Chap 03

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1 Chapter 3: Finite control volume analysis

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe Page 1 1/13/2010

Chapter 3: Finite control volume analysis Contents

3.1. Objectives ..................................................................................................................4 3.2. Discharge and mean velocity .....................................................................................4

3.2.1. Discharge ...........................................................................................................4 3.2.1.1. Definition ...................................................................................................4 3.2.1.2. Volume flow rate .......................................................................................4 3.2.1.3. Mass flow rate............................................................................................4

3.2.2. Mean velocity.....................................................................................................5 3.2.2.1. Velocity profiles.........................................................................................5 3.2.2.2. Mean velocity.............................................................................................5

3.3. Continuity of flow......................................................................................................8 3.3.1. Conservation of mass.........................................................................................8 3.3.2. Continuity equation for steady flow ................................................................10

3.4. Momentum equation and its applications ................................................................12 3.4.1. Momentum in a flowing fluid ..........................................................................12 3.4.2. Momentum equation for two- and three-dimensional flow along a stream line 13 3.4.3. Force exerted by a jet striking a flat plate........................................................14

3.4.3.1. Stationary flat plate ..................................................................................14 3.4.3.1.1. Case: Inclined plate...............................................................................14 3.4.3.1.2. Case: Vertical plate (θ = 90°) ...............................................................15

3.4.3.2. Hinged plate .............................................................................................18 3.4.3.3. Moving plate ............................................................................................21

3.4.3.3.1. Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate........................................22 3.4.3.3.2. Work done per second by the jet on the plate.......................................22 3.4.3.3.3. Efficiency of transmission of the jet .....................................................23 3.4.3.3.4. Case: vertical plate (θ = 90°) ................................................................24

3.4.4. Force due to the deflection of a jet by a curved vane ......................................26 3.4.4.1. Stationary curved vane.............................................................................26

3.4.4.1.1. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at the centre ......................................26 3.4.4.1.2. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at one end tangentially .....................28

3.4.4.2. Moving curved vane ................................................................................33 3.4.4.2.1. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at the centre ......................................33 3.4.4.2.2. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at one end .........................................36

3.5. Energy of a flowing fluid.........................................................................................42 3.5.1. Conservation of energy ....................................................................................42

3.5.1.1. First law of thermodynamics ...................................................................42 3.5.1.2. Forms of energy .......................................................................................42

3.5.2. Energy of the fluid ...........................................................................................43 3.5.2.1. Kinetic energy..........................................................................................43

3.5.2.1.1. Definition ..............................................................................................43



3.5.2.1.2. Kinetic energy per unit weight..............................................................43 3.5.2.1.3. Kinetic energy per unit volume.............................................................43

3.5.2.2. Potential energy .......................................................................................44 3.5.2.2.1. Definition ..............................................................................................44 3.5.2.2.2. Potential energy per unit weight ...........................................................44 3.5.2.2.3. Potential energy per unit volume ..........................................................44

3.5.2.3. Internal energy .........................................................................................44 3.5.2.3.1. Definition ..............................................................................................44

3.5.2.4. Pressure energy ........................................................................................45 3.5.2.4.1. Definition ..............................................................................................45 3.5.2.4.2. Pressure energy per unit weight ............................................................45

3.5.3. External energy (shaft work) ...........................................................................45 3.5.3.1. Definition .................................................................................................45

3.5.4. Heat exhange between the fluid and the surroundings ....................................46 3.5.5. Steady flow energy equation............................................................................46

3.5.5.1. General equation ......................................................................................46 3.5.5.1.1. Mathematical form................................................................................47 3.5.5.1.2. Validity of the equation ........................................................................47

3.5.5.2. Bernoulli's equation .................................................................................47 3.5.5.2.1. Background...........................................................................................47 3.5.5.2.2. Bernoulli's equation for frictionless incompressible flow ....................48 3.5.5.2.3. General expression of Bernoulli's equation for incompressible flow ...50 3.5.5.2.4. Validity of the equation ........................................................................51

3.5.5.3. Euler's equation........................................................................................55 3.5.5.3.1. Background...........................................................................................55 3.5.5.3.2. Mathematical form................................................................................56 3.5.5.3.3. Notes .....................................................................................................56

3.5.6. Power in fluid flow ..........................................................................................57 3.5.6.1. Definition .................................................................................................57

3.5.7. Application of Bernoulli's equation .................................................................58 3.5.7.1. Pitot tube ..................................................................................................58

3.5.7.1.1. Background...........................................................................................58 3.5.7.1.2. Description............................................................................................58 3.5.7.1.3. Stagnation pressure ...............................................................................59 3.5.7.1.4. Measurement of flow velocity in a pitot tube .......................................59 3.5.7.1.5. Other arrangements of pitot tube ..........................................................60 3.5.7.1.6. Energy line and hydraulic grade line ....................................................61

3.5.7.1.6.1. Bernoulli's equation for steady, frictionless, incompressible flow 61 3.5.7.1.6.2. Energy line .....................................................................................61 3.5.7.1.6.3. Hydraulic grade line.......................................................................61 3.5.7.1.6.4. Representation of energy line and hydraulic grade line.................61

3.5.7.2. Venturi meter ...........................................................................................62 3.5.7.2.1. Background...........................................................................................62 3.5.7.2.2. Description............................................................................................62 3.5.7.2.3. Measurement of flow rate in a venturi meter........................................63

3.5.7.3. Orifice ......................................................................................................69 3.5.7.3.1. Velocity of the jet..................................................................................69 3.5.7.3.2. Discharge ..............................................................................................70 3.5.7.3.3. Vena contracta ......................................................................................70 3.5.7.3.4. Relation between Cd, Cv, and Cc ...........................................................71



3.6. Problems ..................................................................................................................74



3.1. Objectives After completing this chapter students should be able to:

3.2. Discharge and mean velocity

3.2.1. Discharge

3.2.1.1. Definition

It is a total quantity of fluid flowing in unit time past any particular cross-section of a stream.

It can be measured either in terms of mass (mass flow rate) or in terms of volume (volume flow rate).

3.2.1.2. Volume flow rate

It is a volume of flowing fluid per unit time.

Unit: unit of volume/unit of time, m³/s.

Mathematical expression:

d

: velocity of flowing fluid at a point in the cross-section

normal to the section

d : element of area of the point

Q u A

u

A

= ∫

• If v is the mean velocity of the flowing fluid across the section

: cros-section of the stream

: mean velocity of the flow passing through the section

Q Av

A

v

=

3.2.1.3. Mass flow rate

It is a mass of flowing fluid per unit time.

Unit: unit of volume/unit of time, kg/s.



Mathematical expression:

: mass density of the flowing fluid

: cross-section of the stream

: mean velocity of the flow passing through the section

m Av Q

A

v

= ρ = ρ

ρ

i

3.2.2. Mean velocity

3.2.2.1. Velocity profiles

3.2.2.2. Mean velocity

Qv

A=

Example No. 3 - 1

Air flows between two parallel plates 80 mm apart. The following velocities were obtained from experiment.

Distance from lower plate (mm) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Velocity (m/s) 0 23 28 31 32 29 22 14 0

Determine the velocity distribution curve and the mean velocity.



Solution

Velocity distribution curve

Discharge

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

d

d width of the plate d d

d

d area enclosed by the curve

Q u A

A y b y

Q b u y

u y

a a a a a a a a

=

= × =

⇒ =

=

= + + + + + + +

∫

∫

∫

By assuming that each area is a triangle or trapezium,

1( 0 23) (10 0 )

1152

a+ × −

= =

2( 23 28) ( 20 10)

2552

a+ × −

= =

3( 28 31) (30 20)

2952

a+ × −

= =

4(31 32) ( 40 30)

3152

a+ × −

= =



5(32 29) (50 40)

3052

a+ × −

= =

6( 29 22) ( 60 50)

2552

a+ × −

= =

7( 22 14) ( 70 60)

1802

a+ × −

= =

8(14 0) (80 70)

702

a+ × −

= =

• Total area enclosed by the curve

d 1790u y =∫

• Discharge

1790Q b=

Cross-sectional area of the stream

80A b=

Mean velocity

1790 22.4 m/s80

Q bvA b

= = =

Example No. 3 - 2

If 70 litres of oil can be discharge from a tank within 50 seconds, determine the flow rate in m³/s. If the oil is discharged using a pipe of 50 mm diameter, find the average velocity of the flow.



Solution

Flow rate

3 3 3 3volume discharged 70 10 m 1.4 10 m /sdischarged time 50 s

Q−

−×= = = ×

Average velocity

3 3

-3 22

1.4 10 m /s 0.713 m/s(50 10 )

m4

QQ vA v

A

−×= ⇔ = = =π× ×

3.3. Continuity of flow

3.3.1. Conservation of mass

Formulated by Lavoisier1

Matter cannot be created nor destroyed.

1 Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

born Aug. 26, 1743 died May 8, 1794

French nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and economics.

The "father of modern chemistry," he stated the first version of the Law of conservation of matter, recognized and named oxygen (1778), disproved the phlogiston theory, introduced the Metric system, invented the first periodic table including 33 elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also an investor and administrator of the "Ferme Générale," a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the Banque de France); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils.

Having also served as a leading financier and public administrator before the French Revolution, he was guillotined at the age of 51 with other financiers during the revolutionary terror.

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106472



• Note:

This statement does not apply to nuclear reaction, where matter can be transformed into energy.

Conservation of mass applied to a flowing fluid

A system is composed of the same quantity of matter at all times.

