer such as color and pH are presented in

Table 1. Color of beer is an important characteristic of this beverage, giving

mainly information of its style. According to Polish Standard PN-A-79093-5,

beers with EBC units above 25 are recognized as dark beers, and below 25

are the light style beers. Among forty one analyzed samples twenty were

qualified as dark type according to EBC units, it varied among dark type beer

samples from 26.4 to 167.9 EBC. Moreover, one of the most important beer

parameter is the pH, according to Polish Standard PN-A-79093-4 beer pH

should be in a range from 4.0 to 4.8. Such pH level improve beer clarity and

biological stability, and gives a more refined beer taste. However, from

among all forty one samples, six dark beers were characterized with the pH

values over 5.3.


93

Total phenolic content

The presence of phenolic compounds in beer play critical roles in both flavor

stability as well as colloidal stability in final product. Phenolic compounds

are in general considered as one of the very important antioxidant sources in

beer [Vanderhaegen et al. 2006]. And additionally, for individuals regularly

consuming beer, wine and tea, these beverages will likely be the major

sources of phenolics [Piazzon, Forte and Nardini 2010]. Therefore, TPC of

41 beer samples were examined by the Folin-Ciocalteu assay and the results

are presented in Figure 1 and 2.

Fig. 1. Total phenolics content in craft light (A) and dark (B) beers

Forty one beer samples investigated exhibited considerable differences

in their TPC values varying from 151 to 942 mg GAE/l, in general.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

TPC

mg

GA

E/l

A

0

200

400

600

800

1000

TPC

mg

GEA

/l

B


94

The lowest TPC content was observed in craft beer light style Korona

Olbrachta, at the same time craft beer light style Marcowe was the brand

which has the highest TPC content among all analyzed samples (Figure 1).

It should be pointed out that both the lowest and the highest TPC content was

determined in light style craft beers. Dark style craft beers TPC content

ranged from 252 to 848 mg GAE/l. Sanna and Pretti [2015] reported that

beers produced by microbrewery from Italy, had the polyphenols content

from 363 mg GAE/l to 1035 mg GEA/l. Nevertheless, the craft beer with the

highest TPC was the type of beer, which is aged for three years in the barrels,

which previously contained some of the most important red Italian wines, and

therefore may contain much more phenolic compounds [Sanna and Pretti,

2015]. More recently, the ageing in the wine barrels is attracting great interest

among craft brewers to allow some of the vinous character of the barrel to

permeate the beer. But barrel ageing is rather a typical for Italian

microbreweries concentrated in regions with long tradition as wine producers

[Sanna and Pretti, 2015].

Concerning the mass-produces beers the TPC content significantly

varied depending on the beer brand (Figure 2).

In light style mass-produced beers TPC varied from 312 mg GAE/l for

Żubr samples to 537 mg GAE/l for Miłosław Marcowe. Simultaneously, in

dark style mass-produced beers, the lowest determined TPC was in Książęce

Ciemne Łagodne and the highest in Cornelius, 331 and 913 mg GAE/l,

respectively. Piazzon et al. [2010] characterized the phenolics content in

seven different beer types, namely dealcoholized, lager, pilsner, wheat, ale,

abbey and bock, and among these types the lowest TPC was observed in

dealcoholized samples 366 mg GAE/l and the highest 875 mg GAE/l for

bock type beers. However, it should be mentioned that the Folin-Ciocalteu

method, although widely used for analyzing alcoholic and non-alcoholic

beverages and plant extracts is not a specific for phenolic compounds and

unfortunately suffer many interferences from other compounds [Davalos,

Gomez-Cordoves, Bartolome 2003]. Therefore, the results from Folin-

Ciocalteu assay for beer evaluation might not only reflect the phenolic

compounds, but also the content of Maillard reaction products, sulfite,

ascorbic acid and all other substances with reducing activity [Zhao et al.

2010].

Beer contains a considerably amount of phenolic compounds,

originating mainly from barley over 70% [Goupy et al. 1999] and hop about


95

30% [Callemien et al. 2005], that affect the overall antioxidant activity of

beer. Phenolics content in beer depends on the quality and quantity of raw

material and on the industrial brewing process. Beer rich in phenolic

antioxidant compounds generally is recognized as one of the higher quality,

with stable sensory properties, higher foam stability, and longer shelf-life in

the contrast to beer with of lower antioxidants content and activity [Guido et

al. 2007; McMurrough, Madigan and Kelly 1996].

Figure 2. Total phenolics content in mass-produced light (A) and dark

(B) beers

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

TPC

mg

GA

E/l

A

0

200

400

600

800

1000

TPC

mg

GA

E/l

B


96

Hydroxymethylfurfural content

During brewing, Maillard reaction and caramelization takes place, especially

during roasting of malts, when the temperatures increase over 200°C, leading

to the formation of HMF [Woffenden, Ames and Chandra, 2001].

Hydroxymethylfurfural together with furfural are index compounds of beer

staling. HMF content of dark style beer was found to be in a range from 9.9

to 66.4 mg/l for a craft beers (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Hydroxymethyl furfural content in dark craft (A) and mass-

produced (B) beers

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Córa Koryntu

Celtyckie

Birbant Black AIPA

Komtur

Czarna Dziura

Irish Beer

Kwas Beta

Konrad ESO

Lobkowicz Premium Cerny

Stout Cieszyński

mg/l

A

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

FortunaMiłosław Koźlak

Noteckie ciemneMiłosław pszeniczne

Książęce Ciemne ŁagodneŻywiec Porter

CorneliusOkocim Porter

KarmiGniewoszKormoran

mg/l

B


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The lowest HMF content was observed in Kwas Beta samples, and the

highest in Lobkowicz Premium Cerny. Moreover, HMF content in mass-

produced dark style beers varied significantly, from 16.5 mg/l in Miłosław

Pszeniczne to 61.7 mg/l in Żywiec Porter. Akillioğlu, Mogol and Gökmen

reported the HMF content in dark malt to be 520 mg/kg, whereas in wort and

sweet wort obtained from the dark malt had HMF content 72 and 62.5 mg/l,

respectively. The decrease in HMF content during brewing, especially

fermentation, process could be explain by the yeast utilization.

CONCLUSIONS

There were considerable variations in total phenolics content and

hydroxymethylfurfural of commercial beers across different brands and

types. Although, the technology of production is significantly different, there

is no straight relation between total phenolics content and production method,

mass-produced or craft. However, the average amount of TPC of light craft

beers was lower than in mass-produced light beers, additionally light beers of

both types were more deficient in phenolic compounds than dark ones. Total

phenolics content was significantly higher in dark style beers. But it should

be taken into account that the presence of hydroxymethylfurfural could affect

the TPC results. In general, craft and mass-produced beers could be

recognized as a good source of phenolic compounds, but their consumption

should be responsible and moderate to give a positive effect.

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Brien, S.E., Ronksley, P.E., Turner, B.J., Mukamal, K.J., Ghali, W.A., 2011, Effect of

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Kondo, K., 2004, Beer and health: Preventive effects of beer components on lifestyle-relate

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Nozawa, H., Tazumi, K., Sato, K., Yoshida, A., Takata, J., Arimoto-Kobayashi, S., Kondo,

K., 2004, Inhibitory effects of beer on heterocyclic amine-induced mutagenesis and

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Kaplan, N.M., Palmer, B.F., 2000, Nutritional and health benefits of beer, The American

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Nardini, M., Natella, F., Scaccini, C., Ghiselli, A., 2006, Phenolic acids from beer are

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Stevens, J.F., Page, J.E., 2004, Xanthohumol and related prenylflavonoids from hops and

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Cortacero-Ramírez S., Hernáinz-Bermúdez de Castro M., Segura-Carretero A.,Cruces-

Blanco C., Fernández-Gutiérrez A., 2003, Analysis of beer components by capillary

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and Food Chemistry, 49, 5524-5530.

STRESZCZENIE

Piwo stanowi skomplikowaną mieszaninę różnych związków

bioaktywnych o właściwościach prozdrowotnych, a bezpośredni wpływ na

jego skład mają stosowane zabiegi technologiczne jak i różnice

w stosowanych surowcach. W naszych badaniach porównywano całkowitą

zawartość związków fenolowych (TPC) oraz zawartość

hydroksymetylofurfuralu zarówno w piwach koncernowych jak

i rzemieślniczych. Zarówno TPC jak i zawartość hydroksymetylofurfuralu

różniły się znacząco w różnych typach piwa. W piwach rzemieślniczych,

wartość TPC wahała się w granicach od 151.8 mg GAE/l w Koronie

Olbrachta do 942.0 mg GAE/l w piwie Marcowe. Podczas gdy w piwach

koncernowych od 312.3 mg GAE/l w piwie żubr do 913.0 mg GAE/l w piwie

Cornelius. Związki fenolowe pozostają w kręgu zainteresowań browarników

ponieważ odgrywają kluczową role w procesie warzenia piwa poprzez

opóźnianie, wstrzymywania oraz zapobieganie procesom oksydacyjnym.

Dodatkowo, oznaczono zawartość HMF w piwach ciemnych, jego zawartość

w piwach rzemieślniczych wahała sie od 9.8 mg/l w piwie Kwas Beta do

66.4 mg/l dla piwa Lobkowicz Premium Cerny, a w piwach koncernowych


100

od 16.5 mg/l w piwie Miłosław Pszeniczne do 61.7 mg/l w piwie Żywiec

Porter.

Słowa kluczowe: piwo rzemieślnicze, TPC, przeciwutleniacze,

5-hydroksymetylofurfural


101

THE IMPACT OF THE PROCESS OF GERMINATION

OF WHEAT GRAIN ON NUTRITIONAL VALUE

OF FLOUR

Stanisław Popek

Department of Food Commodity Science, Faculty of Commodity Science

The University of Economics, Cracow 30-658, Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper was an attempt to determine the impact of the

germination process on the content of B and PP vitamins as well as macro-

and micronutrients (phosphorus, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese and

zinc) in flour made on the basis of grain which undergoes the germination

process, compared to flour obtained from non-germinated grain.

The research material consisted of 5 samples of flour obtained from

wheat grain. The analyses covered two samples of wheat flour from

germinated grain, from two different suppliers of this type of raw material in

the world and one sample of flour made from a wheat-based mixture of

cereals and grains. Additionally, two reference samples, namely wheat flour

obtained from type 500 dehulled grain and type 1850 wholemeal flour, were

examined.

The following determinations were made with the research material:

1. Determination of the content of B vitamins: B1, B2, PP and B6.

2. Determination of the content of minerals: phosphorus, copper,

iron, magnesium, manganese and zinc.

On the basis of the conducted tests of the samples of flour made from wheat

grain, supported by the statistical analysis, no impact of the germination

process on the content of selected B vitamins and micro and macronutrients

was found.

Keywords: quality, germination of grain, wheat flour, nutrition value



102

INTRODUCTION

According to the newly released healthy eating and physical activity pyramid

in 2016 by the National Food and Nutrition Institute, cereal products, in

particular wholemeal products, are placed at the third level immediately

above physical activity, which is the base of this pyramid and such products

as fruit and vegetables. These recommendations and the fact that cereal

products are to a large extent the basis of the diet of the population

of developing countries make that they are an important source of nutrients in

the human diet. Nutritionists encourage the consumption or replacement of

previously consumed cereal products with wholemeal products. Whole grains

contain a number of nutrients and biologically active components, namely:

fibre, starch, vitamins, minerals and micronutrients. These are compounds

that not only help build body tissues, but also contribute to reducing the risk

of developing civilisation diseases [Chavan and Kadam 1989].

Cereal cultivation is one of the most important segments of the

agricultural economy, both in the world and in Poland. This year, the

consumption of cereals is expected to be about 2 billion tonnes, of which

wheat itself is to be about 716 million tonnes. In Poland, wheat harvest in

2015 was estimated at 28 million tonnes by the Central Statistical Office, of

which only about 21% is intended for consumption purposes, because a very

large part of these crops is intended for use as animal feed. The key quality

parameters that are taken into account during grain harvest include falling

number, protein amount, gluten content or Zeleny sedimentation rate. The

selection of grains with appropriate and good quality parameters is

a critical point on the way towards the making of good flour and then

products made of it [Rynek zbóż 2016]. Most of the 21% of the harvest for

food purposes is subjected to milling as a result of which flour is obtained,

which is a sales product as such, or an intermediate product for the

production of a range of cereal products. Their contribution in a beneficial

effect on the human body is strong due to the presence of bioactive

substances. Wheat is the basic cereal which is consumed in Poland. This is a

source of energy, protein and many micronutrients. Cereals, including wheat

are rich in such minerals as manganese, phosphorus, zinc, copper, iron and

B vitamins [Chavan and Kadam 1989].

Recently, a raw material which is germinated grain has been noticed

and begun to be explored. This is a grain which is specially treated using an


103

appropriate temperature and humidity to stimulate plant growth and start

germination. Then, at the most opportune moment this process is stopped in

order to preserve as many valuable components as possible. During

germination, the plant needs a number of substances for its growth, a lot of

enzymes begin to act resulting in improved availability of proteins, sugars or

minerals [Olszewska 2003].

Such products as flour, baker’s goods, savoury snacks, pasta, biscuits,

breakfast cereal or cereal bars which are made from germinated flour in

100% or used as an additive can already be found in the world markets.

The most popular raw materials that have been used so far include wheat and

quinoa, the first of which is dominant in bread, pasta and cereal, while the

second is an additive to savoury snacks and biscuits [Tomiło 2015a].

In Poland, sprouts are a known product, perceived as very healthy,

mainly consumed as a fresh product, as a sandwich and salad topping or after

heat treatment as an ingredient in Chinese dishes [Jarocka 2015].

Looking at the big market of cereal products in Poland and numerous

uses of wheat in it, as well as the significant and interesting benefits provided

by the germination of grain, it seems important to explore the possibilities of

using the germinated raw material for the making of innovative, nutrient-

enriched products available to the consumer.

Germination is a process which can virtually be used for any grain.

Both cereal sprouts, seeds of such plants as radish, cress, sunflower or

pumpkin and legume seeds can be germinated [Lewicki 2010, Tomiło

2015a]. Sprouts have a specific taste, therefore, consumers often choose and

consume those that are their favourite ones. The most popular include

germinated wheat grains (with a slightly sweet taste), radish seeds (slightly

spicy and pungent), lentils and soya beans (with a slightly sweet and nutty

flavour) and mung beans, which are well-known ingredients in Asian dishes

[Czerwińska 2012]. Both sprouts, or young plants, and germinated grains are

a source of a number of valuable vitamins, micro- and macronutrients, as

well as other desired components to the human body. The industry today

manufacturing an enormous quantity of products on the basis of still limited

resources is looking for and is willing to use all types of additives, which will

make it possible to improve the product quality, sensory or health features.

Taking into account the composition of germinated cereal grains, it seems

that they are potentially a valuable additive to cereal products as an


104

ingredient enriching them mainly with health as well as flavour benefits

[Tomiło 2015b].

Germination is the most intensive period in the entire life cycle of the

plant. This is a complex physiological process during which physical,

biological and biochemical changes occur. During germination a germ grows,

which is then transformed into a sprout, and in the final stage into a seedling.

It is during germination that reserve materials are transformed into simpler

compounds that are the source of energy and substrates for newly synthesised

compounds. Available components become more available, vitamins are

synthesised and the vast number of enzymes are activated [Lewicki 2010,

Majewska 1994]. Enzymes from amylolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic groups

are active, during germination their activity is 10-100 times greater than in

the mature plant. Their action enables the activation of 3 types of processes:

1. Degradation of reserve materials in the germ and endosperm.

2. Respiration processes which are the source of energy.

3. Creation of multi-particle compounds in the germ.

Sprouts are a source of valuable nutrients, namely micronutrients, mineral

salts, proteins and carbohydrates. During germination numerous changes

occur in these compounds. During the germination process, the amounts of

free and available proteins and amino acids in sprouts are increased. Due to

proteolytic enzymes activated in the germination process, protein reserves

located in the endosperm are broken down into amino acids and peptides. In

addition, the synthesis of new proteins in sprouts occurs by binding amino

acids, di- and tripeptides together. As a result of germination, increased levels

of such valuable amino acids as lysine, tryptophan, alanine, tyrosine,

histidine, glutamic acid and aspartic acid are observed in grain [Czerwińska

2012, Datamonitor 2013, Kwiatkowska 2007, Lewicki 2010, Michalak-

Majewska and Makarska 2009].

Due to active amylolytic enzymes, polysaccharides are broken down

into simpler sugars in grain. This increases the amount of sucrose and

glucose in sprouts. All carbohydrates found in grain are highly bioavailable.

Germinated grain also contains more fibre, in particular its water-soluble

fraction [Czerwińska 2012 ].

Cereal sprouts contain relatively little fat, namely about 3%, but it

contains mainly polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The amounts of oleic

and stearic acids are decreased, while the amounts of linolenic and alpha-


105

linolenic acids are increased [Czerwińska 2012, Paredes-Lopez and Mora-

Escobedo 1989].

Favourable changes also occur in the amount of mineral salts, because

during germination grain absorbing water, which contains elements, increases

the total amount of available minerals [Majewska 1994].

The fruit and seed coat of cereal grains contains huge amounts of

phytic acid. There is significantly more of it in the cover than in inner parts.

Therefore, wholemeal flour, wholemeal bread and coarse-grained groats

contain more phytates than plain flour. Adverse effects of phytic acid involve

the creation with such elements as iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese,

sodium and potassium of sparingly soluble and not completely hydrolysed in

the human digestive tract complexes, what negatively affects their absorption

from the small intestine. This can be to some extent reversed using

appropriate cooking techniques, such as milling, thermal treatment, soaking,

germination and fermentation using lactic acid bacteria. Therefore, elements

in germinated grain and flour are more bioavailable, because the enzyme

phytase present in grain, during the swelling and germination of grain, breaks

down phytic acid salts. Phytates bind calcium, magnesium, iron and other

minerals. When broken down, they become more available and, thus,

bioavailable to the human body. During the breakdown phosphoric acid,

inositol and cations of elements are formed [Czerwińska 2012, Lewicki 2010,

Tomiło 2015a].

The mineral composition of sprouts largely depends on the sprout

species. Cereal sprouts are rich in iron, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus

and calcium. Wheat sprouts are also a rich source of copper and zinc

[Lewicki 2010].

In the germination process, the synthesis of vitamins takes place, which

makes that their amounts are greater than in grain. An increase in the vitamin

C content is the biggest. Linear increases in the contents of carotenoids,

xanthophylls and alpha-tocopherol are also observed with germination time.

All cereal sprouts are rich in B vitamins (B1, B2, B6, PP and biotins). Also,

the bioavailability of vitamins is high [Czerwińska 2012, Ozturk et al. 2012].

Due to the germination of cereal grains, their valuable antioxidant

properties comparable to those of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and

alpha-tocopherol increase [Czerwińska 2012, Lopez et al. 2002]. As a result

of dynamic metabolic processes occurring in sprouts, valuable chemical

compounds are created, including phenolic compounds which have


106

a beneficial effect on the human body. Valuable phenolic compounds are

polyphenols, which are capable of quenching radicals (such capacity of wheat

sprouts is comparable to the activity of caffeic acid), and antioxidant

properties. On the other hand, the activity of buckwheat sprouts is

comparable to that of rutin or quercetin. In view of such valuable properties,

sprouts can be successfully helpful in the prevention and treatment of

nervous system disorders, obesity, atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular

diseases, gastrointestinal tract disorders, reduced immunity and even anaemia

[Czerwińska 2012, Tomiło 2015a].

