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Challenges to UnionChallenges to Union
Ethnicity and National Identity in Ethnicity and National Identity in EuropeEurope
Key TermsKey Terms
StateState NationNation Ethnic GroupEthnic Group State-NationState-Nation Ethnic-NationEthnic-Nation
Nation
Ethnie
State
EthnonationalismEthnonationalism
Territorial ethnic movements seeking Territorial ethnic movements seeking autonomy or independenceautonomy or independence
peripheral to the unionperipheral to the union – OR – – OR – pro-Europepro-Europe 'Europe of the regions''Europe of the regions' No threat to EUNo threat to EU
'Europe of the nations''Europe of the nations'
Different type of ethnicity and nationalismDifferent type of ethnicity and nationalism Pose a challenge to the EUPose a challenge to the EU
1.1. Dominant NationhoodDominant Nationhood
2.2. Ethnic minorities/immigrant minoritiesEthnic minorities/immigrant minorities
3.3. Dominant ethnicityDominant ethnicity
The EU: A cosmopolitan projectThe EU: A cosmopolitan project
Long idea of establishing a realm of 'universal' law Long idea of establishing a realm of 'universal' law and governance in Europeand governance in Europe
Began with the 'European Idea' of reunifying the Began with the 'European Idea' of reunifying the continent under one church and one empirecontinent under one church and one empire
Collapse of Roman Empire and the rise of the Collapse of Roman Empire and the rise of the Reformation led to periodic attemptsReformation led to periodic attempts
Sully, Podiebrad – seek comity among nations and Sully, Podiebrad – seek comity among nations and return to Latin-Christendom idealreturn to Latin-Christendom ideal
Enlightenment EuropeanismEnlightenment Europeanism Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and othersPenn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others Were cosmopolitan liberalsWere cosmopolitan liberals Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linkedEuropeanism and cosmopolitanism linked Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace, Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,
prosperity and Enlightenment prosperity and Enlightenment St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a
sentiment already took precedence over nationalismsentiment already took precedence over nationalism St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of EuropeSt Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among
peoples rather than rulerspeoples rather than rulers
The Evolution of the European The Evolution of the European IdeaIdea
Napoleon speaks of one European fatherlandNapoleon speaks of one European fatherland After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential
and popular. Influenced and popular. Influenced Lemonnier's Lemonnier's Les Etats-Unis Les Etats-Unis d'Europe (1872)d'Europe (1872)
Revival of interest in St Simon after WWIRevival of interest in St Simon after WWI Most schemes were federal, though some post-WWI Most schemes were federal, though some post-WWI
radicals rejected the nation outrightradicals rejected the nation outright Paneuropa (1923) and other organisations lobbyPaneuropa (1923) and other organisations lobby Link between world unity and European unity, Link between world unity and European unity,
between peace organisations and paneuropean between peace organisations and paneuropean onesones
Diplomatic Pressure of Diplomatic Pressure of Paneuropean GroupsPaneuropean Groups
Count Richard Coudenhove-KalergiCount Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi writes writes Pan-EuropaPan-Europa (1923) (1923) manifesto. Links to French politicians like Herriot, Loucheur, manifesto. Links to French politicians like Herriot, Loucheur, Leger, BriandLeger, Briand
Edouard Herriot, 1925Edouard Herriot, 1925: : 'My greatest wish is to see one day the 'My greatest wish is to see one day the United States of Europe become a realityUnited States of Europe become a reality''
First Pan-European Congress, 1926. Sponsored by Chancellor First Pan-European Congress, 1926. Sponsored by Chancellor Seipel of AustriaSeipel of Austria
Many Paneuropeans also strongly supported the League of Many Paneuropeans also strongly supported the League of NationsNations
Briand's Memorandum on a Briand's Memorandum on a European Federal System European Federal System (1930) (1930) circulated to European statesmencirculated to European statesmen
EU structureEU structure Degree of centralisation varies by function:Degree of centralisation varies by function:
– A A Federation (i.e. 'State')Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary affairs, in monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy. agricultural, trade and environmental policy. Also in legal-social aspects and citizenshipAlso in legal-social aspects and citizenship
– A A ConfederationConfederation in social and economic policy, in social and economic policy, consumer protection, internal affairsconsumer protection, internal affairs
– An An International OrganisationInternational Organisation in foreign affairs in foreign affairs
Council of Europe's Cultural Council of Europe's Cultural CosmopolitanismCosmopolitanism
Developed European flag Developed European flag with 12 golden stars with 12 golden stars (1955)(1955)
Established 5 May 1949 as Established 5 May 1949 as Europe Day (1964)Europe Day (1964)
Anthem based on Anthem based on Beethoven's Beethoven's Ode to JoyOde to Joy (1972)(1972)
Has 46 members today: Has 46 members today: distinct from EU, but distinct from EU, but complementarycomplementary
Three Types - Three ChallengesThree Types - Three Challenges