Increase of massMass of fluid entering Mass of fluid leaving

of fluid in the controlper unit time per unit time

volume per unit time

= +

• For steady flow

Mass of fluid entering Mass of fluid leaving

per unit time per unit time

=



3.3.2. Continuity equation for steady flow

General expression for continuity equation

1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2constant constantm m A v A v= = ⇔ ρ = ρ =i i

In a steady flow, the mass flow rate through any section of the flow is

constant.

Case: incompressible flow

1 2 1 1 2 2

1 2

constant constant

constant

A v A v

Q Q

ρ = ρ = ⇔ = =

⇔ = =

In a steady incompressible flow, the volume flow rate through any section

of the flow is constant.

Example No. 3 - 3

Consider a piping system as shown. Velocity of water entering the pipe AB is 4.5 m/s and velocity of water leaving pipe CD is 1.5 m/s. Determine the velocity of flow in pipes BC and CE, and the total discharge.



Solution

Velocity of flow in pipes BC and CE

Continuity equation

1 2 3 4

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

22 2 231 2 4

1 2 3 4

2 2 2 21 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

2 2 2 22 4

2

2 2

2 2

4 2

4 4 4 4

( 0.05) 4.5 ( 0.075) ( 0.071) 1.5 ( 0.03)

( 0.05)4.5 2 m/s

( 0.075)

( 0.05) 4.5 ( 0.071) 1.54

( 0.03)

Q Q Q Q

A v A v A v A v

dd d dv v v v

d v d v d v d v

v v

v

v

= = +

⇔ = = +

ππ π π⇔ = = +

⇔ = = +

⇔ × = × = × + ×

= × =

⇔× − ×

= = .1 m/s

Total discharge

total 1 2 3 4

21

total 1 1 1 1

23 3

total

4

( 0.05)4.5 8.836 10 m /s

4

Q Q Q Q Q

dQ Q A v v

Q −

= = = +

π⇔ = = =

π×⇔ = × = ×



3.4. Momentum equation and its applications

3.4.1. Momentum in a flowing fluid

Momentum of a particle or object is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity:

Momentum mv=

• Change of velocity (in magnitude and/or in direction) will change the momentum.

Consider a control volume

Newton's second law of motion

The resultant force acting on a fluid mass is simply the product of its mass

and its acceleration.

F mavat

m vFt

=∆

=∆∆

⇒ =∆

Impulse-momentum equation

2 1( )F t m v m v v∆ = ∆ = −

Impulse of force acting on a fluid mass in a short interval of time is equal to

the change of momentum in the direction of force.



Momentum equation • Also called law of conservation of momentum or momentum principle.

2 1( )mF v m v vt

= ∆ = −∆

i

The net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the rate of change in

momentum (change in momentum per unit time).

By Newton's third law (Action-Reaction), the fluid will exert an equal force but in opposite direction on the surroundings (solid boundary or body

of fluid producing the change of velocity).

• Force exerted by the fluid on the surroundings

1 2( )F m v v= −i

Notes:

Force, impulse and momentum are vectors.

3.4.2. Momentum equation for two- and three-dimensional flow along a stream line

It is obtained by decomposing the momentum equation into x, y, and z direction.

2 1

2 1 2 1

2 1

( )

( ) ( )

( )

x x x

y y y

z z z

F m v v

F m v v F m v v

F m v v

= −

= − ⇔ = −

= −

i

i i

i



Force exerted by the fluid on the surroundings

1 2

1 2 1 2

1 2

( )

( ) ( )

( )

x x x

y y y

z z z

F m v v

F m v v F m v v

F m v v

= −

= − ⇔ = −

= −

i

i i

i

Notes:

For two-dimensional flow, two of the three equations above will be used.

3.4.3. Force exerted by a jet striking a flat plate

3.4.3.1. Stationary flat plate

3.4.3.1.1. Case: Inclined plate

Schematic diagram

Let x be the horizontal axis, positive to the right.

Let y be the vertical axis, positive upward.

Let n be the normal axis to the plate.

1 21 2

1 2

( )( )

( )

x x x

y y y

F m v vF m v v

F m v v

= −= − ⇔

= −

ii

i

The force must be normal to the plate. It means both components of force (in x and y directions) will be present. To simplify, let's consider the normal direction to the plate.



Force component in normal direction

1 2

jet jet

1

jet

2

jet jet j

( )

: mass flow rate of the jet

: velocity of the jet striking the plate in normal directionsin

: velocity of the jet after impact in normal direction0

(

n n n

n

n

n

F m v v

mA v

vv

v

F A v v

= −

= ρ

= θ

=

⇒ = ρ

i

i

et

2jet jet

sin 0 )

sinnF A v

θ−

⇔ = ρ θ

Force component in x- and y-direction

2 2jet jet

2jet jet

sin sin

cos sin cos

x n

y n

F F A v

F F A v

= θ = ρ θ

= θ = ρ θ θ

3.4.3.1.2. Case: Vertical plate (θ = 90°)

Schematic diagram



Force exerted by the fluid on the plate

2jet jet

0

x

y

F A v

F

= ρ

=

Example No. 3 - 4

A flat plate is struck normally by a jet of water 50 mm in diameter. If the discharge is 0.0353 m³/s, calculate the force on the plate when it is stationary.

Solution

Schematic diagram

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate

2jet jet

jet

3 23 2

jet

3

3 2jet

3 2

: area of the jet

(50 10 )1.96 10 m

4

: velocity of the jet

0.0353 m /s 17.98 m/s1.96 10 m

1000 1.96 10 (17.98) 633.5 N

F A v

A

v

QA

F

−−

−

−

= ρ

π× ×= = ×

= = =×

⇒ = × × × =



Example No. 3 - 5

A jet of water of diameter 75 mm moving with a velocity of 25 m/s strikes a fixed plate in such a way that the angle between the jet and the plate is 60°. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate:

a. in the direction normal to the plate. b. in the direction of the jet.

Solution

Schematic diagram

Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate

2jet jet

jet

3 23 2

3 2

sin

: cross-sectional area of the jet

( 75 10 )4.42 10 m

4

1000 ( 4.42 10 ) 25 sin 60 2391.2 N

n

n

F A v

A

F

−−

−

= ρ θ

π× ×= = ×

⇒ = × × × × =

Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of the jet

sin 2391.2 sin 60 2070.9 Nx nF F= θ = × =



3.4.3.2. Hinged plate

Schematic diagram

Forces acting on the plate • Normal force due to water jet (see stationary flat plate)

2jet jet sinnF A v= ρ θ

• Weight of the plate, W

Equilibrium of the plate • Moment about the hinge (point O)

( )A' G

A 2jet jet G

2A jet jet G

2A jet jet

G

2A jet jet1

G

0 0

sin ( cos ) 0sin

cos 0

cos

or cos

n xM d F d W

dA v d W

d A v d W

d A v

d W

d A v

d W−

= ⇔ × − × =

⇔ × ρ θ − θ × = θ

⇔ ρ − θ =

ρ⇔ θ =

ρ θ =

∑



Example No. 3 - 6

A rectangular plate weighing 60 N is supported vertically by a hinge on the top horizontal edge. The centre of gravity of the plate is 100 mm from the hinge. A horizontal jet of water 20 mm diameter whose axis is 150 mm below the hinge impinges normally on the plate with a velocity of 5 m/s. Find:

a. the horizontal force applied at centre of gravity to maintain the plate in its vertical position.

b. the corresponding velocity of the jet if the plate is deflected through 30° and the same force continues to act at the plate.



Solution

Horizontal force applied at centre of gravity to maintain the plate in its vertical position

Forces acting on the plate • Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate

2jet jet

jet

3 24 2

4 2


( 20 10 )3.14 10 m

4

1000 (3.14 10 ) 5 7.85 N

x

x

F A v

A

F

−−

−

= ρ

π× ×= = ×

⇒ = × × × =

• Weight of the plate, W = 60 N • Horizontal force applied to the plate to maintain the plate in its vertical

position, FC

Equilibrium of the plate • Moment about the hinge

3 30 (150 10 ) (100 10 ) 0 0

0.15 7.85 0.1

11.78 N

x C

C

C

M F F W

F

F

− −= ⇔ × × − × × + × =

⇔ × =

⇔ =

∑

Corresponding velocity of the jet if the plate is deflected through 30° and the same force continues to act at the plate

Forces acting on the plate • Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate

2jet jet

jet

4 2

4 2 2jet jet

sin


3.14 10 m

: angle between the jet and the plate

90 30 60

1000 (3.14 10 ) sin 60 0.27

n

n

F A v

A

F v v

−

−

= ρ θ

= ×

θ

= − =

⇒ = × × × × =



• Weight of the plate, W = 60 N • Horizontal force applied to the plate to maintain the plate in its vertical

position, FC = 11.78 N

Equilibrium of the plate • Moment about the hinge

2jet

2jet

jet

0

0.15 ( 0.1 cos30 ) ( 0.1 sin 30 ) 0cos30

0.17 0.27 0.087 11.78 0.05 60 0

0.047 4.025

4.025 9.28 m/s0.047

n C

M

F F W

v

v

v

=

⇔ × − × × − × × =

⇔ × − × − × =

⇔ =

⇔ = =

∑

3.4.3.3. Moving plate

Schematic diagram

Let: • vjet : absolute velocity of the jet • u : velocity of the plate

• θ : angle between the jet and the plate



Velocity diagram

jet jetr rv u v v v u= + ⇔ = −

The component vr = (vjet - u) is the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the plate. It is the velocity with which the jet strikes the plate. It may be thought that the jet strikes a stationary inclined flat plate at a velocity of vr = (vjet - u).