In spite of the many benefits of germinated grain, numerous enzymatic

changes that occur in it significantly affect the technological suitability of

such grain, because there are changes in the structure of multi-particle

compounds. While the initial phase of germination is even a positive change

in terms of the milling value, because the structural and mechanical

properties of grain change, the strong germination of cereals adversely affect

their milling value, resulting in reduced flour extraction rate [Dojczew et al.

2004].

As a result of germination, dextrinization of starch occurs, thereby

increasing viscosity and the amount of monosaccharides. Due to the high

proteolytic activity, degradation of proteins, including gluten proteins, takes

place. Such changes subsequently affect the rheological properties of dough

[Grzesiuk and Kulka 1988].

The quality of flour can be considered at two levels:

– meeting generally accepted requirements usually contained in

standardisation requirements,

– meeting the requirements set by the consumer.

Products obtained from the milling of wheat grains have a number of

physical properties typical of bulk materials. However, only a few of them

are basic distinguishing features making it possible to determine the quality

and use value of flour. It is assumed that these include purity, colour and

a degree of fineness. Purity is understood as the proportion of the particles

desired in the entire batch of a product. Colour is a parameter used for years

and is still one of the most popular for determining the quality and

appearance of flour, it is assessed organoleptically as well as using

knowledge on the ash content in flour. However, a degree of fineness for

flour is the measurement of its granulation, or the flour particle size.

As regards chemical properties, however, the quantity and quality of protein,


107

mainly gluten is crucial for further use [Czerwińska 2010, Jurga 2014, Jurga

2015, Jurga 2008, Rothkaehl 2015].

The aim of this paper was an attempt to determine the impact of the

germination process on the content of B and PP vitamins as well as macro-

and micronutrients (phosphorus, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese and

zinc) in flour made on the basis of grain which undergoes the germination

process, compared to flour obtained from non-germinated grain.


The research material consisted of 5 samples of flour obtained from wheat

grain. The analyses covered two samples of wheat flour from germinated

grain, from two different suppliers of this type of raw material in the world

and one sample of flour made from a wheat-based mixture of cereals and

grains. This flour consisted of germinated raw materials from wheat, maize,

spelt, millet, beans, peas, lentils, alfalfa, soya beans and flax. Additionally,

two reference samples, namely wheat flour obtained from type 500 dehulled

grain and type 1850 wholemeal flour, were examined. The flour was

provided by companies from Austria, France and Poland.

Due to the fact that the product to be examined was provided by

external traders and not prepared independently, the thorough process of

obtaining the grain and making the flour for the individual samples is

unknown. The method of grain germination and finding appropriate and

finest nutrients from the point of view of optimising quality and their quantity

is the unique know how of each company.

However, the material was obtained from big professionals experienced

in the industry, what enables conclusions relating to the raw materials

provided by them to be safely formulated.

The following determinations were made with the research material:

1. Determination of the content of B vitamins: B1, B2, PP and B6.

The content of B1, B2, PP and B6 vitamins in the tested samples

was determined using the high performance liquid

chromatography method (HPLC) [Tomiło 2015].

2. Determination of the content of minerals: phosphorus, copper,

iron, magnesium, manganese and zinc.


108

The content of minerals: phosphorous, copper, iron, magnesium,

manganese and zinc was determined in accordance with Official

Methods of Analysis of AOAC, International [AOAC 2012].

For each product coming from two different production batches, three

separate determinations were made.

In order to verify whether or not the germination process of flour

affects the content of B vitamins and PP vitamins, as well as macro- and

micronutrients, a variance analysis was performed using the Anova package

from Statistica. The significance of differences between the values of group

arithmetic means was stated on the basis of the calculated value of the

F-test (at the level of α = 0.05). The grouping of the means into homogeneous

groups was performed using the Tukey’s test.


The results of the analyses of the contents of vitamins and selected micro-

and macronutrients are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Tables 3 and 4 show the

results of the variance analysis.

List of samples:

1. Germinated flour mixture Austria – sample A;

2. Germinated wheat flour Austria – sample B;

3. Germinated wheat flour France – sample C;

4. Wheat flour Poland – sample D;

5. Wholemeal wheat flour Poland– sample E.

Table 1. Results of the content of vitamins in the tested flour samples

(average values)

Number of flour

sample

Content of vitamins [mg/100 g]

B1 SD B2 SD B6 SD PP SD

A 0.38 0.09 0.19 0.05 0.06 0.001 4.11 0.21

B 0.49 0.07 0.18 0.07 0.39 0.11 4.67 0.29

C 0.18 0.08 0.09 0.002 0.03 0.001 2.87 0.17

D 0.27 0.11 0.09 0.001 0.19 0.07 2.07 0.19

E 0.41 0.13 0.17 0.09 0.42 0.09 3.98 0.31

SD – Standard Deviation


109

Table 2. Results of the content of micro- and macronutrients in the

tested flour samples (average values)

Number

of flour

sample

Content of micro- and macronutrients [mg/100 g]

P SD Fe SD Mg SD Zn SD Cu SD Mn SD

A 290.50 2.87 13.34 0.87 115.00 2.31 1.68 0.21 0.21 0.08 2.32 0.41

B 362.40 3.02 5.10 0.17 122.90 2.22 2.20 0.26 0.23 0.09 3.08 0.28

C 158.30 1.67 1.59 0.12 45.90 1.96 0.60 0.11 0.09 0.05 1.47 0.09

D 113.40 1.34 1.09 0.08 29.40 1,53 0.60 0.13 0.10 0.04 0.63 0.13

E 402.40 3.04 5.16 0.26 126.90 2.71 3.55 0.19 0.45 0.14 3.73 0.20

SD – Standard Deviation

The results of statistical analysis carried out using of variance analysis are

presented in Tables 3 and 4.

Table 3. Results of the variance analysis – the content of vitamins

Number of

flour sample

Content of vitamins (average value) [mg/100 g]

B1 B2 B6 PP

A 0.38a 0.19a 0.06a 4.11a

B 0.49a 0.18a 0.39b 4.67a

C 0.18 0.09b 0.03a 2.87b

D 0.27 0.09b 0.19 2.07b

E 0.41a 0.17a 0.42b 3.98a

Table 4. Results of the variance analysis – the content of micro- and

macronutrients

Number of

flour sample

Content of micro- and macronutrients (average value)

[mg/100 g]

P Fe Mg Zn Cu Mn

A 290.50 13.34 115.00a 1.68a 0.21a 2.32

B 362.40 5.10b 122.90a 2.20a 0.23a 3.08a

C 158.30 1.59a 45.90 0.60b 0.09b 1.47

D 113.40 1.09a 29.40 0.60b 0.10b 0.63

E 402.40 5.16b 126.90a 3.55 0.45 3.73a

The same letter symbols mean that the means are classified in

a homogeneous group in the LSD test.


110

Table 5. The sum of all determined minerals of the tested flour

[mg/100g]

Number of flour

sample

Sum of all determined minerals of the tested flour

[mg/100 g]

A 427.79

B 501.64

C 211.12

D 147.84

E 547.17

It is well known that wholemeal flour provides significantly more valuable

nutrients than non-wholemeal flour. According to the standardisation

requirements, it is assumed that flour can be considered wholemeal (graham/

whole-wheat) when its type is equal to or greater than 1850 [PN-A-

74022:2003, PN-ISO 5527]. The suppliers of the tested flour provided

information on the types of the tested flour. They are as follows:

1. sample A – 1720,

2. sample B – 1830,

3. sample C – 880,

4. sample D – 480,

5. sample E – 1870.

Analysing the results of the tested samples relating both to wholemeal flour:

samples A, B and E, and non-wholemeal flour: C and D, a significant effect

of this diversity on the analysed results was found. Sample C is low type

germinated flour, this fact is striking, because according to the literature data,

this raw material exists in the vast majority of cases as a wholemeal product

in order to preserve its greatest possible nutritional values, which are usually

located in the fruit and seed layer, germ and sprout [Tomiło 2015b]. Taking

into account the summarised results of the tested minerals and vitamins,

it can be noticed that the type of flour is reflected in the amount of elements

contained in it. The amount of ash increases with an increase in the total

extraction rate. The higher the type number, the more valuable elements flour

contains. The poorest are samples C and D, of which type 480 D contains a

total of about 148 mg/100 g of the tested elements, while type 880 sample C

contains only 211mg/100 g of them. In wholemeal flour an analogous pattern

is also observed. Type 1720 sample A contains about 428 mg/100 g of them,


111

type 1830 sample B about 502 mg/100 g, and sample E of the highest type

number, namely 1870 as much as 547 mg/100 g. Therefore, non-wholemeal

flour both made from germinated and non-germinated grain always has

a lower content of elements than wholemeal flour. Sample D and germinated

sample C should be classified as non-wholemeal flour. This relationship

could already be observed in the process of an organoleptic analysis.

The visual image of sample C is more similar to sample D than to the others.

In the case of vitamin B1, the average results of its content show

a slightly greater amount of it in the wholemeal germinated samples (A and

B) compared to the wholemeal non-germinated raw material (E). However,

these are not statistically significant differences. The highest level of vitamin

B1 was observed in sample B – 0.49 mg/100g. Therefore, it can be concluded

that mixing different raw materials resulted in no improvement in the case of

this parameter. Germinated sample C had a significantly lower result-

0.18mg/100g compared to the other two germinated raw materials (A and B).

In the case of vitamin B2 content, exactly the same relationship was

observed. Also, the results for the germinated samples (A, B and E) are not

statistically different compared to the non-germinated samples (D and E), but

a slightly greater amount of this vitamin was noticed in the germinated

samples (A and B) compared to the non-germinated sample (E).

The statistical difference is noted between the two non-wholemeal samples

and all the wholemeal samples. Germinated sample C had a significantly

lower result 0.09 mg/100 g compared to the other two germinated raw

materials (A and B).

The results of the vitamin B6 content were statistically different within

samples A and C compared to samples B and E. The highest level of it was

observed in sample E – 0.42mg/100g. It is assumed that the use of a mixture

of crops and the germination of grain do not result in an increase in the case

of this flour parameter. The non-wholemeal samples (C and D) had a lower

content of this vitamin compared to the wholemeal samples (A, B and E).

In the case of vitamin PP, no statistically significant differences in the

germinated (A and B and C) and non-germinated samples (D and E) were

observed, but the average contents of this vitamin in the case of samples A

and B are higher than in the non-germinated samples (D and E). Once again,

sample C shows a much lower level than samples A and B, being ranked in

the analysed terms close to non-wholemeal sample D. The highest level of


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vitamin PP was observed in sample B. The content of this vitamin was the

highest in all samples compared to the other vitamins tested.

Analysing the flour samples in terms of the vitamins tested, it can be

stated that wholemeal germinated sample B had in all cases, except for

vitamin B6, the greatest amount of individual vitamins in its composition.

Sample E was ranked second.

The issue of studying the germination of cereal grains is not widely

described in scientific literature on this subject. Only the grain germination

process, both physical, chemical, biochemical and biological, is broadly

described. A lot of information can also be found about what conditions

should be met for grains to begin to sprout. However, it is difficult to find

publications that would show changes in the nutritional values of sprouts,

especially wheat flour. Therefore, in the paper when discussing the results,

a reference was made to the parameters determined not only for wheat.

Colmenares de Ruiz and Bressani studied various types of amaranth grain

carrying out its germination and analysing selected parameters after 0, 24, 48

and 72 h. One of the tests conducted by them were determinations of

vitamins B1, B2 and PP. The values obtained by them show that the longer

the germination process, the higher the content of these vitamins in amaranth

grains. The amount of vitamin B1 fluctuated around 0.15mg/100g, B2 –

0.66mg/100g, and PP – 1.1mg/100g [Colmenares and Bressani 1990]. On the

basis of these results it can be assumed that germination affects

an increase in the amount of vitamins [Paredes-Lopez and Mora-Escobedo

1989]. However, Meyerowitz studied the content of vitamins B1, B2, B6 and

PP in lentil sprouts. Their values were as follows: B1 – 0.23 mg/100 g, B2 –

0.13 mg/100 g, PP – 1.13 mg/100 g, B6 – 0.19 mg/100 g [Michala-Majewska

and Makarska 2009]. It should be remembered that this is a completely

different raw material, but also in this case the highest level of the tested

vitamins was observed in vitamin PP, followed by B1.

The above studies show that also as in the case of the flour samples

analysed in the paper, increases in the amounts of vitamins were observed,

and vitamin PP was present in the greatest amounts. Given the composition

of cereal grains, which are rich in this vitamin, these results should not be

surprising. These raw materials were germinated one day longer than those

analysed by Colmendares de Ruiz and Bressani and on the basis of these

results, even though they are different raw materials, a greater increase in the

amounts of vitamins vs. the output sample per unit can be clearly noticed.


113

Given these results and the sample (B) tested as part of this paper, it can be

assumed that germination improves the nutritional value of grain, and the

degree of this increase is strictly dependent on the germination process: its

time and conditions [Colmenares and Bressani 1990, Zieliński, Buciński and

Kozłowska 2002, Zieliński et al. 2005]. The results of the content of vitamins

B1 and B2 in wheat sprouts are also known. This is a raw material which is

the closest to that studied in the paper, but with a much more advanced

germination process. The content of vitamins B1 and B2 in both cases was at

the level of 0.22 mg/100 g. This value is similar to the obtained results of the

author’s own research (sample B) in the case of vitamin B2, and about half

that in the case of vitamin B1. This may be caused by the use of vitamins by

the grains to the processes of formation of big sprouts [Hung et al. 2012].

With regard to minerals, within the content of phosphorus, there were

no statistically significant differences between the samples. The highest level

was observed in the non-germinated wholemeal flour (sample E) – 402

mg/100 g. It was also found that flour C and D had a lower content of this

element compared to wholemeal flour. Comparing samples E and B,

a slightly lower content was observed in the case of the germinated raw

material. The use of a mixture of crops (sample A) had no “in plus’ effect for

this mineral. Phosphorus is a mineral the content of which in the tested

samples was at the highest level within the range of 113 – 402 mg/100 g.

Iron, however, is an element the highest level of which was observed in

the germinated sample, which was a mixture of different sprouts (sample A).

This difference was statistically significantly higher than in the other

samples, suggesting that the use of appropriate mixtures of cereals can

increase the content of some desired minerals. There were also statistical

differences in the wholemeal flour samples compared to the non-wholemeal

flour (B and E vs. C and D). In the case of the germinated and non-

germinated wheat flour (E and B), no statistically significant differences were

observed, but sample B had a slightly lower iron content.

Magnesium is a mineral that second after phosphorus was present in the

greatest amounts in the tested samples (in the range of 30 – 127mg/100g).

The highest level was observed in sample E. Statistical differences were

observed only once in each case between the wholemeal and non-wholemeal

samples (A, B and E vs. C and D). The use of the mixture did not bring about

positive changes in the case of the magnesium content in germinated flour.


114

Comparing samples E to B, a slightly lower level of magnesium can be

observed in the germinated sample than in the non-germinated sample.

Zinc was present in the greatest amounts in sample E – 3.55mg/00g.

Statistically significant differences were observed between the non-

wholemeal samples and the germinated wholemeal samples. Its level in

wholemeal flour was invariably higher than in the non-wholemeal flour

samples. The level of this element in the germinated flour (sample B) was

statistically lower than that in the non-germinated sample (E). In this case the

use of the mixture did not enable an increase in the amount of zinc in the

flour.

In the case of manganese, there were no statistically significant

differences between samples B and E, where quantitatively, the level of this

element was higher in sample E. The lowest level was observed in the non-

germinated non-wholemeal flour (D) – 0.63 mg/100 g. The use of the mixture

did not result in an increase in the content of this element in the flour.

Copper was present in the greatest amounts in sample E –

0.45mg/100g. Statistically significant differences were observed between the

non-wholemeal samples and the germinated wholemeal samples. Its levels in

wholemeal flour were invariably higher than in the non-wholemeal samples.

The level in the germinated flour (sample B) was statistically lower than that

in the non-germinated sample (E). In this case the use of the mixture did not

enable an increase in the amount of copper in the flour.

Analysing the tested flour samples for the content of all minerals, it was

found that non-germinated wholemeal sample E had in all cases, except for

the iron content, the greatest amounts of individual elements in its

composition. Sample B was ranked second.

The available literature on the subject provides the results of studies of

germinated materials, but other than wheat. Zieliński focussed in their studies

on the analysis of plants of the family Brassicaceae and verified the levels of

such minerals in them as calcium, magnesium, copper and zinc, in which

their content increased after germination, and manganese and iron, the

amounts of which were similar before and after the process [Zieliński et al.

2005]. Piesiewicz, however, very widely studied in nutritional terms soya

beans and sprouts and red lentil seeds and sprouts. In all tested samples, after

germination a decrease in the amounts of phosphorus, iron, magnesium, zinc,

copper and manganese was observed. This tendency corresponds to the

results presented in this paper. It is also worth looking at the contents


115

of minerals in non-germinated flour [Piesiewicz and Mielcarz 2001].

Mielcarz in her paper analysed minerals in type 900 flour, in which the

levels of individual minerals were as follows: phosphorus 359 mg/100 g, iron

– 5 mg/100 g. These results are lower than those in the samples studied in

this paper, and the flour tested by Mielcarz was of a lower type than sample E

[Mielcarz 2009]. On the other hand, Jurga focussed on studying spelt flour,

namely one of the wheat varieties which is now very popular on the cereal

food market. The results obtained for type 1900 spelt flour were as follows:

magnesium – 130 mg/100 g, iron – 4.20 mg/100 g, copper – 0.26 mg/100 g

and phosphorus – 411 mg/100 g. Obviously the raw material was a different

variety of wheat than that analysed in the paper (common), but it can be

noticed that also in this case the highest levels were observed for phosphorus

and magnesium [Jurga 2008].

Analysing the results obtained in this paper compared to other research,

it can be concluded that the research undertaken is interesting, both from

a scientific and technological point of view. Therefore, it is advisable to carry

out research, taking into account raw material before and after germination,

and it is necessary to monitor quality parameters after different germination

times. It seems that the amount of minerals is decreased after germination,

which can be caused by the fact that they are used for subsequent changes in

grain and numerous changes that occur in the sprout formation process.

Despite the fact that the contents of minerals in non-wholemeal raw materials

is lower than in wholemeal raw materials, note should be taken of an

increased bioavailability of minerals, by the breakdown of their connections

with phytic acid, which limits their availability after consumption of the

product. The method of analysis of minerals used does not enable a definite

conclusion to be made as to whether or not in the case of the flour samples

tested, such a pattern also applies (it indicates the total amount of elements in

the sample, thus, both those bonded into insoluble salts and existing in an

unbound state). The paper by Lopez et al. contains information about

connections and limitations in the availability of such minerals as zinc, iron,

calcium and magnesium in cereal products [Lopez et al. 2002], therefore,

it seems advisable to further explore and study the bioavailability of minerals

as a benefit from the germination of seeds and grains.


116

SUMMARY

The germination of cereal grains is an issue with a high potential and the

possibility of a technological breakthrough on the pretty much explored

market of wholemeal products in Poland, which is currently based on the

benefits both from fibre and minerals they contain. Wholemeal products are

in the diet one of the main sources of B vitamins and some minerals.