Dominant Nationhood (civic nationalism) Dominant Nationhood (civic nationalism) Ethnic minorities or Immigrant MinoritiesEthnic minorities or Immigrant Minorities Dominant ethnicity (ethnic nationalism)Dominant ethnicity (ethnic nationalism)
Dominant NationhoodDominant Nationhood
(civic nationalism)(civic nationalism) Fears loss of sovereignty, Fears loss of sovereignty, loss of economic policyloss of economic policy Loss of political-legal efficacy and national Loss of political-legal efficacy and national
democracydemocracy Foreign policy identity depends on the Foreign policy identity depends on the
countrycountry
France: Gaullist pro-France: Gaullist pro-EuropeanismEuropeanism
Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of 1818thth-19-19thth c c
Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of 1919thth-20-20thth c c
Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’ De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a
Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese EastAnglo-Saxon West and Chinese East
1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De Gaulle seeks to block UK entryGaulle seeks to block UK entry
German pro-European IdealismGerman pro-European Idealism
Nazi period discredits nationalismNazi period discredits nationalism Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spiritCosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit Desire for influence and self-respect without Desire for influence and self-respect without
nationalismnationalism Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII
(witness different attitudes toward English (witness different attitudes toward English as language)as language)
More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-EuropeanismEuropeanism
Smaller Nations: BeneluxSmaller Nations: Benelux
History of neutrality and fear of larger nationsHistory of neutrality and fear of larger nations History of pooling sovereignty in alliancesHistory of pooling sovereignty in alliances Only chance of agency is through a larger unitOnly chance of agency is through a larger unit Identity is less significant in absence of larger Identity is less significant in absence of larger
blocksblocks Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or
religious markers of nationhood unlike say religious markers of nationhood unlike say Germany or FranceGermany or France
Growing Cosmopolitanism in Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe?Europe?
'Very Proud' of Country, Eurobarometer (1983)
0%
20%
40%
60%
15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+
Growing Cosmopolitanism in Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe…Europe…
'Very Proud' of Country, 1970 and mid-80s
0%20%40%60%80%
100%
Luxe
mbo
urg
Italy
Franc
e
Nethe
rland
s
Belgium
Germ
any
1970
1981-85
Predictors of Lack of National Pride, 1982-2002
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
back EUmembrshp
year education level low or non-churchattender
z-sc
ore
Growing Cosmopolitanism in Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe…Europe…
National Pride and Opinion of EU Membership, 1982-2002
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1988 1994 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002
Pride in Nation
Membership Good orBad EU
Ethnic minorities/Ethnic minorities/immigrant minorities - immigrant minorities -
Religious beliefs may challenge Religious beliefs may challenge Enlightenment beliefsEnlightenment beliefs
EU identity diluted (i.e. 'from Tsar to EU identity diluted (i.e. 'from Tsar to Sultan')Sultan')
Strengthens dominant ethnicityStrengthens dominant ethnicity
Immigrant IntegrationImmigrant Integration
Different paths to integrationDifferent paths to integration In UK, second generation is doing much In UK, second generation is doing much
better (esp. Hindu, Chinese)better (esp. Hindu, Chinese) UK: Intermarriage more among Afro-Caribs UK: Intermarriage more among Afro-Caribs
than Indo-Pakistanithan Indo-Pakistani UK & Holland: Caribbean Christians & UK & Holland: Caribbean Christians &
'Indos' better integrated than Muslim ethnic 'Indos' better integrated than Muslim ethnic groupsgroups
Evidence of racial segregation in friendshipsEvidence of racial segregation in friendships
'Superdiversity'?: Inflow by 'Superdiversity'?: Inflow by region UK 2001region UK 2001
Eastern Europe
West Africa
Other Africa
North America
Southern Africa
East Africa
other Asia
West Asia
South-East Asia
South-Central AsiaCentral Americ
Caribbean
Middle Africa
North Africa
Other America
South America
North EuropeSouth Europe
West Europe
East Asia
Other Europe
Source: Home Office
Newham (London) by country of birth, 2001Newham (London) by country of birth, 2001
Iran Cy prus
United Kingdom
USA
Canada
Poland Non EU countries in Western Europe
EU Countries Republic of Ireland
Other Eastern Europe North Africa
Central and Western Africa
Nigeria
Other Central and Western Africa Keny a
South Africa Zimbabw e
Other South and Eastern Africa Other Middle East
China Hong Kong
Japan Malay sia
Singapore Other Far East
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Jamaica
Other Caribbean
South America Australia
New Zealand
Other
Other Oceania
Other South Asia
Religious Retention by Faith and Birthplace, UK, 2001-3 (Excludes nonidentifiers. 'Practice' is self-description)
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
2001 2003
Attend Worship* Retain Religious Practice*
UK BP Muslims
Foreign BP Muslims
UK Afro Christians
Foreign Afro Christians
UK White Christians
Foreign White Christians
Religious Retention among Second Generation Immigrant Stock in the UK
Dominance: Ethnic, National, or Dominance: Ethnic, National, or State?State?