3.4.3.3.1. Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate

As in the case of stationary inclined flat plate, using the same method, we obtain:

2 2jet jet jet

jet

sin ( ) sin

where : normal force exterted by the jet on the moving plate: mass density of the fluid: cross-sectional area of the jet

: relative velocity of the jet with re

n r

n

r

F A v A v u

F

A

v

= ρ θ = ρ − θ

ρ

jet

spect to the plate: initial velocity of the jet

: velocity of the plate: angle between the jet and the plate

v

uθ

Force components in horizontal and vertical direction

2 2 2 2jet jet jet

2 2jet jet jet

sin sin ( ) sin

cos sin cos ( ) sin cos

x n r

y n r

F F A v A v u

F F A v A v u

= θ = ρ θ = ρ − θ

= θ = ρ θ θ = ρ − θ θ

Notes:

If the plate moves toward the jet, the relative velocity will become vr = (v + u). Hence, the normal force will be:

2 2jet jet jetsin ( ) sinn rF A v A v u= ρ θ = ρ + θ

3.4.3.3.2. Work done per second by the jet on the plate

It may be thought as power transmitted by the jet to the plate.



Work done by the jet on the plate

displacement of the plate( sin )

n

n

x

W FW F xW F x

=

⇔ = θ ×∆

⇔ = ×∆

i

• Unit: N.m

Work done per second by the jet on the plate

2 2 2 2jet jet jet

Work done by the jet on the plateelapsed time

t t

sin ( ) sin

x

x r

P

F xWP

P F u A v u A v u u

=

×∆⇔ = =

∆ ∆

⇔ = = ρ θ = ρ − θ

• Unit: N.m/s or watt (W)

Notes: • In the case of stationary plate, the work done is zero, because there is no

displacement of the plate.

3.4.3.3.3. Efficiency of transmission of the jet

If the plate is moving because of the jet strikes on it, it may be necessary to calculate the efficiency of transmission of the jet.

Initial power of the jet

jet21

jet 22jet jet

2 2jet jet jet jet jet

3jet jet jet

Kinetic energy of the jet per second

12

1 12 212

P

mv mP vt t

P m v A v v

P A v

=

⇔ = = × ×∆ ∆

⇔ = × × = ×ρ ×

⇔ = ρ

i

Efficiency of transmission

2 2jet jet

31jet jet2

2 2jet

3jet

( ) sinPower transmittedInitial power of the jet

2( ) sin

A v u u

A v

v u u

v

ρ − θη = =

ρ

− θ⇔ η =



3.4.3.3.4. Case: vertical plate (θ = 90°)

Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate

2 2jet jet jet( )

0x n r

y

F F A v A v u

F

= = ρ = ρ −

=

Work done per second by the jet on the plate

2 2jet jet jet( )x rP F u A v u A v u u= = ρ = ρ −

Efficiency of transmission

2jet

3jet

2( )v u u

v

−η =

Example No. 3 - 7

A flat plate is struck normally by a jet of water 50 mm in diameter. If the discharge is 0.0353 m³/s, calculate the force on the plate, the work done per second and the efficiency when it moves in the same direction as the jet at 6 m/s.



Solution

Schematic diagram

Force on the plate

2jet jet

jet

3 23 2

jet

3

3 2jet

3 2

( )

: diameter of the jet

(50 10 )1.96 10 m

4

: velocity of the jet

0.0353 m /s 17.98 m/s1.96 10 m

1000 1.96 10 (17.98 6) 281.3 N

x n

x

F F A v u

A

v

QA

F

−−

−

−

= = ρ −

π× ×= = ×

= = =×

⇒ = × × − =

Work done per second

281.3 6 1687.8 N.m/sxP F u= = × =

Efficiency • Initial power of the jet

3 3 3jet jet jet

1 1 1000 (1.96 10 ) (17.98) 5696.3 N.m/s2 2

P A v −= ρ = × × × × =



• Efficiency

jet

1687.8 0.2963 29.63%5696.3

PP

η = = = =

3.4.4. Force due to the deflection of a jet by a curved vane

3.4.4.1. Stationary curved vane

3.4.4.1.1. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at the centre

Schematic diagram

Observation • The jet is deflected by the curved vane. • The jet leaves the vane in the tangential direction of the curved vane at

outlet at an angle β which is the angle of the vane at outlet. • If there is no loss (no loss due to impact of the jet, and the vane is

smooth), the jet will leave the vane with the same velocity as the coming jet.



Momentum equation in x-direction

1 2

jet jet

1

jet

2

( )

: force exerted by the jet on the vane in -direction


: velocity of the coming jet in -direction

: velocity of the jet leaving the vane

x x x

x

x

x

F m v v

F x

mA v

v xv

v

= −

= ρ

=

i

i

jet

jet jet jet jet

2jet jet

in -directioncos

( cos )

(1 cos )

x

x

xv

F A v v v

F A v

= − β

⇒ = ρ + β

⇔ = ρ + β

Example No. 3 - 8

A jet of water of diameter 50 mm moving with a velocity of 40 m/s, strikes a fixed symmetrical curved plate at the centre. Find the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of the jet, if the jet is deflected through an angle of 120° at the outlet of the curved plate.

Solution

Schematic diagram



Force exerted by the jet in the direction of the jet

2jet jet

3 23 2

jet

3 2

(1 cos )

(50 10 )1.963 10 m

4

1000 (1.963 10 ) ( 40 ) (1 cos(180 120 ))

4712.4 N

x

x

x

F A v

A

F

F

−−

−

= ρ + β

π× ×= = ×

⇒ = × × × × + −

⇔ =

3.4.4.1.2. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at one end tangentially

Schematic diagram

Observation

• The jet strikes the vane at an angle α which is the angle of the vane at inlet.

• The jet leaves the vane at an angle β which is the angle of the vane at outlet.

• If there is no loss (no loss due to impact of the jet, and the vane is smooth), the jet will leave the vane with the same velocity as the coming jet.



Momentum equation in x-direction

1 2

jet jet

1

jet

2

( ): force exerted by the jet on the vane in -direction


: velocity of the coming jet in -directioncos

: velocity of the jet leaving the

x x x

x

x

x

F m v vF x

mA v

v xv

v

= −

= ρ

= α

i

i

jet

jet jet jet jet

2jet jet

vane in -directioncos

( cos cos )

(cos cos )

x

x

xv

F A v v v

F A v

= − β

⇒ = ρ α + β

⇔ = ρ α + β

• If the vane is symmetrical (α = β)

2jet jet2 cosxF A v= ρ α

Momentum equation in y-direction

1 2

1

jet

2

jet

jet j

( )

: force exerted by the jet on the vane in -direction

: velocity of the coming jet in -direction

sin

: velocity of the jet leaving the vane in -direction

sin

y y y

y

y

y

y

F m v v

F y

v y

v

v y

v

F A v

= −

= α

= β

⇒ = ρ

i

et jet jet

2jet jet

( sin sin )

(sin sin )y

v v

F A v

α − β

⇔ = ρ α − β

• If the vane is symmetrical (α = β)

0yF =

Magnitude and direction of resultant force • Resultant force

2 2x yF F F= +



• Direction angle (with horizontal direction)

1tan tany y

x x

F FF F

−θ = ⇒ θ =

Example No. 3 - 9

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the vertical, horizontal and total force components exerted on the stationary blade by a 50 mm jet of water moving at 15 m/s as shown. Given: α = 30°, β = 45°.

Solution

Horizontal force

[ ]

2jet jet

3 23 2

jet

3 2

(cos cos )

(50 10 )1.96 10 m

4

1000 (1.96 10 ) (15) (cos30 cos 45 )

693.75 N

x

x

x

F A v

A

F

F

−−

−

= ρ α + β

π× ×= = ×

⇒ = × × × × +

⇔ = →



Vertical force

2jet jet

3 2

(sin sin )

1000 (1.96 10 ) (15) (sin 30 sin 45 )

91.33 N

y

y

y

F A v

F

F

−

= ρ α − β

⇔ = × × × × −

⇔ = − ↓

Total force • Magnitude

2 2 2 2( 693.75) ( 91.33) 699.74 Nx yF F F= + = + − =

• Direction angle with horizontal

91.33tan 0.1316 7.5693.75

y

x

F

F−θ = = = − ⇒ θ = −

Example No. 3 - 10

A jet of water from a nozzle is deflected through 60° from its original direction by a curved plate which it enters tangentially without shock with a velocity of 30 m/s and leaves with a mean velocity of 25 m/s. If the discharge from the nozzle is 0.8 kg/s, calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the vane, if the vane is stationary.

Solution

Schematic diagram



Horizontal force

[ ]

1 2 1 2( ) ( cos 60 )

0.8 (30 25 cos 60 )

14 N

x x x

x

x

F m v v m v v

F

F

= − = −

⇒ = × − ×

⇔ = →

i i

Vertical force

1 2 2( ) ( 0 sin 60 )

0.8 ( 25 sin 60 )

17.32 N

y y y

y

y

F m v v m v

F

F

= − = −

⇒ = × − ×

⇔ = − ↓

i i

Total force • Magnitude

2 2 2 2(14) ( 17.32) 22.27 Nx yF F F= + = + − =

• Direction angle with horizontal

17.32tan 1.237 51.0514

y

x

F

F−θ = = = − ⇒ θ = −



3.4.4.2. Moving curved vane

3.4.4.2.1. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at the centre

Schematic diagram

Velocity diagram

r rv u v v v u= + ⇔ = −

The component vr = (vjet - u) is the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the vane. It is the velocity with which the jet strikes the vane. It may be thought that the jet strikes a stationary curved vane at a velocity of vr = (vjet - u).