Nutrition of Poles is mainly based on cereal products, therefore the

availability of new solutions in this area is desirable.

The aim of this paper was an attempt to assess the effect of the

germination process on the nutritional value of wheat flour, prepared from

germinated grains, based on the determination of selected vitamins and

minerals.

On the basis of the conducted tests of the samples of flour made from

wheat grain, supported by the statistical analysis, no impact of the

germination process on the content of selected B vitamins and micro and

macronutrients was found. Nevertheless, it is worth drawing attention to

a few crucial issues observed on the basis of the tests carried out, taking also

into account the results of other scientists, as well as the available theoretical

knowledge on the raw materials subjected to germination. In this context,

grains should be carefully examined before the germination process. Then,

the same raw material should be subjected to germination under controlled

conditions, where its conditions will be closely monitored in order to be able

to verify both the impact of germination time and individual parameters,

namely temperature or humidity on the nutritional value of the grains, and

then flour prepared from them. It should be remembered that the milling

process itself can also affect a decrease in the value of certain elements.

Additionally, in the case of flour, it will be crucial to verify the impact of the

degree of dehulling of grains and the issue of adding or getting rid of the

germ and sprout of the plant on the nutritional value. On the basis of the

results obtained it is clear, however, that it is recommended that only

wholemeal raw materials be analysed for further exploration. It is suggested

that the optimal process be found which will make it possible to retain in

grains the greatest amounts of good substances from the nutritional point of

view. It is necessary to control parameters that will enable processes to be

activated, but will not yet enable valuable elements to be completely broken

down and used for the sprout formation [Hsu et al. 1980].


117

Another very broad issue is the above-mentioned bioavailability of

minerals which, although present in grain and flour at the same or slightly

lower level, may prove to be much more available to the human body, which

will be associated with improved bioavailability and the nutritional

effectiveness of consumption of these products.

The last issue is the use of a so-called mix of various grains for the

production of flour. The results obtained show that such a procedure can

bring the desired effects only in the case of some minerals or vitamins.

The level of the element or vitamin technologists are interested in should be

taken into account, and then mixes with the addition of a raw material, which

is rich in it, should be used. However, the issue of whether or not an increase

in the iron level in the tested samples is only affected by the germination

process needs to be resolved, because maybe also such an effect could be

achieved only based on the same non-germinated raw materials.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research was financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education -

grant for the maintenance of the research potential, awarded to the Faculty

of Commodity Science of the Cracow University of Economics.

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STRESZCZENIE

Celem niniejszej pracy była próba określenia wpływu procesu

kiełkowania na zawartość witamin z grupy B i PP oraz makro-

i mikroelementów (fosforu, miedzi, żelaza, magnezu, manganu oraz cynku)

w mąkach powstałych na bazie ziarna poddanego procesowi skiełkowania, w

porównaniu do mąk otrzymanych z nieskiełkowanego ziarna.

Materiał badawczy stanowiło 5 próbek mąk otrzymanych z ziarna

pszenicy. Analizie poddano dwie próbki mąki pszennej z ziarna

skiełkowanego, pochodzące od dwóch różnych dostawców tego typu

surowca na świecie oraz jedną próbkę mąki wykonanej z mieszanki zbóż

i ziaren na bazie pszenicy. Dodatkowo, przebadano dwie próbki odniesienia

jakimi były mąki pszenna uzyskane z ziarna obłuszczonego, typ 500 oraz

mąka pełnoziarnista pszenna typ 1850. Dostawcami mąk były firmy

z Austrii, Francji oraz Polski.

Na materiale badawczym przeprowadzono następujące oznaczenia:

1. Oznaczenie zawartości witamin z grupy B: B1, B2, PP oraz B6.

2. Oznaczenie zawartości minerałów: fosforu, miedzi, żelaza,

magnezu, manganu oraz cynku.


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Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań próbek mąki powstałych z ziarna

pszenicy, popartych analizą statystyczną, stwierdzono brak wpływu procesu

kiełkowania na zawartość wybranych witamin z grupy B oraz mikro-

i makroelementów.

Słowa kluczowe: jakość, kiełkowanie ziarna, mąka pszenna, wartość

odżywcza


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APPLICATION OF SYNCHRONOUS FLUORESCENCE

SPECTROSCOPY WITH MULTIVARIATE DATA

ANALYSIS FOR THE DETECTION OF FRUIT JUICES

ADULTERATION

Anna Dankowska, Olga Bińczak, Grzegorz Złotecki

Department of Food Commodity Science. Faculty of Commodity Science,

Poznań University of Economics and Business, al. Niepodległości 10, 61-875 Poznań,

Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Adulteration of food and alcoholic as well non-alcoholic beverages is

a significant problem that involves many different edible products. On

account of high cost of some fruits, adulteration of fruit juices is practiced for

economical purposes. Detection and prevention of fruit juice adulteration is

a very complex due to natural variation of fruits as well as differences that

occur with different growing regions, processing techniques and storage

conditions. Various instrumental methods have been proposed over the years

to establish the authenticity of fruit juices and to detect the level of its

adulteration. Methods of food adulteration detection have evolved from the

very simple to the very sophisticated and advanced analytical techniques.

Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy is quick and avoids all sample

preparation steps except for dilution and therefore it is simpler, less costly

and quicker than other most widely used techniques.

The objective of this research was to investigate the potential of

synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy followed by chemometric analysis

for rapid detection of pomegranate and raspberry juices adulteration with

apple juice. The model adulterant mixtures were constructed by spiking the

pomegranate and raspberry juices with apple juices samples at levels ranging

from 0 to 100 %, at 10 % intervals. Juices and their mixtures were diluted

1:50 [v:v] with redistilled water. The synchronous fluorescence spectra of the

samples were acquired in a 10 mm fused-quartz cuvette within the excitation


122

wavelength range of 240 to 700 nm for wavelength intervals of 60 and 80

nm.

In this experiment, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied

to reduce the number of variables for further chemometric analysis. Multiple

Regression Analysis (MLR) models were built separately for the data

acquired at each wavelength interval (∆λ = 60 and 80 nm). The root mean

square errors of made it possible to asses and confirm the prediction ability of

the models. Linear Discriminate Analysis (LDA) was applied to classify

samples of pomegranate, raspberry and apple juices samples and their

mixtures. The lowest error prediction of with MLR model of apple juice

addition did not exceed 6% [v/v] while the best classification rate of fruit

juices types and mixtures for PCA-LDA models exceed 98% [v/v].

Keywords: food adulteration, juice, fluorescence, chemometric analysis

INTRODUCTION

Adulteration of food and alcoholic as well non-alcoholic beverages is

a significant problem that involves many different edible products. On

account of high cost of some fruits, adulteration of fruit juices is practiced for

economical purposes. Orange juice is produced and consumed in the largest

volume worldwide, however other fruit juice types, such as those obtained

from pomegranate and various types of berries, have become popular because

of high levels of antioxidants. Similarly, to other highly prized food

commodities, the economic value and large-scale production of juice made

them a likely target for adulteration and fraud. The most frequent profitdriven

fraudulent procedures applied, either alone or in combination, are dilution

with water, addition of pulp wash or sugars, and extension of authentic juice

with cheaper alternatives [Ebeler, Takeoka, and Winterhalter 2007; Muntean

2010]. Therefore, it is necessary to control the quality and authenticity of

such product, entering to the market. Except the traditional techniques such

as estimate of content of trace metals, acidity, reducing sugars, brix value

[Maireva, Usai and Manhokwe 2013] and polymerase chain reaction based

on heteroduplex assay [Mooney et al. 2006] widely for detection of juices

adulteration are fluorescence fingerprint [Trivittayasil et al. 2015], three -

dimensional fluorescence spectra [Chen et al. 2014; Markechova, Majek and


123

Sadecka 2014], synchronous fluorescence [Seiden et al. 1996; Di Anibal,

Rodriguez and Albertengo 2015] or micellar electrokinetic chromatography

assay induced fluorescence (MEKC-LIF) [Tezcan et al. 2013]. Moreover,

many of authors used the electronic nose and tongue [Hong and Wang 2014;

Hong, Wang and Qiu 2014; Shen et al. 2016], HPLC with coulometric

electrochemical array detection [Dugo, Piperno and Mondello 2009; Zhang et

at. 2013], HPLC-PDA [Thavarajah and Low 2006], RP-HPLC/DAD [Versari

et al. 1996] and UPLC-QToF MS [Jandric et al. 2014]. Also, such methods

as the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectrometry (MS),

pyrolysis mass spectrometry [Goodare, Hammond and Kell 1997; Ogrinic et

al. 2003], LC-MS [Wang and Jabłoński et al. 2016] and MIR [Sivakesave,

Irudayaraj and Korach 2001] were used. Among most popular and rapid

techniques used in investigation of adulteration the different of juices is NIR

connected with select chemometric method [Cen, Bao and He 2006; Downey

and Kelly 2006; Cen, Bao and Sun 2007; Xie and Ying 2009; Snurkovic

2013]. Zhang et al. (2009) used International Mulitidimensional Authenticity

Specification (IMAS) Algoritm and Das, Nandeshwar and Phadke [2015] -

Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA).

Numerous investigations have proven the ability of fluorescence

spectroscopies to detect food adulteration [Souto et al. 2010; Souto et al.

2015; Dankowska, Małecka and Kowalewski 2013a; Dankowska, Małecka

and Kowalewski 2013b; Dankowska, Małecka and Kowalewski 2014;

Dankowska, Małecka and Kowalewski 2015; Markechova, Majek and

Sadecka 2014; Chen at el. 2014; Di Anibal, Rodriguez and Albertongo 2015;

Ntakatsane, Liu and Zhou 2013; Sergiel et al. 2014]. Seiden et al., (1996)

presented the use fluorescence for fruits classification and Ammari et al.

(2015) studied the detection of adulteration of orange juice by grapefruit juice

by 3D-front-face fluorescence spectroscopy. The results indicated that frauds

resulting from the addition of grapefruit juice to orange juice could be

detected in this sample set at least at levels as low as 1%. Synchronous

fluorescence spectroscopy is quick to use and dispense with sample

preparation steps except for dilution; therefore, this technique is simpler, less

expensive, and quicker than most of other widely used techniques.

The aim of this research was to investigate the potential of synchronous

fluorescence spectroscopy followed by chemometric analysis for rapid

detection of pomegranate and raspberry juices adulteration with apple juice.


124


Chemical reagents and samples

Fruit juices samples were purchased at a local shop in Poznan, Poland. There

were in total 10 fruit juices samples: 5 apple juices, 2 pomegranate juices,

3 raspberry juices. The models of adulterated juices were constructed by

mixing pomegranate and raspberry juices at levels ranging from 0 to 100%

with 10% intervals (w/w). Five series of experimental mixtures were

prepared. Genuine samples and their mixture were diluted 1:50 (v:v) with

redistilled water. In total, synchronous fluorescence spectra for 55 samples

were measured. All the reagents used in the experiment were of analytical

grade.

Synchronous fluorescence spectra measurement

Fluorescence spectra were obtained by using Spectrofluorometer Thermo

Scientific Lumina with Xenon lamp as a source of excitation. Right-angle

geometry was used for fruit juices samples diluted in n-hexane (2% v/v)

in a 10 mm fused quartz cuvette. Excitation and emission slit widths were of

10 and 5 nm. respectively. Acquisition interval and integration time were

maintained at 1 nm and 0.1 s. respectively. Synchronous fluorescence spectra

were acquired by simultaneously scanning the excitation and emission

monochromator at excitation wavelengths ranging from 240 to 700 nm with

constant wavelength distances (∆λ) of 60 and 80 nm. All analyses for each

genuine fruit juice and the mixture samples were carried out in triplicate.

Fluorescence intensities were plotted as a function of the excitation

wavelength.


Measurement of spectra are usually followed by a chemometric analysis of

data. Principal component analysis (PCA) was initially employed for

exploratory spectral analysis. The number of principal components included

in the MLR and LDA analysis was chosen on the basis of the Kaiser criterion

[Kaiser 1960] (since PCs with eigenvalues higher than one provide more

information than average single variable); it is one of the most popular

criteria used to select significant PCs. Samples were classified into one of

three classes: Arabica, Robusta or mixture of two varieties. The PCA-MLR

and PCA-LDA analysis was performed using Statistica 12.5 (StatSoft Inc.,


125

place City Tulsa, country-region US). PCA-MLR models were validated

using leave-one-out cross-validation.


Synchronous fluorescence spectra of fruit juices

Synchronous fluorescence intensities acquired for pomegranate juice, apple

juice and their mixtures as a function of excitation wavelength using different

wavelength intervals (60 and 80 nm) are shown in Figure 1. A simplification

and an amplification of synchronous fluorescence spectra of raspberry juice,

apple juice and their mixtures using different wavelength intervals (60 and 80

nm) are shown in Figure 2. Pomegranate, raspberry and apple juice exhibit

differences in fluorescence spectra caused by the different contents of

tocochromanols, polyphenols, and chlorophylls [Martin et al. 2001].

Synchronous fluorescence versus addition of adulterant (PCA-MLR)

Multiple linear regression analysis was applied to principal components

(PCs) obtained for synchronous spectroscopy measurements (Table 1). The

number of principal components (PCs) incorporated into multiple linear

regression analysis was established according to the Kaiser criterion and

varied from 6 to 9 depending on the mixture series [Kaiser 1960]. MLR

models for synchronous fluorescence were built separately for data acquired

at two wavelength intervals (60 and 80 nm).

For all MLR models R coefficients of at least 0.95 were obtained.

Higher adjusted R2 coefficients with mean value equaled 0.95 were obtained

for synchronous florescence spectroscopy spectra measured at wavelength

interval of 60 nm than of 80 nm. The lowest RMSEC and RMSEV for

models built with data obtained by applying fluorescence spectroscopy at

wavelength interval of 60 nm methods equaled 5.5 and 6.0%, respectively.

Linear discriminant analysis of synchronous fluorescence (PCA-LDA)

Linear discriminant analysis was applied to principal components obtained

previously by application of PCA. In the case of LDA, fluorescence

intensities of pomegranate, raspberry juice and their mixtures containing 40,

50 and 60 % of adulterant were analyzed. LDA was carried out separately for

synchronous fluorescence data acquired at each wavelength interval (60 and


126

80 nm). Plots of the first two discriminant functions (DF1*DF2) show

classification performance of the PCA-LDA of measured samples in five

clusters: pomegranate juice, raspberry juice, apple juice and mixtures of

pomegranate juice with apple juice and raspberry juice with apple juice. and

their mixtures (Figure 3). The best performance was observed for

fluorescence intensities measured at wavelength interval of 80 nm.

The results presented in Figure 3 were confirmed by a comparison of LDA

shown in the Table 2, where correct classification rates of pomegranate,

raspberry, apple juices and their mixtures with PCA-LDA models are

presented. The best discrimination ability of PCA-LDA model was observed

for synchronous fluorescence spectra measured at wavelength interval of

80 nm with correct classification rates equaled to 98.7 %. In comparison,

correct classification rate for fluorescence spectra measured at wavelength

interval of 60 nm equaled to 89.3 %.

Table 1. Statistical characteristics of PCA-MLR models calculated from

synchronous fluorescence spectra obtained for wavelength

intervals 60 and 80 nm

Wavelength interval [nm] Mixtures R Adjusted R2 RMSEC RMSEV

60 nm

J/G 0.95 0.89 9.1 9.8

J/G 1.00 0.99 2.9 3.4

J/G 0.99 0.98 3.6 4.1

J/M 1.00 0.99 2.8 3.1

J/M 0.96 0.90 9.3 9.8

Mean value 0.98 0.95 5.5 6.0

80 nm

J/G 0.95 0.88 9.9 10.3

J/G 0.98 0.94 6.9 7.5

J/G 0.98 0.96 5.5 5.8

J/M 0.99 0.98 4.3 4.7

J/M 0.97 0.93 7.5 7.7

Mean value 0.97 0.94 6.8 7.2

Abbreviations: R - coefficient of correlation; adjusted R2 - adjusted multivariate coefficient

of determination; RSMEC - root mean square error of calibration; RSMEV - root mean

square error of validation.


127

Fig. 1. Synchronous fluorescence of pomegranate juice, apple juice and

their mixtures (30, 50, 70%) diluted 1:50 v/v in redistilled water

spectra acquired at ∆λ=60 nm (a) and ∆λ=80 nm (b)


128

Fig. 2. Synchronous fluorescence spectra of raspberry juice, apple juice

and their mixtures (30, 50, 70%) diluted 1:50 v/v in redistilled

water acquired at ∆λ=60 nm (a) and ∆λ=80 nm (b)


129

Fig 3. PCA-LDA plots of synchronous fluorescence intensities of apple

juices (J), pomegranate juices (G), raspberry juices (M) and their

mixtures (J/M, J/G) acquired at ∆λ=60 nm (a) and ∆λ=80 nm (b)


130

Table 2. Correct classification rates for PCA-LDA in raspberry,

pomegranate, apple juices and their mixtures data set [%]

calculated from synchronous fluorescence spectra (Δλ = 60 nm

and 80 nm)

Wavelength interval - 60 nm Wavelength interval -

80 nm

Juice/

mixture Percentage of correct classification [%]

Juice/

mixture

Percentage of

correct

classification

[%]

J

86.7 J

100.0

J/M

92.6 J/M

96.3

M

77.8 M

100.0

J/G

100.0 J/G

100.0

G

66.7 G

100.0

Total

89.3 Total

98.7

Abbreviation: J – apple juice, M – raspberry juice, G – pomegranate juice, J/M – mixture of

raspberry juice with apple juice, J/G – mixture of pomegranate juice with apple juice.

CONCLUSIONS

The study has shown that fruit juices exhibit significant differences in their

synchronous fluorescence spectra. The best prediction ability of apple juice

addition to pomegranate and raspberry juices of MLR models was obtained

for fluorescence intensities measured at 60 nm wavelength interval with

RMSEC and RMSEV of 5.5 and 6.0%, respectively. However, the best

discrimination ability with the application of PCA-LDA analysis was

obtained for the fluorescence intensities acquired at 80 nm wavelength

interval. The highest correct classification rate for PCA-LDA model equaled

98.7%. The findings may contribute to a better control of fruit juice

authenticity and provide potential method for the detection of fruit juices

adulteration.


131

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STRESZCZENIE

Autentyczność żywności stanowi istotny problemem dotyczący wielu

produktów spożywczych, w tym napojów alkoholowych i bezalkoholowych.

Z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia opłacalne staje się zafałszowywanie


134

soków, otrzymywanych z owoców charakteryzujących się wysokim kosztem

pozyskania. Naturalna zmienność owoców, różnice klimatyczne występujące

pomiędzy regionami upraw, specyficzne techniki przetwórstwa, jak i warunki

przechowywania sprawiają, że wykrywanie i zapobieganie zafałszowaniom

soków jest skomplikowane. W ostatnich latach na znaczeniu zyskały liczne

techniki instrumentalne wykorzystywane w celu ustalenia autentyczności

soków owocowych oraz poziomu ich zafałszowania. Na przestrzeni lat

metody te ewoluowały od bardzo prostych do zaawansowanych technik

analitycznych. Jedną z omawianych metod jest fluorescencja synchroniczna,

która ze względu na eliminację wszystkich etapów przygotowania próbki,

z wyjątkiem jej rozcieńczenia, w porównaniu do powszechnie stosowanych

technik jest znacznie prostsza, szybsza i tańsza.