A group can be BOTH A group can be BOTH ethnicethnic and and nationalnational (ie. Welsh in Wales) (ie. Welsh in Wales)
A group can be A group can be ethnicethnic, , nationalnational, and , and possess its own possess its own statestate (ie. Japanese) (ie. Japanese)
Dominant Ethnic groups can dominant Dominant Ethnic groups can dominant states or sub-state nations (ie. Ethnic states or sub-state nations (ie. Ethnic Germans in Germany, Scots-Protestants Germans in Germany, Scots-Protestants in Scotland, Jews in Israel)in Scotland, Jews in Israel)
Dominant Ethnic GroupDominant Ethnic Group Ethnic Community which possesses Ethnic Community which possesses
political power in a given statepolitical power in a given state 2 types:2 types:
� Elite MinorityElite Minority (Tutsi, ‘WASP’, Gulf Arab) (Tutsi, ‘WASP’, Gulf Arab)� Majority GroupMajority Group (English in England, (English in England,
Japanese in Japan)Japanese in Japan)
Most in Europe are dominant majoritiesMost in Europe are dominant majorities Omission in Current LiteratureOmission in Current Literature
Dominant EthnicityDominant Ethnicity
(mainly ethnic nationalism)(mainly ethnic nationalism) Fear of internal migrationFear of internal migration Possible cultural fears (language, religion)Possible cultural fears (language, religion) Ethno-national congruenceEthno-national congruence Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism
and EU human rights conventionsand EU human rights conventions Expressed as rise of the far right & Expressed as rise of the far right &
accommodation by centre-right partiesaccommodation by centre-right parties
Dominant Ethno-Nationalism Dominant Ethno-Nationalism
Ethno-national Ethno-national congruencecongruence
Fear of immigrationFear of immigration Possible cultural fears Possible cultural fears
(language, religion)(language, religion) Friction with OSCE Friction with OSCE
codes, multiculturalism codes, multiculturalism and EU human rights and EU human rights conventionsconventions
Expressed as rise of the Expressed as rise of the far right & far right & accommodation by accommodation by centre-right partiescentre-right parties
The Role of Education & Age, The Role of Education & Age, GermanyGermany
Support For Republikaner Party, by Age & Education, Bavaria 1989
0%2%4%6%8%
10%12%
18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+
Low
Med
High
The Far Right as a Worker's The Far Right as a Worker's Party?Party?