Force exerted by the jet on the moving vane in x-direction (direction of the jet)

As in the case of stationary curved vane, using the same method, we obtain:



2jet jet

jet

jet

( ) (1 cos )

: force exerted by the jet on the vane in -direction: relative velocity of the jet with respect to the vane

: velocity of the jet striking the vane

: velocity o

x

x

r

F A v u

F xv u

vv

u

= ρ − + β

−

=

f the vane

Work done per second by the jet on the vane (power transmitted by the jet to the vane) • Work done by the jet on the vane

displacement of the vane

x

W FW F x

=⇔ = ×∆

i

• Unit: N.m

Work done per second by the jet on the vane

2 2jet jet jet

Work done by the jet on the vaneelapsed time

t t

(1 cos ) ( ) (1 cos )

x

x r

P

F xWP

P F u A v u A v u u

=

×∆⇔ = =

∆ ∆

⇔ = = ρ + β = ρ − + β


Efficiency of transmission of the jet • Initial power of the jet

3jet jet jet

1Kinetic energy of the jet per second2

P A v= = ρ

• Efficiency of transmission

2jet jet

31jet jet2

2jet

3jet

( ) (1 cos )Power transmittedInitial power of the jet

2( ) (1 cos )

A v u u

A v

v u u

v

ρ − + βη = =

ρ

− + β⇔ η =



Example No. 3 - 11

A jet of water of diameter 7.5 cm strikes a curved plate at its centre with a velocity of 20 m/s. The curved plate is moving with a velocity of 8 m/s in the direction of the jet. The jet is deflected through an angle of 165°. Assuming the plate to be smooth, find:

a. the force exerted on the plate in the direction of the jet. b. the power of the jet. c. the efficiency of the jet.

Solution

Schematic diagram


2jet jet

2 22

jet

2

( ) (1 cos )

( 7.5 10 )0.004417 m

4

1000 0.004417 ( 20 8) (1 cos(180 165 ))

1250.38 N

x

x

x

F A v u

A

F

F

−

= ρ − + β

π× ×= =

⇒ = × × − × + −

⇔ =

Power of the jet

1250.38 8 10003.04 W 10 kWxP F u= = × = =



Efficiency of the jet

1 3jet jet2

1 32

Power transmitted 10003.04Initial power of the jet

10003.04 0.564 56.4%1000 0.004417 20

A vη = =

ρ

⇔ η = = =× × ×

3.4.4.2.2. Case: Jet strikes the curved vane at one end

Schematic diagram

Velocity triangle at inlet



• Notation:

v1 : velocity of the jet at inlet

1 11

1 1

: whirl velocity (parallel to ): flow velocity (perpendicular to )

w

f

v uv

v u=

α1 : angle of of the jet (with u1) at inlet

1 1 11

1 1 1

cossin

w

f

v vv

v v= α

== α

u1 : velocity of the vane at inlet

vr1 : relative velocity of the jet (with respect to the vane) at inlet

β1 : angle of the relative velocity of the jet (with u1) at inlet. It is also angle of the vane at inlet.

1 1 1 11

1 1 1

cossin

w r

f r

v u vv

v v= + β

== β

Velocity triangle at outlet

• Notation:

v2 : velocity of the jet leaving the vane at outlet

2 22

2 2

: whirl velocity (parallel to ): flow velocity (perpendicular to )

w

f

v uv

v u=

α2 : angle of of the leaving jet (with u2) at outlet

2 2 22

2 2 2

cossin

w

f

v vv

v v= α

== α



u2 : velocity of the vane at outlet

vr2 : relative velocity of the leaving jet (with respect to the vane) at outlet

β2 : angle of the relative velocity of the leaving jet (with u2) at outlet. It is also angle of the vane at outlet.

2 2 2 22

2 2 2

cossin

w r

f r

v u vv

v v= + β

== β

Force exerted by the jet on the vane in the direction of motion of the vane

In this case, the direction of motion of the vane is as indicated by the velocity u, i.e. in x-direction.

1 2

jet 1

1

1 1 1 1

2

( )

: mass flow rate of the jet striking the vane

: velocity of the jet striking the vane at inlet in -directioncos

: velocity of the jet leaving the vane at out

x x x

r

x

r w

x

F m v v

mA v

v xv v u

v

= −

= ρ

= β = −

i

i

[ ]

[ ]

2 2 2 2

jet 1 1 1 2 2

jet 1 1 1 2 2

let in -directioncos ( )

cos cos

or

( ) ( )

r w

x r r r

x r w w

xv u v

F A v v v

F A v v u u v

= β = − −

⇒ = ρ β − β

⇔ = ρ − + −

Work done per second by the jet on the vane (power transmitted by the jet to the vane) • Work done by the jet on the vane at inlet

1

displacement of the vane at inlet

x

W FW F x

=⇔ = ×∆

i

• Unit: N.m

Work done per second by the jet on the vane at inlet

1

Work done by the jet on the vane at inletelapsed time

x

P

F xWPt t

=

×∆⇔ = =

∆ ∆



[ ]

1 jet 1 1 1 2 2 1

1 jet 1 1 1 2 2 1

( cos cos )

or

( ) ( )

x r r r

x r w w

P F u A v v v u

P F u A v v u u v u

⇔ = = ρ β − β

⇔ = = ρ − + −


Notes: • To calculate the work done by the jet on the vane at outlet, replace u1 with u2.

• u1 is different than u2 can be found in Francis2 turbine or in centrifugal pump.

Francis turbine

2 James Bicheno Francis

born May 18, 1815 died Sept. 18, 1892

British-American hydraulic engineer and inventor of Francis turbine that was used for low-pressure installations.

In 1833 Francis went to the United States and was hired by the engineer G.W. Whistler to help construct the Stonington (Conn.) Railway. In Lowell he joined the Proprietors of the Locks and Canals on the Merrimack River as a draftsman and at age 22 became chief engineer of the company.

In his 40 years of managing the company's waterpower interests and acting as a consulting waterpower engineer to factories, he contributed greatly to the rise of Lowell as an industrial centre.

He also investigated timber preservation, the testing and design of cast-iron girders, and fire protection systems. In addition to the Francis turbine, he is known for his formulas for the flow of water over weirs and many other hydraulic studies. Francis wrote more than 200 technical papers and, although unschooled, was considered one of the foremost civil engineers of his time.

Source: Encyclopædia Britannica



• u1 is the same as u2 can be found in Pelton3 wheel.

Pelton wheel

3 Lester Allen Pelton

born 1829 died March 14, 1908

US engineer who developed a highly efficient water turbine used to drive both mechanical devices and hydroelectric power turbines using large heads of water. The Pelton wheel remains the only hydraulic turbine of the impulse type in common use today.

From Ohio, Pelton joined the California gold rush at the age of 20. He observed the water wheels used at the mines to power machinery, and came up with improvements. By 1879 he had tested a prototype at the University of California. A patent was granted 1889, and he later sold the rights to the Pelton Water Wheel Company of San Francisco.

The energy to drive these wheels was supplied by powerful jets of water which struck the base of the wheel on hemispherical cups. Pelton's discovery was that the wheel rotated more rapidly, and hence developed more power, with the jet striking at the inside edge of the cups, rather than the centre; he built a wheel with split cups.

By the time of his death, Pelton wheels developing thousands of horsepower in hydroelectric schemes at efficiencies of more than 90% were in operation.

Source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/P/Pelton/1.html



Example No. 3 - 12

Calculate the force exerted by the jet (50 mm diameter) on the moving blade as shown.

Solution

Velocity triangle at inlet

Velocity triangle at outlet


jet 1 1 1 2 2

3 23 2

jet

1

2

( cos cos )

(50 10 )1.96 10 m

4

0

180

x r r rF A v v v

A−

−

= ρ β − β

π× ×= = ×

β =

β =



1 2

1 1

2 3jet 1

(we assume no loss, smooth vane surface)

45 30 15 m/s

2 2 1000 (1.96 10 ) 15 882 N

r r

r

x r

v v

v v u

F A v −

=

= − = − =

⇒ = ρ = × × × × =

3.5. Energy of a flowing fluid

3.5.1. Conservation of energy

3.5.1.1. First law of thermodynamics

For any mass system, the net energy supplied to the system equals the

increase of energy of the system plus the energy leaving the system.

in outE E E= + ∆

3.5.1.2. Forms of energy

Energy of the fluid • Mechanical energy of the fluid

o Kinetic energy o Potential energy

• Internal energy of the fluid • Pressure energy or flow energy or flow work

External energy (shaft work)



• Work taken from the fluid • Work supplied to the fluid

Heat exchange between the fluid and the surroundings

3.5.2. Energy of the fluid

3.5.2.1. Kinetic energy

3.5.2.1.1. Definition

It is due to the velocity of the mass of fluid.

1 22

: mass of fluid, kg

: mean velocity of the flow, m/s

KE mv

m

v

=

Unit : Joule or N.m

3.5.2.1.2. Kinetic energy per unit weight

It is also called velocity head.

2

2

2

: gravitational acceleration, m/s

vvKEh

mg g

g

= =

Unit : m

3.5.2.1.3. Kinetic energy per unit volume

It is also called dynamic pressure.

2dynamic

3

1volume 2

: mass density of fluid, kg/m

KEp v= = ρ

ρ

Unit : N/m² or Pa



3.5.2.2. Potential energy


It is due to the mass of fluid being at a height above the datum level and acted upon by gravity.