Celem niniejszej pracy była ocena możliwości wykorzystania

fluorescencji synchronicznej wraz z wybranymi metodami chemometrycznmi

do szybkiego wykrywania zafałszowań soków z granatu i malin sokiem

jabłkowym. Modelowe roztwory otrzymano poprzez zmieszanie soku

z granatu i soku z malin z sokiem jabłkowym w przedziale stężeń 0-100%,

z 10% interwałami. Próbki rozcieńczono wodą redestylowaną w proporcjach

1:50 [v:v]. Pomiar widm fluorescencji synchronicznej wykonano przy użyciu

10 mm kuwet kwarcowych, w zakresie długości fali wzbudzenia 240-700 nm

przy różnicy długości fali wzbudzenia i emisji Δλ = 60 i 80 nm.

Liczbę zmiennych wykorzystywanych w dalszych analizach

chemometrycznych wybrano na podstawie analizy głównych składowych

(PCA). Uzyskane wartości błędów średniokwadratowych potwierdziły

przydatność modeli wielokrotnej regresji liniowej (MLR) stworzonych

indywidualnie dla każdej Δλ. W celu klasyfikacji próbek soków z granatu,

maliny, jabłka oraz ich mieszanek zastosowano liniową analizę

dyskryminacji (LDA). Najniższy błąd predykcji z modelu MLR z wyjątkiem

soku jabłkowego nie przekroczył 6% [v/v], podczas gdy najlepszy wskaźnik

klasyfikacji mieszanek oraz soków według ich rodzajów przekroczył 98%

[v/v] dla modeli PCA-LDA.

Słowa kluczowe: zafałszowanie żywności, soki, fluorescencja, metody

chemometryczne


135

CONTEMPORARY TECHNOLOGIES USED FOR

PRODUCT TRACEABILITY AND QUALITY CONTROL

Marta Biegańska, Wojciech Kozak

Department of Commodity Science and Ecology of Industrial Products, Faculty of

Commodity Science, Poznań University of Economics and Business, Poznań, Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Intelligent packaging is a developing group of technical solutions expanding

functionality of traditional packaging by informing its users about the shape

or conditions in which the packed product is at particular moment of the life

cycle. The paper presents recent developments in intelligent packaging

devoted to automatic identification of products and evaluation of their

condition during production, storage and distributions. The article focuses on

solutions devoted to or used in food supply chains, especially perishable

products and is composed of two parts. The first part is devoted to various

types of data carriers and data capture devices (e.g. recently used types of bar

codes, radio frequency identification transponders) and accompanying IT

systems which are the foundation of modern traceability systems intended for

monitoring and management of goods flow with logistic chains. In the second

part a review of various types of product quality sensors including different

types of commercially available TTIs (Time-Temperature Indicators) is

performed and their practical applications are presented.

Keywords: radio-frequency identification, RFID, time-temperature

indicators, TTI, food safety, traceability, shelf life, intelligent packaging

INTRODUCTION

In the times of globalization food supply chains have also become globalized

becoming a challenge for food monitoring and control. One of the main

factors responsible for food and other perishable products quality and safety

losses is temperature. Most of those products have short shelf life and strict


136

requirements (e.g. time and traceability requirements, temperature control in

the supply chain) [Eden et al. 2011]. Temperature abuse in a globalized

supply chain can occur at any point leading among other things to economic

losses. As this factor plays a key role in maintaining shelf life and quality of

a product it's necessary to use tools for better monitoring of the temperature

conditions over time.

Furthermore, growing consumers' awareness of products quality and

safety and their demand for fresh, low processed food without preservatives

creates new challenges for manufacturers and sellers. The concept ‘from farm

to fork’ for monitoring the quality of raw materials to ready to sell products

(their life cycle) contributed to the development of different smart labels

(traceability tools). These smart labels facilitate the modern logistic supply

chains in order to reduce losses (e.g. product, economic, quality) and improve

commodity rotation.

The aim of this paper is to give a glimpse of different technologies used

nowadays for product traceability and quality control. The paper shows

several examples of smart labels used in the food supply chain management

systems.

INTELLIGENT PACKAGING FOR FOOD PRODUCTS

Packaging traditionally has four basic functions: protection, communication,

convenience and containment. In the past two decades it has become clear

that the protection function of packaging needs to be no longer passive, but

active (e.g. controlled release packaging). This lead to the development of

intelligent packaging, that has the ability to communicate the conditions of

the food which is very important in the food supply chain cycle [Yam 2012,

Lee and Rahman 2014]. Framework Regulation (EC) No 1935/2004 defines

intelligent materials and articles as materials and articles which monitor the

condition of packaged food or the environment surrounding the food. Such

packaging is provided with a smart package device that is as small and

inexpensive label or tag attached onto the primary or more often secondary

packaging to facilitate the communication throughout the supply chain. There

are two basic types of smart package devices: data carriers used to store and

transmit data (e.g. barcode labels, RFID tags) and package indicators used to

monitor the external environment (e.g. time-temperature indicators, gas


137

indicators, biosensors). Intelligent packaging is thus a useful tool for tracking

products and monitoring their conditions and also enables rapid response and

timely decision making. Due to this it can be applied to enhance traceability

systems and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) [Yam 2012].

Temperature plays a key factor during distribution and storage of food,

especially within the cold chain, due to this its maintenance plays significant

role in food quality and safety. The reason for this is that it largely influences

microbial growth (i.a. pathogen growth), but also transpiration and

respiration of fresh fruit and vegetables leading to shelf life reduction and

also quality losses. At present, temperature monitoring within the supply

chain is performed only by measuring the temperature of the environment

and not the product core temperature. Although, a wide spectrum of

temperature devices that can record full product temperature history has been

developed, the effective implementation of such temperature control system

over the entire supply chain is uncommon. Moreover, the information

exchange of such data acquired by logistic providers (where such system is

implemented) within one organization is not being done [Eden et al. 2011].

TRACEABILITY

The capability for tracing goods flow during production and distribution at

any specified stage is called traceability. It is realized by modern logistic

tracking systems specially designed for supply chain management and

monitoring of production and logistic processes. The supply chain is getting

more complex, where there are not only business to business interactions but

also businesses to the consumer. Thus each logistic chain member is required

to have the ability to track and trace the source of raw materials to the final

destination of the product. Traceability enables products to be visible across

the supply chain within quality, risk management and other types of systems

[Bhatt et al. 2013]. It allows for early warning of potential quality problems

and hazards and also for product recall when required. It is possible by giving

a unique identifier to each trade unit of food or its component. The given

identifier accompanies the product and is recorded at all stages of its progress

through the whole supply chain [Espiñeira and Santaclara 2016]. Therefore

traceability is also an important part of quality and food safety management


138

systems (e.g. ISO 9001, ISO 22000, HACCP) used by suppliers, producers

and sellers.

Traceability uses traditional information carriers such as bar or matrix

codes as well as modern radio frequency identification (RFID) systems.

Barcodes

Barcodes shown in Figure 1 are the most popular forms of data carriers,

which is directly connected with low costs of their use.

The first barcode dedicated for general use - UPC (Universal Product

Code) was introduced in the early 1970s and it has become the main tool

used for sale, supply and distribution control. Barcodes are scanned using

optical scanners (mainly laser scanners) which are then connected to

computer systems allowing communication between all participants and

equipment of logistic chain. The UPC code and its European equivalent

EAN-13 code are so-called linear symbologies consisting of bars and spaces

with different widths to represent 12 or 13 digits of data. Thus they can store

only limited information about the product such as identification prefix of

origin country, manufacturer number and item number.

Some of the newer bar codes used in logistic such as EAN-128 can

code also letters, so their functionality is a little expanded. But regardless of

the type of linear code to add an additional information to the code, an

external computer systems with data bases are required.

A partly solution to this limitation are so-called two-dimensional or

matrix codes which requires more sophisticated scanners but are much more

efficient as data carries and offer much wider functionality. For example PDF

417 two-dimensional code can store over 1 kilobytes of data in the same

space as UPC symbol. Therefore additional information can be encoded

within the graphic symbol (e.g. production date, serial number, storage

instructions, shipment address etc.) without the need to use an external data

base. Nowadays two-dimensional codes such as QR code, DataMatrix code

or UPS code are more and more popular and probably they will replace the

traditional one-dimensional bar codes in the nearest future. There are also

trials to use hybrid codes (so-called expanded or composite symbologies)

consisting of linear and two-dimensional code joined together within one

graphic symbol. Such solutions (e.g. DataBar codes) are more flexible

because not all logistic chain members have the same level of equipment

advancement and depending on it one participant can use the linear part of


139

the code symbol whereas the other one can make use from the two-

dimensional component.

Fig. 1. Samples of various barcodes

Source: http://www.gs1.org/barcodes

A major disadvantage of barcodes is that they provide still (even two-

dimensional codes) limited information (as for today’s needs) about the

product. The next problem is that the scanning process can be interrupted by

low quality of printing or accidental dirt on the barcode symbol. This can

lead to errors and economic losses caused by e.g. necessity to exchange

deteriorated or improper goods with new ones, waste disposal, penalties for

delayed delivery, reduces business trust etc. [Bollen 2009, Yam 2012, Lee

and Rahman 2014].

Radio frequency identification (RFID)

So-called radio frequency identification (RFID) opened new opportunities for

modern traceability systems. RFID was firstly developed after the second

world war for military purposes. For about 20 years the technology has been


140

introduced with more and more success for civil purposes connected with

modern identification systems used in transport and distribution of goods.

Radiofrequency identification uses radiofrequency electromagnetic

fields for data transfer. RFID systems consists of reader (or interrogator)

which uses radio waves as signal medium to communicate with electronic

devices called tags used as data carriers. Tags (also known as transponders)

can have various forms (e.g. labels, earrings, pendants) and then can be used

as separate identification data carriers or they can be integrated with the

packaging by building them into the walls. The reader emits radio waves to

activate the RFID tag and capture data saved in it. Then the information is

transmitted to a host computer. It is commonly connected to a local network

or to the Internet, which allows analysis and further management of the data.

RFID tag comprise a microchip connected to a small antenna collecting the

radio signal.

The biggest advantage of RFID in comparison to barcodes is that RFID

is more accurate and there is no need for direct visual contact between the

identified object and the radio frequency reader as it is in the case of barcode

and scanner which additionally require an unobstructed line of optical contact

for proper data capture [Abad et al. 2009]. The next advantage of RFID is far

longer reading range (even 100 m) and that RFID systems can be used under

various external condition (variable temperature, humidity, pressure).

Furthermore RFID tags (in opposite to barcodes) can be read simultaneously

(up to 100 pcs. per second, some sources say about even 1000 pcs. per

second). Depending on the type they can store from 4kB up to 1mB of data.

RFID tags may be classified into two main types depending on the used

power source:

– passive tags that have no battery because they are powered by the

energy of radio waves supplied by the reader. The tag cumulates

energy generated by coiled antenna from the magnetic field

accompanying waves transmission. The operation range of this type of

RFID tags is from a few centimeters to 10 meters. The operational

frequencies are 128 KHz, 13.6 MHz, 915 MHz, or 2.45 GHz. This is

the cheapest (1 to 5 cents per tag) and long-life transponders but the

stored information can only be read;

– active tags are equipped with battery for powering the microchip’s

circuitry and sending the information saved in it. Communication

distance ranges from 20 to 100 meters. They operate at frequencies of


141

433 MHz, 2.45 GHz, or 5.8 GHz. They are more expensive (even 100$

per tag) and their size bigger than that of the passive transponders.

Due to the own energy source, active tags are more versatile data

carriers. They can also be connected to various sensors and can play a

role as an element of intelligent packaging or monitoring system. The

life of the battery is limited and it is the main drawback of active RFID

tags.

Some of the sources mention also so-called semi-passive tag which batteries

powers only their microchips but they are unable to send return signals.

The RFID tags are still in development stage and have some technical

limitations. But due to intense research and development their performance,

functionalities and applications are constantly improved and their price is

lowers gradually. One my expect that in the near future they will be adopted

by increasing number of users and will supplement (e.g. TTIs) or even

replace other currently used solutions intended for monitoring of products

quality [Bollen 2009, Estrada-Flores 2012, Lee and Rahman 2014].

TIME-TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

Temperature plays a key role in food deterioration and quality loss. Both time

and temperature contribute to the loss of nutritional and sensory qualities of

perishable products (e.g. food, beverage and pharmaceuticals). Nowadays

conventional use of an use by or expiration date printed on the packaging

doesn't guarantee product's safety. This is one of the reasons for the

development of smart labels (traceability tools) for the monitoring of food

temperature in the entire supply chain ‘from farm to fork’ [Lee and Rahman

2014].

Time-temperature indicators (TTIs) are usually small self-adhesive

labels attached onto individual packages or shipping containers. They provide

a visual indication of temperature history during distribution and storage

which is of great importance for perishable goods. As they show temperature

history of a product they can also be used as freshness indicators for

estimating the remaining shelf life [Yam 2012]. Their working principle is an

irreversible colour change, usually expressed as a visible response in the

label, being a result of a mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic,

or microbiological reactions [Fu and Labuza 1992, Ellouze and Augustin


142

2010, Taoukis 2010, Eden et al. 2011, Kim, Kim and Lee 2012, Yam 2012,

Park, Kim and Lee 2013, Lee and Rahman 2014, Brizio and Prentice 2015,

Koutsoumanis and Gougouli 2015, Pereira, Queiroz de Arruda and Stefani

2015, Ghaani et al. 2016]. The rate of that visible/measurable change is

temperature dependent and increases at higher temperatures, showing

whether food was exposed to improper temperature conditions leading to its

faster deterioration. In order for a TTI to be reliable it's necessary that the

temperature dependence of its response is similar to that of the food quality

loss. Moreover, the TTIs end point should coincide with the end of product's

shelf life. Many of such systems that are designed for specific temperature-

dependent products, do not change colour unless the threshold temperature is

exceeded [Sharrock 2012, Lee and Rahman 2014, Koutsoumanis and

Gougouli 2015].

Diffusion based TTIs

The TT SensorTM (USA) is an example of a diffusion-reaction concept.

Diffusion of a polar compound occurs between two polymer layers and the

change of its concentration results in a colour change of a fluorescent

indicator from yellow to bright pink [Taoukis 2010]. The TTI can be stored

in an inactive forma as it comes as two separate components: an indicator

label and a transparent activator overlay. To activate the sensor the two layers

are brought together automatically by a dual-spindle applicator. Unlike some

TTIs this one doesn't require refrigeration before application. It comes at

different sensitivities and offers a six-month shelf life [Sharrock 2012].

Another example is 3M Monitor MarkTM (St. Paul, MN, USA)

shown in Figure 2, which is based on diffusion of patented polymer materials

[Taoukis 2010, Eden et al. 2011, Koutsoumanis and Gougouli 2015].

Fig. 2. Activated 3M Monitor MarkTM indicator stored above its

threshold, showing movement of the blue dyed fatty acid - visible

colour response

Source: Own photography


143

When the temperature is above the threshold of the specific TTI

a blue dyed fatty acid ester diffuses through a porous wick (made from a high

quality blotting paper) giving a measurable response - it is like reading

a thermometer. This indicator requires activation by adhesion of the two

materials. Before use Monitor MarkTM can be stored for a long period at

ambient temperature [Fu and Labuza 1992, Taoukis 2010, Ellouze and

Augustin 2010, Lee and Rahman 2014, Koutsoumanis and Gougouli 2015].

However, before activation it should be conditioned for at least two hours at

the same temperature as the product is stored at.

Enzymatic TTIs

VITSAB CheckPoint® time-temperature indicator (Limhamn, Sweden) is

based on a colour change occurring from controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of

a lipid substrate causing pH decrease. It comes in a variety of response lives

and temperature dependencies which are the effect of using different

combinations of enzyme-substrate concentrations. It requires activation that

occurs through mechanical breaking of a separating barrier inside the TTI

between the enzyme and the substrate. Hydrolysis of the substrate causes acid

release, and the pH drop induces a colour change of a pH indicator from deep

green to bright yellow to orange red [Fu and Labuza 1992, Ellouze and

Augustin 2010, Taoukis 2010, Eden et al. 2011]. In order to maintain long

shelf life of these TTIs, they need to be kept chilled before activation

[Koutsoumanis and Gougouli 2015].

Microbial TTIs

Worth mentioning is the (eO)® TTI (Gentilly, France) which is based on

a pH change that is expressed as colour change from green to red using

suitable pH indicators. The colour change is continuous an can be perceived

through visual recognition or measured instrumentally. The latter allows its

application in shelf life management schemes. This pH change is obtained

through a controlled microbial growth in a gel. The response lives and

threshold temperatures are adjusted for select microorganisms by appropriate

variations in the gel composition. The manufacturer of the (eO)® claims that

it mimics microbial spoilage of the monitored products, because its response

is based on the growth characteristics of similar microorganisms (select

patented strains of Carbonbacterium piscicola, Lactobacillus fuchuenis,

Leuconostoc mesenteroides) [Ellouze and Augustin 2010, Taoukis 2010].


144

Depending on the time/temperature profile to which that product is subjected,

the bacteria in the label will grow at a different rate, in theory mirroring the

growth rate of the bacteria in the foodstuff. Before use the (eO)® needs to be

stored frozen to prevent the bacterial growth and activation is simply by

defrosting them at room temperature for a few minutes [Lee and Rahman

2014, Koutsoumanis and Gougouli 2015].

The TRACEOs freshness indicator is a small transparent adhesive

label in which selected strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are trapped and

are applied directly over a barcode. This indicator consists of gel and

microorganisms and changes colour to indicate when a product is no longer

fit for consumption. It can be either because it has reached its use-by date or

because its designated storage conditions have been abused. When the label

is activated, it slowly changes colour over time or with exceedance of its

threshold temperature. When it becomes sufficiently opaque or discoloured,

the barcode is no longer readable by the scanner and the product cannot be

purchased. General applications include tracing foodstuffs in grocery stores

and monitoring prepared meals and sandwiches in the catering market. It also

can be used in healthcare markets for monitoring vaccines and blood

collection bags, etc. [Lee and Rahman 2014].

Polymer-based TTIs

Lifelines Freshness Monitor® and Fresh-Check® TTI (Morris Plains, NJ,

USA) are examples of chemical systems based on a solid state

polymerization reaction that results in a highly coloured polymer. The Fresh-

Check® is based on the property of disubstituted diacetylene crystals to

polymerize through a lattice-controlled solid-state reaction resulting in

a highly coloured polymer. The colour of the active centre of the TTI label

has to be compared with the reference colour of a surrounding ring. These

indicators are active from the time of their production and in order to

significantly slow down their response prior application, they need to be

stored at deep frozen temperatures [Fu and Labuza 1992, Eden et al. 2011,

Ellouze and Augustin 2010, Taoukis 2010, Koutsoumanis and Gougouli

2015].

Practical applications of TTIs

As time-temperature indicators can monitor the temperature history of the

product's storing conditions they can be applied on different kinds of chilled


145

or frozen food products. One of the first applications of TTI on a large scale

was by World Health Organization (WHO) to monitor refrigerated vaccine

shipments (3M indicator) [Fu and Labuza 1992, Taoukis and Labuza 2003].