Anti-elitist, anti-political Anti-elitist, anti-political classclass
Claim that elite Claim that elite consensus 'represses' consensus 'represses' debate on immigrationdebate on immigration
In virtually no European In virtually no European country does main left-country does main left-wing party retain wing party retain majority support among majority support among white male workerswhite male workers
Dominant Ethno-Nationalism: Dominant Ethno-Nationalism: TheoriesTheories
Instrumentalist - dominant ethno-nationalism Instrumentalist - dominant ethno-nationalism is driven by immigrant competition with is driven by immigrant competition with natives for jobsnatives for jobs
Ethno-symbolist - perceived violation of Ethno-symbolist - perceived violation of ‘sacred,’ historicised ethnie-nation link is the ‘sacred,’ historicised ethnie-nation link is the keykey
‘‘Constructivist’ (Psychological) - Rapid Constructivist’ (Psychological) - Rapid change brings disorientation and a quest for change brings disorientation and a quest for order among those affected by changeorder among those affected by change
MulticulturalismMulticulturalism Kymlicka'sKymlicka's Liberalism, Liberalism,
Community and CultureCommunity and Culture (1989), followed by a (1989), followed by a number of works in 1990snumber of works in 1990s
Taylor's Taylor's Multiculturalism and Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognitionthe Politics of Recognition (1994)(1994)
Inspired partly by Inspired partly by 'multicultural' movement of 'multicultural' movement of minorities for 'recognition' vis minorities for 'recognition' vis a vis majority culture in a vis majority culture in CanadaCanada
Canadian multiculturalism Canadian multiculturalism policy dates from 1971, policy dates from 1971, similar demands in US since similar demands in US since late 60slate 60s
Typology of MulticulturalismTypology of Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism
State PolicyDemographic
FactIdeology
Varieties of Multiculturalism
Polyethnicity Multinationality
Federalism (Yugoslavia, Switzerland)
Consociationalism (Lebanon, Bosnia)
Integration (UK, United States)
Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism
Communitarian Multiculturalism
Cultural Recognition Political Empowerment Socio-Economic Redistribution
Cosmopolitan-multiculturalist visionCosmopolitan-multiculturalist vision
Dominant ethnic groups lose identity and Dominant ethnic groups lose identity and members become cosmopolitan members become cosmopolitan individualistsindividualists
Ethnic minorities retain their identity and Ethnic minorities retain their identity and provide consumer choice and 'colour'provide consumer choice and 'colour'
Bourne, c. 1916: WASPs 'breathe a larger Bourne, c. 1916: WASPs 'breathe a larger air', Jews 'stick to their faith'air', Jews 'stick to their faith'
Contradiction: cosmopolitanism among Contradiction: cosmopolitanism among hosts, ethnicity among immigrantshosts, ethnicity among immigrants
The New Cultural CosmopolitanismThe New Cultural Cosmopolitanism
European idea was mainly one of political European idea was mainly one of political unity rather than cultural unityunity rather than cultural unity
American idea had a much earlier emphasis American idea had a much earlier emphasis on melting (i.e. Crevecoeur's 'strange on melting (i.e. Crevecoeur's 'strange mixture of races', c. 1782)mixture of races', c. 1782)
But Europe has now adopted the cultural But Europe has now adopted the cultural cosmopolitanism once found only in cosmopolitanism once found only in AmericaAmerica
The EU and Cultural The EU and Cultural CosmopolitanismCosmopolitanism
EU approach: Multiculturalism, Human EU approach: Multiculturalism, Human Rights, Border Control - in tension.Rights, Border Control - in tension.
Reflects tensions between cosmopolitan Reflects tensions between cosmopolitan and realpolitik/intergovernmental spheresand realpolitik/intergovernmental spheres
Multiculturalism and human rights reflects Multiculturalism and human rights reflects cosmopolitan sidecosmopolitan side
Cosmopolitanism for MajoritiesCosmopolitanism for Majorities
All become consumers and world citizensAll become consumers and world citizens Weak identities, apart from European Weak identities, apart from European
project, lifestyle and egalitarian-liberalismproject, lifestyle and egalitarian-liberalism Identity forged vs USA. Defined by liberal Identity forged vs USA. Defined by liberal
egalitarianism, i.e. 'European Dream' egalitarianism, i.e. 'European Dream' (Rifkin)(Rifkin)
Hope given by rise in university education, Hope given by rise in university education, generational replacementgenerational replacement
Effect shown in social surveysEffect shown in social surveys
The Reaction to MulticulturalismThe Reaction to Multiculturalism
Dominant ethnic nationalists resist all forms Dominant ethnic nationalists resist all forms of multiculturalismof multiculturalism
Surveys show that anti-immigration and anti-Surveys show that anti-immigration and anti-EU attitudes are linkedEU attitudes are linked
Even those who are willing to accept Even those who are willing to accept immigrants are afraid of threat to secular immigrants are afraid of threat to secular culture, language and civic-national identityculture, language and civic-national identity
A majority of most electoratesA majority of most electorates