2

: mass of fluid, kg


: elevation above the datum level, m

PE mgz

m

g

z

=

Unit : Joule or N.m

Notes :

We are usually interested only in difference of elevation, therefore the datum plane can be placed anywhere by considerations of convenience.

3.5.2.2.2. Potential energy per unit weight

It is also called potential head or elevation head.

zPEh zmg

= =

Unit : m

3.5.2.2.3. Potential energy per unit volume

It is also called hydrostatic pressure.

hydrostatic

3

volume


PEp gz= = ρ

ρ

Unit : N/m² or Pa

3.5.2.3. Internal energy


It is due to the activity of the molecules of the fluid forming the mass (motion of molecules and forces of attraction between them).



See Thermodynamics course for more detailed information.

Notation : • Internal energy per unit mass: e (unit : Joule/kg or N.m/kg) • Internal energy per unit weight: e/g (unit : m)

3.5.2.4. Pressure energy


It is due to the pressure force exerted to the cross-sectional area of the control volume which makes the fluid moves a short distance s.

2

2

pressure energy volume of displacement

: pressure exerted on the fluid, N/m

: cross-sectional area where the fluid enters the control volume, m

: displacement of the fluid, m

pAs p

p

A

s

= = ×

It is also called flow energy or flow work

Unit : Joule or N.m

3.5.2.4.2. Pressure energy per unit weight

It is also called pressure head.

2

3

2

pressure energy volume

: static pressure, N/m



pp p

hmg mg g

p

g

×= = =

ρ

ρ

Unit : m

3.5.3. External energy (shaft work)

3.5.3.1. Definition

It is additional (external) work supplied into (or taken from) the flowing fluid.



Example: • Pump : gives energy to the flowing fluid. • Turbine : takes energy from the fluid.

Notes : • If the work is supplied to the system, the direction is from surroundings into

the system. • If the work is taken from the system, the direction is from the system to

surroundings.

3.5.4. Heat exhange between the fluid and the surroundings

It can be heat supplied to the system or taken from the system.

Example of heat supplied to the system: • The pipe is heated when the fluid is flowing inside.

Example of heat taken from the system: • Condensor in the refrigeration cycle.

Notes : • If the heat is supplied to the system, the direction is from surroundings into

the system. • If the heat is generated by the system (or taken from the system), the

direction is from the system to the surrounding.

3.5.5. Steady flow energy equation

3.5.5.1. General equation

Schematic diagram



Let: • q : the net heat supplied to the fluid per unit mass (sum of all heat given to

the fluid minus sum of all heat taken from the fluid). • w : the net work done by the fluid per unit mass (sum of all works taken

from the fluid minus sum of all works given to the fluid).

3.5.5.1.1. Mathematical form

It is derived from conservation of energy.

2 21 1 1 2 2 2

1 21 2

2 21 1 2 2

1 1 2 21 2

11 1

1

22 2

22 2

1 21 1 2 2

2 2or

2 2

: enthalpy of fluid at section 1

: enthalpy of fluid at section 2

2 2

p e v p e vq wz zg g g g g g g g

p v p ve z g q e z g w

p e H

p e H

v vH z g q H z g w

+ + + + = + + + +ρ ρ

+ + + + = + + + +ρ ρ

+ =ρ

+ =ρ

⇒ + + + = + + +

3.5.5.1.2. Validity of the equation

Steady flow

All fluids: liquids, vapour or gases (real or ideal fluids)

Continuous flow

3.5.5.2. Bernoulli's equation

3.5.5.2.1. Background

Derived from momentum equation by Daniel Bernoulli4.

4 Daniel Bernoulli

born Feb. 8, 1700, Groningen , Netherlands died Mar. 17, 1782, Basel, Switzerland

Dutch-born Swiss mathematician, son of Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748) and the nephew of Jacques Bernoulli both important mathematicians.



3.5.5.2.2. Bernoulli's equation for frictionless incompressible flow

Schematic diagram

At the age of 13 he was sent to Basel University to study philosophy and logic. He obtained his baccalaureate examinations in 1715 and went on to obtain his master's degree in 1716. During the time he studied philosophy at Basel, he was learning the methods of the calculus from his father and his older brother Nicolaus(II) Bernoulli.

He studied medicine at Heidelberg in 1718 and Strasbourg in 1719. He returned to Basel in 1720 to complete his doctorate in medicine.

Having failed to obtain an academic post in Basel, he went to Venice to study practical medicine. While in Venice he worked on mathematics and his first mathematical work was published in 1724. This consisted of four separate parts being four topics that had attracted his interest while in Venice.

In 1725, he and his brother Nikolaus (1695-1726) were invited to work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. These were the most fruitful years of Daniel Bernoulli's life, because of his collaboration with Leonhard Euler, who came to St. Petersburg in 1727.

In 1733 Daniel returned to Basel, where as a professor he taught botany and anatomy and later physiology and physics. His most important work was in the field of hydrodynamics (fluid mechanics). Bernoulli's Law was published in "Hydrodynamica" (1738), his most important work. In this book he also gave a theoretical explanation of the pressure of a gas on the walls of a container. Assuming that the gas comprised a large number of small particles, moving randomly and in straight lines at high velocity, he suggested that the pressure was caused by the impact of the particles on the wall. He is therefore considered one of the founders of the kinetic theory of gases.



Bernoulli's equation expressed in head (energy per unit weight)

2 2 21 1 2 21 2 constant

2 2 2p v p v p vz z z Hg g g g g g+ + = + + ⇔ + + = =

ρ ρ ρ

For steady incompressible flow of a frictionless fluid along a streamline, the total energy per unit weight (total head) remains constant from point to

point although its division between the three forms of energy may vary.

• Terms used o Pressure head (or pressure energy) o Velocity head (or kinetic energy) o Potential head (or potential energy) o Total head

It is the constant in the Bernoulli's equation (or sum of pressure head, velocity head and potential head).

o Piezometric head It is the sum of the pressure head and the potential head.

Piezometric headp

zg

= +ρ

Bernoulli's equation expressed in energy per unit volume

1 22

constant Tp v gz p+ ρ +ρ = =

• Terms used o Static pressure

It is the pressure measured by moving along with the fluid, thus being "statics" relative to the moving fluid. Another way to measure the static pressure is to connect a piezometer to the pipe wall.

Static pressure p=



o Dynamic pressure It is the pressure related to the velocity head.

21Dynamic pressure2v= ρ

o Hydrostatic pressure It is the pressure related to the potential head or elevation head.

Hydrostatic pressure gz= ρ

o Total pressure It is the pressure related to the total head (or sum of static pressure, dynamic pressure and hydrostatic pressure).

211 2Tp gH p v gz= ρ = + ρ +ρ

o Piezometric pressure It is the sum of the static pressure and the hydrostatic pressure.

Piezometric pressure p gz= +ρ

3.5.5.2.3. General expression of Bernoulli's equation for incompressible flow

Schematic diagram



Bernoulli's equation expressed in head (energy per unit weight)

2 21 1 2 2

1 22 2

: head supplied to the flowing fluid between 1 and 2 (ex: pump)

: work done per unit weight between 1 and 2 (ex: turbine)

: loss of head during the process from 1 t

p v p vz q z w h

g g g g

q

w

h

+ + + = + + + +ρ ρ

o 2

For steady incompressible flow along a streamline, the sum of heads entering the system is equal to the sum of heads

leaving the system.

3.5.5.2.4. Validity of the equation

Steady flow

Incompressible flow • This form of Bernoulli's equation is mainly used for liquids.

Continuous flow

Irrotational flow

Example No. 3 - 13

Gasoline (density 800 kg/m³) is flowing upward through a vertical pipeline which tapers from 30 cm to 15 cm diameter. A gasoline mercury differential manometer is connected between the pipe section to measure the rate of flow. The distance between the manometer tapping is 1 meter and gauge reading is 50 cm of mercury. Find:

a. the differential gauge reading in terms of gasoline head. b. Using Bernoulli's equation, find the flow rate.



Solution

Pressure gauge

( )

( )

1 2 1 A A B B 2

gasoline 1 A Hg A B gasoline B 2

gasoline 1 A B 2 Hg A B

gasoline 1 2 B A Hg B A

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

800 9.81 ( 1) 0.5 13600 9.81 ( 0.5)

70632 N/m

p p p p p p p p

g z z g z z g z z

g z z z z g z z

g z z z z g z z

− = − + − + −

= −ρ − −ρ − −ρ −

= −ρ − + − −ρ −

= −ρ − + − +ρ −

= − × × − + + × ×

= 2

Pressure gauge in terms of gasoline head

1 2

gasoline

70632 9 m of gasoline800 9.81

p ph

g−

= = =ρ ×

Flow rate • Bernoulli's equation

2 21 1 2 2

1 2gasoline gasoline2 2p v p v

z zg g g g+ + = + +

ρ ρ



2 21 2 2 1

1 2gasoline

2 22 1

2 22 1

2 2

9 12

8 2 9.81 156.96

p p v vz z

g g g

v vg

v v

−⇔ + − = −

ρ

−⇔ − =

⇔ − = × × =

• Continuity equation

1 1 2 2

2 21 2

1 2

2 21

2 1 1 12 22

4 4

( 0.3)4

( 0.15)

A v A v

d dv v

dv v v v

d

=

π π⇔ × = ×

⇔ = × = × =

• Velocity at 1

2 21 1

21

1

16 156.96

15 156.96

3.235 m/s

v v

v

v

− =

⇔ =

⇔ =

• Flow rate

2 21 3

1 1 1( 0.3)