The OnVuTM TTI labels are used on all packages of Kneuss fresh chicken produced

and distributed by Ernst Kneuss Geflügel A.G. (Switzerland) [Taoukis 2010], also

the US Geissler's Supermarkets started using them on meat products in 2012 as

shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 3. Activated OnVuTM indicator on a packed beef steak

Source: http://www.progressivegrocer.com/userfiles/image/photo%201.JPG

Currently time temperature integrators are widely used in the US, Japan

and Australia mainly for meat (e.g. beef, poultry) and meat products, dairy

products (e.g. milk, yoghurts, desserts), salads, cream-based dips, fish and

seafood, fresh prepared meals (e.g. ready-to-eat salads, sandwiches). Despite

food products TTIs are also widely used for pharmaceuticals, vaccines and

even blood storing. Thus they can be used to a wide variety of temperature

sensitive products, that need to be cooled, chilled or frozen within their

supply chain [Fu and Labuza 1992, Sahin, Zied Babaï and Dallery 2007].


146

CONCLUSIONS

Solutions shortly presented in the paper play invaluable role in modern

packaging and logistic. They allow for real-time monitoring and management

of goods flow within logistic chains including production, transport and sale

processes. Thus are the basis of modern traceability of goods. On the other

hand such intelligent packaging as Time-temperature indicators and RFID

transponders can be very useful tools in quality assurance and monitoring of

various commercial products (especially food) enhancing traditional quality

control methods used by suppliers, producers and sellers. All of presented

solutions contribute to efficiency increase of product distribution systems and

reduction of losses arising annually within logistic chains.

REFERENCES Abad, E., Palacio, F., Nuin, M., Gonza´lez de Za´rate, A., Juarros, A., Go´mez, J.M., et al.,

2009, RFID smart tag for traceability and cold chain monitoring of foods:

demonstration in an intercontinental fresh fish logistic chain, Journal of Food

Engineering 93 (4), pp. 394-399.

Bhatt, T., Buckley, G., McEntire, J.C., Lothian, P., Sterling, B. and Hickey, C., 2013,

Making Traceability Work across the Entire Food Supply Chain, Journal of Food

Science, vol. 78, Iss. s2, pp. B21–B27.

Bollen, A.F., 2009, Traceability in Postharvest Systems, in: Florkowski, W.J., Shewfelt,

R.L., Bruecker, B., Prussia, S.E., (eds.), Postharvest Handling: A System Approach,

second edition, Elsevier, New York, pp. 333-350.

Brizio, A.P.D.R., Prentice, C., 2015, Development of an intelligent enzyme indicator for

dynamic monitoring of the shelf-life of food products, Innovative Food Science and

Emerging Technologies, 30, pp. 208–217.

Eden, M., Raab, V., Kreyenschmidt, T., Hafliðason, T., Olafsdóttir, G., Bogason, S.G., 2011,

Continuous temperature monitoring along the chilled food supply chain, in: Hoorfar,

J., Jordan, K., Butler, F., Prugger, R. (eds.), Food Chain Integrity. A Holistic

Approach to Food Traceability, Safety, Quality and Authenticity, Woodhead

Publishing Ltd., pp. 115-129.

Ellouze, M., Augustin, J-C., 2010, Applicability of biological time temperature integrators as

quality and safety indicators for meat products, International Journal of Food

Microbiology, 138, pp. 119–129.

Espiñeira M., Santaclara, F., 2016, Advances in Food Traceability Techniques and

Technologies: Improving Quality Throughout the Food Chain, Woodhead Publishing,

Boston.

Estrada-Flores, S., 2012, Transportation of Frozen Foods, in: Sun, D. (ed.), Handbook of

Frozen Food Processing and Packaging, CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 217-234.


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Fu, B., Labuza, T.P., 1992, Considerations for the Application of Time-Temperature

Integrators in Food Distribution, Journal of Food Distribution Research, 23 (1),

pp. 9-17.

Ghaani, M., Cozzolino, C.A., Castelli, G., Farris, S., 2016, An overview of the intelligent

packaging technologies in the food sector, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 51,

pp. 1-11.

Kim, K., Kim, E., Lee, S.J., 2012, New enzymatic time–temperature integrator (TTI) that

uses laccase, Journal of Food Engineering, 113, pp. 118–123.

Koutsoumanis, K.P., Gougouli, M., 2015, Use of Time Temperature Integrators in food

safety management, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 43, pp. 236-244.

Lee, S.J., Rahman, A.T.M.M., 2014, Intelligent Packaging for Food Products. In: Han, J.H.

(ed.), Innovations in Food Packaging, Elsevier Ltd., pp. 171-209.

Park, H.R., Kim, K., Lee, S.J., 2013, Adjustment of Arrhenius activation energy of laccase-

based time-temperature integrator (TTI) using sodium azide, Food Control, 32(2), pp.

615–620.

Pereira Jr., V.A., Queiroz de Arruda, I.Z., Stefani, R., 2015, Active chitosan/PVA films with

anthocyanins from Brassica oleraceae (Red Cabbage) as Time-Temperature Indicators

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Sahin, E., Zied Babaï, M., Dallery, Y., 2007, Ensuring supply chain safety through

time temperature integrators, The International Journal of Logistics, vol. 18, no. 1,

pp. 102 – 124.

Sharrock, K.R., 2012, Advances in freshness and safety indicators in food and beverage

packaging, in: Yam, K.L. and Lee, D.S. (eds.), Emerging Food Packaging

Technologies. Principles and Practice, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., pp. 175-197.

Taoukis, P.S., Labuza, T.P., 2003, Time-temperature indicators (TTIs), in: Ahvenainen R.

(ed.), Novel food packaging techniques, Woodhead Publishing Ltd. and CRC Press

LLC, pp. 122 – 145.

Taoukis, P.S., 2010, Commercialization of time-temperature integrators for foods, in: Doona,

C.J., Kustin, K. and Feeherry, F.E. (eds.), Case studies in novel food processing

technologies. Innovations in Processing, Packaging, and Predictive Modelling,

Woodhead Publishing Ltd., pp. 351-366.

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and Lee, D.S. (eds.), Emerging food packaging technologies. Principles and Practice,

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http://www.gs1.org/barcodes [accessed 05.04.2017].

http://www.progressivegrocer.com/userfiles/image/photo%201.JPG [accessed 05.04.2017].

STRESZCZENIE

Opakowania inteligentne stanowią rozwijającą się grupę rozwiązań

technicznych zwiększających funkcjonalność tradycyjnych opakowań

poprzez informowanie ich użytkowników o stanie produktu bądź warunkach


148

w jakich produkt zapakowany znajduje się w danym momencie swojego

cyklu życia. W pracy przedstawiono najnowsze osiągnięcia

w zakresie opakowań inteligentnych przeznaczonych do automatycznej

identyfikacji produktów i oceny ich stanu podczas produkcji,

przechowywania i dystrybucji. Artykuł koncentruje się na rozwiązaniach

przeznaczonych lub wykorzystywanych w łańcuchach logistycznych

żywności, szczególnie łatwo psujących się produktów i składa się z dwóch

części. Pierwsza część poświęcona jest różnym typom nośników danych

i urządzeń do przechwytywania danych (np. najnowszych typów kodów

kreskowych, transponderów RFID) oraz towarzyszących im systemom

informatycznym, które są podstawą nowoczesnych systemów śledzenia

przeznaczonych do monitorowania i zarządzania przepływami towarów

w ramach łańcuchów logistycznych. W drugiej części dokonano przeglądu

różnych typów czujników/sensorów służących do oceny jakości produktów

m.in. różne typy komercyjnie dostępnych wskaźników TTI (wskaźników

czasu i temperatury), a także przedstawiono ich praktyczne zastosowania.

Słowa kluczowe: identyfikacja za pomocą fal radiowych, RFID, wskaźniki

czasu i temperatury, TTI, bezpieczeństwo żywności, identyfikowalność,

okres trwałości, opakowania inteligentne


149

THE INFLUENCE OF OILSEED CAKE FLOURS

ON HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY OF BREADSTICKS

Urszula Samotyja, Olga Bińczak, Agata Czyż,

Natalia Plucińska

Department of Food Commodity Science, Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznań University

of Economics and Business, al. Niepodległości 10, 61-875 Poznań, Poland

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Oilseed cake flours are interesting alternative to wheat flours, being in line

with global trends in food production and emerging issues. Cakes are by-

products of oilseed processing, obtained after pressing of cold-pressed oils.

Crashed residues can serve as flours for food enrichment and for complete or

partial replacement of wheat flour in confectionery and bakery products. The

results of several studies focus on nutritional issues and maintaining the

sensory and rheological properties of products designed or reformulated with

the use of oilseed cake flours. Taking into consideration the chemical

composition of oilseed cakes, maintaining the quality of lipid fraction in

flours seems to be a key issue. Earlier studies showed that shelf life of oilseed

cake flours can be limited by hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity.

The purpose of the study was to assess the influence of selected oilseed

cake flours on hydrolytic rancidity of food. The materials were breadsticks

(grissini) in which wheat flour was partially replaced with pumpkin, coconut,

peanut and sunflower cake flours. Hydrolytic rancidity was measured as fat

acidity. Breadsticks were prepared in two variants differing in the level of

wheat flour substitution (15% and 30%).

The results showed that substitution of wheat flour with oilseed cake

flours unfavourably influences quality of lipid fraction. The amount of free

fatty acids measured as fat acidity in substituted samples was higher than in

untreated samples and was growing during storage. Undesirable changes

occurred in the highest degree in grissini baked with pumpkin cake flour. The

extent of hydrolytic changes was higher in samples with 30% substitution.



150

The influence of oilseed cake flours on stability of lipid fraction of products

should be taken into consideration during food reformulation and design.

Keywords: food design, oilseed flours, bakery products, fat acidity, free fatty

acids, rancidity, reformulation

INTRODUCTION

Food industry has to respond not only to the changing consumers’ needs and

preferences, but also take strictly into account the revised dietary

recommendations of the World Organization connected with health, food and

agriculture. Currently, these recommendations apply mainly to reduce the

overall consumption of sugars and highly processed foods which promote

high glucose responses [WHO/FAO 2003]. With the increase in the

percentage of people suffering from civilization diseases, growing interest on

functional foods, rich in protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids, fiber, vitamins

and minerals is shown [Chinma, Igabul and Omotayo 2012]. The enrichment

of food products has been an important tool to manage specific nutritional

deficiencies, promote a general state of well-being and prevent certain

chronic disease [Białek et al. 2016]. According to Global Food Forums,

among the expected trends in 2017, there is a distinctive shift towards plant

products, including cereal and oilseeds. 100% natural products, free of gluten

and also with high nutritional value are still gaining in popularity.

Being in line with global trend in food production and emerging issues

such as sustainability and eliminating food wastes, it seems to be suitable to

utilize by-products of the food industry, such as seeds from fruit and

vegetable industry [Małecka et al. 2003; Pachołek et al. 2010; Sielicka 2012]

or oilseed cakes [Alobo 2001; Food Global Forum 2017]. They are obtained

during the cold-pressing of oils from the common raw materials - rape, flax,

sunflower, pumpkin seeds, different nuts and seeds of fruits [Piłat and

Zadernowski 2010; Sarwar et al. 2013]. The specific nature of production

process implies that the composition of cakes is practically identical to the

composition of the feedstock. They are characterized by a high content of

protein, fiber, minerals and vitamins, mainly from the group B and also

possess lower than row materials, content of fat [Vanhanen and Savage 2006;

Davis et al. 2010; Piłat and Zadernowski 2010; Ingle and Nawkar 2016].


151

Although the major world sources of edible oilseed are still soybean,

sunflower, rapeseed and peanut [Sarwar et al. 2013], pumpkin and nuts in

recent years have become increasingly popular. Sunflower (Helianthus L),

pumpkin (Cucurbita L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and peanut (Arachis

hypogaea L.) cakes contain around 20% protein, high levels of potassium,

iron and magnesium. In addition, they are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids

(approximately 31 -70%) [Giami et al. 2003; Amoo 2004; Jitngarmkusol,

Hongsuwankul and Tananuwong 2008; Skrbić and Filipcev 2008;

Xanthopoulou et al. 2009; Fernandes et al. 2010; Patel 2013]. Opposite to

linseed or soybean, that contain less than 3 mg / 100 g, cakes contain

appreciable amounts of vitamin E recognized as the most important tissue

antioxidant, and which helps to maintain a proper oxidative balance within

the various tissues and protects food against oxidation [Padilla, Alvarez and

Alfaro 1996; O’Keefe and Wang 2006; Goulart de Oliveira Sousa et al.

2011]. Besides the peanut, other oilseed cakes also possess, compared to the

wheat meal, significant amounts of fiber and exogenous amino acids e.g.

lysine and methionine [Giami et al. 2003; Davis et al. 2010; Fernandes et al.

2010]. Due to beneficial composition, they are used as a supplement in feed

livestock [Gąsiorek, Walaszczyk and Podgórski 2013] or in the food industry

as additive to wheat flour in bread, biscuits, flakes, pastries and sauces

[Xanthopoulou et al. 2009; Davis et al. 2010; Patel 2013]. It was found that

the addition of chickpea, sesame, pumpkin and sunflowers seeds cakes in

suitable proportions relative to the wheat flour in infant formula, muffins,

biscuits, bread slightly changes their sensory characteristics and rheological

properties. Flour resulting from milling cakes increase the nutritional value of

the product, including the overall content of protein, unsaturated fatty acids,

fiber and ash, while decrease in starch content [Giami 2000; Giami et al.

2003; Elleuch et al. 2007; Skrbić and Filipcev 2008; Czerwińska 2010;

Zbikowska and Rutkowska 2011; Chinma, Igbabul and Omotayou 2012;

Białek et al. 2016; Ingle and Nawkar 2016].

The food industries are faced with the challenge that is the production

of food containing functional compounds such as oilseed cakes. Such

products should meet the nutritional requirements while retaining similar

safety and shelf-life. The confectionery and bakery products, in comparison

with other foods, are generally stable [Subramaniam 2000] but unlike wheat

flour, the oilseeds cakes are rich in unsaturated fatty acid which are

susceptible to hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity. Taking into consideration

https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karol_Linneusz

https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karol_Linneusz


152

the chemical composition of oilseed cakes, maintaining of quality of lipid

fraction in flours seems to be a key issue [Alobo 2001; Vanhanen and Savage

2006; Talbot 2011; Samotyja and Józwik 2013; Samotyja et al. 2014]. The

initial chemical reaction that leads to the development of rancid off-flavors is

the cleavage of fatty acids from the triglyceride molecule in the presence of

moisture or enzymes – lipases, that occur in animal and plant cells. Release

fatty acids of short and medium carbon chain lengths have low flavor

thresholds, and this flavor (pungent, off-putting smell or unpleasant soapy)

depends on structure of initial fatty acids [Talbot 2011]. Second important

complex of chemical reactions that limits the shelf-life of products is

oxidation. Free fatty acids are more prone to oxidation and influence sensory

profile of lipid [Kristott 2000; Talbot 2011]. It is, thus, important to assess

the range of changes caused by hydrolytic processes when wheat flour is

substituted by oilseed cake flours.

All these specificities of oilseeds cakes make them potentially valuable

ingredients convenient to use in confectionary and bakery products but only

after the evaluation of their influence on the final product shelf-life. The aim

of this study was to assess the effect of partial replacement of wheat flour

with oilseeds cake flour (sunflower, pumpkin, coconut and peanut) on

hydrolytic rancidity of breadsticks.


Chemicals and reagents

All chemicals and solvents were of analytical grade. Sodium hydroxide and

ethanol were purchased from POCh (Poland).

Materials

The subject of investigation were breadsticks (grissini) in which wheat flour

was partially replaced with oilseed cake flours. Oilseed cake flours, which

comprise residues after oil cold-pressing from sunflower, peanut, pumpkin

and coconut, were obtained from local producer. The following ingredients

were used to prepare breadsticks: flour, water, olive oil, sugar, salt, yeast.

After preparation, the yeast cake was allowed to rise, shaped and baked for

20 min at 180°C in an oven with forced air circulation. Samples were allowed

to cool and stored 14 days in polypropylene containers at room temperature.


153

Breadsticks were prepared in two variants which differed in level of wheat

flour substitution (15% and 30%). 15 and 30% level of substitution were

selected on the basis of preliminary studies (results not shown) which showed

that cake flours in higher amounts adversely influenced the texture of grissini

and caused decrease of product’s acceptation. Grissini without wheat flour

substitution served as controls (C).

Methods

Sample preparation

A sample of 50 g was milled in a laboratory grinder and used for fat acidity

measurements.

Fat acidity

Hydrolytic rancidity was measured based on fat acidity measured in 95%

ethanol according to Polish Standard [PN-ISO 7305:2001]. 30 mL of ethanol

was added to 5 g of sample. It was then placed in a laboratory shaker for 60

min and after that time centrifuged at 4500 rpm for 5 min. 20 mL of clear

supernatant was immediately titrated with the use of 0.05 M ethanolic

solution of sodium hydroxide in the presence of phenolphthalein indicator

until pale pink colour persisting 30 sec. was observed. As a blank sample,

95% ethanol was used instead of supernatant. Fat acidity was expressed as

mg NaOH /100 g of d.m. (dry mass) of the sample using the formula:

X = 6000×(𝑉1−𝑉0)×𝐶

𝑀×

100

100−𝑊,

where:

V0 – volume of 0.05 M NaOH used to blank sample titration [mL],

V1 – volume of 0.05 M NaOH used to analytical sample titration [mL],

C – molar concentration of NaOH [mol/1000 mL],

M – mass of the analytical sample [g],

W – moisture [%],

6000 – value used for NaOH.

All the samples were analysed in triplicate.


154

Moisture

Moisture was determined after drying the sample at 105ºC until constant

weight was achieved according to AOAC Official Method 925.09.

The results were used in calculations of fat acidity (results not shown).

Rancidity index

Based on measured fat acidity of breadsticks with flour replacement and of

untreated samples, the rancidity index (RI) was calculated, separately for

fresh and stored breadsticks. They derived from the formula:

𝑅𝐼 =𝑋𝑆

𝑋𝐶,

where:

XS – fat acidity of sample with oilseed cake flour,

XC – fat acidity of control sample.


A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. The test statistics

FT value was in all cases higher than 3.478, which was a critical value (F4, 10;

p<0.001). Significant differences between the treated samples and the

controls were evaluated using a Dunnett’s test. Differences associated with

α=0.05 were considered significant. The Statistica 10.0 software (StatSoft,

Poland) was used for analysis.


The influence of wheat flour substitution on hydrolytic rancidity of lipid

fraction

The measure of hydrolytic rancidity is the level of free fatty acids measured

in food as fat acidity. Free fatty acids contents in breadsticks analysed after

baking is presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The level of fat acidity varied

according to kind of breadsticks and resulted from ingredients (flours) used.

The lowest (the most favourable) value of fat acidity was observed in

untreated (control) sample. Substitution of wheat flour with oilseed cake

flours caused significant increase in the content of free fatty acids. The order

of samples in the term of fat acidity was: control < breadsticks with peanut

cake flour < breadsticks with sunflower cake flour < breadsticks with coconut


155

cake flour < breadsticks with pumpkin cake flour. The effect depended on the

level of substitution – hydrolytic changes were higher in samples with 30%

substitution with oilseed cake flours than with 15%.