90s Intellectual Opposition90s Intellectual Opposition Individualist Liberals (i.e. Brian Barry, Michael Individualist Liberals (i.e. Brian Barry, Michael
Ignatieff)Ignatieff) Civic Nationalists (David Miller, David Civic Nationalists (David Miller, David
Goodhart, New Labour, Francis Fukuyama, etc)Goodhart, New Labour, Francis Fukuyama, etc) 'Civic Nationalist' Critiques:'Civic Nationalist' Critiques:
– Hinders welfare stateHinders welfare state– Reduces civic trust and political participationReduces civic trust and political participation– Decline in common values and national identityDecline in common values and national identity– Increased ethnic conflictIncreased ethnic conflict
Ethnic Nationalists: threat to survival of Ethnic Nationalists: threat to survival of dominant ethnic groups, 'reverse discrimination'dominant ethnic groups, 'reverse discrimination'
Multiculturalism in RetreatMulticulturalism in Retreat Multiculturalism in retreat in the US and Multiculturalism in retreat in the US and
Australia in the 1990sAustralia in the 1990s Changes in France, Holland, and elsewhere in Changes in France, Holland, and elsewhere in
Europe (partly linked to challenge from far Europe (partly linked to challenge from far right) since 1990sright) since 1990s
Change in Britain (criticism of Parekh report; Change in Britain (criticism of Parekh report; Trevor Phillips of CRE) in 2000-2004 (linked to Trevor Phillips of CRE) in 2000-2004 (linked to 9/11)9/11)
The Return of AssimilationThe Return of Assimilation
An attempt to navigate between ethnic nationalism An attempt to navigate between ethnic nationalism and multiculturalismand multiculturalism
Ethnic conflict prompts increased call for national Ethnic conflict prompts increased call for national unity in the face of diversity (i.e. Germany, unity in the face of diversity (i.e. Germany, Holland, UK, France)Holland, UK, France)
Hopes are for integration into nations, reducing Hopes are for integration into nations, reducing inter-ethnic conflict inter-ethnic conflict
Shift from multiculturalism to integration. Even a Shift from multiculturalism to integration. Even a return of assimilation/republicanism and civic return of assimilation/republicanism and civic nationalismnationalism
Civic or Liberal NationalismCivic or Liberal Nationalism
From Kohn (1944) to Miller (1995) and Tamir From Kohn (1944) to Miller (1995) and Tamir (1993)(1993)
Civic nationalism will reinforce resistance to EU as Civic nationalism will reinforce resistance to EU as nations become more 'American'nations become more 'American'
Will not assuage anxieties of dominant groupWill not assuage anxieties of dominant group Minorities must organically come to feel Minorities must organically come to feel
attachment to the nation, cannot be cajoled out of attachment to the nation, cannot be cajoled out of old identitiesold identities
Civic identities must be universal and thin, difficult Civic identities must be universal and thin, difficult to compete with ethnic traditionsto compete with ethnic traditions
Dominant groups will not go away, Dominant groups will not go away, Minorities may not assimilateMinorities may not assimilate
Dominant groups may reject newcomers entirelyDominant groups may reject newcomers entirely Assimilation a long-term process. European and Assimilation a long-term process. European and
US examplesUS examples May not be fast enough to absorb immigrants or May not be fast enough to absorb immigrants or
respond to demographic crisisrespond to demographic crisis Real key is at the level of the dominant ethnic Real key is at the level of the dominant ethnic
group, and its ability to assimilategroup, and its ability to assimilate Ethnic groups should not be rigid, but retain their Ethnic groups should not be rigid, but retain their
cores and engage in assimilationcores and engage in assimilation
Liberal Ethnicity (Kaufmann 2000)Liberal Ethnicity (Kaufmann 2000)
Recognition of Recognition of bothboth minority and dominant minority and dominant ethnic groupsethnic groups
Devolves task of assimilation to ethnic Devolves task of assimilation to ethnic groupsgroups
Longer-term viewLonger-term view Ethnic cores remain relatively fixed, but Ethnic cores remain relatively fixed, but
boundaries can absorb newcomersboundaries can absorb newcomers No coercive state-nationalism from aboveNo coercive state-nationalism from above
A Europe of Liberal NationsA Europe of Liberal Nations
Need to consider better guarantees of Need to consider better guarantees of ontological security: including limits on ontological security: including limits on migration between member states migration between member states
EU as Europe of nations, pooling many EU as Europe of nations, pooling many functionsfunctions
Recognition of both dominant and minority Recognition of both dominant and minority ethnic groupsethnic groups
May in time lead to closer political May in time lead to closer political integrationintegration
SummarySummary
EU as cosmopolitan movementEU as cosmopolitan movement Three forms of ethnic and nationalist Three forms of ethnic and nationalist
resistance to EU resistance to EU Multiculturalism and 'Europe of the regions' Multiculturalism and 'Europe of the regions'
idea are inspired by cosmopolitanismidea are inspired by cosmopolitanism Will not succeed with electoratesWill not succeed with electorates Integration, liberal ethnicity and 'Europe of Integration, liberal ethnicity and 'Europe of
the nations' more promisingthe nations' more promising