3.235 0.23 m /s4 4d

Q A v vπ π×

= = × = × =

Notes:

From difference of pressure between 1 and 2, we have:

( )1 2 gasoline 1 2 B A Hg B A

Hg1 21 2 B A B A

gasoline gasoline

Hg1 21 2 B A

gasoline gasoline

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) 1

p p g z z z z g z z

p pz z z z z z

g

p pz z z z

g

− = −ρ − + − +ρ −

ρ−⇔ = − − − − + −

ρ ρ

ρ −⇔ + − = − − ρ ρ



From Bernoulli's equation, we have:

2 2 2 21 2 2 1 2 1

1 2gasoline 2 2 2p p v v v v

z zg g g g

− −+ − = − =

ρ

Combining both equation, we obtain:

2 2 Hg2 1B A

gasoline

Hg2 22 1 B A

gasoline

( ) 12

2 ( ) 1

v vz z

g

v v g z z

ρ −= − − ρ

ρ ⇔ − = − − ρ

Continuity equation

11 1 2 2 2 1 1

2

1

2: area ratio

AA v A v v v mv

A

Am

A

= ⇔ = =

=

Substituting continuity equation into previous equation, we have:

Hg2 21 1 B A

gasoline

Hg2 21 B A

gasoline

HgB A1 2 gasoline

( ) 2 ( ) 1

( 1) 2 ( ) 1

2 ( )1

( 1)

mv v g z z

m v g z z

g z zv

m

ρ − = − − ρ

ρ ⇔ − = − − ρ

ρ −⇒ = − ρ−

Volume flow rate

HgB A1 1 1 2 gasoline

2 ( )1

( 1)

g z zQ A v A

m

ρ −= = − ρ−

Remarks:

From the formula obtained, we observed that to calculate the flow rate, we do not need to know the position of section 1 and section 2 (z1 and z2). By knowing the difference of level of the fluid in the manometer (zB - zA), we can calculate the flow rate.



In general form:

1

2

manoB A1 2

mano

1

B A

2 ( )1

( 1)

: density of manometric fluid

: density of flowing fluid

: inlet area of the flowing fluid

: area ratio,

: difference of level in the manometer

AA

g z zQ A

m

A

m m

z z

ρ− = − ρ −

ρ

ρ

=

−

3.5.5.3. Euler's equation


Derived from momentum equation by Leonhard Euler5.

5 Leonhard Euler

born Apr. 15, 1707, Basel, Switzerland died Sept. 18, 1783, St Petersburg, Russia

Swiss mathematician, made important contributions to practically every area of pure and applied mathematics.

He entered the University in 1720, at the age of 14, first to obtain a general education before going on to more advanced studies. Johann Bernoulli soon discovered Euler's great potential for mathematics in private tuition that Euler himself engineered. Euler's own account given in his unpublished autobiographical writings.

In 1723 he completed his Master's degree in philosophy having compared and contrasted the philosophical ideas of Descartes and Newton. He began his study of theology in the autumn of 1723, following his father's wishes.

Euler obtained his father's consent to change to mathematics after Johann Bernoulli had used his persuasion. He completed his studies at the University of Basel in 1726. He had studied many mathematical works during his time in Basel. By 1726 Euler had already a paper in print, a short article on isochronous curves in a resisting medium. In 1727 he published another article on reciprocal trajectories and submitted an entry for the 1727 Grand Prize of the Paris Academy on the best arrangement of masts on a ship.



3.5.5.3.2. Mathematical form

0p vdv gdz∂+ + =

ρ

3.5.5.3.3. Notes

Bernoulli's equation for frictionless incompressible flow can be easily obtained by integrating Euler's equation.

2

2

constant

constant (incompressible flow)

constant2

or

constant2

p vdv gdz

p v gz

p v zg g

∂+ + =

ρρ =

⇒ + + =ρ

⇒ + + =ρ

∫ ∫ ∫

Bernoulli's equation for frictionless compressible flow can be obtained from Euler's equation by knowing the equation of state which relates the pressure, the density and the temperature. • Isothermal process (T = constant)

o Equation of state

1

1

constant (because is constant)p RT C T

pC

= = =ρ

⇔ ρ =

In April 1727 Euler left Basel for St Petersburg where, later, he joined the St. Petersburg Academy of Science. Through the requests of Daniel Bernoulli and Jakob Hermann, Euler was appointed to the mathematical-physical division of the Academy.

Euler served as a medical lieutenant in the Russian navy from 1727 to 1730. In St Petersburg he lived with Daniel Bernoulli. He became professor of physics at the academy in 1730 and, since this allowed him to became a full member of the Academy, he was able to give up his Russian navy post.

When Daniel Bernoulli who held the senior chair in mathematics at the Academy left St Petersburg to return to Basel in 1733 it was Euler who was appointed to this senior chair of mathematics.

Euler became totally blind in 1771 but loss of sight did not lessen his output, which included writings on optics, algebra, and the theory of the Moon's motion. Even after his death, his articles continued to appear in the press for nearly 50 more years.

The basic laws of ideal, frictionless fluids were given mathematical form by Leonhard Euler in 1755. Euler based his work in part on earlier work by Daniel and Jacques Bernoulli.



1 1 ln lnp p pC C p pp

∂ ∂⇒ = = =

ρ ρ∫ ∫

o Bernoulli's equation for compressible flow undergoing isothermal process

2ln constant

2p vp gz⇒ + + =ρ

• Adiabatic process (no heat exchange) o Adiabatic relation (obtained from equation of state)

1

22

constantp pCC

γ

γ

= = ⇒ ρ = ρ

111 1 1

1

11

12 2

11 11

1 1

p p pC C p pp

p p pp

γ−γγ γ γ γ

γ

γ−γγ

− +γ

∂ ∂ γ⇒ = = = ρ γ −ρ − +

γ

∂ γ γ⇔ = =

ρ γ − ρ γ − ρ

∫ ∫

∫

o Bernoulli's equation for compressible flow undergoing adiabatic process

2constant

1 2p v gzγ

⇒ + + =γ − ρ

3.5.6. Power in fluid flow

3.5.6.1. Definition

It is energy of the flowing fluid per unit time.

energy energy weight volumePower head headtime weight time t

head

mg gt

P gQ

= = × = × = ×ρ ×

⇔ = ρ ×

Notes: • The head used here can be any head; it depends which power we want to

calculate. • For example:

o To calculate the supplied power of a flowing fluid, use total head H.



o To calculate the power to maintain the flow against friction loss, use head loss due to friction.

o To calculate the power of a fluid jet, use velocity head.

3.5.7. Application of Bernoulli's equation

3.5.7.1. Pitot tube


Named after Henri Pitot6.

3.5.7.1.2. Description

It is a device that consists of a tube having a short right-angled bend which is placed vertically in a moving body of fluid with the mouth of the bent part directed upstream and that is used with a manometer to measure the velocity of fluid flow.

6 Henri Pitot

born May 3, 1695, Aramon, France died Dec. 27, 1771, Aramon, France

French hydraulic engineer and inventor of the pitot tube, which measures flow velocity .

Beginning his career as a mathematician and astronomer, Pitot won election to the Academy of Sciences in 1724. He became interested in the problem of flow of water in rivers and canals and discovered that much contemporary theory was erroneous—for example, the idea that the velocity of flowing water increased with depth. He devised a tube, with an opening facing the flow, that provided a convenient and reasonably accurate measurement of flow velocity and that has found wide application ever since (e.g., in anemometers for measuring wind speed). Appointed chief engineer for Languedoc, he performed a variety of maintenance and construction works on canals, bridges, and drainage projects. His major work was construction of an aqueduct for the city of Montpellier (1753 - 86), including a stone-arch Roman-type section a kilometer (more than 1/2 mile) in length.




The principle used in this devise is that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero (stagnation point), the pressure at that point will be increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy (stagnation pressure). The flow velocity is then determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the pitot tube.

3.5.7.1.3. Stagnation pressure

It is the pressure at a point in a flow where the velocity is zero. In this case, point 2 is a stagnation point, thus the pressure at point 2 is stagnation pressure.

Bernoulli's equation at points 1 and 2

2 21 1 2 2

1 2

1 2

221

2 1 12

2 2(horizontal flow)

0 (stagnation point)

p v p vz zg g g g

z zv

p p v

+ + = + +ρ ρ

==

⇒ = + ρ

The pressure at stagnation point (p2) is greater than the static pressure (p1) by an amount of dynamic pressure.

3.5.7.1.4. Measurement of flow velocity in a pitot tube

Rearranging the stagnation pressure equation, we have:

2 1 2 11 2 2p p p pv g

g − −

= = ρ ρ

Difference of pressure between points 2 and 1 • Pressure at point 1 (static pressure)

A 1 A 1 1

1 A 1 atm 1

1

( )

: pressure head at point 1

p p g z z ghp p gh p ghh

− = −ρ − = −ρ⇔ = +ρ = +ρ

• Pressure at point 2 (stagnation pressure)

B 2 B 2 2

2 B 2 atm 2

2

( )

: pressure head at point 2

p p g z z ghp p gh p ghh

− = −ρ − = −ρ⇔ = +ρ = +ρ



• Difference of pressure between points 2 and 1

2 1 atm 2 atm 1 2 1

2 12 1

( )p p p gh p gh g h hp p h hg

− = +ρ − −ρ = ρ −

−⇔ = −

ρ

Substituting in velocity equation

1 2 1

2 1

2 ( ) 2

(difference of liquid levelsin piezometer and pitot tube)

v g h h gh

h h h

= − =

= −

Notes:

The flow velocity calculated is the theoretical value. To obtain the actual value, the loss during the process must be taken into consideration by introducing a coefficient of velocity (Cv) to the previous equation.