Increased level of fatty acids is the marker of hydrolytic changes

which affect shelf life of food influencing sensory profile of lipid fraction

[Belitz, Grosch and Schieberle 2004].

Fig. 1. Fat acidity in breadsticks with 15% replacement of wheat flour

(after production)

* Values followed by asterisks are significantly different from the control (p<0.05)


(after production)

* Values followed by asterisks are significantly different from the control (p<0.05)


156

The influence of storage on hydrolytic rancidity of lipid fraction

The extent of hydrolytic changes increased during storage for two weeks

which was presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Fat acidity increased in all the

samples showing that storage time influences negatively lipid fraction of

breadsticks. The most affected was grissini with addition of pumpkin cake

flour, in the lowest degree – grissini with peanut cake flour. The growth was

observed also in control samples, which contained fat from such ingredients

as wheat flour and olive oil – it means that changes occurring during storage

of breadsticks are the result of several factors.


after 14 days of storage * Values followed by asterisks are significantly different from the control (p<0.05)

Previous studies showed that in the group of six different oilseed cake flours

including sesame, sunflower, peanut, pumpkin, coconut and flaxseed, flour

obtained after pumpkin and flaxseed oils cold-pressing were the less stable

when considering fat acidity [Samotyja et al. 2014]. Moreover, earlier study

proved that flours from oilseeds and oilseed cakes have compositional and

water activity conditions that are suitable for lipases activity [Samotyja et al.

2014]. These enzymes deactivate in effect of baking process, but show

activity during storage and preparation of yeast dough. As presented in Table

1, pumpkin flour influenced most in rancidity of breadsticks, both after

baking and storage. The higher RI, the higher is influence of wheat flour

replacement by oilseed cake addition on shelf life of a product.


157


after 14 days of storage * Values followed by asterisks are significantly different from the control (p<0.05)

Table 1. The effect of oilseed cake flour on rancidity of lipid fraction in

breadsticks

Sample / cake flour

used for substitution

Level of wheat

flour substitution RI0 RI14

control only wheat flour 1.0 1.0

pumpkin 15% 10.8 5.0

pumpkin 30% 15.8 8.7

sunflower 15% 4.1 1.8

sunflower 30% 6.4 3.7

peanut 15% 1.2 1.5

peanut 30% 2.2 4.5

coconut 15% 4.5 2.0

coconut 30% 5.3 3.0

Explanation:

RI0 – rancidity index of fresh samples,

RI14 – rancidity index of samples stored for 14 days.


158

In work of Białek et al. [2016] pumpkin seed flour was proposed for partially

replacement of wheat flour in muffins. As a result, the nutritional value of

muffins was improved, but, at the same time, substitution negatively

influenced lipid fraction because of increased level of primary and secondary

oxidation products, measured as peroxide value, conjugated dienes and

trienes and anisidine value. The influence of pumpkin flour on hydrolitic

rancidity was not measured. Most of the papers on use flours from oilseed

cakes in food concern on their nutritional and functional properties, with only

a few focusing on shelf life of food.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of oilseed cake flours may be an interesting alternative for wheat

flour but influences stability of lipid fraction of food. As a consequence of

wheat flour substitution, the level of free fatty acids increases when

compared to untreated product. Hydrolytic changes in bakery and

confectionery products can induce further undesirable processes such as

oxidation or altering of sensory profile, which can influence shelf life of food

and therefore, they should be considered during food design and

development.

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STRESZCZENIE

Mąki wytłokowe stanowią interesującą alternatywę dla mąki pszennej,

wpisując się w globalne trendy oraz aktualne problemy w produkcji


161

i konsumpcji żywności. Otrzymuje się je jako pozostałość po wytłoczeniu

oleju z nasion roślin oleistych. Po rozdrobnieniu mogą służyć do

wzbogacania żywności oraz umożliwiać częściową albo całkowitą

substytucję mąki pszennej w wyrobach cukierniczych oraz piekarskich.

Wyniki wielu prac koncentrują się na kwestii wartości odżywczej mąk

wytłokowych oraz problematyce właściwości organoleptycznych oraz

reologicznych produktów otrzymanych z ich udziałem (nowych bądź też

zaprojektowanych w wyniku reformulacji). Mając na uwadze skład

chemiczny wytłoków otrzymanych z roślin oleistych, kluczową sprawą

wydaje się być utrzymanie wysokiej jakości ich frakcji lipidowej. Wyniki

wcześniejszych badań wskazują na rolę jełczenia hydrolitycznego oraz

oksydatywnego w ograniczeniu trwałości wytłoków.

Celem badań zaprezentowanych w niniejszej pracy była ocena wpływu

wybranych mąk z wytłoków na procesy jełczenia hydrolitycznego frakcji

lipidowej produktów wypieczonych z ich udziałem. Materiał badawczy

stanowiły paluchy chlebowe typu grissini, w których mąka pszenna została

częściowo zastąpiona mąką otrzymaną z wytłoków dyni, kokosa, orzecha

arachidowego oraz słonecznika. Miarą zachodzących przemian

hydrolitycznych była kwasowość tłuszczowa. Paluchy chlebowe zostały

przygotowane w dwóch wariantach, różniących się stopniem substytucji

mąki pszennej mąkami wytłokowymi (15% oraz 30%).

Wyniki badań pokazały, że dodatek mąk wytłokowych wpływa

niekorzystnie na jakość frakcji lipidowej produktów otrzymanych z ich

udziałem. Kwasowość tłuszczowa próbek z dodatkiem mąki z wytłoków

dyni, kokosa, orzecha arachidowego oraz słonecznika była wyższa niż

w próbce kontrolnej, w której użyto mąki pszennej bez dodatków innych

mąk. Największy zasięg zmian stwierdzono w produkcie wypieczonym

z udziałem dyniowej mąki wytłokowej. Wpływ dodatku mąk wytłokowych

był większy w próbkach charakteryzujących się ich wyższym udziałem.

Wykorzystanie mąk z wytłoków roślin oleistych znacząco wpływa na

pogorszenie stabilności frakcji lipidowej, co powinno zostać uwzględnione

podczas projektowania oraz reformulacji żywności.

Słowa kluczowe: projektowanie żywności, mąki wytłokowe, produkty

piekarskie, kwasowość tłuszczowa, wolne kwasy tłuszczowe, jełczenie,

reformulacja


162


163

QUALITY OF FOOD EMULSIONS STABILIZED

BY RESISTANT STARCHES

Joanna Le Thanh-Blicharz1, Paulina Maciejewska2,

Jacek Lewandowicz3, Hanna M. Baranowska4

1Department of Food Concentrates and Starch Products, prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute

of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, 40 Starołęcka Street, 61-361 Poznań, Poland

[email protected] 2Faculty of Agronomy and Bioengineering, Poznań University of Life Sciences 3Department of Natural Science and Quality Assurance, Poznań University of Economics

and Business; 10 Niepodległości Avenue, 61-875 Poznań, Poland 4Department of Physics and Biophysics, Poznań University of Life Sciences,

38/42 Wojska Polskiego Street, 60-637 Poznań, Poland

ABSTRACT

The aim of the work was to understand the role of different resistant starch

preparations in formation and stabilisation of food emulsions.

The experimental material consisted of five different preparations that could

be classified either as type: 3, 4 or 3/4 resistant starch. Emulsions stabilized

with investigated starches were prepared using a laboratory homogeniser.

Rheological properties of emulsions as well as starch pastes which formed

the continuous phase were measured using RheoStres1 rheometer.

The emulsion stability was analysed by common method where the index of

emulsion stability (ES) is calculated. Measurements of molecular dynamics

of water of investigated emulsions were taken with the assistance of pulse

NMR spectrometer operating at frequency of 15 MHz.

It was found that the use of all of investigated resistant starch

preparations allow to obtain stable food emulsions. However their

applicability may be limited by emulsion fat content. The addition of resistant

starch as stabilizing agent in emulsion systems significantly influences their

rheological properties. Moreover. starch emulsions are characterized by two

components of relaxation times: T1 spin-lattice and T2 spin-spin. The

dispersed phase (described by short relaxation times) and the continuous

phase (described by the long components) are characterized by different

values depending on the content of resistant starch used.


164

Keywords: food emulsions stability, resistant starch, rheology, low field

NMR

INTRODUCTION

Emulsion systems, especially oil-in-water (O/W) type, are increasingly used

in the manufacturing process of different food products. However, often

emerging problems with their use are caused by the fact that emulsions are

thermodynamically unstable. To ensure proper stability of such system for

relatively long time, it is required to use amphiphilic molecules and/or

hydrocolloids [Prochaska et al. 2007]. Especially effective are modified

starches which can be classified at the same time as a emulsifier, stabilizer

and thickener. Stabilization mechanism of starch usually depends on binding

of water, thus thickening the continuous phase of the emulsion. This causes

reduction of interaction between droplets of dispersed phase [Poliszko et al.

2003]. Moreover modified starches may act as emulsifier, which can reduce

the size of oil droplets by covering newly formed oil-water interfaces during

homogenization [Charoen et al. 2011]. Also other starch derivatives such as

maltodextrins may be used for stabilization of emulsion systems, although

higher dosage is required [Pycia and Juszczak 2014].

Constant increase in morbidity at diseases of affluence, such as:

diabetes, obesity or cancer causes the researchers to seek for new food

additives that apart from technological effect will have beneficial effect on

human body and can be classified as functional food ingredient. One of the

fastest growing categories of functional food market are prebiotics. Interest in

them is due to that they are not broken down by human digestive enzymes,

therefore they may reach the colon, stimulating the growth of beneficial

(probiotic) bacteria. Starch resistant to amylolytic enzymes (RS) is an

example of functional food additive, because apart from prebiotic effect it has

texture promoting properties [Le Thanh-Blicharz et al. 2011].

Compared to modified starches commonly used in food industry,

resistant starches are usually characterized by poor functional properties.

However type 4 RS preparations can have competitive thickening and texture

promoting properties. Unfortunately most of the type 4 RS preparations do

not meet the requirements of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food

Additives regarding purity specification [1997]. The only exception is


165

acetylated distarch adipate (E 1422), which was found useful for

manufacturing of tomato kechup [Śmigielska, Lewandowicz and Le Thanh-

Blicharz 2013] and low fat mayonnaise [Lewandowicz, Śmigielska and

Le Thanh-Blicharz 2014]. Moreover retrograded starch investigated by

Dundar and Gocmen [2013] was recommended as stabilizing agent.

Due to above the aim of the study was to evaluate usefulness of

different resistant starch preparations in formation and stabilization of food

emulsions.


Native potato starch Superior Standard manufactured by ‘ZETPEZET’

Sp. z o. o. (Poland) was used for synthesis of resistant starch preparations.

Rapeseed oil under brand name Kujawski manufactured by ZT

‘KRUSZWICA’ S.A. (Poland) was used for preparation of investigated O/W

emulsions.

Synthesis of type 3 resistant starch – retrograded preparations was

carried out during repeated heating-cooling cycles. For this purpose 10%

potato starch suspension was gelatinized on boiling water bath for

15 minutes. Obtained paste was sterilized at temperature of 121°C for another

15 minutes, after cooling to room temperature the sample was stored at 4°C

for 24 hours. Overall five cycles of sterilization and cooling were carried out.

Synthesis of type 4 resistant starch – E 1412 and E 1422 starch

preparations was carried out according to know-how of prof. Wacław

Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology.

Overall five different type of starch pastes were used for emulsion

preparation: E 1412 (RS4), E 1422 (RS4), retrograded potato (RS3),

retrograded E 1412 (RS3/4) and retrograded E 1422 (RS3/4). Emulsions were

prepared by homogenization at 21.000 rpm for 3 minutes using Silent

Crusher M (Heidolph, Germany). Rapeseed oil was used as a dispersed

phase. The aim was to obtain an emulsion with the highest O/W ratio (up to

20%).

The digestibility of starch preparations was determined by their

hydrolysis with the mixture of pancreatic alpha-amylase and glucoamylase at

the temperature of 37°C, during16 hours, followed by the measurement of the

released glucose using glucose oxidase. Porcine pancreatic alpha-amylase


166

type VI-B (Sigma) as well as glucoamylase AMG 300L (Novozymes) were

used for the analyses. The amount of released glucose was determined

colorimetrically at the λ = 500 nm using Liquick Cor-Glucose diagnostic kit

(Cormay, Poland). Measurements were made in fourfold for each sample and

the data is presented as a mean ± standard deviation.

Stability of the emulsion was evaluated by centrifugation method on

samples stored for 24 hours at 37°C. Samples were subjected to 2500 x g

centrifugal force during 10 minutes. Emulsion stability was calculated from

the following formula:

ES= [𝑉0−𝑉

𝑉0] ∙ 100[%], (1)

where:

ES – emulsion stability [%]

V0 – volume of oil in sample [cm3],

V – volume of separated oil after centrifugation [cm3].

Rheological properties were determined using RotoVisco1 rheometer, Haake

(Germany) equipped with Z20 DIN measuring sensor. Prior to the

measurement samples were relaxed and thermostated for 5 minutes. Data

collection and calculations were made using RheoWin 3.61 software.

Flow curves were determined at controlled shear rate ranging from 1 to

600s-1 for the increasing and decreasing share rates in time of 120 s and

at temperature of 20°C. Obtained flow curves were fitted to Ostwald de

Waele equation:

𝜏 = 𝐾 · ��𝑛, (2)

where:

τ - shear stress [Pa],

K - consistency coefficient [Pa·sn],

N - flow index (indicator of convergence to Newtonian flow) [-],

γ- shear rate [s-1].

Temperature versus apparent viscosity curves were determined at 100 s-

1 shear rate in 20 to 65°C temperature range and heating speed of

3°C/min. Samples were pre-sheared at 100 s-1 for 180 s. Obtained

curves were described by Arrhenius TTS equation:


167

𝜂𝑝 = 𝜂𝑝 ∙ 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝐸

𝑅·𝑇)

, (3)

where:

ηp - apparent viscosity [Pa·s],

ηp - material constant [Pa·s],

E - flow activation energy [J·mol-1],

R- gas constant [J·K-1·mol-1],

T- temperature [K].

Measurements of spin-lattice T1 and spin-spin T2 relaxation times were taken

with the assistance of pulse NMR spectrometer (Ellab, Poznań, Poland)

operating at 15 MHz and equipped in an integrated system of temperature

control set at 20°C. The inversion-recovery pulse sequence (180°-TI-90°) was

used for T1 measurements [Brosio and Gianferri 2009]. Spin-lattice

relaxation times were calculated with the assistance of the CracSpin program

[Węglarz and Harańczyk 2000] utilizing “spin grouping’ approach for

determination of relaxation parameters from experimental data. Marquardt`s

method of minimization has been applied for fitting the multiexponential

decays. The T2 measurements were made using a CPMG impulse sequence

(90°-TE-180°) [Jobling 2004]. Calculations of relaxation times were made by

adjusting the recorded delays of spin echo amplitudes to the formula which

took into consideration the multiexponential delay. The calculations were

performed using the dedicated software which apply non-linear least-square

algorithm. Measurements were performed in triplicate and the accuracy of the

relaxation parameters was estimated with standard deviation.


Digestibility of investigates starch preparations is shown in the Figure 1.

Native potato starch paste (used as reference material) is hydrolyzed to

glucose in over 60% during first 2 hours of simulated digestion.

The remaining 40% is hydrolyzed within next 6 hours of digestion indicating

that this fraction should be considered as slowly digestible starch (SDS)

[Zhang and Hamaker 2009]. Analyzed chemically and/or physically modified

starches are digested at much slower rate compared to native potato starch.

Moreover, they are not reaching full hydrolysis within 16 hours, indicating


168

that fraction of all investigated starch preparations is very resistant to

amylolysis. Although all applied treatments allowed for creation of resistant

starch fraction, they were not equally effective. Chemically modified starches

characterized by type 4 mechanism of resistance to digestion (E 1412 and E

1422) were faster and to a greater extent hydrolyzed during conducted

experiment, compared to physically modified starch (type 3 resistance

mechanism). Double modified starches that can be classified at the same time

as RS 3 and 4, were characterized only by slightly higher digestion resistance

compared to most resistant singly modified preparation (retrograded potato

starch). Nutritional value of all preparations makes them valuable for

production of functional food, however one should be aware that chemically

modified preparations are characterized by higher SDS content, whereas

physically modified ones by higher RS content. The use of double

modification to obtain RS preparations can be justified only for technological

processes. Compared to commercially available preparation of RS3 (National

Starch, USA) all investigated retrogrades starches were characterized by

better (lower) digestibility [Le Thanh-Blicharz et al. 2012].

Fig. 1. Digestibility of starch pastes

Stability is one the most important quality factors of an emulsion. Moreover

based on evaluation of stability one can exclude recommendation for given

hydrocolloid in production of emulsions [Lewandowicz 2017]. Centrifugal

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Nativepotato

Retrogradedpotato

E 1422 RetrogradedE1422

E 1412 RetrogradedE1412

Dig

est

ibili

ty [

%]

2h 4h 8h 16h


169

stability of investigated emulsions is shown in the Table 1. Formed colloidal

systems were either fully stable (100%) or unstable (0%), the only exception

was observed for emulsion formed with retrograded E 1412 starch. The best

emulsifying performance was observed for both E 1422 preparations, which

allowed to obtain emulsions at all investigated concentrations of oil (10-

20%). E 1412 performed worse than retrograded starch and could only form

an emulsion with 10% of oil. Retrogradation process improved the

emulsifying properties of E 1412 starch, however emulsion formed with that

starch had poor centrifugal stability of 10%. Based on the above, one can

conclude that chemical modification of starch witch relatively hydrophobic

groups (acetyl, adipic) is more advantageous than modification with

hydrophobic phosphate groups in terms of emulsion stability. Moreover,

stabilization mechanism of retrograded starches may be similar as in

pickering emulsions.

Table 1. Stability of emulsions with different RS preparations

Starch Oil % [v/v] Stability [%]

E 1412

10 100

15 0

20 0

E 1422

10 100

15 100

20 100

Retrograded

potato

10 100

15 100

20 0

Retrograded

E 1412

10 100

15 10

20 10

Retrograded

E1422

10 100

15 100

20 100

Many different methods have been developed to characterize emulsion

stability. Although no standardized experimental procedure was developed so

far, rheological methods have become especially popular [Le Thanh-


170

Blicharz, Szwengiel and Lewandowicz 2016]. Values of surface area of

hysteresis loop thixotropy and parameters of Ostwald de Waele equation used

for rheological characterization of flow curves of investigated starch pastes

and emulsions are shown in Table 2. Utilized model was very well fitted to

the experimental data as values of coefficient of determination (R2) were over

0.95.

Table 2. Rheological properties of RS pastes and emulsions formed with

them

Starch Oil % [v/v] K [Pa∙sn] n [-] Thixotropy [Pa∙s-1]

E 1412

0 26.52 0.3962 29 220

10 21.69 0.4192 43 600

15 n/d n/d n/d

20 n/d n/d n/d

E 1422

0 272.90 0.2036 11 490

10 15.59 0.5586 4 922

15 36.68 0.4208 21 890

20 35.39 0.4349 39 590

Retrograded

potato

0 206.50 0.2197 98 930

10 8.89 0.5318 441

15 13.69 0.4687 2 439

20 n/d n/d n/d

Retrograded

E 1412

0 14.58 0.3247 11 260

10 11.46 0.5669 25 000

15 29.58 0.2879 38 800

20 33.88 0.2808 40 230

Retrograded

E1422

0 21.44 0.5152 25 600

10 9.82 0.5542 614

15 12.38 0.5301 3 786

20 13.67 0.5157 5 481

Investigated starch pastes in comparison to emulsion formed with them, are

characterized by much higher values of consistency coefficient (K) and lower

values of flow index (n). The only exception are 15 and 20% emulsions

formed with retrograded E 1412 that were not fully (centrifugal) stable.

Moreover, most flow curves of starch pastes were characterized by lower


171

values of thixotropy area compared to emulsions. The only exception was

recorded for both E 1422 and retrograded potato preparations, which formed

more rheologically stable emulsions. This is reflected in previous study (table

1), thus confirming high dependency of rheological properties on stability of

emulsions.

Although emulsions were characterized by lower viscosity compared to

starch pastes, the amount of added oil has distinctly increased it. This was

manifested by increase of consistency coefficient and decrease of

convergence to Newtonian flow. Moreover, this phenomenon was paired

with increase of area of hysteresis loop, which grew due to formation of

stronger structure.

Despite the different relationships between rheological properties of

emulsions formed with investigated starch preparations, they have different

thickening efficiency what is important from technological point of view.

Singly modified E 1422 starch can be recommended as stabilizing agent that

also has thickening properties, on the other hand dually modified retrograded

E 1422 starch can be recommended as stabilized with negligible thickening

effect. Retrograded potato starch can be recommended only for clean label

food products, whereas E 1412 preparations should not be used for emulsion

systems.

Viscosity of fluids is largely dependent on temperature, which is

associated with their thermal energy that affects interactions and

intermolecular friction during flow [Juszczak, Oczadły and Gałkowska

2013]. The table 3 lists the parameters of Arrhenius TTS equation that was

used to describe temperature dependent viscosity curves of investigated

starch pastes and emulsions formed with them. Utilized model was very well

fitted to the experimental data as values of coefficient of determination (R2)

were over 0.97.

The values of material constant (ηp), which is related to viscosity,

were highly correlated with Ostwald de Waele equation parameters. Higher

values of material constant corresponded with high consistency coefficient

and low flow index values. Therefore, highest values of material constant

were calculated for temperature viscosity curves of emulsions prepared with

E 1422 starch, whereas lowest for retrograded potato.

Rheological temperature stability is another important information for

applied food technology. For this reason value of flow activation energy (E)

is the most important parameter of Arrhenius TTS equation. Once again both


172

E 1422 and retrograded potato preparations proved to be best of investigated

hydrocolloids also in terms of rheological temperature stability. However, the

retrogradation process negatively influenced the E 1422 preparation.

Table 3. Arrhenius TTS equation parameters of RS pastes and emulsions

formed with them

Starch Oil % [v/v] çp [Pa∙s] [J·mol-1]

E 1412

0 1.05 96.1

10 0.72 156.3

15 n/d n/d

20 n/d n/d

E 1422

0 3.6 221.6

10 1.03 211.9

15 1.05 233.8

20 1.17 207.2

Retrograded

potato

0 2.08 227.7

10 0.64 160.3

15 0.74 161.2

20 n/d n/d

Retrograded

E 1412

0 0.46 62.5

10 0.72 159.0

15 1.12 81.1

20 0.85 37.7

Retrograded

E1422

0 1.12 163.2

10 0.68 178.3

15 0.75 180.8

20 0.73 187.6

Investigated emulsions stabilized with RS were characterized by two

components of relaxation times: T1 spin-lattice and T2 spin-spin.

The dispersed phase is described by short components of relaxation time

(T11 and T21), whereas the continuous phase by the long ones (T12 and T22)

(Table 4.). The spin-lattice relaxation time describes energy transfer form

spin to surrounding environment on the other hand spin-spin relaxation time

describes the energy transfer between neighboring spins [Lewandowicz et al.

2015]. Increase of oil content in investigated emulsions lead to increase in

relaxation speed of components. The only exception was recorded for

emulsion with highest oil content and stabilized with E 1422. The decrease of

values of relaxation times corresponded to rheological data (increase of


173

consistency index and decrease of convergence to Newtonian flow). This

dependence concerned the high oil content E 1422 sample. The effect of

starch retrogradation process on molecular dynamics of continuous emulsions

phase was dependent on type of chemical modification applied.

Retrogradation of distarch phosphate lead to decrease of relaxation speed,

while increase was observed for acetylated distarch adipate. Observed effect,

especially for spin-spin relaxation time (T22) partly explains the differences in

stability of obtained emulsions. Moreover, the values of T22 were also the

lowest for emulsions characterized by the best quality in previous all studies,

stabilized with E 1422 and retrograded potato starches.

Table 4. Molecular dynamics of emulsions stabilized with RS

preparations

Starch Oil %

[v/v]

Relaxation time [ms]

T11 T12 T21 T22

E 1412

10 142.8 1405.5 24.4 632.3

15 n/d n/d n/d n/d

20 n/d n/d n/d n/d

E 1422

10 80.3 1159.0 19.9 524.0

15 73.7 1096.2 33.1 513.2

20 87.5 1125.4 55.2 468.4

Retrograded

potato

10 152.3 1183.7 176.5 508.3

15 76.3 1029.6 97.5 464.0

20 n/d n/d n/d n/d

Retrograded

E 1412

10 210.6 1588.0 33.5 641.3

15 125.0 1387.4 81.4 645.3

20 85.7 1065.5 81.4 585.2

Retrograded

E1422

10 147.9 1201.9 71.4 393.1

15 115.3 1113.7 35.2 385.7

20 63.9 992.1 26.9 342.3

CONCLUSIONS

It was found that RS3, RS4 and dually 3/4 type resistant starch may be used

as emulsifier in food emulsions. However, both chemical and physical

processes of resistant starch preparation have significant influence


174

emulsifying properties of this hydrocolloid. When taking into consideration

dietary effect RS3 and RS3/4 preparations should be recommended for food

production due to higher RS content. In the view of significantly better

rheological properties application RS4 acetylated distarch adipate may be

more economically efficient.

REFERENCES Brosio, E., Gianferri, R., 2009, Basic NMR in Foods Characterization, chap. 2, pp. 9.

Reseach Signpost, Karela, India.

Charoen, R., Jangchud, A., Jangchud, K., Harnsilawat, T., Naivikul, O., McClements, D. J.,

2011, Influence of Biopolymer Emulsifier Type on Formation and Stability of Rice

Bran Oil-in-Water Emulsions: Whey Protein, Gum Arabic, and Modified Starch,

Journal of Food Science, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 165-172.

Dundar ,A. N., Gocmen, D., 2013, Effects of autoclaving temperature and storing time

on resistant starch formation and its functional and physicochemical properties,

Carbohydrate Polymers, vol. 97, pp. 764-771.

Jobling, S., 2004, Improving starch for food and industrial applications, Current Opinion

of Plant Biology, vol. 7, pp. 210-218.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 1997, Additional purity

specification for individually chemically modified starches, FAO Food and Nutrition

Paper 52, Rome.

Juszczak, L., Oczadły, Z., Gałkowska, D., 2013, Effect of modified starches on rheological

properties of ketchup, Food and Bioprocess Technology, vol. 6, iss. 5, pp. 1251-1260.

Le Thanh-Blicharz, J., Małyszek, Z., Walkowski, A., Drożdżyńska, A., Lewandowicz, G.,

2011, Właściwości reologiczne i tekstura kleików nowego typu skrobi RS4, Postępy

Nauki i Technologii Przemysłu Rolno-Spożywczego, vol. 66 no. 4, 53-65.

Le Thanh-Blicharz, J., Anioła, J., Lewandowicz, G., 2012, Ocena strawności diet

zawierających skrobie modyfikowane typu RS w badaniach na szczurach, Biuletyn

Instytutu Hodowli i Aklimatyzacji Roślin, vol. 266, pp. 57-64.

Le Thanh-Blicharz, J., Szwengiel, A., Lewandowicz, J., 2016, Molecular mass distribution

vs. emulsifying activity of maltodextrins, in: Řápková, R., Čopíková, J., Šárka, E.

(eds.), Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Polysaccharides-

Glycoscience, Czech Chemical Society, Prague, pp. 181-184.

Lewandowicz, J., Śmigielska, H., Le Thanh-Blicharz, J., 2015, Jakość majonezów

niskotłuszczowych zagęszczonych skrobią oporną typu RS4 w: Barbara Borusiak,

Kazimierz Pająk (red.), Paradygmat zrównoważonego rozwoju lokalnego

i regionalnego we współczesnej gospodarce, CeDeWu, Warszawa, pp. 313-325.

Lewandowicz, J., Baranowska, H.M., Le Thanh-Blicharz, J., Makowska, A., 2015, Water

binding capacity in waxy and normal rice starch pastes, in: Řápková, R., Čopíková, J.,

Šárka, E. (eds.), Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Polysaccharides-

Glycoscience, Czech Chemical Society, Prague, pp. 69-72.


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Lewandowicz, J., 2017, Charakterystyka właściwości fizykochemicznych i ocena

możliwości wykorzystania skrobi woskowych, Poznań University of Economics and

Business PhD Thesis.

Poliszko, S., Rezler, R., Baranowska, H.M., Klimek-Poliszko, D., 2003, Rheological and

water binding properties of a 'fat-in-water' emulsion stabilized by starch, Acta

Agrophysica, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 397-405.

Pycia, K., Juszczak, L., 2014, Charakterystyka reologiczna modelowych emulsji typu o/w

stabilizowanych maltodekstrynami ziemniaczanymi, Biuletyn Instytutu Hodowli

i Aklimatyzacji Roślin, vol. 274, pp. 79-90.

Śmigielska, H., Lewandowicz, J., Le Thanh-Blicharz, J., 2013, Wpływ skrobi opornej typu

RS4 na barwę i właściwości reologiczne keczupu, ŻYWNOŚĆ. Nauka. Technologia.

Jakość, vol. 2, no. 87, pp. 137-149.

Prochaska, K., Kędziora, P., Le Thanh, J., Lewandowicz, G., 2007, Surface activity of

commercial food grade modified starches, Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces,

vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 187-194.

Węglarz, W.P., Harańczyk, H., 2000, Two – dimensional analysis of nuclear relaxation

function in the time domain: the program CracSpin, Journal of Physics D Applied

Physics 33, 1909-1920.

Zhang, G., Hamaker, B.R., 2009, Slowly digestible starch: concept, mechanism, and

proposed extended glycemic index, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition,

vol. 49, pp. 852-867.

STRESZCZENIE

Celem pracy było zbadanie możliwości zastosowania skrobi opornych

na amylolizę do wytwarzania i stabilizacji emulsji spożywczych. Materiał

eksperymentalny stanowiły preparaty skrobiowe sklasyfikowane jako skrobia

odporna typu RS3, RS4 lub RS3/4. Emulsje spożywcze z udziałem badanych

skrobi opornych wytworzono za pomocą homogenizatora laboratoryjnego.

Właściwości reologiczne emulsji oraz kleików skrobiowych, stanowiących

fazę wodną, mierzono wykorzystując reometr RheoStres1. Stabilność emulsji

analizowano za pomocą metody wirówkowej, gdzie obliczono wskaźnik

trwałości emulsji (ES). Pomiar dynamiki molekularnej wody badanych

emulsji przeprowadzono za pomocą impulsowego spektrometru NMR

(PS15T) pracującego przy częstotliwości 15 MHz.

Stwierdzono, że wszystkie badane skrobie oporne na amylolizę tworzą

trwałe emulsje spożywcze, jednak ich zastosowanie może być ograniczone

ilością dodawanego tłuszczu. Odnotowano, że dodatek skrobi odpornych jako

środka stabilizującego w układach emulsyjnych znacząco wpływa na ich

właściwości reologiczne. Co więcej, emulsje z dodatkiem badanych skrobi


176

charakteryzują się dwoma składowymi czasów relaksacji T1 (spin-sieć) i T2

(spin-spin). Zaobserwowano, że czasy relaksacji charakteryzują się różnymi

wartościami, w zależności od użytej skrobi opornej.

Słowa kluczowe: stabilność emulsji spożywczych, skrobia oporna, reologia,

niskopolowy NMR


177

THE SAFETY AND FUNCTIONALITY OF FOOD

GRADE LUBRICANTS

Anna Małysa

Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Faculty of Materials

Science and Design, Chair of Chemistry, Department of Applied Chemistry and Industrial

Commodity Science, Chrobrego Str. 27, 26-600 Radom, Poland,

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The article presents operational safety and functionality requirements

applicable to lubricants used in the food industry. Such lubricants constitute

a specific group of products. Their role in friction nodes consists in reducing

movement resistance and wear of friction pair elements in machinery. They

must also meet sanitary and legal requirements stipulated in HACCP, BRC

FOODS, IFS FOODS, ISO 22000, GMP procedures, which applies in

particular to food, drink and drug production. While according to the USDA

pollution of food products with lubricating agents is rare, it is quite

a common practice to use “ordinary’ oils and lubricants in places that are

theoretically isolated from manufactured food. Technological processes, such

as mixing of ingredients and their transport on belt conveyors, create a space

for contact between the product and lubricated machine elements. Even

a small amount of lubricant entering the product may expose the

manufacturer to huge cost related to production line stoppage and greater

frequency of sanitary inspections.

An analysis of literature and studies indicates strict legal requirements

with regard to this type of products, stipulated by the standards of the

National Sanitation Foundation. As a result, food manufacturers must use

certified lubricants, strictly classified in two categories: NSF H1 – food grade

lubricants with incidental food contact and NSF H2 – standard lubricants

with no food contact allowed. In addition, they must also meet quality

requirements, such as neutral odor and taste, physiological neutrality,

resistance to disinfectants and cleaning agents, no impact on food.



178

Keywords: food industry lubricants, food safety, NSF H1-lubricants, NSF

H2-lubricants

INTRODUCTION

Lubricating agents used in the food industry constitute a specific group of

products. Apart from performing their basic functions (which include

reduction of movement resistance and wear of mating machine parts), they

should also meet a number of sanitary and legal requirements. In Poland, not

unlike in the entire European Union, food manufacturing plants must first of

all follow the general regulations No. 178/2002 (EC) and 852/2004 (EC)

(as amended) that address the issue of food safety and food production

hygiene. The two regulations formed a basis for the Food and Nutrition

Safety Act implemented in Poland in 2006 (Journal of Laws of 2006,

No. 171, item 1225). From a formal perspective, each food manufacturer is

obliged to monitor the quality of, pollution level in and potential hazards

affecting its products. In addition, manufacturers are inspected in this respect

by competent authorities, including first of all the Regional Environmental

Protection Inspectorate (REPI) and the State Sanitary Inspection (SSI)

[Girard 2002]. As shown by research and by numerous inspections, cases of

food pollution caused by lubricants are far less common than cases caused by

other reasons. As reported by the United States Department of Agriculture

(USDA), food pollution with lubricating agents in the years 2008-2016 has

stayed at the level of 3% of all pollution causes (i.e. microbiological

pollution, residues of pesticides and heavy metals, etc.). Such a low

percentage is owed to rapid technological progress, as a result of which

manufacturers use state-of-the-art equipment and automated production lines.

In this way, the risk of food pollution with lubricants resulting from

equipment failure has been reduced. However, direct contact with food does

not need to be caused exclusively by technical problems. Technological

processes, such as such as mixing of ingredients and their transport on belt

conveyors create a space for contact between the product and lubricated

machine elements. Furthermore, a risk exists that a lubricant is applied

contrary to its intended use or that inappropriate lubricants are used in

hygienically sensitive areas (in direct food contact zones) [Judge 2005].

Even a small amount of lubricant entering the product may expose the


179

manufacturer to huge cost related first of all to production line stoppage,

financial penalties, product recall, disposal, etc. It also results in significant

loss of market position and loss of credibility among consumers, as well as in

greater frequency of official inspections.

Best practices include using certified and registered lubricating agents,

which makes it possible to minimize the risk of in-plant pollution, thus

protecting the company’s reputation. Therefore, the use of appropriate

lubricants contributes to reduced cost of energy, spare parts of machines and

equipment, and labor with simultaneous productivity improvement.

Supporting tools include procedures and actions based on HACCP systems,

good manufacturing practice (GMP) and ISO 22000 standard. HACCP is

a system that ensures health safety of food used in EU countries. It

constitutes a very important element of the ISO 22000 standard. Its primary

objective is to enable ongoing analysis of food safety hazards and critical

control points in manufacturing plants. Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)

is a collection of principles and actions described in documents that define

the required environmental, hygienic and technical conditions necessary to

manufacture and distribute foods of adequate health quality. ISO 22000 is

a standard first published by the International Standards Organization in

2005. It is the most integrated collection of requirements relating to food

safety management systems. It covers all stages in the food chain (from the

manufacturer to the end consumer) [Sniderman 2016, Girard 2002, Judge

2005].

The objective of this paper is to assess the operational safety and

functionality of new generation food grade lubricants in the context of quality

requirements, market analysis and overview of new directions of research on

this group of products.

CLASSIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION OF FOOD

GRADE LUBRICANTS

An analysis of literature [Sniderman 2016, Girard 2002, Judge 2005, Horak,

Kluczny and Salwinski, 2013] and market studies indicates that lubricating

agents for the food industry must comply with the standards of the National

Sanitation Foundation (NSF). This American institute develops standards,

certifies products and deals with education and management in the area of

lubricating agents intended for the food industry. Currently, this classification


180

for the food industry guarantees safety in the area of lubricant production and

constitutes an international reference. On this basis lubricants have been

divided into appropriate categories (see Table 1).

Most generally, lubricants can be divided into food grade lubricants

(with allowed incidental contact with food; NSF H1) and standard lubricants

(non-food grade; NSF H2). Apart from typical lubricating agents, the above

classification also includes release agents, washing and cleaning agents,

anticorrosion agents and auxiliary agents. If a given lubricant is registered as

NSF H1, it means that its formulation complies with the guidelines of the

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This globally recognized list contains

all ingredients allowed in lubricants intended for food processing [Diyar at

al. 2014 ]. The NSF White Book is based on that list and presents all

lubricants with NSF certification. It is available online at www.nsf.org in

Nonfood Compounds Listings Directory. All products are sorted by category

(H1, H2, H3, etc.). Fig. 1 shows an example of the verification of Total NSF

H1 lubricant named Nevastane in the White Book of NSF.