1 2vv C gh=

3.5.7.1.5. Other arrangements of pitot tube



3.5.7.1.6. Energy line and hydraulic grade line

3.5.7.1.6.1. Bernoulli's equation for steady, frictionless, incompressible flow

2 constant

2p v z Hg g+ + = =

ρ

3.5.7.1.6.2. Energy line

It is the line that represents the total head available to the fluid.

It can be obtained by measuring the stagnation pressure using Pitot tube.

3.5.7.1.6.3. Hydraulic grade line

It is the line that represents piezometric head.

It can be obtained by measuring the elevation of piezometer.

3.5.7.1.6.4. Representation of energy line and hydraulic grade line



3.5.7.2. Venturi meter


Named after Giovanni Battista Venturi7.

3.5.7.2.2. Description

7 Giovanni Battista Venturi

born 1746, near Reggio, Reggio nell'Emilia, Italy died 1822

Italian physicist

Ordained a priest (1769), he was appointed professor of geometry and philosophy at the University of Modena (1773), and later became professor of physics. His research concentrated on the flow of fluids, and he kept in close touch with the work of Bernoulli and Euler in fluid mechanics. He is remembered for his discovery of the Venturi effect, the decrease in the pressure of a fluid in a pipe where the diameter has been reduced by a gradual taper. The effect has many applications, such as in the carburetor and fluid-flow measuring instruments.

Source: http://www.allbiographies.com/biography-GiovanniBattistaVenturi-33350.html



It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow in a pipeline. It consists of:

A short converging part

Throat

Diverging part.

The flow rate is determined based on Bernoulli's equation by measuring the difference of pressure at two points: before and at the throat.

3.5.7.2.3. Measurement of flow rate in a venturi meter

Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2

2 21 1 2 2

1 2

2 22 1 1 2

1 2

2 2 1 22 1 1 2

2 2

( )2

2 ( )

p v p vz zg g g g

v v p p z zg g

p pv v g z zg

+ + = + +ρ ρ

− −⇔ = + −

ρ

−⇔ − = + − ρ

Continuity equation

11 1 2 2 2 1 1

2

1

2: area ratio

AA v A v v v mvA

AmA

= ⇔ = =

=

Substituting in Bernoulli's equation

2 2 2 1 21 1 1 2

2 2 1 21 1 2

1 21 1 22

2 ( )

( 1) 2 ( )

1 2 ( )1

p pm v v g z zg

p pm v g z zg

p pv g z zgm

−⇒ − = + − ρ

−⇔ − = + − ρ

−⇔ = + − ρ −

Volume flow rate

1 1 21 1 1 22

2 ( )1

A p pQ A v g z zgm

−= = + − ρ −



The indication from the manometer can be used to simplify the above equation

( )( )( )

1 2 1 A A B B 2

1 A mano A B B 2

1 A B 2 mano A B

1 2 B A mano B A

1 2 mano

( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( )

p p p p p p p pg z z g z z g z zg z z z z g z zg z z z z g z zg z z h gh

− = − + − + −= −ρ − −ρ − −ρ −= −ρ − + − −ρ −= −ρ − + − +ρ −= −ρ − + +ρ

mano mano1 21 2 1 2

mano1 21 2

( ) ( ) 1

( ) 1

p p z z h h z z hg

p p z z hg

ρ ρ −⇔ = − − − + = − + − ρ ρ ρ

ρ −⇔ + − = − ρ ρ

Substituting in volume flow rate equation

mano12

2 11

AQ ghm

ρ = − ρ −

Notes: • The final equation for flow rate is independent of z1 and z2. It is valid for

any position of the venturi meter (inclined, horizontal or vertical). • The value of h is positive if B is higher than A, otherwise h is negative. • The volume flow rate calculated is the theoretical value. To obtain the

actual value, the loss during the process must be taken into consideration by introducing a coefficient of dicharge (Cd) to the previous equation.

1 1 2actual 1 22

mano1actual 2

2 (1

or

2 11

d

d

A p pQ C g z zgm

AQ C ghm

−= + − ρ −

ρ = − ρ −

Example No. 3 - 14

A 50 cm-diameter pipeline, to carry oil of specific gravity 0.8 is laid on a slope of 30° with the horizontal. The oil is flowing from the bottom towards the top of the slope. A venturi meter, throat diameter 20 cm, is inserted in the line to measure the flow; the distance between the mouth and the throat of the meter being 600 cm. If a U-tube gauge containing mercury of specific gravity 13.6, shows 50 cm



difference level, compute the flow in the pipe in litres/s. The coefficient of the meter is unity.

Solution

mano1actual

2

22

1

22

2

1

2

3mano

3

2 11

1

( 0.5)0.1963 m

4

( 0.2 )0.0314 m

4

6.25

0.5 m

13.6 1000 13600 kg/m

0.8 1000 800 kg/m

d

d

AQ C gh

m

C

A

A

Am

A

h

ρ = − ρ −

=

π×= =

π×= =

= =

=

ρ = × =

ρ = × =



actual2

3actual

0.1963 136001 2 9.81 0.5 1800( 6.25) 1

0.4 m /s 400 litres/s

Q

Q

⇒ = × × × × − −

⇔ = =

Example No. 3 - 15

A 10 cm-diameter pipeline carrying water is laid on a slope of 30° with the horizontal. The water is flowing from the bottom towards the top of the slope giving a discharge of 0.02 m³/s. A venturi meter is fitted to the pipe. If a U-tube gauge containing mercury of specific gravity 13.6, shows 60 cm difference level, calculate the throat diameter. The coefficient of discharge of the venturi meter is 0.95.

Solution

mano1actual

22 1

1d

AQ C gh

m

ρ = − ρ −



23 2

1

22

2

2 21 1

2 2 22 2 2 2

3mano

3

332

22

0.95

( 0.1)7.85 10 m

4

4

( 0.1) 0.01

0.6 m

13.6 1000 13600 kg/m

1000 kg/m

7.85 10 1360020 10 0.95 2 9.81 0.6 11000

0.01 1

Solving this e

dC

A

dA

A dm

A d d d

h

d

−

−−

=

π×= = ×

π=

= = = =

=

ρ = × =

ρ =

× ⇒ × = × × × × −

−

2

quation, we'll obtain:

0.046 m 46 mmd⇒ = =

Example No. 3 - 16

A vertical venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and has an entrance of 125 mm diameter and a throat of 50 mm diameter. There are pressure gauges at the entrance and at the throat, which is 300 mm above the entrance. If the coefficient for the meter is 0.92, find the flow in m³/s when the pressure difference is 27.5 kN/m².



Solution

Schematic diagram

Volume flow rate

1 1 21 22

22

1

22

2

1

23 2

1 2

1 23

3

2

2 ( )1

0.92

(0.125) 0.01227 m4

(0.05) 0.00196 m4

6.25

27.5 10 N/m0.3 m

0.82 1000 820 kg/m

0.01227 27.5 100.92 2 9.81820 9.81(6.25) 1

d

d

A p pQ C g z zgm

C

A

A

AmA

p pz z

Q

−= + − ρ −

=

π×= =

π×= =

= =

− = ×− = −

ρ = × =

×⇒ = × × × −

×−

3

0.3

0.0143 m /sQ

⇔ =



3.5.7.3. Orifice

3.5.7.3.1. Velocity of the jet

Bernoulli's equation for A and B

2 2A A B B

A B

A B

A

A B2

BB

2 2

(atmospheric pressure)0 (large reservoir)

22

p v p vz zg g g g

p pvz z H

v H v gHg

+ + = + +ρ ρ

=≈− =

⇒ = ⇒ =

Torricelli's theorem8

8 Evangelista Torricelli

born Oct. 15, 1608, Faenza, Romagna (now Italy) died Oct. 25, 1647, Florence, Tuscany (now Italy)

Italian physicist and mathematician who invented the barometer and whose work in geometry aided in the eventual development of integral calculus. Inspired by Galileo's writings, he wrote a treatise on mechanics, De Motu (“Concerning Movement”), which impressed Galileo. In 1641 Torricelli was invited to Florence, where he served the elderly astronomer as secretary and assistant during the last three months of Galileo's life. Torricelli was then appointed to succeed him as professor of mathematics at the Florentine Academy.

Two years later, pursuing a suggestion by Galileo, he filled a glass tube 4 feet (1.2 m) long with mercury and inverted the tube into a dish. He observed that some of the mercury did not flow out and that the space above the mercury in the tube was a vacuum.

Torricelli became the first man to create a sustained vacuum. After much observation, he concluded that the variation of the height of the mercury from day to day was caused by changes in atmospheric



The velocity of the issuing jet is proportional to the square root of the

head producing flow.

Notes: • The velocity of the jet obtained above is the theoretical value, because we

did not consider any loss during the process. • To obtain the actual value, we must multiply the theoretical value obtained

with a coefficient of velocity, Cv.

( ) ( )B Bactual theoretical 2v vv C v C gH= × =

3.5.7.3.2. Discharge

Theoretical discharge

orifice B orifice 2Q A v A gH= =

Actual discharge

( ) ( ) orificeactual theoretical 2

: coefficient of discharge

d d

d

Q C Q C A gH

C

= × =

3.5.7.3.3. Vena contracta

From the right figure it can be seen that the actual area of the jet is less than the area of the orifice.