Table 1. Classification of food industry oils and lubricants

Marking Description

H1

Lubricants with allowed incidental contact with food (maximum

allowed pollution level is 10 ppm), intended for use in direct food

contact area; in this category, not only the lubricant itself, but also its

ingredients (and decomposition products, if any) must be non-toxic

and physiologically neutral (odorless and without distinct color or

taste)

HT-1 Heat transfer fluids, intended for use in direct food contact area (10

ppm limit)

HX-1 Auxiliary agents for use in lubricants with incidental food contact (10

ppm limit)

H-2 Non-toxic lubricants, not intended for use in direct food contact area

H-3 Mostly water soluble oils normally used for anticorrosion protection

or machine cleaning in direct food contact area

3- H

Lubricants normally used as release agents, manufactured from

medical white oil (compliant with Pharmacopeia requirements) or

from edible vegetable oils, for permanent contact with food (the 10

ppm limit does not apply)

C1 Auxiliary agents (often cleaning agents) intended for use in direct

food contact area

K1 Cleaning agents intended for use in non-food areas

Source: Girard 2002


181

Fig. 1. NSF certified lubricating agents

Source: www.nsf.org/usda/ psnclistings.asp

Food grade lubricant certification means that product ingredients

comply with corresponding CFR codes presented in Title 21, reserved for

Food and Drug Administration. The most important ones include:

21. CFR 178.3570 – ingredients allowed in the production of H1

lubricants,

21. CFR 178.3620 – white oils as an ingredient of lubricants with

incidental food contact,

21. CFR 172.878 – mineral oil for direct food contact,

21. CFR 172.882- synthetic isoparaffins,

21. CFR 182, CFR 184 - substances generally recognized as safe,

21 CFR 172.860 - vegetable oils.

This is a highly practical tool for food manufacturers, allowing them to verify

whether the lubricant they consider buying holds an appropriate and valid

certificate. To obtain such a certificate, lubricating agent manufacturers must

use a limited number of oil bases, thickening agents for greases and

improving agents (oils and greases). The following oil bases can be used:

medical white oils, polyalphaolefins (PAOs), polyalkylene glycols,

dimethylpolysiloxanes (silicones), certain purified polybutenes (PIBs),


182

certain alkylated naphthalenes, synthetic esters, perfluoropolyethers (PFPEs),

edible vegetable oils. As for thickeners, the following substances are allowed:

dehydrated calcium soap, calcium oleate, complex calcium and aluminum

soaps, bentonite and silicates, complex calcium sulphonate. Lithium

thickener is not allowed. Apart from these certificates, religious certificates

are also used: Jewish Kosher and Islamic Halal [Amit, Rehman and Khaira

2012, Erhan and Asadauskas 2000, Adhvaryu and Erhan 2002].

Lubricant registration by the manufacturer involves delivery of a label

presenting its qualitative and quantitative composition to the NSF. The NSF

examines the formulation and its compliance with FDA requirements and

then issues its approval. Subsequently the manufacturer is awarded an H1

certificate which authorizes it to market the lubricant using the NSF H1

mark. On the basis of the International ISO 21469:2006 Standard and

a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) system the NSF has

developed a certification procedure involving audits in lubricant

manufacturing plants aimed at ensuring strict observance of hygienic

requirements and prevention of biological and physical contamination during

H1 lubricant production. Product samples are collected annually and tested

for contamination. Auditors also evaluate packaging, storage and use of

lubricating agents. In practice it turns out that incidental contact with

lubricants cannot be completely avoided in food manufacturing plants, which

is why it is extremely important to identify critical lubrication points and to

select an H1 lubricant that is appropriate for a given device and its operating

conditions [Sniderman 2016, Girard 2002, Judge 2005].

QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR LUBRICANTS FOR

THE FOOD INDUSTRY

New generation lubricating agents available in the Polish and European

markets are highly functional and efficient formulations. They meet a number

of technical requirements regarding neutrality in terms of odor, taste,

physiology and food impact and resistance to steam (meat and dairy plants),

resistance to special disinfecting and cleaning agents, resistance to dust

penetration (flour mills, groat plants) or chemical agents, acids (fruit and

vegetable processing). An important market segment are lubricants resistant

to temperatures up to 300oC (baking industry) and down to -70oC


183

(refrigeration plants) [Sharma, Perez and Erhan 2007]. One example of such

lubricants is so-called high-temperature oils. They are used for instance for

lubricating chains in transfer systems in burnishing and drying equipment, in

food processing machines and in baking equipment. Adequate lubrication is

extremely important in the case of baking equipment, e.g. in pizza making.

Pizza is baked in stone ovens fitted with special stone plates moved by means

of transfer chains. The plates cause high stress on the chain, and baking

temperature is approx. 200oC. The transfer chain must be lubricated, because

adequate lubrication reduces friction and wear, which translates into energy

savings. On the other hand, high friction leads to premature chain

replacement and additional costs.

Another area requiring adequate lubrication is the packaging industry,

where lubrication of transfer chains is of critical importance. Those chains

are exposed to high temperatures and work at high speeds (conveyors for

beverage can production). After deep rolling, cans are varnished and then

baked at a temperature of approx. 200oC. Cans are transferred from one

production stage to another by means of chains; their length in the oven may

reach 100m. To ensure the desired production capacity of approx. 20,000

cans per hour, chains must move at a high speed, which requires the use of

appropriate lubricants meeting strict food industry requirements according to

NSF H1. In the production process, lubricants applied on the chain may

penetrate into cans, thus causing food product contamination [Fox and

Stachowiak 2007]. Equally important is the lubricant’s resistance to

evaporation, because condensate may accumulate in empty cans, thus

affecting varnishing performance. Importantly, oil must not contain

ingredients that hamper varnish adherence to can surface.

Another important aspect of food grade lubricants is their ability to

reduce movement resistance and wear, which translates into energy savings,

longer equipment service life and consequently into lower production costs.

Lubricants should also protect against corrosion, dissipate heat and act as

sealants. In many food industry segments a combination of these

requirements often exists, which makes the choice of an adequate lubricant

even more complicated [Zeman et al. 1995].

An analysis of data from numerous inspections in food processing

plants [Asadauskas, Perez and Duda 1996, Horak, Kluczny and Salwinski,

2013] in Poland shows that the use of “ordinary lubricants’ in places

theoretically isolated from processed food is rather common. However,


184

practice shows that a theoretically contained device may lose tightness,

which can expose manufacturers to serious financial consequences.

In addition, in nearly every food processing plant there are many machines

outside the food contact area where traditional lubricants are used.

Experience shows that servicemen quite often inadvertently lubricate

hygienically sensitive areas with e.g. lithium lubricants. Therefore, the

highest safety standards first of all require the use of non-toxic lubricants all

over the plant (rather than in selected zones only). Bearing in mind the

arguments presented above, it is not worthwhile to resign from using certified

lubricating agents, even though they are more expensive than the commonly

used ones. They should be used across the entire food production logistics,

e.g. in transportation, storage, distribution. Awareness of risks related to the

use of “ordinary’ greases and oils and knowledge of technical performance of

state-of-the-art lubricants should be common not only among technicians

who actually lubricate the equipment, but also among their managers at each

level. Rather than imposing fines, competent inspection authorities should

focus on training and encouraging reasonable solutions in this regard [Wu

et al. 2017, Amudhan et al. 2015, Rani, Joy and Nair 2015, Kalam et al.

2017].

MARKET ANALYSIS

There are many NSF H1 food grade specialty lubricants available in the

marketplace. They are classified according to the specific needs of the target

industry, machine type and its operating conditions. Furthermore, food

manufacturers are supported by technical advice and laboratory analyses

performed by vendors or distributors of such products. Commercially

available solutions include products for virtually any application in the food

industry. In Poland there are a few companies offering full sets of lubricants,

while others offer the basic product groups, e.g. hydraulic and transmission

oils and all-purpose greases with a lithium thickener. Other available

products include calcium soap based non-washable greases, acid resistant

greases and oils, greases for very high speed bearings as well as greases and

oils for high temperature applications.

The market analysis was carried out by sending requests for quotation

to food grade lubricant manufacturers and with the help of online sources.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016236117300777


185

Requests were sent to leading manufacturers of such agents in Poland.

Parameters taken into account included the product’s form, composition,

packaging, price per liter. The results are illustrated by diagrams in Figs. 2-4.

Fig. 2. Forms of NSF H1 food-grade lubricating agents

Source: own work

On the basis of the market analysis the author concluded that oils were

the most common (50%) form of lubricants available in the market.

The second most common form is greases (30%). Aerosols, being a novel

form of lubricating agents, constituted 15% of all analyzed products. The

least common (5%) were powders, considered by their manufacturers as so-

called specialty greases.

Due to the fact that oil lubricants are the most common product group

in the market, qualitative composition of oil bases for this product group was

analyzed (Figure 3).

The biggest market share is currently held by lubricants containing

medical white oils (40%). NSF H1 lubricants based on polyalphaolefins and

those based on polyalkylene glycols represent 20% of all such lubricants

each. Smaller market shares correspond to silicones (10%), synthetic esters

(5%) and vegetable oils.

50%

30%

15% 5%

oils

greases

aerosols

powders


186

Fig. 3. Composition of oil lubricants

Source: own work

Another analyzed parameter was product price per liter, depending on the

product’s form. The results are presented in Figure 4.

Fig. 4. Average product price [source: own work]

The lowest average price per liter was observed in the case of oil

lubricants (approx. PLN 120). For greases, the price per liter was at the level

of PLN 180. The most expensive were aerosols (PLN 320 per liter) and

40%

20%

20%

10%

5% 5%white medical oils

polyalphaolefins

polyalkylene glycols

dimethylpolysiloxanes

synthetic esters

plant oils

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

oils greases aerosols powders

Ave

rage

pro

du

ct p

rice

P

LN p

er L

iter


187

powders (PLN 280 per liter). The above prices are approximate, as they are

subject to change depending on the product’s lot, number of orders, etc.

DIRECTIONS OF RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE FOOD

GRADE LUBRICANTS

An analysis of literature reports [Piyush and Mattiasson 2007, Piyush and

Mattiasson, 2007, Madankar, Dalai and Naik 2013, Jayadas, Nair and

Ajithkumar 2007, Lathi and Mattiasson, 2007, Beran, Łos, and Kmiecik

2008, Nagendramma and Kaul, 2012, Gerbiget et al. 2004, Durak and

Karaosmanoğlu 2004, Dharma and Scott 2005] shows that the main

directions of research on food grade lubricants concentrate on application

safety and functionality of formulations constituting prototypes of this

product group. It is particularly important to use one lubricant for the greatest

possible number of machines and components, e.g. ball bearings,

transmissions, chains, sliding bearings, compressors, vacuum pumps,

pneumatic and hydraulic elements, valves, screws, mechanical seals.

Investigated lubricating substances must meet all safety requirements

imposed by the FDA. Research concentrates mostly on searching for

lubricating substances of plant origin that are biodegradable, non-toxic, stable

in high and low temperatures and capable of reducing movement resistance

and wear.

Horak et al. [Horak, Kluczny and Salwinski 2013] proposed to use

glycerin and its water solutions as an alternative lubricant for the food

industry. They demonstrated that if used in higher concentrations (70% and

80%), glycerin exhibits very good tribological properties – reduction of wear

and friction by over 30% as compared to 60% solutions. Diyar et al. [Diyar

et al. 2014 ] investigated the properties of alternative greases made of

a mixture of soybean and mineral oils and improving additives. They

demonstrated that addition of soybean oil to mineral oil increased flash point

nearly twice (as compared to mineral oil alone) and improved its tribological

properties. Amit et al. [Amit et al. 2012] compared physico-chemical

properties, i.e. density, viscosity, oxidation stability, cloud point and flash

point for mineral oils, vegetable oil glycols and synthetic esters as potential

lubricating agents for the food industry. The authors demonstrated that the







188

best oxidation stability among all analyzed vegetable oils was observed for

coconut oil, whereas the highest flash point was observed for sunflower oil.

Vegetable oils are environmentally friendly lubricating agents ensuring

good tribological performance, but they are not free from disadvantages.

They oxidize easily at higher temperatures, and at lower temperatures their

viscosity grows, thus hindering flow in hydraulic systems. Therefore,

in lubricating formulations they are mixed e.g. with esters or glycols,

or subjected to chemical reactions [Lathi and Mattiasson 2007].

Researchers pay particular attention to the use of high and low

temperature resistant chemically modified vegetable oils that could be used in

the food industry. Amudhan et al. [Amudhan et al. 2015] analyzed high

temperature and tribological properties of rice oil as a food grade lubricating

agent. They demonstrated that this kind of oil is characterized by high

oxidation stability and capability to reduce movement resistance; however,

wear ratio was greater than in the case of mineral oil. Rani et al. [Rani, Joy

and Nair 2015] also investigated high temperature and tribological properties

of rice bran oil. They demonstrated that this oil is thermally stable in

temperatures up to 254oC. If used as a lubricant, it reduces movement

resistance better than mineral oil. In their turn, Kalam et al. [Kalam et al.

2017] demonstrated high oxidation stability (up to 390oC) of olive oil

containing 70% of oleic acid. An interesting study investigating a technology

of producing biodegradable greases with low pour point was carried out by

Piyush S. L. and Mattiasson B. [Piyush and Mattiasson 2007]. They obtained

epoxidized vegetable oil with relatively low pour point; cationic ion

exchange resins were used as catalysts. Pour points were observed in the

range from -5 to -15°C. Similar results were arrived at by Madankar et al.

[Madankar et al. 2013]. They developed a process of manufacturing

environmentally friendly lubricating substances based on epoxidized

rapeseed oil. They demonstrated that chemically modified oil has superior

stability at higher and lower temperatures and better tribological properties

(as compared to traditional rapeseed oil) in tests involving an HFRR (High

Frequency Reciprocating Rig) tribometer.






189

CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, commercially available food grade lubricants are bound by

a number of standards and legal requirements relating to the safety of their

use. Using specially formulated certified NSF H1 lubricants is proposed as

the best practice for the food industry, although they are more expensive than

commonly used lubricants. Specialty lubricants reduce the risk of food

contamination with toxic substances in the case of equipment failure or loss

of tightness. A strong trend towards improving lubricant functionality by

using novel forms, such as aerosols and powders, has been observed.

Nevertheless, the most popular forms are traditional oils offering good high

and low temperature performance. Market analysis indicates that available oil

lubricants based on white medical oils, polyalphaolefins and

polyalkyleneglycols. They are cheaper than aerosols and powder

formulations. The functionality of these lubricants is mainly reflected in the

ability to use multiple devices and thus reduce the cost of their exploitation.

FDA-imposed food safety issues seem particularly important.

Consequently, manufacturers of lubricants of this kind are urged to search for

new biodegradable and non-toxic substances of plant origin, ensuring

adequate physico-chemical and tribological properties. Particular attention

needs to be paid to research into refined and chemically modified vegetable

oils. Such modifications include for instance epoxidation reactions or

increasing the share of oleic acid radicals (so-called high oleic oils).

As demonstrated by researchers, such modifications significantly improve

technical parameters of food grade oils by increasing their resistance to

oxidation and by lowering their pour point, without any significant changes

in viscosity. As a result, such oils can be used for high temperature (baking,

drying) and low temperature (refrigeration) applications.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The article has been prepared under Project no. 3086/35/P “Development of

formulations and technologies for the manufacture of innovative cosmetics,

pharmacy supplies, household and industrial chemicals’.


190

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Amit, S., Rehman, A., Khaira, H.K., 2012, Potential of non-edible vegetable oils as an

Alternative lubricants in Automotive applications, International Journal

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Journal of Applied Engineering Research, vol. 10 no.55, pp. 3952-3955.

Asadauskas, S., Perez, J.M., Duda, J.L., 1996, Oxidative stability and antiwear properties of

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Beran, E., Łos, M., Kmiecik, A., 2008, Influence of thermo-oxidative degradation on the

biodegradability of lubricant base oils, Journal of Synthetic Lubrication, vol. 25,

pp. 75–83.

Dharma, R.K., Scott, C.N., 2005, Biodegradable high oxidative stability oils. US Patent No.

6.943.262

Diyar, I.A., Kasolag, S., Bakar, M.A., Mohammad, H. Y., 2014, Alternative lubricant based

on renewable resourses for industrial applications, Advanced Materials Research,

vol. 894, pp. 275-279.

Durak, E., Karaosmanoğlu, F., 2004, Using of cottonseed oil as an environmentally accepted

lubricant additive, Energy Sources, vol. 26 no. 7, pp. 611-625.

Erhan, S.Z., Asadauskas, S., 2000, Lubricant basestocks from vegetable oils, Industrial

Crops Production, vol. 11, pp. 277-282.

Fox, N.J., Stachowiak, G.W., 2007, Vegetable oil-based lubricants-A review of oxidation

Tribology International, vol. 40 no.7, pp. 1035-1046.

Gerbig, Y., Ahmed, S.I.U., Gerbig, F.A., Haefke, H., 2004, Suitability of vegetable oils

as industrial lubricants, Journal of Synthetic Lubrication, vol. 21, pp. 177–9.

Girard, J. , 2002, The Continuing Evolution of Food-Grade Lubricants, Machinery

Lubrication, vol. 3, pp. 12-15.

Horak, W., Kluczny, A., Salwinski, J., 2013, Alternative lubricant for food industry, Silesian

University of Technology Scientific Papers, vol. 82, pp. 110-115 (in Polish).

Jayadas, N.H., Nair, K.P., Ajithkumar, G., 2007, Tribological evaluation of coconut oil as an

environment friendly lubricant, Tribology International, vol. 40, pp. 350–4.

Judge, D., Shell Lubricants, 2005, Switching to Food-grade Lubricants Provides Safety

Solution, Machinery Lubrication, vol. 1, pp. 18-22.

Kalam, M.A., Masjuki, H.H., Haeng, M. C., Mosarof, M.H., Mahmud, M. I., Chowdhury,

M.A, Zulkifli, N.W.M., 2017,Influences of thermal stability, and lubrication

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STRESZCZENIE

W artykule przestawiono wymagania w zakresie bezpieczeństwa

stosowania i funkcjonalności środków smarowych stosowanych w branży

spożywczej. Stanowią one specyficzną grupę produktów, spełniających

w węzłach tarcia funkcje obniżania oporów ruchu i zużycia elementów par

ciernych maszyn i urządzeń. Muszą także spełniać uwarunkowania sanitarne,

a także prawne wynikające z procedur HACCP, BRC FOODS, IFS FOODS,

ISO 22000, GMP. Dotyczy to głównie produkcji żywności, napojów i leków.

Źródła zanieczyszczeń produktów żywnościowych substancjami smarowymi

według danych USDA są wprawdzie rzadkie, jednak w praktyce dość często

spotyka się przypadki stosowania „zwykłych” olejów i smarów w miejscach

teoretycznie odizolowanych od produkowanej żywności. Procesy

technologiczne, takie jak mieszanie składników, ich transport taśmociągiem





192

umożliwiają kontakt produktów z elementami maszyn, przy których stosuje

się środki smarne. Już niewielka ilość smaru, która dostanie się do produktu

spożywczego może przynieść producentowi ogromne koszty związane z

wyłączeniem linii produkcyjnej a w następstwie nasilenie kontroli

sanitarnych.

Analiza literatury i badań wskazuje na obostrzenia prawne w stosunku

do tego typu produktów wynikające z norm Narodowej Fundacji Sanitarnej

(National Sanitation Foundation). Wymusza to na producentach żywności

stosowanie certyfikowanych lubrykantów ściśle sklasyfikowanych w dwóch

kategoriach NSF H1- środki smarne klasy spożywczej dopuszczone do

incydentalnego kontaktu z żywnością oraz NSF H2 – standardowe środki

smarne niedopuszczone do kontaktu z żywnością. Muszą one spełniać

ponadto wymagania jakościowe takie jak: obojętność zapachowa, smakowa,

fizjologiczna, odporność na środki dezynfekcyjne i czyszczące, obojętność

dla żywności.

Słowa kluczowe: smary dla przemysłu spożywczego, bezpieczeństwo

żywności, smary typu NSF H1, smary typu NSF H2

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