The diameter of the jet is reduced from point C until it reaches point B where the diameter becomes constant.

The section through B is called vena contracta.

Actual area of the jet

pressure. He never published his findings, however, because he was too deeply involved in the study of pure mathematics - including calculations of the cycloid, a geometric curve described by a point on the rim of a turning wheel. In his Opera Geometrica (1644; "Geometric Works"), Torricelli included his findings on fluid motion and projectile motion.




jet orifice

: coefficient of contraction

c

c

A C A

C

= ×

3.5.7.3.4. Relation between Cd, Cv, and Cc

orifice orifice

Actual discharge Actual area of the jet at B Actual velocity of the jet at B

2 2d c v

d c v

C A gH C A C gH

C C C

= ×

= ×

⇔ = ×

Example No. 3 - 17 a. A water jet with a discharge of 1800 litres per minute strikes a fixed vertical

flat plate. The force exerted to the plate is 0.21 kN. Calculate the velocity of the jet.

b. The jet is produced from a 100 mm diameter orifice under a constant head of 3 m. Determine the theoretical velocity and theoretical discharge of the jet.

c. Obtain the coefficient of velocity and the coefficient of discharge of the jet. d. Calculate the coefficient of contraction of the jet.

Solution

Velocity of the jet • Force exerted by the jet on the plate

2jet jet

jet

3jet 3

0.21 10 7 m/s1800 101000

60

x

x

x

F A v

F Qv

Fv

Q −

= ρ

⇔ = ρ

×⇔ = = =ρ ××

Theoretical velocity of the jet

jet theo( ) 2 2 9.81 3 7.67 m/sv gH= = × × =

Theoretical discharge of the jet

3 23

theo orifice jet theo(100 10 )( ) ( ) 7.67 0.06 m /s

4Q A v

−π× ×= = × =



Coefficient of velocity of the jet

jet

jet theo

7 0.913( ) 7.67vv

Cv

= = =

Coefficient of discharge of the jet

31800 10jet 60

jet theo0.5

( ) 0.06dQ

CQ

−×= = =

Coefficient of contraction of the jet

0.5 0.5480.913

dc

v

CCC

= = =

Example No. 3 - 18

A tank has an orifice in its side, located 25 cm below the water surface in the tank. The free jet coming out from the orifice reaches the floor which is 15.4 cm below the orifice at a horizontal distance of 37.5 cm. Calculate the coefficient of velocity of the jet.

Solution

Time taken for the jet to reach a horizontal distance x

jetjet

xx v t tv

= ⇔ =



Vertical distance that the jet reaches within t seconds

221 1

2 2 jet

xy gt y gv

= ⇒ =

Velocity of jet (from Bernoulli's equation)

( )jet jet actual2 or 2vv gH v C gH= =

Substituting in equation of y

221

2 22 24

37.5 0.9562 15.4 25

vv v

v

x x xy g CC gH yHC H

C

= = ⇒ =

⇒ = =×



3.6. Problems

1. Oil flows through a pipeline which contracts from 450 mm diameter at A to 300 mm at B then forks, one branch being 150 mm diameter discharging at C and the other branch 225 mm diameter discharging at D. If the velocity at A is 1.8 m/s and the velocity at D is 3.6 m/s, calculate: a) the discharge at C and D. b) the velocities at B and C.

2. Pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as shown. The pipe has a diameter of 45 cm at A, 30 cm at B, 20 cm at C and 15 cm at D. If the velocity at A is 2 m/s, determine: a) the discharge at A. b) the velocity at B and the velocity at D, given that the velocity at C is 4

m/s.

3. The diameter for pipe A is 20 mm, the diameter for pipe B is 10 mm with a velocity of 0.3 m/s. Pipe C is 15 mm in diameter with velocity of 0.6 m/s. Find the initial velocity (v), and the flow rate (Q) at the entrance of pipe A.



4. A fluid of constant density flows at the rate of 15 litres/sec. along a pipe AB of 100 mm diameter. This pipe branches at B into two pipes BC and BD, each of 25 mm diameter and a third pipe BE of 50 mm diameter. The flow rates are such that the flow through BC is three times the flow rate through BE and the velocity through BD is 4 m/s. Find the flow rates in the three branches BC, BD and BE and the velocities in pipes AB, BC and BE.

5. A closed tank of fixed volume is used for the continuous mixing of two liquids which enter at A and B, and are discharged completely mixed at C. The diameter of inlet pipe A is 150 mm and the liquid flows at the rate of 0.056 m³/s and has a specific gravity of 0.93 and inlet pipe B is 100 mm diameter and the liquid (sp. gr. = 0.87) flow rate is 0.03 m³/s. The diameter of outlet pipe C is 175 mm. Determine the mass flow rate, velocity and specific gravity of the mixture discharged.

6. A jet (5 cm diameter) discharges 30 litres/s of water perpendicular to a flat plate. Calculate: a) the force on the plate when it is stationary. b) the force on the plate, the work done per second and the efficiency when

it moves at 5 m/s.



7. A jet of water which is flowing freely in the atmosphere is deflected horizontally by a 90° curved vane as shown. The water jet has a diameter of 20 mm and velocity of 5 m/s. Find the resultant force acting on the vane.

8. A jet of water 5 cm in diameter discharges 0.03 m³/s. Calculate the force required to move the plate towards the jet with a velocity of 5 m/s. The jet strikes the plate perpendicularly.

9. A square plate mass 12.7 kg of uniform thickness and 300 mm edge is hung so that it can swing freely about its upper horizontal edge. A horizontal jet 20 mm in diameter strikes the plate with a velocity of 15 m/s and the centerline of the jet is 150 mm below the upper edge of the plate so that when the plate is vertical the jet strikes the plate normally at its center. Find: a) the force that must be applied at the lower edge of the plate to keep it

vertical. b) the inclination to the vertical at which the plate will assume under action

of the jet to swing freely.

10. A jet of water 25 mm diameter strikes a 800 N flat plate normally with a velocity of 30 m/s at 150 mm below the upper edge. The plate is hinged at the upper edge. Its centre of gravity is 100 mm from the hinge. a) What is the angle that the plate will form with the vertical axis. b) What force should be applied, 100 mm below the axis of the jet, in order

to keep the plate vertical?



11. A jet of water of 100 mm diameter is moving at 36 m/s and is deflected by a vane moving at 15 m/s in a direction at 30° to the direction of the jet. The water leaves the vane with no velocity in the direction of motion of the vane. Determine: a) draw the sketch of the vane. Indicate all velocity components and their

angle. b) the inlet and outlet angles of the vane assuming no shock at entry or exit. c) the force on the vane in the direction of motion.

Take the velocity of the water at outlet relative to the vane to be 0.85 of the relative velocity at entry.

12. Define the following terms: a) Potential head. b) Pressure head. c) Velocity head. d) Total head for a liquid in motion.

13. What are the forms of energy to consider in analyzing fluid flow in pipeline problem? Describe each of them.

14. State Bernoulli's theorem for a liquid.

15. A vertical venturi meter has the inlet and throat diameter of 150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The throat is 225 mm above the inlet and Cd = 0.96. Petrol of specific gravity 0.78 flows up through the meter at a rate of 0.029 m³/s. Find the pressure difference between inlet and the throat.

16. A vertical venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and has an entrance of 125 mm diameter and a throat of 50 mm diameter. There are pressure gauges at the entrance and at the throat, which is 300 mm above the entrance. If the coefficient for the meter is 0.92, find the flow in m³/s when the pressure difference is 27.5 kN/m².



17. Using Bernoulli's equation and continuity of flow, show that the theoretical discharge Q through an inclined venturi meter may be expressed as:

1

2

1 m2

m

2 11

where

: area ratio,

: specific weight of mercury: specific weight of the discharged liquid.

AA

A wQ gxwm

m

ww

= − −

18. A venturi meter has a main diameter of 65 mm and a throat diameter of 26 mm. When measuring the flow of a liquid of density 898 kg/m³, the reading of a mercury differential-pressure gauge was 71 mm. Calculate the flow through meter in m³/h if the coefficient of the meter is 0.97 and the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

19. A venturi meter is fitted to a 100 mm-diameter horizontal pipe. Water flows in the pipe giving a discharge of 20 litres/s. A differential U-tube mercury (sp. gr. 13.6) manometer placed between the entrance of the venturi meter and the throat shows a difference of level of 0.6 m as shown. If the coefficient of discharge is 0.95, find the throat diameter of the venturi meter.



20. Water is flowing from section 1 to 2. At section 1, which is 25 mm in diameter, the gauge pressure is 345 kPa and the velocity of flow is 3.0 m/s. At section 2, which is 50 mm in diameter, is 2.0 m above section 1. Assuming there are no energy losses in the system, calculate pressure p2.

21. A pipe, as shown, carries water and taper uniformly from a diameter of 0.1 m at A to 0.2 m at B over a length of 2 m. Pressure gauges are installed at A, B and C (which is mid-point of AB). If the pipe centerline slopes upwards from A to B at an angle of 30° and the pressure at A and B are 2.0 and 2.3 bar respectively, determine the flow through the pipe and pressure at point C.



22. A 100 mm diameter orifice dicharges 36 litres per second of water under a constant head of 2.6 m. A flat plate held just downstream from the orifice requires a force of 240 N to resist the impact of the jet. Determine: a) the coefficient of velocity. b) the coefficient of discharge. c) the coefficient of contraction.

Date post:	06-May-2015
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Chap 03

Technology